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Encyclopaedia britannica,-
D I C T I 6 NARY
O F
ARTS, SCIENCES,
AND
MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE;
Conftrufted on a Plan,
BY WHICH
THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS
Are digefted into the Form of Dillinft
TREATISES or SYSTEMS,
COMPREHENUUtO
The History, Theory, and P r a c t i c e, of each,
according to the Lateft Difcoveries and Improvements;
jfND full EXPLANATIONS given of the
VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE,
WHETHER RELATING TO
Natural and Artificial Objeds, or to Matters Ecclesiastical,
Civil, Military, Commercial, &c.
Including Elucidations of the mod important Topics relative to Religion, Morals
Manners, and the Oeconomy of Life :
A Description of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rivers, 6c.
throughout the W o r L d j
A General Histort, Ancient and Modern, of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and States;
An Account of the Lives of the moll Eminent Perfons in every Nation,
from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times.
Compiled fr^m the 'writings of the heft Authors, i* fevural language ; the mofl approv'd Tnaiouarh,, as ■well of general feiom* a, ofinp^i-
cuiar branches ; the Tranfaflions, Journals, and Memoirs, of Learned Societies, both at home and abroad-, the MS. Leitures of
, Emlnent Pro/eI<lrs ™ different fences ; and a variety of Original Materials, futnifhed by an Fxtenfsve Correfpondencc.
THE THIRD EDITION, IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES, GREATLY IMPROVED.
ILLUSTRATED WITH FIVE HUNDRED AND FORTY-TWO COPPERPLATES^
VOL. X.
U/DOCTI DISC ANT, ET AMSNT MKMtNtSSE PBRITl.
E DI N B U R G H,
PRINTED FOR A. BELL AND C. MAC FA R<JU H AH>
MDv'CXCVn,
entered in ^tationer.^ ^all in Cerm# of ttc aa of Parliament
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
l e s
Leftnff, ■»* ESTOFF, or Leostoff, a tov^n of Suffolk in
,’Eftrange. England, feated on the fea-lhore, 117 miles north-
'r~~~ weft of London. It is concerned in the fifheries of the
North-fea, cod, herrings, mackerels, and fprats; has a
church, and a diflenting meeting-houfe; and for its
fecuritv, fix eighteen-pounders, which they can move
as occafion requires; but it has no battery. The town
confifts of 500 houfes; but the ftreets, though toler¬
ably paved, are narrow. It has a market on Wednef-
days, and two fairs in the year for petty chapmen.
The coaft is there very dangerous for ftrangers.
L’ESTRANGE (Sir Roger), a noted writer in
the 17th century, was defcended from an ancient fa¬
mily, feated at Hunftanton-hall in the county of Nor¬
folk, where he was born in 1616, being the youngeft
fon of Sir Hammond L’Eftrange baronet, a zealous
royalift. Having in 1644 obtained a commiflion from
King Charles I. for reducing Lynn in Norfolk, then in
pofTefiion of the parliament, his defign was difcovered,
and his perfon feized. He was tried by a court mar¬
tial at Guildhall in London, and condemned to die as
a fpy ; but was reprieved, and continued in Newgate
for feme time. He afterward went beyond fea; and
in Auguft 1653 returned to England, where he ap¬
plied himfelf to the prote&or Oliver Cromwell, and
having once played before him on the bafs-viol, he was
by fome nicknamed Oliver'sJiddler. Being a man of
parts, matter of an eafy humorous ftyle, but withal in
narrow circumftances, he fet up a newfpaper, under
the title of The Public Intelligencer, in 1663 ; but
which he laid down, upon the publication of the firft
London gazette in 1665, having been allowed, how¬
ever, a confideration by governmeut. Some time af¬
ter the Popilh plot, when the Tories began to gain the
afeendant over the Whigs, he, in a paper called the
Obfervator, became a zealous champion for the former.
He was afterwards knighted, and ferved in the parlia¬
ment called by King James II. in 1685. But things
taking a different turn in that prince’s reign, in point
of liberty of confcience, from what molt people expect¬
ed, our author’s Obfervators were difufed as not at all
Anting the times. However, he continued licenfer of
the prefs till King William’s acceffion, in whofe reign
he met with fome troubl* as a dififfefted perfon.
However, he went to his grave in peace, after he had
in a manner furvived his intellectuals. He publilhed
a grtat many political traCts, and tranllated feveral
works from the Greek, Latin, and Spanilh; viz. Jo-
fephus’s works, Cicero’s Offices, Seneca’s Morals, E-
rafmus’s Colloquies, jEfop’s Fables, and Bonas’s Guide
to Eternity, The character of his ftyle has been va-
rioiifly reprefented; his language being obferved by
Vol. X. Part I.
LET
fome to be eafy and humorous, while Mr Gordon fays,
“ that his productions are not fit to be read by any
who have tafte or good-breeding. They are full of
phrafes picked up in the ftreets, and nothing can be
more low or naufeous.”
LESTWEITHEL, a town of Cornwal in Eng¬
land, about 229 miles diftant from London. It is a
well-built town, where are kept the common gaol, the
weights and meafures for the whole ftannary, and the
county courts. It Hands on the river Foy, which
brought up veffels from Fowey, before it was choaked
up with fand coming from the tin-mines, and therefore
its once flourifhing trade is decayed ; but it holds the
bufhelage of coals, fait, malt, and corn, in the town
of Fowey, as it does the anchorage in its harbour. It
wras made a corporation by Richard earl of Cornwai
when he was king of the Romans, and has had other
charters fince. It confifts of feven capital burgeffes
(whereof one is a mayor), and 17 affiftants or common
council. It is part of the duchy of Cornwal, to which
it pays L. 11 : 19: 10a year for its liberties. Its chief
trade is the woollen manufactory. Its church has a
fpire, the only one except that of Helfton in the coun¬
ty. Its market is Friday, and its fairs are three. It
firft returned members to parliament in the 33d of Ed¬
ward I. They are chofen by their burgeffes and af¬
fiftants. It was anciently the (hire-town, and the
knights of the (hire arC ftill chofen here.
LETCHLADE, a town of(Gloucefter(hire,9omilc*
from London, on the borders of Oxfordftiire and Berks,
and the great road to Gloucefter; had anciently a nun¬
nery, and a priory of black canons. In this parifh is
Clay-hill. The market is on Tuefday; and it has two
fairs. It is fuppofed to have been a Roman town: for
a plain Roman road runs from hence to Cirencefter;
and by digging in a meadow near it fome years ago, an
old building was difcovered, fuppofed to be a Roman
bath, which was 50 feet long, 40 broad, and 4 high,
fupported with 100 brick pillars, curioufly inlaid with
{tones of divers,colours of tefferaic work. The Leech,
the Coin, the Churn, and Ifis, which all rife in the
Cotfwould-hill, join here in* one full ftream, and be¬
come one river, called the Thames, which begins here
to be navigable, and barges take in butter, cheefe, and
other goods, at its quay for London.
LETHARGY, in medicine (from oblivion, and
ttphx numbnefs, lazimfs), a difeafe confifting of a pro¬
found drowfinefs or fleepinefs, from which the patient
can fcarce be awaked ; or, if awaked, he remains ftu-
pid, without fenfe or memory, and prefently finks again
into his former fleep. See MEDiciNE-/«//«r.
Lethargy, in farriery. See there, § 9.
A LETHE,
Leftweithel
II
Lethargy.
LET [2
Letie LETHE, in the ancient mythology, pne of the
li rivers of hell, fignifying oblivion or forgetfulnefs ; its
Letct~' , waters having, according to poetic fiftion, the peculiar
"t" , quality of making thofe who drank them forget every
thing that was paft.
LET! (Gregorio), ?.n eminent Italian writer, was
defcended of a family which once made a confiderable
■figure at Bologna : Jerom, his father, was page to
prince Charles de Medicis; ferved feme time in the
troops of the grand duke as captain of foot; and
fettling at Milan, married there in 1628. He was af¬
terward governor of Almantea in Calabria, and died
at Salerno in 1639. Our author was born at Milan
in 1630, ftudied under the Jefuits at Cofenza, and
was afterward fent by an uncle to Rome, who would
have him enter into the church; but he being averfe
to it, went into Geneva, where he ftudied the govern¬
ment and the religion there. Thence he went to Lau-
fanne; and contracting an acquaintance with John
Anthony Guerin, an eminent phyiician, lodged at his
houfe, made profeffion of the Calvinift religion, and
married his daughter. He fettled at Geneva; where
he fpent almoft twenty years, carry!rig on a correfpon-
dence with learned men, efpecially thofe of Italy. Some
contefts obliged him to leave that city in 1679; upon
which he went to France, and then into England, where
he was received with great civility by Charles II. who,
after his firft audience, made him a prefent of a thou-
i’and crowns, with a promife of the place of hiftorio-
grapher. He wrote there the Hiftory of England;
but that work not pleafing the court on account of his
too great liberty in writing, he was ordered to leave
the kingdom. He went to Amfterdam in 1682, and
was honoured with the place of hiftoriographer to that
city. He died fuddenly in 1701. He was a man of
indefatigable application, as the multiplicity of his
works fliow. The principal of thefe are, 1. The uni-
verfal monarchy of Louis XIV. 2. The life of Pope
Sixtus V. 3. The life of Philip II. king of Spain,
yf. The life of the emperor Charles V. 5. The life
'of Elizabeth; queen of England. 6. The hiftory of
Oliver Cromwell. 7. The hiftory of Great Britain,
5 vols 12mo. 8. The hiftory of Geneva, &c..
LET RIM, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Connaught, 44 miles in length and 17 in breadth;
bounded on the eaft and north-eaft by Cavan and Fer¬
managh, by Sligo and Rofcommon on the weft and
fouth-weft, and by Longford on the eaft and fouth-eaft.
It is a hilly country, with rank grafs, which feeds a
great number of cattle. The chief town if, Letrim,
ieated not far from the river Shannon. It contains
4000 houfes, 21 parities, 5 baronies, 2 boroughs, and
fends 6 members to parliament.
LETTER, a charadler ufed to exprefs one of the
fun pie founds of the voice ; and as the different fimple
founds are expreffed by different letters, thefe, by be¬
ing differently compounded, become the vifible figns
•r characters of all the modulations and mixtures of
founds ufed to exprefs our ideas in a regular language ;
(See Lanquage). Thus, as by the help of fpeech we
render our ideas audible ; by the affiftance of letters we
render them vifible, and by their help we can wrap up
our thoughts, and fend them to the moft diftant parts
of the earth, and read the tranfaClions of different ages.
As tq the firft letters, what they were, who firft in-
1 LET
vented them, and among what people they were firft Le
in ufe, there is ftill room to doubt: Philo attributes
this great and noble invention to Abraham ; Jofephus,
St Irenseus, and others, to Enoch ; Bibliander, to A-
dam ; Eufebius, Clemens Alexandrinus, Cornelius
Agrippa, and others, to Mofes; Pomponius Mela,
Herodian, Rufus Feftus, Pliny, Lucan, See. to the
Phoenicians ; St Cyprian, to Saturn ; Tacitus, to the
Egyptians ; fome, to the Ehtiopians ; and others, to
the Chinefe : but, with refpecl to thefe laft, they can
never be intitled to th^s honour, fince all their charac¬
ters are the figns of words, formed without the ufe of
letters ; which renders it impoflible to read and write
their language without a vaft expence of time and
trouble ; and abfolutely impoffible to print it by the
help of types, or any other manner but by engraving,
or cutting in wood. See Printing. ‘
There have been alfo various conjeClures about the
different kinds of letters ufed in different languages :
thus, according to Crinitus, Mofes invented the He¬
brew letters ; Abraham, the Syriac and Chaldee ; the
Phoenicians, thofe of Attica, brought into Greece by
Cadmus, /and from thence into Italy by the Pelaf-
gians ; Nicoftrata, .the Roman ; Ifis, the Egyptian ;
and Vulfilas, thofe of the Goths. ^
It is probable, that the Egyptian hieroglyphics,
were the firft’manner of writing : but whether Cadmus
and the Phoenicians learned the ufe of letters from the
Egyptians, or from their neighbours of Judea or Sa¬
maria, is a queftion ; for fince fome of the books of
the Old Teftament were then written, they are more
likely to have given them the hint, than the hierogly¬
phics of Egypt. But wherefoever the Phosqicians
learned this art, it is generally agreed, that Cadmus
the fqn of Agenor firft brought letters into Greece ;
whence, in following ages, they fpread over the reft
of Europe. See Alphabet and Writing,
Letters make the firft part or elements of grammar ;
an affemblage of thefe compofe fyllables and words,
and thefe compofe fentences. The alphabet of every
language confifts of a number of letters, which ought
each to have a different found, figure, and ufe. As
the difference of articulate founds was intended to ex¬
prefs the different ideas of the mind, fo one letter was
originally intended to fignify only one found, and not,,
as at prefent, to exprefs fometimes one found and
fometimes another ; which practice has brought a great
deal of confufion into the languages, and rendered the
learning of the modern tongues much more difticult,
than it would otherwife have been. This confidera,
tion, together with the deficiency of all the known al¬
phabets, from their wanting fome letters to exprefs-
certain founds, has occafioned feveral attempts towards
an univerfal alphabet, to contain an enumeration of
all fuefi fingle founds or letters as are ufed in any lan¬
guage. See Alphabet.
Grammarians diftinguiih letters into vowels, confo-
nants, mutes, liquids, diphthongs, and charafteri-
ftics. They are likewife divided into capital and fmall
letters. They are alfo denominated from the fhape.
and turn of the letters ; and in writing are diftinguifh-
ed into different hands, as round-text, Germanrtext,
round-hand, Italian, &c. and in printing, into Roman,
Italic, and black letter.,
The termLETTER, or Typex among printers, noton-
' H
LET [ 3 1 LET
letter. 1y includes the CAPITALS, small CAftrALs, and
fmall letters, but all the points, figures, and other
marks call and ufed in printing; and alfo the large
ornamental letters, cut in wood or metal, which take
place of the illumined letters ufed in manufcripts. The
letters ufed in printing are caft at the ends of fmall
pieces of metal, about three quarters of an inch in
length ; and the letter being not indented, but raifed,
eafily gives the imprefiion, when, after being blacked
with a glutinous ink, paper is clofely prefFed upon it.
See the articles Printing and TirpE. A fount of
letters includes fmall letters, capitals, fmall capitals,
points, figures, fpaces, &c.; but befides, they have dif¬
ferent kinds of two-line letters, only ufed for titles,
and the beginning of books, chapters, &c. See Fount.
Letter is alfo a writing addreffed and fent to a
perfon. See Epistle.
The art of epiftolary writing, as the late tranflator
of Pliny’s Letters has obferved, was efteemed by the
Romans in the number of liberal and polite accom-
plifhments; and we find Cicero mentioning with great
pleafure, in feme of his letters to Atticus, the elegant
fpecimen he had received from his fon of his genius
in this way. It feems indeed to have formed part of
their education; and, in the opinion of Mr Locke,
it well deferves to have a (hare in ours. “ The wri-
ting of letters (as that judicious author obferves)
enters fo much into all the occafions of life, that no
“ gentleman can avoid (hewing himfelf in compofi-
“ tions of this kind. Occurrences will daily force him
to make this ufe of his pen, which lays open his
“ breeding, his fenfe, and his abilities, to a feverer
“ examination than any oral difeourfe.” It is to be
wondered we have fo few writers in our own language
who deferve to be pointed out as models upon fuch an
occafion. After having named Sir William Temple, it
would perhaps be difficult to add a fecond. The elegant
writer of Cowley’s life mentions him as excelling in
this uncommon talent; but as that author declares
himfelf of opinion, “ That letters which pafs between
familiar friends, if they are written as they (hould be,
can fcarce ever be fit to fee the light,” the world is
deprived of what no doubt would have been well worth
its infpeftion. A late diftinguiffied genius treats the
very attempt as ridiculous, and profeffes himfelf “ a
mortal enemy to what they call a jine letter.” His
averfion however was not fo ftrong, but he knew to
conquer it when he thought proper; and the letter
which clofes his correfpondence with biffiop Atterbury
is, perhaps, the mod genteel and manly addrefs that
ever was penned to a friend in difgrace. The truth
is, a fine letter does not confifl. in faying fine things,
but in expreffing ordinary ones in an uncommon man¬
ner. It is thepnprle communia dicere, the art of giving
grace and elegance to familiar occurrences, that con-
ilitutes the merit of this kind of writing. Mr Gay’s
letter, concerning the two lovers who were (truck
dead with the fame flafh of lightning, is a mailer-piece
of the fort; and the fpecimen he has there given of
his talents for this fpecies of compofition makes it
much to be regretted we have not more from the fame
hand.
Ward's Of l^e Style of Epi/lolary Compofition. Purity in the
Oratory. choice of words, and juftnefs of conftruftion, joined
with perfpicuity, are the chief properties of this (lyle.
Accordingly Cicero fays : In writhg letters, we LetNr .
make ufe of common words j(nd exprefiions.” And —w—
Seneca more fully, “ I would have my letrers to be _
like my difeourfes, when we either fit or walk to¬
gether, unftudied and eafy.” And what prudent
man, in his common difeourfe, aims at bright and
ftrong figures, beautiful turns of language, or la¬
boured periods ? Nor is it always requiiite to attend
to exadt order and method. He that is mafter of
what he writes, will naturally enough exprefs his
thought without perplexity and confulion; and more
than this is feldom neceffary, efpecially in familiar
letters.
Indeed, as the fubjefts of epiftles are exceedingly
various, they will neceflarily require fome variety in
the manner of expreffion. If the fubjeft be fometh>-g
..eighty and momentous, the language (hould be
ftrong and folemn ; in things of a lower nature, more
free and eafy; and upon lighter matters, jocofe and
pleafant. In exhortations, it ought to be lively and
vigorous; in confolations, kind and compaffionate; and
in advifing, grave and ferious. In narratives, it (hould
be clear and diftindl; in requefts, modeft; in commen¬
dations, friendly; in profperity cheerful, and mournful
in adverfity. In a word, the ftyle ought to be ac¬
commodated to the particular nature of the thing about
which it is converfant.
Befides, the different chara&er of the perfon, t®
whom the letter is written, requires a like difference
in the modes of expreffion. We do not ufe the fame
language to private perfons, and thofe in a public fta-
tion; to fuperiors, inferiors, and equals. Nor do we
exprefs ourfelves alike to old men and young, to the
grave and facetious, to courtiers and philofophers,
to our friends and ftrangers. Superiors are to be ad¬
dreffed to with refpeft, inferiors with courtefy, and
equals with civility; and every one’s charadler, fta-
tion, and circumftances in life, with the relation we
(land in to him, occafions fome variety in this refpeft.
But when friends and acquaintances correfpond by
letters, it carries them into all the freedom and good-
humour of converfation ; and the nearer it refembles
that, the better, fince it is defigned to fupply the room
of it. For when friends cannot enjoy each others
company, the next fatisfadtion is to converfe with
each other by letters. Indeed, fometimes greater
freedom is ufed in epiftles, than the fame perfons
would have taken in difeourfing together; becaufe,
as Cicero fays, “ A letter does not blulh.” But dill
nothing ought to be faidin a letter, which, confidered
in itfelf, would not have been fit to fay in difeourfe ;
though modefty perhaps, or fome other particular
reafon, might have prevented it. And thus it fre¬
quently happens in requefts, reproofs, and other cir¬
cumftances of life. A man can a(k that by writing,
which he could not do by words, if prefent; or blame
what he thinks amifs in his friend with greater liberty
when abfent, than if they were together. From hence
it is eafy to judge' of the fitnefs of any expreffion to
(land in an epiftle, only by confidering, whether the
fame way of fpeaking would be proper in talking with
the fame perfon. Indeed, this difference may be al¬
lowed, that as perfons have more time to think, when
they write, than when they fpeak ; a greater accu¬
racy of language may fometimes be expefted in one,,
A 3 tbcifi
LET l ,
Letter, than the ether. However, this makes no odds as to
Letpiff. t|le kmd of ftyle; 'for every one would choofe to fpeak'
~ ' as correftly as he writes, if he could. And there¬
fore all fuch words and expreflions, as are unbecom¬
ing in eonverfation, fhould be avoided in letters ; and
a manly fimplicity free of all affedfation, plain, but
decent and agreeable, fhould run through the whole.
This is the ufual llyle of Cicero’s epiftles, in which
the plainnefs and fimplicity of his diction is accom¬
panied with fomething fo pleafant and engaging, that
he keeps up the attention of his reader, without fuf-
fering him to tire. On the other hand, Pliny’s ftyle
is fuccindl and witty ; but generally fo full of turns
and quibbles upon the found of words, as apparently
render it more ftiff and affected than agrees with
converfation, or than a man of fenfe would choofe in
difeourfe,’ were it in his power. You may in fome
meafure judge of Pliny’s manner, by one ftiort letter
to his friend, which runs thus : “ How fare you ?
As I do in the country? pleafantly ? that is, at leifure?
For which reafon I do not care to write long letters,
but to read them ; the one as the effedt of nicenefs,
and the other of idlenefs. For nothing is more idle
than your nice folks, or curious than- your idle ones.
Farewell.” Every fentence here confifts of an anti-
theiis, and a jingle of words, very different from the
__ ftyle of converfation, and plainly the. effedt of ftudy.
But this was owing to the age in which he lived, at
which time the Roman eloquence was funk into puns,
and an affectation of wit; for he was otherwife a man
of fine fenfe and great learning.
Letter of Attorney^ in law, is a writing by which
one perfon authorifes another to do fome lawful adk
in his ftead; as to give feiiin of lands, to receive debts,
fue a third perfon, &c.
The nature of this inftrument is to transfer to the
perfon to whom it is' given, the whole power of the
maker, to enable him to accomplilh the act intended
to be performed. It is either general or fpecial: and
fometimes it is made revocable, which is when a bare
authority is only given ; and fometimes it is irrevo¬
cable, as where debts, &c. are affigned from one per¬
fon to another. It is generally held, that the power
granted to the attorney muft be ftridtly purfued ; and
that where it is made to three perfons, two cannot
execute it. In molt cafes, the power given by a let¬
ter of attorney determines upon the death of the per¬
fon who gave it. • No letter of attorney made by any
teamen, &c. in #ny Ihip of war, or having letters of
-marque, or by their executors, &c. in order to em¬
power any perfon to receive any (hare of prizes or
bounty-money, lhall be valid, unlefs the fame be made
revocable, and for the ufe of fuch feamen, and be
figned and executed before, and attefted by, the cap¬
tain and one other of the figning officers of the Ihip,
oi the mayor or chief magiftrate of fome corporation.
Letter of Mart or Marque. See Marque.
Letters Patent or Overt, are writings fealed with
the great feal of England, whereby a man is autho-
rifed to do, or enjoy any thing, which, of himfelf,
he could not do. See Patent.-*-They are fo called,
by reafon of their form ; as being open, with the feal
affixed, ready to be Ihown for the confirmation of the
authority given by them.
LETTUCE, in botany. Sec Lactuca.
M LEU
LEVANT, in geography, fignifies any country Levant
fituated to the eaft of us, or in the eaftern fide of any H"
continent or country, or that on which the fun rifes. ^eucata.
Levant, is alfo a name given to the eaftern part
of the Mediterranean fea, bounded by Natolia or the
Leffer Afia on the north, by Syria and Paleftine on
the eaft, by Egypt and Barca on the fouth, and by
the illand of Candia and the other part of the Medi¬
terranean on the weft.
LEVATOR, in anatomy, a name given to feveral
mufcles. See Anatomy, ‘Talk of the Mufcles.
LEUCA, in antiquity, a geographical meafure of
length in ufe among the later Gauls; which, accord¬
ing to Jornandes, who calls it leuga,. contained fif¬
teen hundred paces, or one mile and a half. Hence
the name of league, now reckoned at three miles ; in
the lower age, called leuva.
LEUCADENDRON, in botany: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
48th order, Aggregate. The florets are tripetalous,.
with one petal of each trifid; the receptacle is a little
villous; there is no proper calyx; the anthene are al-
moft coalited.
LEUCADIA, formerly called Neritis, a penin-
fula of Acarnania, (Homer) ; but afterwards, by
cutting through the peninfula, made an ifland, as it
is at this day, called St Maura.
LEUCAS, (anc. geog.), formerly called Neritos
and Neritum, a town of Leucadia or Leucas ; fituated
near a narrow neck of land, or ifthmus, on a hill fa¬
cing the eaft and Acarnania: the foot or lower part
of the town was a plain lying orv the fea by whick
Leucadia was divided from Acarnania, (Livy); though,-
Thucydides places Leucas more inward in the ifland,
which was joined to the continent by a bridge. It
was an illuftrious city, the capital of Acarnania, and
the place of general affembly.
LEUCATA, or Leucate, (anc. geog.); a pro¬
montory of Leucadia according to Strabo, a white
rock projedting into the fea towards Cephalenia, on
which flood a temple of Apollo furnamed Leucadius.
At his feftival, which was annually celebrated here, the
people were accuftomed to offer an expiatory facrifice
to the god, and to avert on the head of the victim all
the calamities with which they might be threatened,
For this purpofe, they made choice of a criminal con-
demned to die ; and leading him to the brink of the
promontory, precipitated him into the fea amidft the
loud fhouts of the fpedlators. The criminal, how¬
ever, feldom perilhed in the water: for it was the
cuftom to cover him with feathers, and to fatten birds
to his body, which by fpreading their wings might
ferve to break his fall. No fooner did he touch the
fea, than a number of boats ftationed for the purpofe
flew to his affiftance, and drew him out; and after be¬
ing thus faved, he was banifhed for ever from the
territory of Leucadia. {Strabo, lib. 10. p.452.)
According to ancient authors, a ftrange opinion,
concerning this promontory prevailed for fome time
among the Greeks. They imagined that the leap of
Leucata was a potent remedy againft the violence ot
love. Hence difappointed or defpairing lovers, it is
faid, were often known to have come to Leucadia;
and, having afeended the promontory, offered faerr-
fiees
LEU [
Leuc^pu? fices in the temple, and engaged by a formal vow to
1 Lci coma Pjer^orm t^ie defperate aft, to have voluntarily preci-
■ pitated themfelves into fea. Some are reported to have
recovered from the effects of the fall ^ and among o-
§ Ptolem. thers mention is made $ of a citizen of Buthroton, in
Hephajl. Epirus, whofe paffions always taking fire at new ob-
ap. Phot. je<3.Sj jje four times had recourfe to the fame remedy, and
always with the fame fuccefs. As thofe who made
the trial, however, feldom took any precaution to
render their falHefe .rapid, they were generally deflxoy-
ed; and women often fell viftims to this aft of defpe-
ration.—At Leucata was fhown the tomb of Artemi-
fia, that celebrated queen of Caria who gave fo many
t Herodot. proofs of courage at the battle of Salamis f. Inflamed
Kh. 8. with a violent paflion for a young man who inflexibly
^ '' refufed her love, fhe furprifed him in his fleep and put
out his eyes. Regret and defpair foon brought her to
Leucata, where fhe perifhed in the waves notwithlland*
I VtoUm. ing every effort to fave her j. Such likewife was the
Hephaji. end of the unhappy Sappho. Forfaken by her lover
1 '• Phaon, fhe came hither to feek relief from her fuf-
ferings, and found her death. [Menand. ap. Strab.
lib. io. p. 452.)
LEUCIPPUS, a celebrated Greek philofopher
and mathematician ; firft author of the famous fyftem
«f atoms and vacuums, and of the hypothefis of itorms;
fince attributed to the moderns. He flourifhed about
428 B. C.
LEUCOGiEUS, (anc. geog.), a hill fituated be¬
tween Puteoli and Neapolis in Campania, abounding
in fulphur ; now I'Aiumra. Whence there were alfo
fprings called Leucog/tl fantes; the waters of which, ac¬
cording to Pliny, gave a firmnefs to the teeth, clear-
nefs to the eyes, and proved a cure in wounds.
LEUCOJUM, Great Snow-drop : a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the ninth order, Spathacea. The corolla is campanu-
lated, fexpartite, the fegments increafed at the ppints,
the ftigma Ample.
Species. 1. The vernum, or fpring leucojum,
has an oblong bulbous root, fending up feveral
flat leaves fix or eight inches long; and amidfl: them
an upright, channelled, hollow, naked flalk, about
a foot high, terminated by a fpatha, protruding one or
two white flowers on flender footftalks drooping down¬
wards, and appearing in March. 2. The reftivum, or
fummer leucojum, has a large, oblong, bulbous root,
crowmed with feveral long, fiat, broad leaves; and a-
midft them an upright, thick, hollow ftalk, 15 or i8:
inches high ; terminated by a fpatha, protruding many
white flowers, on flender footftalks, drooping down¬
wards ; flowering in May. 3. The autumnale, or au¬
tumnal leucojum, hath a large oblong bulbous root,
crowned with many narrow leaves, an upright, naked,,
hollow ftalk, terminated by a fpatha protruding many
white flowers on long weak footftalks, hanging down¬
wards, and flowering in autumn.
Culture. All the three fpecies are very hardy, du¬
rable in root, and nlcreafe exceedingly by offsets, which
may be feparated eveiy two or three years.
LEUCOMA, in antiquity, was a public regifter
amongft the Athenians, in which were inferted the
names of all the citizens, as foon as they were of age
to enter upon their paternal inheritance.
5 1 LEU
Leucoma, in furgery, a diftemper of the eye, heueopetra
otherVvife called See Albugo, and Surgery. ^
LEUCOPETRA, (anc. geog.) fo called from its .
white colour (Strabo) ; a promovrtory of the Bruttii,
in the territory of Rhegium : the termination of the
Apennine. The outmoft extremity of the Bruttii,
or the modern Calabria Ultra ; as the Japygium is of
the ancient Calabria, or the modern Calabria Citra.
LEUCOPETRIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the
name of a fanatical feft which fgrang up in the Greek
and Eaftern churches towards the clofe of the 12th
century : the fanatics of this denomination profeffed to
believe in a double Trinity, rejefted wedlock, abflain-
ed from flefh, treated with the utmoft contempt the
facraments of Baptifm and the Lord’s Supper, and all
the various branches of external worfhip; placed the
eflefu^ of religion in internal prayer alone, and main¬
tained, as it is faid, that an evil being, or genius,
dwelt in the breaft of every mortal, and could be ex¬
pelled from thence by no other method than by per¬
petual fupplication to the Supreme Being. The
founder of this enthufiaftical feft is faid to have been
a perfon called Leucopetrus, and his. chief difciple Ty-
chicus, who corrupted, by fanatical interpretations,
feveral books of feripture, and particularly St Mat¬
thew’s gofpel.
LEUCOPHLEGMATIA, in medicine, a kind
of dropfy, otherwife called anafarca. See {Index fub-
joined to) Medicine.
LEUCOTHOE, or LeucotheA (fab. hift.), the
wife of Athamus, changed into a fea deity; fee L-jo.
She was called Matuta by the Romans. She had a
temple at Rome, where all the people, particularly
women, offered vows for their brother’s children.
They did not intreat the deity to proteft their own-
children, becaufe Ino had been unfortunate in hers.
No female flaves wpre permitted to enter the temple ;
or if their curiofity tempted them to tranfgrefs this
rule, they were beaten with the greateft feverity. To
this fupplicating for other people’s children, Ovid al¬
ludes in thefe lines;
Non tamen hanc proJlitpt fua pia mater adarat,
Ipfa parum felix vifa fuijfe parens. Faft. 6.
LEUCTRA, (anc. geog-), a town of Bceotia, to»
the weft of Thebes, or lying between Plate as and Thef-
piae, where the Lacedemonians had a great defeat gi-
. ven them by Epaminondas and" Pelopidas the Thebam
generals. The Theban army confifted at moft but of
6000 men, whereas that of the enemy was at leaft
thrice that number : but Epaminondas trufted moft in
his horje, wherein he had much the advantage, both
in their quality and good management; the reft he en¬
deavoured to fupply by the difpofition of his men, and
the vigour of the attack. He even refufed to fuffer
any to ferve under him in the engagement, but fuch
as he knew to be fully refolved to conquer or die. He
put himfelf at the head of the left wing, oppofite to
Cleombrotus king of Sparta, and placed the main
ftrefs of the battle there ; rightly concluding, that if
he could break the body of. the Spartans, which was
but 12 men deep, whereas his own was 50, the reft
would be foon put to flight. He clofed his own with-
the facred band, which was commanded by Pelopidas j-
and placed hi$ horfe in the front. His right, from
which he had drawn fo many men,, he ordered to fall.
LEV [ 6
uflra, back, in a flanting line, as if they declined to fight,
cve*‘ that they might not be too much expofed to the e-
^ nemy, and might ferve him for a corps of referve in
cafe of need. This was the wife difpofition which the
two Theban generals made of their few but refolute
forces; and which fucceeded in every part, according
to their wifh. Epaminondas advanced with his left
wing, extending it obliquely, in order to draw the ene¬
my’s right from the main body} and Pelopidas char¬
ged them with fuch defperate fpeed and fury, at the
head of his battalion, before they could reunite, that
their horfe, not being able to lland the (hock, were
forced back upon their infantry, which threw the
whole into the greateft confufion : fo that though the
Spartans were of all the Greeks the moft expert in re¬
covering from any furprife, yet their ikill on this oc-
cafion either failed them or proved of no effe6t ;*for
the Thebans, obferving the dreadful impreffion they
had made on them with their horfe, puihed furioufly
upon the Spartan king, and opened their way to him
with a great flaughter.
Upon the death of Cleombrotus, and feveral officers
of note, the Spartans, according to cuftom, renewed
the fight with double vigour and fury, not fo much to
revenge his death as to recover his body, which was
fucli an eftabliflied point of honour as they could not
give up without the greateft difgrace. But here
the Theban general wifely chofe rather to gratify
them in that point, than to hazard the fuccefs of a
fecond onfet; and left them in poffeffion of their
king, whilft he marched ftraight againft their other
wing, commanded by Archidamus, and confifted chiefly
_ of fuch auxiliaries and allies as had *rot heartily enga-1
ged in the Spartan intereft: thefe were fo difcou-
raged by the death of the king and the defeat of
that wing, that they betook themfelves to flight, and
were prefently after followed by the reft of the army.
The Thebans, however, piirfued them fo clofely, that
they made a fecond dreadful flaUghter among them;
which completed Epaminondas’s viftory, who remain¬
ed mafter of the field, and erefted a trophy in memory
of it. This was the conelufion of the famed battle of
Leuftra, in which the Lacedemonians loft 4000 men,
and the Thebans but 300.
LEVEL, an inftrument wherewith to draw a line pa¬
rallel to the horizon, by means of which the true level, or
the difference of afeent or defeent between feveral places,
may be found, for conveying water, draining fens, &c.
There are feveral iuftruments of different contrivance
and matter, invented for the perfeftion of levelling ; all
of which, for the practice, may be reduced to the
following.
Air-LavKi, that which dhows the line of level by
means of a bubble of air inclofed with fome liquor in
a glafs-tube of an indeterminate length and thicknefs,
whofe two ends are hermetically fealed. When the
bubble fixes itfelf at a certain mark, made exadily in
the middle of the tube, the plane or ruler wherein it
is fixed is level. When it is not level, the bubble wiU
rife Ao one end. This glafs-tube may be fet in another
of brafs, having an aperture in the middle, whence the
bubble of air may be obferved. The liquor wherewith
ahe tube is filled is oil of tartar, or aqua fecunda ;
tkefe not beifig liable to freeze as common water, nor
io rarefaction and condenfation, as fpirit of wine is.
] LEV
This application of a bubble of air was the invention Level*
of Dr Hooke. y—J
There is one of thefe inftruments made with fights, being
an improvement upon that laft deferibed, which, by the
addition of more apparatus, becomes more commodious
and exaft. It confifts of an air-level, fig. 1. about eight q^xX
inches long, and feven or eight lines in diameter, fet
in a brafs tube, 2, with an aperture in the middle,
C. The tubes are carried in a ftrong ftraight ruler, a
foot long; at whofe ends are fixed two fights, 3,3,
exadtly perpendicular to the tubes, and of an equal
height, having a fquare hole, formed by two fillets of
brafs croffing each other at right angles, in the middle
whereof is drilled a very little hole, through which a
point on a level with the inftrument is deferied. The
brafs tube is faftened on the ruler by means of two
ferews ; one whereof, marked 4, ferves to raife or de-
prefs the tube at pleafure, for bringing it towards a
level. The top of the ball and focket is rivetted to a
little ruler that fprings, one end whereof is faftened
with ferews to the great ruler, ajid at the other end has
a_ ferew, 5, ferving to raife and deprefs the inftrument
when nearly level.
The inftrument juft deferibed, however, is yet lefs
commodious than the following oile; becaufe though
the holes be ever fo fmall, yet they Tvill ftill take in too
great a fpace to determlhe the point of level precifely.
The inftrument alluded to confifts of an air-level, with
telefcope fights. This level (fig. 2.) is like the laft; with
this difference, that, inftead of plain fights, it carries a
telefcope to determine exaftly a point of level at a
good diftance. The telefcope is a little brafs-tube,
about 15 inches long, faftened on the fame ruler as the
level. At the end of the tube of the telefcope, mark¬
ed 1, enters the little tube 1, carrying the eye-glafs
and an hair horizontally placed in the focus of the ob*
jeft-glafs, 2 ; which little tube may be drawn out, or
puftied into the great one, for adjufting the telefcope
to different fights: at the other end of the telefcope is
placed the objeA-glafs. The ferew 3, is for railing
or lowering the little fork, for carrying the hair, and
making it agree with the bubble of air when the in¬
ftrument is level; and the ferew 4, is for making the
bubble of air, D or E, agree with the telefcope : the
whole is fitted to a ball and focket. M. Huygens is
faid to be the firft inventor of this level; which has this
advantage, that it may be inverted by turning the ru¬
ler and telefcope half round; and if then the hair cut
the fame point that it did before, the operation is juft.
It may be obferved, that one may add a telefcope to
any kind of level, by applying it upon, or parallel to,
the bafe or ruler, when there is occafion to take the le-
. vel of remote qbjetfts.
Dr Defaguliers contrived an inftrument, by which
the difference of level of two places, which could not
be taken in lefs than four or five days with the ‘beft
telefcope-levels, may be taken in as few hours. The
inftrument is as follows. To the ball C (fig. 3.) is
joined a recurve tube B A, with a very fine bore, and
a fmall bubble at top A, whofe upper part is open.
It is evident from the make of this inftrument, that
if it be inclined in carrying, no prejudice will be done
to the liquor, which will always be right both in the
ball and tube when the inftrument is fet upright. If
the air at C be fo expanded with heat, as to drive the
6 liquor
L E V [
Level, liquor to the top of the tube, the cavity A will receive
■—Y—' the liquor, which will come down again and fettle at
D, or near it, according to the level of the place
where the inllrument is, as foon as the air at C returns
to the feme temperament as to heat and cold. To
preferve the feme degree of heat, when the different
obfervations are made, the machine is fixed in a tin vef-
fel E F, filled with water up to g h, above the ball,
and a very fenfible thermometer has alfo its ball under
water, that one may obferve the liquor at D, in each
experiment, when the thermometer Hands at the fame
height as before. The water is poured out when
the inftrument is carried; which one may do conve¬
niently by means of the wooden frame, which is fet
upright by the three fcrews, S, S, S, fig. 4. and
a line and plummet P P, fig. y. At the back part of
the wooden frame, from the piece at top K, hangs the
plummet P, over a brafs point at N; M m are brackets
to make the upright board K N continue at right
angles with the horizontal one at N. Fig. 6. reprefents
a front view of the machine, fuppofing the fore part
of the tin-veffel tranfparent; and here the brafs-focket
of the recurve-tube, into which the ball is fcrewed, has
two wings at 11, fixed to the bottom, that the ball
may not break the tube by its endeavour to emerge
when the water is poured in as high as^ h.
After the Dodlor had contrived this machine, he
confidered, that as the tube is of a very fmall bore, if
the liquor fhould rife into the ball at A (fig. 3.) in car¬
rying the inftrument from one place to another, fome
of it would adhere to the fides or the ball A, and up¬
on its defcent in making the experiment, fo much
might be left behind, that the liquor would not be
high enough at D to fhow the difference of the level:
therefore, to prevent that inconveniency, he contrived
a blank fcrew, to Ihut up the hole at A, as foon as one
experiment is made, that, in carrying the machine, the
air in A may balance that in C, fo that the liquor
fhall not run up and down the tube, whatever degree
of heat and cold may aft upon the inftrument, in go¬
ing from one place to another. Now, becaufe one ex¬
periment may be made in the morning, the water may
be fo cold, that when a fecond experiment is made at
noon the water cannot be brought to the feme degree
of cpld it had in the morning ; therefore, in making
the firft experiment, warm water muft be mixed with
the cold, and when the water has ftood fome time, be¬
fore it comes to be as cold as it is likely to be at the
warmeft part of that day, obferve and fet down the de¬
gree of the thermometer at which the fpirit Hands,
and likewife the degree of the water in the barometer
at D ; then fcrew on the cape at A, pour out the wa¬
ter, and carry the inftrument to the place whofe level
you would know ; then pour in your water, and when
the thermometer fs come to the fame degree as before,
open the fcrew at top, and obferve the liquor in the
barometer.
The Do&or’s fcale for the barometer is ten inches
long, and divided into tenths; fo that fuch an ihftru-
ment will ferve for any heights not exceeding ten feet,
each tenth of an inch anfwering to a foot in height.
The Doftor made no allowance for the decreafe of
denfity in the air, becaufe he did not propofe this ma¬
chine for meafuring mountains (though, with a proper
allowance for the decreafing denfity of the air, it will
do very well); but for heights that want to be known
7 ] LEV
in gardens, plantations, and the conveyance of water,
where an experiment that anfwers two or three feet in
a diftance of 20 miles, will render this a very ufeful
inftrument.
Artillery Foot-Lev el is in form of a fquare, having
its two legs or branches of an equal length ; at a junc¬
ture whereof is a little hole, whence hangs a thread
and plummet playing on a perpendicular line in the
middle of a quadrant. It is divided into twice 45
degrees from the middle. Fig. 7.
This inftrument may be ufed on other occafions, by
placing the ends of its two branches on a plane ; for
when the thread plays .perpendicularly over th<j middle
divifion of the quadrant, that plane is affuredly level..
To ufe it in gunnery, place the two ends on the piece
of artillery, which you may raife to any propofed
height, by means of the plummet, whofe thread will
give the degree above the level.
Carpenter's and Pavior's Lepel, confifts of a long
ruler, in the middle whereof is fitted, at right angles,
another fomewhat bigger, at the top of which is
faftened a line, which, when it hangs over a ftducial
Hne at right angles with the bafe, ftiows that the faid
bafe is horizontal. Sometimes- this level is all of one
board. Fig. 8.
Gunner's Leitel,. for levelling cannons and mortars,
confifts of a triangular brafs plate, about four inches
high, fig. 9, at the bottom of which is a portion
of a circle, divided into 45 degrees; which number
is fufficient for the higheft elevation of cannons and
mortars, and for giving fhot the greateft range : on
the centre of this fegment of a circle is fcrewed a piece
of brafs, by means of which it may be fixed or fcrewed
at pleafure : the end of this piece of brafs is made fo
as to ferve for a plummet and index, in order to ihow
the different degrees of elevation of pieces of artillery.
This inftrument has alfo a brafs foot, to fet upon can¬
nons or mortars, fo as, when thofe pieces are horizon¬
tal, the inftrument will be perpendicular. The foot
of this inftrument is to be placed on the piece to be
elevated, in fuch a manjier, as that the point of the
plummet may fall on the proper degree : this is what,
they call levelling the piece.
Mafon's J.evel, is compofed of three rules, fo; join¬
ed as to form an ifofceles-rectangle, fomewhat like a
Roman A ; at the vertex whereof is faftened a thread,
from which hangs a plummet, that paffes over a fidu¬
cial line, marked in the middle of the bafe, when the
thing to which the level is applied is horizontal; but
declines from the mark, when the thing is lower on
the one fide than on the other.
Plumb or Pendulum Level, that which- ftiows the
horizontal lines by means of another line perpendiculat
to that defcribed by a plummet or pendulum. This
inftrument, fig. 10. confifts of two legs or branches,
joined together at right angles, whereof that which
carries the thread and plummet is about a foot and a
half long; the thread is hung towards the top of the
branch, at the point 2. The middle of the branch
where the thread paffes is hollow, fo that it may hang
free every where: hut towards the bottom, where there
is a little blade of tilver, whereon is drawn a line per¬
pendicular to the telefcppe, the faid cavity is covered
by two pieces of brafs, making as it were a- kind of
cafe, left the wind ihould agitate the thread; for which,
teafon the filvcr blade is covered with a glafs G, to .the
LEV ! 8 1 L K V
’f.cvet.
end that it may be feen when the thread and plummet
play upon the perpendicular: the telefcope is faitened
to the other branch of the inftrument, and is about
two feet long; having an hair placed horizontally a-
crofs the focus of the object-glafs, which determines
the point of the level. The telefcope muft be iitted
at right angles to the- perpendicular. It has a ball
and Jbcket, by which it is faftened to the foot, and
was invented by M. Picard.
Rcfleding Levej., that made by means of a pretty
long furface of water reprefenting the fame obje& in¬
verted which we fee erected by the eye, fo that the
point where thefe two objefts appear to meet is a level
with the place where the furface of the water is found.
This is the invention of M. Marriotte.
There is another reflecting level confiding of a mir¬
ror of ftfeel, or the like, well polifhed, and placed a
little before the objeCt-glafs of a telefcope, fufpended
perpendicularly. This mirror mull make an angle of
45'-' with the telefcope, in which cafe the perpendicu¬
lar line of the faid telefcope is converted into a horizon¬
tal line, which is the fame with the line of level. This
is the invention of M. Caflini.
Water-LEvnit that which (hows the horizontal line
by means of a furface of water or other liquor; found¬
ed on this principle, that water always places itfelf
level.
The mod Ample is made of a long wooden trough
or canal, whofe Aides are parallel to the bafe ; fo that
being equally Ailed with water, its furface Ihows the
line ofleveh This is the chorobates of the ancients.
See Chorobata.
It is alfo made with two cups Atted to the two ends
of a pipe, three or four feet long, about an inch in
diameter, by means whereof the water communicates
from the one to the other cup; and this pipe being
moveable on its dand by means of a ball and focket,
when the two cups become equally full of water, their
two furfaces mark the line of level.
This indrument, iridead of cups, may alfo be made
with two fliort cylinders of glafs three or four inches
long, fadened to each extreme of the pipe with wax
or madic. Into the pipe is poured fame common or
.coloured water, which ihows itfelf through the. cylin¬
ders, by means whereof the line of level is determined;
the height of the water, with refpeft to the centre of
ithe earth, being always the fame in both cylinders;
this level, though very Ample, is yet very commodious
for levelling' fmall didances.
Level of Mr Huygens’s invention, confids of a tele¬
fcope a, Ag. li. in form of a cylinder, going through
a ferril, in* which it is fadened by the middle. This
ferril has two flat branches bb, one above, and the other
below : at the ends whereof are fadened little moving
pieces, which cany two rings, by one of which the
telefeope is fufpended to an hook at the end of the
fcrew 3, and by the other a pretty heavy weight is
fufpended, in order to keep the telefcope in aquilibrio.
This weight hangs in the box 5, which is almod Ailed
with linfeed oil, oil of walnuts, or other matter that
will not eaAly coagulate, for more aptly fettling the
balance of the weight and telefcope. The indrument
carries two telefcopes clofe and very parallel to each
other ; the eye-glafs of the one being againd the ob-
«ject glafs of the other, that one may fee each way
NJ 181.
W'ithout turniifg the level. I t the focus of the objeft-
glafs of each telefcope mud a little hair be drained ho¬
rizontally, to be raifed and lowered as occaAon requires
by a little fcrew. If the tube of the tclefcope be not
found level when fufpended, a ferril or ring, 4, is put
on it, and is to be Aid along till it Axes to a level.
The hook on which the indrument is hung is Axed try
a flat wooden crofs; at the ends of each arm whereof
there is a hook ferving to keep the telefcope from
too much agitation in ufmg or carriage. To the faid
flat crofs is applied another hollow one, that ferves as
a cafe for the indrument; but the two ends are left
open, that the telefcope may be fecured from the wea¬
ther and always in a condition to be ufed. The foot
of this indrument is a round brafs plate, to which are
fadened three brafs ferrils, moveable by means of joints
whereon are put daves, and on this foot is placed
the box.
Fig. 12. marked I, is a balance-level; which being
fufpended by the ring, the two Aghts, when in eecpti-
librio, will be horizontal, or in a level.
Spirit Level. The mod accurate levelling indru¬
ment, wnd that poflefled of the greated eflential advan¬
tages in ufe, is the fpirit-level; which was flrd con-
dru&ed by the late Mr Siflbn, and to which feme
fmall additions and improvements have been Ance made.
The following is a defcription of one of the bed of
thefe levels, as made by the principal mathematical
indrument makers.
Fig. 13. is a reprefentation of the indrument mount¬
ed on.its complete daves, copied (except the letters)
from Mr Adams’s Graphical Eflays, Plate xvii. flg. 3.
The telefcope (ABC) is made from 15 inches to 2
feet in length, as may be required. It is achromatic,
of the bed kind, and Ihows the obje&s ereft. In the
focus of the eye-glafles are exceedingly Ane crofs wires,
the interfeftion of ,which is evidently Ihown to be
perfectly in the axis of the tube; for by turning it
round on its two fupporters DE, and looking through,
the telefcope, the interfedtion of the wires will con-
dantly cut the fame part of the objedt viewed. By
turning the fcrew a at tha Adeof the telefcope, the object-
glafs at £ is moved; and thus the telefcope is exadtly a-
dapted to the eye. If thefe crofs wires are at any time
out of their adjudment, which is difcovered by their
interfeftion not cutting the fame part of the objedt
during the revolution of the telefcope on its axis, they
are eaAly adjuded by means of the four fcrews bbb,
placed on the telefcope about an inch from the end
for the eye. Thefe fcrews adt in perpendicular di-
redtions to one another, by unfcrewing one and tight¬
ening the other oppoAte to the wire, fo that if connected
with it, it may be moved either way at pleafure; and
in this manner the other wire perpendicular to it may
be moved, and thus the interfedlion of the wires brought
exactly in the axis of the tube.
To the telefcope is Axed, by two fmall fcrev's cc, the
level tube containing the fpirits, with a fmall bubble
of air: This bubble of air, when the indrument is
well adjuded, will fettle exadtly in the fame place, in
or near the middle of its tube, whether the telefcope
be reverfed or not on the fuppoiters, which in this
cafe are kept unmoved.
It is evident, that the axis of the telefcope, or the
interfedlion of the wires, as before Ihown, mud be in this
4 cafe
L E VE Xi S . Plate C
V
LEV [ i
Level, cafe truly level. In this facile mode of adjuftment
—sr~—— confifts the new improvement of the inftrument; and
it is hereby capable of being adjufted by only one fta-
, tion and one object, which will at the fame time de¬
termine it to be in a true level. If by change of wea¬
ther, accident, or otherwife, the inftrument fhould have
loft its level adjuftment or ftate, it may thus be readily
reftored and readjufted at the firft ftation; which is an
advantage none of the inftruments formerly made have
been capable of. The two fupporters DE, on which
the level refts and turns, are fhaped like the letter Y.
The telefcope refts within the upper part of them; and
the inner fides of each of thefe Ys are tangents to the
cylindric tube of the telefcope, which is turned to a
true cylinder, and each touches it but at one place
only.
The lower end of thefe fupporters are inferted into
a ftrong brafs plate (FE), and fo as to ftand perpen¬
dicularly on it. One is kept fall by a tightening fcrew
G, and to the other is applied a fine threaded fcrew
H, to adjuft the tube when on its fupporters to a true
level. To the fupporter D is fometimes applied a
line of tangents as far as 12 degrees, in order to take
an angle of depreffion or elevation to that extent. Be¬
tween the fupporters is alfo fometimes fixed a compafs-
box I, divided into 360 degrees, and again into four
90°; having a centre pin and needle, and trigger, at </,
to throw off the needle from the centre when not ufed;
fo in this manner it conftitutes a perfect circumferen-
ter, connected with all the foregoing improvements.
This plate is fixed on a conical brafs ferrel K, which
is adapted to the bell-metal fruftum of a cone at top
of the brafs head of the ftaves, having a ball and fock-
et, with three bell-metal joints, two ftrong brafs pa¬
rallel plates LL, the four fcrews eeee for adjufting the
horizontal motion, a regulating fcrew M to this mo¬
tion, and a faftening fcrew N to lighten it oil the cone
when neceffary. The faftening fcrew N, and the regu¬
lating fcrew M, by which the whole inftrument is
moved with accuracy through a fmall fpace in an
horizontal direction, was an addition of Mr Ramf-
den’s.
The manner of adjujlmg the /pint-level at the firjl Jlation.
The whole level being now placed fteadily on its ftaves,
it muft be rendered parallel to the axis of the telefcope
before you adjuft the horizontal motion. To this end
the telefcope muft be placed in a line with two of the
fcrews ee, and then levelled thereby till the bubble of
air in the fpirit-tube keeps its pofition in the middle,
while turned about to three points, making nearly
right angles at the centre to one another.
The horizontal motion being thus adjufted, the rims
ff of the Ys are to be opened, the telefcope taken off
and laid the contrary way upon the fupporters. If the
bubble of air then refts exaftly the fame, the level and
telefcope are adjufted rightly to one another; but if
the bubble does not remain the fame, the end to which
the air bubble goes muft be noticed, and the diftance
of it from the telefcope altered; correcting one half
the error by the fcrews cc, and the other half by the
fcrews ee.
Now the interfeClion of the wires being direCted
to any diftant object, it may be one of the vanes of
the ftaves hereafter defcribed; if they continue to be
Vol. X. Part I.
> ] LEV
againft it precifely while the telefcope is turned round Levelling;,
on its Ys, it proves, as before mentioned, that the axis —v——^
of the telefcope coincides with the interfeCtion of the
wires, and that the inftrument will give the true level
direftion.
The operation of levelling being of a very accurate
and important nature, and the beft inftrument when
out of its adjuftment being of little ufe, it is quite ne¬
ceffary that every perfon ufing fuch an inftrument
Ihould have it readily in his power to correCt it; and
the one above defcribed appears to be the beft adapted
for that purpofe of any hitherto contrived.
LEVELLING may be defined, the art whicb in-
ftruCls us in finding how much higher or lower any
given point on the furface of the earth is than another;
or, in other words, the difference in their diftance from
the centre of the earth.
The praClice of levelling therefore confifts, 1. In
finding and marking two or more points that fhall be
in the circumference of a circle whole centre is that of
the earth. 2. In comparing the points thus found
with other points, to afeertain the difference in their
diftances from the earth’s centre.
With regard to the theory of levelling, we muft ob-
ferve, that a plumb-line, hanging freely in the air,
points direCliy towards the centre of the earth; and a
line drawn at right angles, crofting the direClion of
the plumb-line, and touching the earth’s furface, is a
true level only in that particular fpot; but if this line
which croffes the plumb be continued for any confi-
derable length, it will rife above the earth’s furface,
and the apparent level will be above the true one, be-
caufe the earth is globular; and this rifing will be as
the fquare of the diftance to which the faid right line
is produced; that is to fay, however much it is railed
above the earth’s furface at one mile’s diftance, it will
rife four times as much at the diftance of two miles,
nine times at the diftance of three, &c. This is owing
to the globular figure of the earth ; and this rifing it
the difference betwixt the true and apparent levels;
the real curve of the earth being the true level, and
the tangent to it the apparent level. Hence it ap¬
pears, that the lefs diftance we take betwixt any two
ftations, the truer will be our operations in levelling;
and fo foon does the difference betwixt the true and
apparent levels become perceptible, that it is neceffary
to make an allowance for it if the diftance betwixt
the two ftations exceeds two chains in length. The
following is an infallible rule for determining the al¬
lowance to be made:
“ Multiply the number of Gunter’s decimal ftatute Leach's Tts
chains that are contained in length between any twoland navi‘
ftations where the levels are to be taken by itfelf, and^*®"*
the produft arifing therefrom again by 124; which is
a common multiplier for all manner of diftances for
this purpofe on account of the earth’s curvature: then
divide the fecond product arifing therefrom by 100,000;
or, which is alfo the fame, with the dalh of the pe»
cut off five figures on the right hand fide of the pro-
duft, and what remains on the left fide is inches, and
the five figures cut off decimal parts of an inch.”
B
The
LEV L 10 ! LEV
n*,i The following is A Talk of Curvature of the Enrth
and ihows the quantity below the apparent level at
the end of every number of chains to 100.
32
o-36
0-4°
270.91:
28 0.98
291.05:
30 I.I 2'
3 1 i1 • 1 9;
32,I,27j
33 i-35
3 4; 1-44
35 Il53
36 1.62
T
240,72,;37 i'.
25 0.78 38 1.80
:26to.84''!39'i.9:
40 2.00
45! 2.28
5°i 3*
55 3-78
6o( 4.50
65; 5-3i
70! 6.
75; 7-03
8©: 8.00
85; 9.03
90 i<
95 11.28
100 12.50
Levelling is either fimple or compound. The for¬
mer is when the level points are determined from one
ftation, whether the level be fixed at one of the points
or between them. Compound levelling is nothing more
than a repetition of many fimple operations.
An example of fimple levelling is given Plate
CCLXXI. fig. 1. where A B are the ftation points
of the level; C D the two points afcertained. Let
the height
Feet. Inches.
From A to C be - 600
From B to D be - 900
The difference - 300
{hows that B is three fe t lower than A.
If the ftation-points of the level are above the line
ef fight, as in fig. 2. and the diftance from A to C be
fix feet, and from B to D nine feet, the difference will
Hill be three feet which B is higher than A.
As an example of compound levelling, ftippofe it
were required to know the difference of height be¬
tween the point A on the river Zome, and N on the
river Belann, fig. 3. (As our author could find no fatif-
faftory examples in any Englifh author, he copied
this and the following ones from M. le Febure). In
this operation ftakes ftiould be driven down at A and
,N, exactly level with the furface of the water'; and
thefe ftakes ftiould be fo fixed, that they may not be
changed until the whole operation be finifhed: a plan
of the ground between the two rivers fhould then be
made, by which it will be difcovered, that the fliort-
eft way between the rivers is by the dotted line AC,
CH, HN ; from whence alfo the number of ftations
jneceffary to be taken will be . determined. The ope¬
rator will alfo be enabled to diftribute them properly
according to the nature and fituation of the ground.
In the figure . 12. ftations are marked. Stakes ought
then to be driven in at the limits of1 each ftation, as A,
B,C,D, &c. They ought to be about two or three
inches above the ground, and driven 18 inches into it.
Stakes (hould alfo be driven in at each ftation of the
inftrument, as I, 2, 3, 4, &c.
The operation may be begun in the following man- I.eveHm*-,
ner. Let the firft ftation be at I, equally diftant from —"Y—
the two points A and B, which themfelves are diftant
16(1 yards. Write down then in one column the firft
limit A ; in another, the number of feet, inches, and
tenths ; with the points of fight indicated on the ftation-
ftaff at A, viz. 7. 6. o. In the third column, the fe-
cond limit B ; in the fourth, the height indicated at
the ftation-ftaff B, viz. 6. O. o. Laftly, in the fifth co
lumn, the diftance from one ftation-ftaff to the other ;
which in this cafe is 166 yards. Remove now the le¬
vel to the point marked 2, which is in the middle be¬
tween B and C, the two places where the ftation-
ftaves are to be held ; obferving that B, which was the
fecond limit in the former operation, is tire ftrft in this.
Then write down the obferved heights as before; its
the firft column B ; in the fecond 4. 6. o; in the third
C; in the fourth 5. 6. 2 ; in the fifth 560, the di¬
ftance between B and C.
It being impofiible, on account of the inequality of
the ground at .the third ftation, to place the inftrument
in the middle between the two ftation-ftaves, find the
moft convenient point as at 3 ; then meafure exaftly
how far this is from each ftation-ftaff, and you will
find that from 3 to C is 160 yards; from 3 to D, 8a
yards; and the remainder of the operation will be as
in the preceding ftation.
In the fourth operation, wemuft endeavour to com-
penfate for any error which might have happened ia
the laft. Mark out, therefore, 80 yards from the fta¬
tion-ftaff D to the point 4; and 160 yards from 4 to
E ; and this muft be carefully attended to, as by fuck
compenfatlons the work may be much facilitated. Pro¬
ceed in the fame manner with the eight remaining fta*
tions, obferving to enter every thing in its proper co¬
lumn ; and when the whole is finifhed, add the fums of
each column together, and then fubtraft the leffer from
the greater ; the difference, which in the prefent cafe is
5. 4. 8. ftiows the ground at N to be thus much low¬
er than the ground at A.
To obtain a feftion of this level, draw the dotted
line 0 0, fig. 4. either above or below the plan ; which
may be taken for the level or horizontal line. Let fall
then perpendiculars upon this line from all the ftation-
points and places where the ftation-ftaves were fixed.
Beginning now at A, fet off 7 feet 6 inches upon the
line fjom A to a : for the height of the level-point de¬
termined on the ftaff at this place, draw a line through
a parallel to the dotted line 0 0, which will cut the third
perpendicular at l, the fecond ftation-ftaff. Setoff from
this point downwards fix feet to B, which fhows tire fe¬
cond limit of the firft operation ; and that the ground
at B is one foot fix inches higher than at A : place
your inftrument between thefe two lines at the height
of the level line, and trace the ground according to its
different heights. Now fet off, on the fecond ftation-
ftaff B, four feet fix inches to C, the height deter¬
mined by the level at the fecond ftation ; and from C
draw a line parallel to 0 o, which will cut the fifth per¬
pendicular at ef, the third ftation-ftaff. From this point
fet off 5 feet 6 inches T~- downwards to C, which will
be our feeond limit with refpeft to the preceding one
and the third with refpeft to the firft. Then draw
your inftrument in the middle between B and C,
and delineate the ground with its inequalities. Pro¬
ceed
LEV t i
Levelling:, cecd in the lame manner from fiction to ftation, till
t*—you arrive at the laft N, and you will have the profile
of the ground over which the level was taken.
This method anfwers very well where only a gene¬
ral profile of the different ftations is required ; but
where it is neceffary to have an exaft detail of the
ground between the limits, we mull then go to work
more particularly. Suppofe,' therefore, the level to
have been taken from A to N by another route, but
on more uniform ground, in order to form a canal
marked O, P, Q. R, S, T, U, X, Y. Draw at plea-
fure a line Z, Y, fig. 5. to reprefent the level, and re-
f gulate the reft; then let fall on this line perpendicu-
^ lars to reprefent the ftaves at the limits of each ftation,
taking care that they be fixed ^accurately at their re-
fpective diftances from each other. The difference be¬
tween the extreme limits, in this cafe, ought to be the
fame as in the former, viz. 5 feet 4 inches Set off
this meafure upon the perpendicular 0 the firft limit; and
from 0, prolonging the perpendicular, mark off at a
the height determined at the firft ftation-ftaff; then
do the fame with the fecond and third, and fo on with
the following, till this part of the work is finifhed ;
there remains then only to delineate in detail the ground
between the ftation-ftaves, the diftances in this example
being affumed larger on account of the detail.
To obtain the fe&ion of the ground between O and
P, place your inftrument at one of the limits, as P,
fixing it fo that the crofs hairs may anfwer to the point
C ; then look towards the firft limit o, raifing or de¬
prefling the vane till it coincides with the interfe&ion
of the crofs hairs ; and the line of fight from one point
to the other will mark the level or horizontal line.
To fet off the height of the brink of the river above
the firft limit, drive a flake down clofe to the ground
at a; and place your ftation-flaff upon it, obfervingwhere
the hairs interfedl the vxfie, which will be at 4 feet 1 o
inches; then, laying off upon the line oz the diftance
from the firft to the laft flake, let fall from thence a
perpendicular, and fet off thereon 4. 10. o to u, which
gives the height at the firft flake ; or, which is the
fame, the height from the edge of the river above the
furface of the water, as is evident from the feftion.
Dr*-c a fecond flake at 6, m a line between the limits;
place the flation-ftaff upon this flake, and obferve the
height 4. 6. interfered by the crofs hairs, the inftru¬
ment flill remaining in the fame fituation. Set off on
the level-line the diftance from the firft flake a to the
fecond b ; and then let fall a perpendicular, and mark
upon it q.'fi to b, which gives the height of the ground
at this place.
The fmall hollow c is marked out by driving down
a third flake even with the ground, in the middle of it
at c; but the exaft diftance of the -fecond flake b from
the third r, muft be marked upon the level line : then
let fall a perpendicular from c, and fet off upon it
6. 8. o, pointed out by the crofs hairs on the ftaff,
which determines the depth of the hollow, as appears
from the figure. As the d if lances between the flakes
are now very fhort, they can eafily be marked by the
operator, who can fettle any little inequalities by a
comparifon with thofe already afeertained. Proceed
thus with the other ftations till you arrive at the laft,
and you will always obtain an accurate feftion of yoar
1 ] LEV
work ; by which it is eafy to form a juft eftimation of Levell
the land to be dug away, in order to form the canal, ^
by adding the depth to be given to it.
Fig. 6. gives an example of compound levelling,
where the fituation is fo fteep and mountainous, that the
Haves cannot be placed at equal diflances from the in¬
ftrument, or where it is even impoflible to make a re¬
ciprocal levelling from one ftation to the other. Thus
fuppofe the point K to be the bottom of a bafon where
it is required to make a fountain, the refervoir being
at A ; fo that, in order to know the height to which
the jet d’eau will rife, it is neceffary to know how high
the point A is above K.
In great heights fuch as this, it will be neceffary ta
proceed by fmall defeents, as from A to D. The inftru¬
ment muft be adjufted, with all poffible care; and it
will even be proper, in fome part of the work, to ufe
a fmaller inftrument. The following is a table of the
different operations ufed in making this level, it having
been taken from M. le Febure’s practice.
A 21
C 4
in.iyarcl!
9| 90
3 4°
3; 350
9 25°
° 375
o 300
K 47 3! 1000
06 9.2405
In this cafe only two levellings are made between
A and D, though more would have been necefiary;
but they are omitted to avoid confufion. In the
fourth ftation the height found was 16 feet 8 inches;
but on account of the great length, it was requifite to
reduce the apparent level to the true one, which is al¬
ways neceffary where the length isconfiderable. At the
laft. limit we get the height from N to 0 y then from 0 ta
I; from I to K, fig. 7. &c.; all which added together,
and then corrected for the curvature, gives 47 feet 3
inches. Now, by adding each column together, and
fubtracling one from the other, we have 51 feet 9
inches for the height which the point A is above th®
bottom of the bafon, and which will caufe the jet
d’eau to rife about 45 feet. The general faction of
this operation is fhown at fig. 7, 8. but an exa<ft profile
of the mountain is more difficult, as requiring many
operations ; though fome of thefe might be obtained
by meafuring from the level line without moving the
iuflrument.
The laft example given by our author is likewife
from M. le Febure, and includes a length of near five'
German miles {25 of ours) in a ftraight line, and 9 or
10 (45 or 50 Englifh) including the turnings,and
windings. In this the declivity of the river llaynoce
was meafured from Lignebruk to Villebourg. Tlie
firft operation was to drive flakes at feveral parts oft
the river even with the water’s edge; the firft of
which a little above the mills of Lignebruk fhowed
the upper water-mark, and another fhowed the lower
water-mark at the fame mills. Two flakes above and
below the mills of Mazurance, fcthicwhat more than
half way between Lignebmk and Villebourg, pointed
B z out
LEV [ 12 ] LEV
Levelling out the difference between high and low water there,
I ever anc^ f°rme^ hkewife the third and fourth limits of the
. operation ; while the ftakes above and below the. mills
of Villebourg pointed out the difference between high
and low water, and likewife formed the lafl limits of the
operation.
Thefe marks were all made at the edge of the wa¬
ter, exadfly even with its furface, and all made at the
different parts of the river nearly at the fame inftant
of time. “ The principal limits of the levelling (fays
Mr Adams) being now determined and fixed, it only
remains to find the level between the limits, according
to the methods already pointed out, ufing every ad¬
vantage that may contribute to the fuccefs of the work,
and at the fame time avoiding all obflacles and diffi¬
culties that may retard or injure the operations. The
fir ft rule is always to take the fhorteft poffible way
from one limit to another, though this rule ought not to
fee followed if there are confiderable obftacles in the
way, as hills, woods, marfhy ground, or if, by going
afide, any advantage can be obtained.” In the pre-
fent cafe it was found neceffary to deviate very confi-
derably from the general rule, in order to take in fe-
veral ponds, the furfaces of which might all be taken
for a perfect level; and thus levels were frequently ta¬
ken acrofs the country for a confiderable way. The
difference of height between the mills of Lignebruk
and Villebourg was at laft found to be about 19 feet,
indicating a defcent of not quite a foot in a mile.
LsrELUNG-Staves, inftruments ufed in levelling,
ferving to carry the marks to be obferved, and at the
fame time to mcafure the heights of thofe marks from
the ground. They ufually confift of two mahogany
ftaves ten feet long, in two parts, that Hide upon
Plate one another to about 5's feet> f°r the more por-
CCLXX. table carriage. They are divided into x 000 equal parts,
%• and numbered at every tenth divifion by 10, 20, 30,
&c. to 1000; and on one fide the feet and inches are
alfo fometimes marked.
A vane A Aides np and down upon each fet of thefe
ftaves, which by brafs fprings will Hand at any part.
Thefe vanes are about 10 inches long and 4 inches
broad ; the breadth is firft divided into three equal
parts, the two extremes painted white, the middle
fpace divided again into three equal parts, which are
lefs; the middle one of them is alfo painted white, and
the two other parts black ; and thus they are fuited
to all the common diftances. Thefe vanes have each
a brafs wire acrofs a fmall fquare hole in the centre,
which ferve to point out the height correctly, by co¬
inciding with the horizontal wire of the telefcope of
the level.
LEVEN, a river of Lenox or Dunbartonfhire in
Scotland. See Lenox.
LEVER, in mechanics, is a bar of iron or wood,
one part of which being fupported by a prop, all other
parts turn upon that prop as their centre of motion.
This inftrument is of two kinds. Firft, the common
fort, where the weight we defire to raife, refts at one
ond of it, our ftrength is applied at the other end, and
the prop is between both. When we ftir up the fire
with a poker, we make ufe of this lever; the pocker is
the lever, it refts upon one of the bars of the grate as
a prop, the incumbent fire is the weight to be over¬
come, and the other end held in the hand is the ftrength
or power. In this as in all the reft, we have only to Leveret,
increafe the diftance between the ftrength and prop Levigation.
to give the man that works the inftrument greater v ' "
power.
Tfie lever of the fecond kind, has the prop at one
end, the ftrength is applied to the other, and the weight
to be railed refts between them. Thus in raifing the
water-plug in the ftreets, the workman puts his iron
lever through the hole of the plug till he reaches the
ground on the other fide, and, making that his prop,
lifts the plug with his ftrength at the other end of the
lever. In this lever alfo, the greater the diftance of
the prop from the ftrength, the greater is the work¬
man’s power.
Thefe inftruments, as we fee, affift the ftrength; but
fometimes a workman is obliged to act at a difadvan
tage, in raifing , either a piece of timber or a ladder
upon one end. We cannot, with grammatical proprie¬
ty, call this a /ever, fince fuch a piece of timber in fait
in no way contributes to raife the weight. In this cafe,
the man, who is the ftrength or power, is in the middle,
the part of the beam already raifed is the weight, the
part yet at the ground is the prop on which the beam
turns or refts. Here the man’s ftrength will be dimi-
nilhed, in proportion to the weight, it fuftains. The
weight will be greater the farther it is from the prop,
therefore the man will bear the greater weight the
nearer he is to the prop. See Mechanics.
LEVERET, among fportfmen, denotes a hare in
the firft year of her age.
LEVIGATION, in pharmacy and chemiftry, the
reducing hard and ponderous bodies to an impalpable
powder, by grinding them on a porphyry, or in a mill.
See Chemistry, n° 599.
A new method of reducing powders to a great de¬
gree of finenefs has lately been invented by means of a
fanner. This has the advantage over the other me¬
thods, in being much more expeditious, and attended
with lefs trouble and expence; the degree of finenefs
to which they are reducible being thus alfo in a man¬
ner unlimited. The conftruftion of the fanner em¬
ployed for this purpofe is different from that employ¬
ed for winnowing corn ; the blaft not being collected
into a final! compafs as in the latter, but diffufed over
a confiderable fpace, left a violent blaft ftiould hurry
off both coarfe and fine together. For this purpofe,
the leaves of the fanner are made as long in the direc¬
tion parallel to the axis as can be done conveniently.
In the other direction projedting from it, they differ
not from the ordinary length, nor do they in the ge¬
neral fituation with refpeft to each other. Before the
leaves is a wooden partition reaching half way up, to
prevent the grofs powder from falling in among the
leaves, which reaches about half way from bottom to
top ; and about two feet or lefs from this, according
to the fize of the fanner, is anothe- partition in a Ho¬
ping diredlion, reaching from the bottom of the box
to near the top. The whole is inclofed in a large box
fix or feven feet long, having in the end fartheft off
fi-om the leaves a flit equal to the fpace left betwixt
the top of the box and the floping partition already
mentioned. On the top of this is another box, ex¬
tending from the farthermoft end of the former to the
hopper which holds the coarfe powder, with a hole in-
the end neareft to the fanner; and upon this another
1 box,.
LEVELLING.
I’laic (' C'LXXI.
Lilli1
'6fiwu//a/yfca^p£FryWv/-
■
;/■
L £ v [
Levlgatior.boX) &c. as long as it is found that the air carries off
W-~V"'-W with it any quantity of powder. This will be beft under-
ftood from the following defcription of the figure.
’’ Plate A reprefents the fanner itfelf, having a hole in the
CCLXXI. cafe for the admiffion of the air, as ufual.
B, The firft wooden divifion, to prevent the return
of the powder upon the leaves of the fanner.
C, The fecond divifion, reaching not quite to the
top of the box. Its ufe is to diredt the current of air
produced by the fanner obliquely upwards: thus it
ftrikes the powder, falling down from the hopper, in
the fame oblique direction, and carries off the fine
parts, firft through the aperture a; after which fome of
them are lodged in the box D ; the fall finer particles
are carried through* the aperture b into the fecond
box E, where part of them are lodged: they next pafs
through the aperture c into the box F, and through
d into the box G; the powder becoming' ftill finer and
in fmaller quantity as it afeends into the higher boxes,
until at lalt the wafte becomes fo trifling, that the air
may be allowed to pafs off entirely through the aper¬
ture b in the fourth or fome other box, as is found
moil convenient.
Thus it is evident we may obtain powders of every
degree of finenefs, and fuch as neither fieve nor levi¬
gating mill could equal. Walhing over with water
may indeed produce powders equally fine; but the
length of time requifite for fettling, and the trouble of
drying them again, muft decidedly give the preference
to the fanner; efpecially when we confider, that there
is not any occafion for taking out the powder in fmall
quantities, as is the cafe in lifting, walhing, or leviga¬
ting ; but it may be allowed to remain till as much is
collefted in the boxes as we defire.
The principal difficulty in the conftru&ion of this
fanner is the letting down the powder in a proper man¬
ner, fo that the llream of air, which ought not to be
very ftrong, may freely pafs through it. For this
purpofe, the’hopper muft not let it fall in a large body,'
as in winnowing of com, but in a long and thin Iheet,
which can eafily be pervaded. The beft method feems
to be to make the hopper extend the whole breadth of
the box, having a narrow flit at bottom. Clofe on
the under part of this flit, a fluted roller ought to turn,
which Ihutting up the aperture exaftly, cannot allow
any powder to pafs but what does fo in confequence
of the hollow flutes of the roller ; for a fmooth round
one would allow nothing to pafs. It would be pro¬
per alfo that the flutes be but fmall, that a thin and
nearly continued ftream of powder be always defeend-
ing; for this will contribute greatly to the finenefs of
the produce: and on _ this account the powder ought,
before it is put into the hopper, to be pafled through
a lawn fieve. In the figure, e reprefents the hopper,
and f the fluted roller. Motion is eafily communica¬
ted to the latter by means of a wheel faftened on the
axis of the fanner.
The coarfe powder is kept back by the partition C,
and defeends through a flit i in the bottom of the low-
ermoft box, into a receptacle Z’, which may be removed
occafionally. All the joints and feams of the machine
muft be very clofe, for the fine powder is very pene¬
trating ; for this reafon alfo the hopper ought to have
ft lid*,
13 1 LEU
LEWDNESS. See Fornication.—Lewdnefsis Levite
punilhable by our law by fine, imprifonment, &c. And IJ.
Mich. 15 Car. II. a perfon was indicted for open lewd- e'‘ en‘,
nefs, in fliowing his naked body in a balcony, and
other mifdemeanors; and was fined 2000 marks, im-
prifoned for a week, and bound to his good behaviour
for three years. 1 Sid. 168'. In times paft, when any
man granted a leafe of his houfe, it was ufual to infert
an exprefs covenant, that the tenant fhould not en¬
tertain any lewd women, &c.
LEVlTE, in a general fenfe, means all the defeen-
dants of Levi, among whom were the Jewifli priefts
themfelves, who, being defeended from Aaron, were
likewife of the race of Levi. In a more particular
fenfe, Levite is ufed for an order of officers in that
church, who were employed in performing the manual
fervice of the temple. They were obedient to the
prieits in their miniilration, and brought them woodr
water, and other neceflaries for the facrifice.—They
fung and played upon inftruments in the temple and
in other places. They applied themfelves to the ftudy
of the law, and were the ordinary judges of the coun¬
try, but always fubordinate to the priefts. Their fub-
fiftence was the tythes of corn, fruit, and cattle,
throughout Ifrael: but the priefts were intitled to a
tenth of their tythes, by way of firft-fruits to the Lord.
Eight and forty cities were affigned for the rcfidence
ofithe Levites, of which the priefts claimed thirteen,
fix whereof were chofen for cities of refuge. They
were confecrated, before they entered upon their mi-
niftry, by fhaving their fldh, waftiing their cloaths, and
fprinkling with the water of expiation. Impolition of
hands was ufed in confecration, and two bullocks were
offered at the door of the tabernacle. They waited
weekly, and by turns, in the temple, beginning their
attendance on one fabbath and ending the next: Du¬
ring this time they were maintained out of the offer¬
ings, &c. In the time ©f Solomon, the number of
Levites, from the age of 20 and capable of ferving,
was 38,000.
LEVITICUS, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment, fo called from its containing the laws and regu¬
lations relating to the priefts, Levites, and facrifices.
LEVITY, in phyfioJogy, the privation or want of
weight in any body when compared with another that
is heavier than it; in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to
gravity.
LEUK, a town of Switzerland, almoft in the middle'
of the Valais; remarkable for its natural ftrength, for
the affembly of the ftates that often meet there, and
for its baths, whofe water is fo hot that they will boit
eggs.
LEUNCLAVIUS (Joannes), a learned German,
was defeended from a noble family, and born at Amel-
brun in Weftphalia, 1533. He travelled through al¬
moft all the countries in Europe. While he was in
Turkey, he collected very good materials for an “ Hi-
ftory of the Ottoman Empire;” which he publiflied,
and alfo feveral other pieces concerning it, in La¬
tin. He gave Latin tranflations-'alfo of Xenophon,
Zofimus, &c. To a knowledge of the learned lan¬
guages he added that of the civil law. He died at:
Vienna in 1593, aged 60.
LEUSDEN (John), a celebrated philologer, born
is
LEW [ 14 1 L E W
Letnkirk in 1,624* tic ftudied the learned languages and ma¬
il thematics at Utrecht; and then went to Amiterdam,
r Lcwes' , to converfe with the rabbis, and perfect himfelf in the
Hebrew tongue. After which he was profefibr of
Hebrew at Utrecht, where he acquired a great repu¬
tation, and died in 1699. He wrote many valuable
works ; the principal of which are, 1 .■ Onamaflicum Sa-
. crum, 8vo. 2. Clavis Hebfaica £3° Philologica Veter is
‘Tejlamenti, 410. 3. Novi Tejlamenti Clavh Graca, cum
Annotationibus Phiiologicis, 8vo, 4. Compendium Bibli-
eum Veteris ‘Tcjlamcnii, 8vo. 5. Compendium Gr/ecum
Novi 'Tejlamenti; the beft: edition of which is that of
London, in 1668, xzmo. 6. Philo logos Hcbrteus^ qto.
. 7. Philologus Hebrao mixtus, 410. 8. Philologus Helrm-
Gracus, qto. 9. Notes on Jonas, Joel, Hofea, See.
He alio gave correft editions of feveral learned works.
LEUTKIRK,_ a free and imperial town of Ger¬
many, in Suabia, and in Algow, feated on a rivulet
that falls into the Illar, in E. Long 10, 10. N. Lat.
47- 53-
LEUTMERITZ, a town of Bohemia, capital of a
circle of the fame name, with a bifhop’s fee, feated on
the river Elbe, in E. Long. 14. 25. N. Lat. 50. 34.
LEWARDEN, a handfome, rich, and ftrong town
of the United Provinces, capital of Oftergow, Wefter-
gow, Sevenwolden, and Weil Frieiland. It was the
ufual place of refidence of the Stadtholder; and in
buildings, as well public as private, is veiy magnifi¬
cent. It has feveral canals running through the ftreets,
which are of great fervice to their trade, efpecially as
they are continued to the fea and to the moil confider-
able towns of the, province. E. Long. 5. 42. N. Lat.
53- I2*
LEEUWENHOEK (Anthony de), a celebrated
Dutch phylician and naturalift, was born at Delft in
1632, of an ancient family of that city ; and acquired
a very great reputation throughout all Europe, by his
experiments and difeoveries. He particularly excel¬
led in making glaifes for microfcopes and fpedlacles,
and died in 1723. His letters to, the royal fociety of
London, of which he was a member, were printed at
Leyden, in 1722, in qto.
LEVY, in law, fignifies to gather or colleft; as to
levy money, and to levy a fine of lands in the palling
a fine.
LEWENTZ, a town of Upper Hungary, in the
county of Gran, and on the river of the fame name,
where the Turks were defeated in 1644. E. Long. 18.
19. N. Lat. 48. 15.
LEWES, a large well-built town of Sulfex in Eng¬
land, feated on an eminence on the banks of the river
Oufe, 50 miles from London. It is famous for a
bloody battle near it, wherein King Hemy III. was
defeated and taken prilbner by the barons ; and is fo
ancient, that we read the Saxon king Athelftan ap-
qpointed two mint-houfes here, and that in the reign of
Edward the Gonfeffcr it had 127 burgeffes. It is a
borough by prefeription, by the flyle of conftables
and inhabitants. The conllables are chqfen yearly.
It has handfome ftreets and two fuburbs, with fix pa-
rilh churches. It carries on a good trade ; and the
river Oufe runs through it, which brings goods in
boats and barges from a port 8 Hfiles off. On this ri¬
ver are feveral iron-works, where cannon are call for
Incrchant-lhips, befides other ufeful works. A charity-
fchool was opened here in 1711, where 20 boys are
taught, clothed, and maintained, at the expence of a
private gentleman, by whom they were alfo furniibed
with books; and 8 boys more are taught here at the
expence of other gentlemen. Here are horfe-races
almoft every fummer for the king’s plate of L. too.
The roads here are deep and dirty; but then it is the
richeft foil in this part of England. The market here
is on Saturday; and the fairs May 6. Whitfun-Tuef-
day, and Odtober 2. The timber of this part of the
county is prodigioufiy large. The trees are fome-
times drawn to Maidftone and other places on the
Medway, on a fort of carriage called a wg, drawn by
22 oxen a little way, and then left there for other
tugs to carry it on ; fo that a tree is fometimes two
or three years drawing to Chatham; becaufe, after
the rain is once fet in, it ftirs no more that year, and
fometimes a whole iuinmer is not dry enough to make
the roads palfable. It is cheap living here ; and the
town not being under the direction of a corporation,
but governed by gentlemen, it is reckoned an excellent
retreat for half-pay officers, who cannot fo well confine
themfelves to the rules of a corporation. It fends two
members to parliament.
LEWIS, one of the largeft of the Hebrides or we-
ftern iflands of Scotland, extending about 60 miles in
length from north to fouth, and from 13 to 14 in
breadth, confifting of a great number of ifles and rocks*
and parted by the fea into two divifions, called Lewis
and Harries* tire former lying to the weftward of the
other. Lewis belongs to the (hire of Rofs; is divided
by feveral channels, diftinguiftied by feveral names,
and portioned out among different proprietors ; Rut
the Lewis, ftriftly fo called, ftretches about 36 miles
in length, from the north point of Bowling-head to
the fouthern extremity of Huffmefs in Harries. The
air is temperately cold, moift, and healthy ; great part
of the lew ground is flooded with lakes; the reft is a-
rable in many places, and has been counted fruitful in
oats, barley, rye, flax, and hemp. The foil in thefe
parts is a light fand, which the inhabitants manure
with foot and fca-ware; but great part of the ifiand
is covered with heath. The labouring people dig tire
land with fpades, and break the clods with fmall har¬
rows, the foremoft teeth of which are made of wood,
and the remainder of rough heath, w hich fmooths w-hat
the others have broken ; and this harrow is drawn by
one man, having a ftrong trace of horfe-hair acrofs his
breaft. Of their corn they not only make malt for
ale, but likewife a ftrong fpirit called tnjlareg, which
is the whilky, or ufquebaugh, three times diftilled.
Lewis abounds with convenient bays and harbours,
in which are caught, in great plenty, cod, ling, and
herring: here are likewife whales of different fizes,
which the natives drive into the bays, and kill with
harpoons. Thefe bays afford great plenty of fheU-fifh,
fuch as clams, pyfters, cockles, mufcles, lympits, welks,
and fuch a prodigious quantity of fpout-fifh is fome¬
times caft Up from the fand off Loch-tua, that they in-
fe£l the air, and render it unhealthy to the neighbour¬
ing inhabitants, who are not able to confume them,
either by eating, or ufing them as manure for the
ground. Some of thefe lochs and bays likewife pro¬
duce fmall coral and coralline. The frefh-water lakes
are well ftored with trout and eels, and the rivers
LEW [ 15 } LEW
Lewis, yield plenty of falmon. Along the eoaft are found a
""“"v— great number of caves, which ferve as flicker for the
feals and otters, which are alfo eaten as dainties by the
inhabitants ; and vaft numbers of fea-fowl build upon
the rocks and promontories.
The land-animals reared in this ifland, are cows,
horfes, flieep, goats, hogs, and deer; all thefe are of
a diminutive fize. The beef, mutton, and pork, are
Juicy and delicious; the horfes are adtive and hardy :
the deer, which are of the red kind, confine themfelves
to the chace of Ofervaul, about 15 miles in compafs,
which affords tolerable pallurage; but in the winter,
when the ground is covered with froft and fnow, thefe
animals are forced to feed on fea-ware, and endure all
the rigour of the feafon, without any (belter from
wood or copfe, • for there is not a tree to be feen ; ne-
verthelefs, the roots of very large trees, which have
been cut by the ax, are found in different places.
There is like wife a fmall grove of birch and hazle on
the fouth-weft fide of Loch-Stornaway.
The inhabitants of Lewis are well-proportioned, tall,
fair, fanguine, ftrong, and healthy. They are in gene¬
ral fober, eircumfpeft, and hofpitable ; dexterous in
fnooting, fwimming, and leaping ; bold and fkilful mari¬
ners ; and fo temperate, that they will tug at the oar
all day, without any other provifion than bread and
water, with a fnufh of tobacco.
Along this coafl we fee feveral natural mounts or
forts, called Dun ; fuch as Dun-rowly, Dun-coradel,
and Dun-eiften. There are alfo the remain^ of feme
old caftles, and other monuments of antiquity. At
Stornaway village we fee the ruins of a fortrefs deflroy-
ed by the Englifh garrifon fent thither by Oliver Crom¬
well. To the northward of Brago there is a round
tower built of large flones, three ftories high, taper¬
ing towards the top, with a double wall, and a circu¬
lar ftaircafe between, by which one may go -quite
found the building., On the heaths and fummits of
hills there are feveral cairns or heaps of ftones, which
ferved either for graves or beacons. In the parifh of
Barvas we fee a fingle ftone called the thrujhcl. Hand¬
ing upright, above 20 feet high, and almoft as much
in breadth. Three ftones, about 12 feet high each,
are feen Handing on the north fide of Loch-carlvay;
and many others Handing fingle at great diftances,
and in remote parts of the ifland. But the moft re¬
markable monument of this kind appears by the village
-©f Claffernifs. Here we find 39 pyramidal ftones Hand¬
ing upright, about fix or feven feet high from the fur-
face, each about two feet in breadth. They are pla¬
ced in form of an avenue, eight feet wide; the di-
ftance between every ftone amounting to fix feet, and
a fingle piece ftands at the entrance. This avenue
leads to a circle of 12 ftones of the fame dimenfions,
with one in the centre 13 feet in length, and fhaped
like a rudder: on the eaft, fouth, and weft fides of
■this circle, are four ftones, fuch as thofe that compofe
this round and avenue, forming three lines, or as it
were rays from the body of the circle. This is fup-
pofed to have been a Druid temple; and tradition re¬
ports, that the ehief Druid flood by the large ftone in
the centre, and harangued the audience. At the di-
ftance of a quarter of a mile there is another circle of
the fame nature; but without the range and avenue
In all probability, thefe, as well as the monHitients we Lewi*,
have deferibed in our account of the Orkneys, and
Stone-henge on Salifbury-plain, were places of wor-
fhip erefted by the Druids in time of Pagan fuperfti-
tion. The chief town in Lewis is called Stor¬
naway.
There is a confiderable number of inferior adjacent
ifles and rocks, fome of which hardly deferve to be *
mentioned; fuch as the fmall ifland Garve at the'
mouth of Loch Carlvay, Berinfay, Fladda, Bemera
Minor, and Bernera Major, Kialify, Cavay, Carvay,
Grenim, Pabay, Shirem, Vexay, Wuya the Larger
and Leffer, and the Flannan iflands, which the feamen
denominate the northern hunters. Thefe are vifited
every fummer by the inhabitants of the Lewis, who
go thither in queft of fowls, eggs, down, quills, and
feathers, as well as to (hear or kill the flieep that are
kept here for pafture. As thefe iflands are very deep
and rocky, the vifitors, after having landed and
climbed up the rock by a ladder, uncover their heads, *
and, making a turn fun-ways, thank God for having
efcaped the danger they have undergone. In the lar-
geft ifland are the ruins of a chapel dedicated to St
Flannan, from whom the ifles derive their name. Thi¬
ther the fowlers repairing, ftrip themfelves of their up¬
per garments, which being laid upon a ftone, they ad¬
vance towards the altar, and repeat three prayers 3 aft
exercife which is performed every morning and even¬
ing. They obferve many other fuperftitious cuftoms
during their refidence on thefe rocks; and when they
have landed their boat with their purchafe, return to
the larger iflands. Among the iflands belonging to
the Lewis, we may likewife take notice of the fmall
ifle of Pigmies, fo called, becaufe bones refembling
thofe of human creatures, but of very fmall dimenfions,
have been dug out of the ground.
The ifland of Lewis is divided into the twopariflies
of Barvas and Eye,/ and in each of thefe one minifter
is fettled; but there is a great number of churches
and chapels dedicated to different faints, in the diffe¬
rent ifles which compofe this clufter. All thefe were
fan&uaries before the reformation, but now they are
divefted of that privilege. The people of thefe
iflands are Prefbyterians, with a few Proteftants of the
Englifh communion, and a Hill fmaller number of Ro¬
man Catholics. The Proteftants obferve the feftivals
of Chriftmas, Good Friday, Eafter, and Michaelmas ;
on the laft of which the individuals of both fexes per¬
form an anniverfary cavalcade.
LEWIS, or Loins, the name of feveral kings of
France. See France.
Lewis VII. anno 1137, was the firft who had the
courage to oppofe the encroachments of the popes on
the regal authority : Pope Innocent II. excommuni¬
cated him for appointing an archbiftiop of Bourges ;
but Lewis defended his prerogatives, and put the
pricks to death who had been the authors of the quar¬
rel. In x 147, he put himfelf at the head of an army
of 80,000 men, and marched againft the Saracens, in
the fecond crufade, but was defeated ; and returning
into France by fea, was taken by the Greeks, but
refeued by Roger king of Sicily. His queen Eleo¬
nora accompanied him in this' expedition; and being
fufpedted of infidelity with Saladin, a young Turk,
Lswigv
5
Lewis.
LEW r 16 ] LEW
Lewis divorced her, and (he was married fix weeks
after to Henry duke of Normandy, (Henry II. king
of England). Lewis died in 1180, aged 60.
Lewis IX. anno 1226 (canonized), was one of the
greateft monarchs of France; equally memorable for
his valour and his virtues, but unfortunately mifled
by the fuperftitioh of the times :' he facrificed his own
repofe, and the welfare of his kingdom, to the folly of
•crufading. In 1248, leaving France to the care of
his mother, he embarked for Egypt, attended by his
queen, his three brothers, and the flower of the French
-nobility. At firft his vidteries were rapid: he took
Damietta in 1249 ; but the following year he was
defeated and taken prifoner by the Turks, with all
the nobility in his train, and the greateft part of his
army. The fultan fent to him in prifon, to de¬
mand an exorbitant fum for his ranfom; and his
anfwer being truly noble, deferves to be fecord¬
ed : “ Tell the fultan, that a king of France is not
to be ranfomed with money; I will give the fum re¬
quired for my people, and Damietta for myfelf.” Thefe
terms were accepted, and a peace of ten years enfued.
Upon his return to France, he diminifhed the taxes,
revoked thofe which the cupidity of the financiers had
introduced ; iffued feveral falutary edicts ; founded fe-
veral churches and hofpitals ; and. effectually overturn¬
ed the ecclefiaftical jurifdiCtion of the court of Rome,
by his pragmatic fanCtion in 1269, which eftablfthed
the independency of the Galilean church. Thirteen
years refidence in his capital indemnified his fubjects for
his abfence ; but his pious zeal prevented the enjoy¬
ment of this happinefs : he embarked for the fixth cru-
fade in 1270 ; and died the fame year, at the fiege of
Tunis, aged 55.
Lewis XI. anno 1461. His oppreffions obliged
his fubjects to enter into a league againft him, ftyled
“ I Ague de bltn publiq,” in which his brother the duke
of Ben i and fome of the principal nobility were con-
, cerned : they folicited fuccours from John duke of Cala¬
bria, who joined them with 500 Swifs (the firft intro¬
duction of Swifs foldiers into the French armies.) His
reign was almoft one continued feene of civil war; and
it is computed that 4000 of his fubjeCts were executed
in public and privately, either for being in arms againft
him, or fufpeCted by him. In his laft illnefs, .he
drank the 'warm blood of children, in the vain hope
of reftoring his decayed ftrength. He died in 1483,
aged 60. The polls for letters were eftablilhed in his
reign, owing to his eagernefs for news; the firft in-
ftitution of this nature in Europe.
Lewis XII. anno 1492, ftyled the Juft, and the Fa¬
ther of his people; memorable for his valour in the field,
and his wifdom in the cabinet. A great general; but
unfortunate towards the end of his reign, when he did
not command his troops in perfon: his orders tranf-
mitted from home were mifunderftood, or wilfully dif¬
obeyed ; and he had the mortification, before he died,
to fee the total expulfion of the French from the pof-
feffions he had acquired for them by his perfonal bra¬
very. At 53 years of age, he married the princefs
Mary of England, filler of Henry VIII. and being
of a delicate conftitution, fell a victim (according to
the French hiftorians) to amorous dalliance; for he
died in about two months after his nuptials, in 1515.
Lewis XIII. anno 1610, increafed the military re-
N° 181.
putation of his country, and made confiderable addi- Lewis,
tions to its domains. The beginning of his reign was —v——
occupied in civil wars with his mother and his Pro-
teftant fubjeCts; in which he was excited to continue
by his famous minifter cardinal Richelieu, who attend¬
ed him to the fiege of Rochelle, the bulwark of the
Huguenot party. This place was reduced by famine
to furrender, in 1628, after a fiege of more than a
year. Upon this and other occafions, the king gave
proofs of great perfonal bravery. His attachment to
his ally the, duke de Nevers, who fucceeded to the
duchy of Mantua, but was refufed the inveftiture by
Charles VI. emperor of Germany, involved him in a
war with that prince, the Spaniards, and the duke of
Savoy ; in which Lewis was victorious; and obtained
a treaty of peace, by which the duke of Mantua was
guarantied in the poffeffion of his dominions. In 1635,
a new war broke out between France and Spain, and
the emperor took part with the latter: it lafted 13
years againft the emperor, and 25 againft Spain, with
various fuccefs; and the different armies kept on foot,
in the Low Countries, on the frontiers of France, and
in Italy, in the firft years of this war, paved the way
for the fignal fucceffes of Lewis XIV. the campaigns
of thefe armies being a military fchool of difeipline
and experience for the French officers, befides giving
them a knowledge of the countries which became the
feat of war in the next reign. Lewis XIII. died 1643,
aged 41.
Lewis XIV. le Grand (king at five years of .age),
anno 1643. He was at .firft ftyled Dieu-donne, be-
caufe the French coniidered him as the gift of heaven,
granted to their prayers after the queen had been
barren 22 years. This princefs (Anne of Auftria)
was declared regent by Lewis XIII. and faw herfelf
under a neceffity to continue the war againft Philip IV.
king of Spain, her brother. The duke d’Enguin was
made general of the French armies ; and fo fignal was
the fuccefs of this renowned warrior (afterwards prince
of Conde, and known by the ffyle of the Great Conde),
that his victories brought on the advantageous treaties
of Munfter in 1648, between France, the emperor
Ferdinand III. and Chriftina queen of Sweden : the
balls of the aggrandifement of France in this reign ;
the principal events of which, and of the next,, are re¬
lated under the articles Britain, United PnorwcEs,
&c. Lewis XFV. died in 1715, aged 77.
Lewis XV. (hisgreat-grandfon) fucceeded in 1715.
He was ftyled, in the courfe of his reign, l/ie ’well be¬
loved, which he loft fome years before he died; and was
detefted and defpifed by his fubjedts for his ffiameful
attachment to, a young girl, under the title of his
miftreji, who, by the miniftry of her patron the duke
d’Aiguillon, governed the kingdom, and invaded the
ancient rights and privileges of the people. He died
in 1774, in the 64th year of his age and 59th of his
reign.
LEXINGTON, a town of North America, and
capital of Kentucky. It (lands on the head waters of
Elkhotn river, is reckoned the capital of Kentucky.
Here the courts are held, and bufinefs regularly conr
dudted. In 1786, it contained about 109 houfes and
feveral (lores, with a good affortment of dry goods.
It muft have greatly increafed fince.
LEX, Law. See Law.—-The Roman laws were
of
LEX t i,
'T.eit, of tKrce kinds: ift, Such as were"made by their kings.
“-Y——" zd, The laws of the twelve tables brought by the De¬
cemviri from Athens, &c. And, 3d, Such as were
propofed by the fuperior magiftrates in the times of
the republic. The laws of this laft clafs were enafted
in the following manner.
No law could be propofed but by fome of the fol¬
lowing magiftrates, viz. the Prator, the Ccnfuls, the
DiSaior, the Interrex> the Decemviri, the Military Tri¬
bunes, Triumviri, and Tribunes of" the people. If any
of thefe propofed a law, it was firft committed to wri¬
ting, and privately examined as to its utility and pro¬
bable cfonfequences, by fome perfons well qualified for
the talk ; fbmetimes it was referred to the whole fe-
nate for their fentiments^ It was then hung up pub¬
licly for three market-days, that all the people might
have time to examine it, and confider its tendency:
This was called legis promulgatio, quq/i provulgatio. If
the perfon who framed the bill did not fee caufe in the
mean time to drop it, the people were convened in
cowitia, and he addreffed them in an oration, being alfo
feconded by his friends, fetting forth the expediency
and probable utility of fuch a law: This was called
rogatio legis, becaufe the addrefs was always prefaced
with tliis petitionary form of words, Vclitis jubeatifne,
£)uiritcs? “Will you, O Romans, confent and order this
lav/ to pafs ?” This being done, thofe that difliked
the motion delivered their fentiments in oppofition to
it. An urn was then brought to certain priefts who
attended i/pon the occafion, into which were call the
names of the tribes, centuries, or curia, as the comitia
happened to be tributa, centuriata, or curiata. The
names were ftiaken together; and the firft drawn tribe
or century was called prarogativa, becaufe their fuffra-
ges were firft taken. The curia that was firft drawn
was called principium for the fame reafon. The other
'tribes, centuries, &c. were called tribus jure vocata, cen-
turia jure vocata. See.
Matters being in this fituation, the veto or negative
'voice of the tribunes of the people might put an entire
end to the proceedings, and difiblve the affembly. The
tribune’s interference was called intercejfio. The conful
alfo had it in his power to ftop further proceedings,
by commanding any of the holidays called feria impe-
rativa to be obferved. The comitia would of courfe
be diflblved alfo by any of the perfons prefent being
feized with the falling-ficknefs, or upon the appear¬
ance of any unlucky omen. But fuppofing the bufi-
nefs to meet with no interruption of this fort, the
people were each of them prefented with two tablets,
on one of which was written in large chara&ers A. on
the other U. R. Their difapprobation of the bill was
•exprefled by throwing into an urn the tablet inferibed
A. fignifying “ I forbid itantiquo, “ I prefer the
old.” Their afient was fignified by throwing in the
tablet marked U. R. i. e. uti rogas, “ be it as you de¬
fire.” According to the majority of thefe tablets the
law pafied or not. If it pafied, it was written up¬
on record, and carried into the treafury; this was
called legem ferre. Afterwards it was engraved upon
plates of brafs, and hung up in the moft public and
confpicuous places : this was termed legem Jigere, and a
future repeal of this law was legem refigere.
If a law palled in the comitia curiata, it was called
Vol. X. Parti.
? ] LEY
lex curiata; if in the comitia centuriata, it had the name LemrcM
of lex centuriata ; but if it palled in the comitia tributa, ^
it was termed plebifcitum. The laws, too, generally bore ■ J
th^ names of the propofers, as lex JElia, lex Fvfta, See.
Romulus ufed to make laws by his own fingle au¬
thority, but fucceeding kings fought the approbation
of the people.
LEX-IARCHI, at Athens, fix officers affifted by
30 inferior’ones, whofe bufinefs it was to lay fines up¬
on fuch as came not to the public affemblies, and alfo
to make ferutiny among fuch as were prefent.
The lexiarchi kept a regifter of the age, manners,
and abilities of all the citizens, who were always in-
rolled at the age of 20.
LEXICON, the fame with di&ionary. The word
is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of Greek dictionaries : it is
derived from the Greek 'word', diction ; of uih /
Speak.
LEYDEN, in Latin Lugdunum Balavorum, one of
the largeft and fineft cities in Holland, abounds with
canals, along which are rows of lofty trees that afford
very pleafant walks. An arm or fmall branch of the
Rhine runs through it. Over the canals are 145
bridges, moft of them of Hone or brick. The univer-
fity here is the oldeft in the United Provinces : it has
large privileges ; a library well furnifhed, and particu¬
larly rich in manuferipts ; a phyfic-garden well ftocked
with all forts of plants, many of which have been
brought from the Cape of Good Hope and the Eaft
Indies ; an anatomy-hall, well provided with ikeletons ;
and an obfervatory. The profeffors, who are generally 1
very eminent, read public le&ures four times a week,
for which they take no money, but about three gui¬
neas are paid for a courfe of private lectures, which
lafts a whole year. The ftudents have no diftindt ha-
bit, but all wear fwords, though they generally go to
the public and private ledtures in their night-gowns
and flippers. The falaries of the profeffors are from
xool. to 200I. a-year: they wear gowns only when
they prefide at public difputations, read public lec¬
tures, or meet in the fenate ; and their ledtures are al¬
ways in Latin- The ftudents do not lodge in the
univerfity, but where they pleafe in the town. The
cloth manufadture here is much decayed, which for¬
merly flouriftied to fuch a degree, that 100,000 pieces,
it is faid, have fometimes been made in a year. The
city is famous for the long and fevere fiege it main¬
tained in 1573 again ft the Spaniards. We cannot
help mentioning the reply of that illuftrious magi-
ftrate, Adrian de Verf, when the citizens reprefented
to him the havoc made by the famine during the fiege,
and infifted upon his furrehdering: “ Friends (faid
he), here is my body, divide it among you to fatisfy
your hunger, but banifh all thoughts of furrendering to
the cruel and perfidious Spaniard,” They took his
advice, in regard to their not furrendering, and nevei
would liften to any overtures ; but told the Spaniards,
they would hold out as long as they had one arm to eat
and another to fight. There are fome fine churches here,
and many long, broad, handfome, ftreets ; but the Pa-
pifts, as at Haerlem, are more numerous than the
Proteftants.
Leyden Phial, a phial coated on the infide and eut-
fide with tinfoil, or other proper conducing fubftance,
C and
L H U [ 18 ] LIB
I^yfera and furnifhed with a brafs wire and knob, for giving
. J* , the ekftrical fhock. See Electricity-//^^.
■ Lucas'van Let urn. See Lucas.
LEYSERA, in botany: A genus of the polyga-
mia fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenelia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
49th order, Compqfita. The receptacle is naked ; the
pappus paleaceous; that of the difc plumy ; the calyx
fcarious.
LEYTE, one of the Philippine iflands in the Eaft
Indies, fituated in E. Long. 118. o. N. Lat. 11. o. Its
greateit length is about 40 leagues, and its circumfe¬
rence about 90 or 100. Its foil on the eaft fide is very
fruitful; but there are very high mountains which cut
it almoft through the middle, and occafion fo great an
alteration in the air, that when it is winter on the
north fide, it is fummer on the fouthern part of the
ifland. Thus when the inhabitants of one half of the
ifland reap, the others fo.v; and they have two plen¬
tiful harvefts in a year, to which the rivers running
down from the abovementioned mountains contribute
not a little. The ifland contains about 9000 inhabi¬
tants, who pay tribute to the Spaniards in rice, wax,
and quilts.
LHUYD,or Lhoyd (Humphrey), a learned anti¬
quarian of the 16th century, born at Denbigh, who ap¬
plied himfelf to the ftudy of phyfic; and living moftly
within the walls of Denbigh caftle, pra&ifed there as a
phyfician; and died in 1570, with the character of a well-
bred gentleman. He wrote and tranflated feveral pieces
relative to hiftory and antiquities; in particular, The
hiftory of Cambria, now called Wales, from Caradoc
of Langcarvan, &c. but died before it was finiflied:
however. Sir Henry Sidney, lord prefident of Wales,
employed Dr David Powel to finiih it, who publiflied
it in 1584. Anew and improved edition of this work
was publiflied in 1774*.
Lhuyd (Edward), keeper of the Mufeum at Ox¬
ford, was a native of South Wales, the fon of Charles
Lhuyd, Efq; of Lhanvorde. He was educated at Je-
fus College, Oxford, where he was created M. A.
July 21. 1701. He was bred under Dr Plot,
whom he fucceeded as keeper of the A.flimolean mufe-
um, and had the ufe of all Vaughan’s colleftions. With
inceflant labour and great exaftnefs he employed a confi-
derable part of his life in fearching into the Welfh an¬
tiquities ; had perufed or collected a great deal of anci¬
ent and valuable matter from their MSS.; tranfcribed all
the old'charters of their monafteries that he could meet
with; travelled feveral times over Wales, Cornwall,
Scotland, Ireland, Armoric Bretagne, countries inha¬
bited by the fame people, compared their antiquities, and
made obfervations on the whole ; but died in July 1709,
before hehad digefted them into the form of a difcourfe,
as he intended, on the ancient inhabitants of this ifland.
The untimely death of this excellent antiquary prevented
the completing of many admirable defigns. For want of
proper encouragement, he did very little towards un-
derftanding the Britiih bards, having feen but one of
thofe of the fixth century, and not being able to pro¬
cure accefs to two of the principal libraries in the coun¬
try. He communicated many obfervations to Bifhop
Gibfon, whofe edition of the Britannia he revifed ; and
publiflied “ Archtologia Brit arnica, giving fijme ac¬
count additional to what has been hitherto publiflied Lhuyd
of the languages, hiftories, and cuftoms of the original . 11
inhabitants of Great Britain, from colleilions and ob- Litunusd
fervations in travels through Wales, Cornwall, Bas
Bretagne, Ireland, and Scotland, Vol. I. Gloffogra-
phy, Oxford 1707,” fol. He left in MS. a Scottiflf
or Irifli-Englifh Ditiionary, propofed to be publiflied in
1732 by fubfcription,by Mr David Malcohne,a miniiler
of the church >of Scotland, with additions ; as alfo the
Elements of the faid language ; with neceflary and ure¬
fill informations for propagating more effeftuallyrthe
Englifli language, and for promoting the knovvlege of
the ancient Scottifli or Irifh, and very many branches
of ufeful and curious learning. Lhuyd, at the end of
his preface to the Archaeologia, promifes an hiftorical-
dictionary of Britifli perfons and places mentioned in
ancient records. It feems to have been ready for prefs;.
though he could not fet the time of publication. His
collections for a fecond volume, which was to give an
account of the antiquities, monuments, &c. in the
principality of Wales, were numerous and well chofen ;,
but, on account of a quarrel between him and Dr
Wynne, then fellow, afterwards principal of the college^,
and bifliop of St Afaph, he refufed to buy them, and
they were purchafed by Sir Thomas Seabright, of
Beachwood in Hertfordftiire, in whofe library the
greateft part ftill remain, but fo indigefted, and writ¬
ten with fo many abbreviations, that nobody can un¬
dertake to publifh them. They confift of about 4®
volumes in folio, 10 in quarto, and above xoo fmaller,
and all relate to Irifli or Wellh antiquities, and chief-*
ly in thofe languages. Carte made ext rafts from them,
about or before 1736 ; but thefe were chiefly hiftoricaL
Sir John Seabright has given Mr Pennant 23 of Lhuyd s
MSS. Latin and Englifh. Many of his letters to Li¬
fter, and other learned contemporaries, were given by
Dr Fothergill to the univerfity of Oxford, and are now
in the Aflimolean mufeum. Lhuyd undertook more
for illuftratiag this part of the kingdom than any one
man befides ever did, or than any one man can be equal
to.
L1BANIUS, a famous Greek rhetorician and fo-
phift in the 4th century, was born at Antioch, and.
had a great ftiare in the friendfliip of Julian the A-
poftate. Tliat prince offered him. the dignity of Pr,t~
feBus Pretoria ; but Libanius refufed it, thinking the
name of fapbift, or profejfor of eloquence, much more,
honourable. There are ftill extant feveral of his let¬
ters and Greek orations, by which he acquired great
reputation ; but his ftyle is fbmewhat affefted and ob-
feure. He was a pagan. Bal’d and’ Chryfoftom were
his difciples. about the year 360. His letters were
publilbed at Amfterdam in 1738 ; his orations at Ve¬
nice, 1755.
LIBANOMANTIA, in antiquity, a fpec'es of
divination performed with frankincenfe ; which, if it.
prefently caught fire, and fent forth a grateful odour,
was efteemed a happy omen,, and vice verfa.
LIBAN-US, the name of a chain of mountains of
Turkey in Alia, which lie between Proper Syria and
Paleftine, extending, from weft to eaft, from the Me¬
diterranean fea as far as Arabia. The fummits of
thefe mountains are fo high, that they are always co¬
vered with fnow : but below are very pleafant, and
fruitful
LIB [ 19 I LIB
^Liltatlon fruitful valleys. They were formerly famous for the
11 great number of cedar-trees growing thereon; but
l4bel. now are very few remaining. Geographers di-
ftinguifh this chain into Libanus and Antilibanus;
the latter of which lies on the fouth fide of the valley>
riling netlr the ruins of Sidon, and terminates at o-
thers in Arabia, in N. Lat. 34. They are feparated
from each other at an equal diftance throughout;
•and form a bafon, or country, called by the ancients
Calo Syria.
LIBATION, amongft the Greeks and Romans, was
’nn effential part of folemn facrifices. It was alfo per¬
formed alone, as a drink offering, by way of procuring
the protection and favour of the gods, in the ordinary
affairs of life. Libations, according to the different
natures of the gods in honour of whom they were
made, confifled of different liquids, but wine was the
moft ufual. The wine offered to the gods was al¬
ways unmixed with water. We meet with libations
of water, libations of honey, libations of milk, 6nd
libations of oil; thefe are called IiPi*. The li¬
bation was made with a ferious deportment and folemn
prayer. At facrifices, the libation, after it had been
tailed by the prieft, and handed to the byllanders,
was poured upon the vidlim. At entertainments, a
little wine was generally poured out of the cup, be¬
fore the liquor began to circulate, to fhow their gra¬
titude to the gods for the bleffings they enjoyed.
Libations were alfo in ufe among the Hebrews,
who poured an hin of wine on the vidtim after it was
drilled, and the feveral pieces of the facrifice were laid
on the altar, ready to be confumed in the flames.
LIBAW, afea-port town of Courland,Jying on the
Baltic fea, confifling entirely of wooden houfes. It
belongs to the duke of Courland, and is fituated in E.
-Long. 21. 27. N. Lat. 56. 27.
LIBEL, (libAlus famojus), taken in its largeft and
moll extenfive fenfe, fignifies any writing, picture, or
the like, of an immoral or illegal tendency ; but, in
n peculiar fenfe, Is ufed to denote a malicious defama¬
tion of any perfbn, and efpecially a magiftrate, made
public by either printing, writing, figns or pictures,
in order to provoke him to wrath, or expofe him to
public hatred, contempt, and ridicule. The direCt
tendency of thefe libels is the breach of the public
peace, by llirring up the objeCts of them to revenge,
and perhaps to bloodfhed. The communication of a
libel to any one perfon is a publication in the eye of
the law : and therefore the fending an abufive private
letter to a man is as much a libel as if it were openly
printed, for it equally tends to a breach of the peace.
With regard to libels in general, there are, as in
many other cafes, two remedies ; one by indiftment,
and another by aCiion. Tl)e former for the public of¬
fence ; for every libel has a tendency to break the
peace, or provoke others to break it: which offence
is the fame whether the matter contained be true or
falfe; and therefore the defendant, on an indiClment
for publishing a libel, is not allowed to allege the truth
of it by way of jollification. But in the remedy by
action on the cafe, which Is to repair the party in da¬
mages for the injury done him, the defendant may, as
for words fpoken, juilify the truth of the fads, and
ihow that the p'aintiff has received no injury at all.
What was faid with'regard to words fpoken, will alfo
hold in every particular with regard to libels by wri- Libella.
ting or printing, and the civil adions confequentw--v~~
thereupon : but as to figns or. pidures, it feems necef-
fary always to (how, by proper innuendos and aver¬
ments of the defendant’s meaning, the import and ap¬
plication of the fcandal, and that fome fpecial damage
has followed ; otherwife it cannot appear, that fiich li¬
bel by pidure was underftood to be levelled at the
plaintiff, or that it was attended with any adionablc
confequences.
In a civil adion, then, a libel mull appear to be
falfe, as well as fcandalous ; for, if the charge be
true, thfe plaintiff has received no private injury, and
has no ground to demand a compenfation for him-
felf, whatever offence it may be againll the public
peace: and therefore, upon a civil adion, the truth
of the accufation may be pleaded in bar of the fuit.
But, in a criminal profecution, the tendency which
all libels have to create anjgiofities, and to dilturb the
public peace, is the foie confideration of the law.
And therefore, in fuch profeeutions, the only points
to be confidered are, firlt, the making or publifhing
of the book or writing; and, fecondly, whether the
matter be criminal: and, if both thefe points are a-
gainfl the defendant, the offence againll the public is
complete. The punilhment of fuch libellers, for either
making, repeating, printing, or publilhing the libel,
is a fine, and fuch corporal punilhment as the court in
-its diferetiqn lhall inflid ; regarding the quantity of
the offence, and the quality of the offender. By the
law of the twelve tables at Rome, libels, which affec¬
ted the reputation of another, were made a capital of¬
fence : but, before the reign of Auguftus, the punifli-
ment became corporal only. Under the emperor Va-
lentinian it was again made capital, not only to write,
but to publilh, or even to omit dellroying them.
Our law, in this and many other refpeds, correfponds
rather with the middle age of Roman jurifprudence,
when liberty, learning, and humanity, were in their
full vigour, than with the cruel edids that were elta-
blifhed in the dark and tyrannical ages of the ancient
decemviri, or the latter emperors.
In this, and other inllances, where blafphemous,
immoral, treafonahle, fchifmatical, feditious, or fcan¬
dalous libels are punifhed by the Englifli law, fome
with a greater, others with a lefs degree of feverity ;
the liberty of the prefs, properly underftood, is by no
means infringed or violated. See Liberty of the
Prefs.
LIBELLA, a piece of money amongft the Ro¬
mans, being the tenth part of tho denarius, and equal
in value to the as. It was called HMIa, as.being a
little pound, becaufe equal to a pound of brafs. ■ - Its
value in our money is I ob. 1 qu. or a half-penny far¬
thing. See Money.
Li bella, or Libel!ula, in zoology, a genus
of four-winged flies, called in Englifh dragonflies^
or adder flies ; the charaders of which are thefe.: The
mouth is furniflied with jaws: the feelers are (hort-
er than the breaft ; and the tail of the male ter- p.
minates in a kind of hooked forceps. There are 21 cctxxiyv
fpecies, chiefly dillinguiflied by their colour. They
have all two very large and reticulated eyes, covering
the whole furface of the head. They fly very fwiftly;
and pyey upon the wing, clearing the air of inmimer-
C 2 able
LIB [
Ivbel!-', able little flies. They are found in Augufl and Sep-
« {"lber- i tember in our fields and' gardens, efpecially near places
v where there are waters, as they have their origin from
worms living in that element. The great ones ufually
live all their time about waters; but the' fmaller are
common among hedges, and the fmalleft of all fre¬
quent gardens. The fmaller kind often fettle upon
bufhes, or upon the ground; but the large ones are
almoft always upon the wing, fo that it is very diffi¬
cult to take them. Their eyes are beautiful objects
for the microfcope. The largeft fpecies is produced
from a water-worm that has fix feet, which, yet
young and very fmall, is transformed into a chryfalis,
Sari t' t^at 138 'ts dweMing water. People have thought
In/i&i they difcovered them to have gills like fiffies. It wears
a mafic as perfectly formed as thofe that are worn at a
mafquerade; and this mafic, faftened to the infect’s
neck, and which it moves at will, ferves it to hold
its prey while it devours it. The period of trans-
iormation being come, the chryfalis makes to the
water-fide, undertakes a voyage in fearch of a conve-
nient place; fixes on a plant, or (ticks fad to a bit of
dry wood. Its flcin, grown parched, fplits at the up¬
per part of the thorax. The winged infedt iffues forth
gradually, throws off its (lough, expands its wings,
flutters, and then flies off with gracefulnefs and eafe.
The elegance of its flender (hape, the richnefs of its
colours, the delicacy and refplendent texture, of its
wings, afford infinite delight to the beholder. The
fexual parts of the libellulse are differently fituated in
the male and female. It is under the body at the
joining of the thorax, that thofe parts are difcovered in
the males: thofe of the "females are known by a (lit
placed at the extremity of the body. Their-amours
conclude in a rape.' The male, while hovering about,
watches, and then feizes the female by the head with
the pincers with which the extremity of his tail is arm¬
ed. The raviftier travels thus through the air, till the
female yielding to fuperior ftrength, or rather to incli¬
nation, forms her body into a circle that terminates at
the genitals of the male, in order to accomplifli the
purpofe of nature. Thefe kind of rapes are common.
Libellulae are feen thus coupled in the air, exhibiting
the form of a ring. The female depofits her eggs in the
water, from whence fpring water-worms, which after¬
wards undergo the fame transformations.
LIBELLI, was the name given to the bills which
were put up amongft the Romans, giving notice of the
time when a (how of gladiators would be exhibited,
with the number of combatants, and other circum-
ftances. This was called munus pronunciare orproponcre.
—Thefe bills were fometimes termed edifia. Thefe pu¬
blic notices were given by the perfon who deligned to
oblige the people with the (how, and were frequently
attended with pictures reprefenting the engagement of.
fome celebrated gladiators. This cuftom is alluded to
by Horace, lib. ii. fat. vii. v. 96, &c.
There was alfo the famofus libellus, a defamatory li¬
bel. Seneca calls them contumeliofi libelli, infamous
rhymes, which by a Roman ordinance were pun!(liable
with death. Libellus alfo in the civil law fignifies the
declaration, or (late of the profecutor’ charge againil
_jhe defendant; and it has the like fignification in our
fpiritual courts;
LIBER, in vegetables, the bark or rind, princi-
20 ] LIB
pally of trees. This is to be conceived asconfifting of a Libera
number of cylindric and concentrip furfaces whofe tex- il
ture is reticular, and in fome trees plainly extrulxble Libertines,
every way, by reafon that the fibres are foft and flex-
ible. While in this condition, they are either hollow
regular canals, or, if not fo, they have interftitial fpa- -
ces which ferve the office of canals. The nutritious"
juice which they are continually receiving, remains in
part in them; makes them grow in length and thick-
nefs, and (Lengthens and brings them clofer together;:
and by this means the texture which was before reticu¬
lar becomes an affemblage of ftraight fibres ranged ver¬
tically and parallel to each other; that is, as they are
thus altered behind one another, they by degrees be¬
come a new fubftance, more woody, called blea.
LIBERA, in mythology, the name of a goddefs,
which Cicero, in his book Of the Gods, reprefents as
the daughter of Jupiter and Ceres. Ovid in his Fafti
fays that -the name was given by Bacchus to Ariadne.
Libera is exhibited on medals as a kind of female
Bacchus, crowned with vine leaves.
LIBERAL arts, are fuch as depend more on the
labour of the mind than on that of the hands; or, that
confift more in fpeculation than Operation ; and have
a greater regard to amufement and curiofity than to ne-
ceffity.
The word comes from the Latin liberalis, which a-
mong the Romans/ fignified a perfon who was not a
Have ; and whofe will, of confequence, was not check¬
ed by the command of any mailer.
Such are grammar, rhetoric, painting, fculpture,
architecture, mufic, &c. The liberal arts ufed for¬
merly to be fummed up in the following Latin verfe :
Lingua, Tropu's, Ratiot Numerus, Tonus, Angulus, AJlra.
And the mechanical arts, which, however, are innu¬
merable, under this :
Rus, Nemus, Arma, Faber, Vulnera, Lana, Rates..
See Arts.
LIBERALIA, feafts celebrated by the ancient
Romans, in honour of Liber or Bacchus, the fame
with thofe which the Greeks called Dion y si a, and
Dionyjiaca
They took their name from liber, i. e. free, a title
conferred on Bacchus in memory of the liberty or
freedom which he granted to the people of Bceotia;
or, perhaps, becaufe wine, whereof he was the repu¬
ted diety, delivers men from care, and fets their mind
at eafe and freedom. Varro derives the name of this
feaft irovn. liber, confidered as a noun adjective, and fig-
nifying free; becaufe the prieffs were free from their,
function, and eafed of all care, during the time of the
liberalia : as the old women officiated in the ceremonies
and facrifices of thefe feafts.
LIBERIA, in Roman antiquity, a feftival obferved,
on the 16th of the kalends of April, at which time the
youth laid afide their juvenile habit for the toga virilis,.
or habit peculiar to grown men. See the article
Tocji.
LIBERTINES, Libertini, in ecclefiaftical hifto-
ry, a religious left, which arofe in the year 1525,
whofe principal tenets were, that the Deity was the foie
operating caufe in the mind of man, and the immedi¬
ate author of all human aftions; that, confequently, the
diftinftions of good and evil, which had been eftabliftied.
with regard to thofe actions, were.falfe and groundlefs.
L I 23
c
I.ibertincs, and that men could not, properly fpeaking, commit
^ Liberals. fin . that religion confifted in the union of the fpirit or
j'"'1 * _ 1 * rational foul with the 'Supreme Being; - that all thofe
who had attained this happy union, by fublime con¬
templation and elevation of mind, were then allowed
to indulge, without exception or reftraint, their appe¬
tites or paffions; that all their actions and purfuits were
then perfectly innocent; and that, after the death of
the body, they were to be united to the Deity. They
likewife faid that JefusChrift was nothing but a mere
je ne fcai quoi, compofed of the fpirit of God, arid of the
opinion of men.
Thefe maxims occafioned their being called Liber¬
tines ; and the word has been ufedin an ill fenfe ever
frnce.
The Libertini fpread principally in Holland and Bra¬
bant. Their leaders were one Quintin, a Picard, Poc-
kefius, Ruffus, and another called Chopin, who jdined
with Quintin, and became his difciple.
This fe£t obtained a certain footing in FraricCthro’
the favour and protection of Margaret, queen of Na¬
varre, and lifter to Francis I. and found patrons in fe-
veral of the reformed churches. This fe& was pro¬
bably a remnant of the more ancient Beguards or
Brethren of the Free Spirit.
Libertines of Geneva, were a cabal of rakes rather
than of fanatics; for they made no pretences to any
religious fyftem, but pleaded only for the liberty of
leading voluptuous and immoral lives. This cabal was
compofed of a certain number of licentious citizens,
who could not bear the fevere difeipline of Calvin, who
punilhed with rigour not only dilfolute manners, but
alfo whatever bore the afperit of irreligion and impiety.
In this turbulent cabal there were feveral perfons who
were not only notorious for their diffolute and fcanda-
lous manner of living, but alfo for their atheiftical im¬
piety, and contempt of all religion. To this odious
,clafs belonged one Gruet, who denied the divinity of
the Chriftian religion, the immortality of the1 foul, the
difference between moral good and evil, and rejected
with' difdain the doctrines that arc held moft facred
among Chriftians; for which impieties he was at laft
brought before the civil tribunal, in the year 1550, and
condemned to death. The Genevan fpirit of reforma¬
tion, improperly directed by the violence and zeal of
Calvin, did at this time operate to a degree which has
marked the chara&er of this great reformer with re¬
proach. For in 1544, Sebaftian Caftalio, mafter of
the public fchool at Geneva, who was a man of probity,
and diftinguiftied by his learning and tafte, was, never-
thelefs, depofed from his office and baniftied the city,
becaufe he diiapproved fome of the menfures that were
purfued and fome of the opinions entertained by Calvin
and his colleagues,, and particularly that of abfolute
and unconditional predeftination. Jerome Bolfec alfo,
a man of genius and learning, who became a convert
to the Proteftant religion and fled to Geneva for pro-
teftion, was caft into prifon, and foon after fent into
banifhment, becaufe, in 1551, he imprudently and in¬
decently declaimed, in full congregation and at the clofe
of public worfhip, againft the doritrine of abfolute de¬
crees.
LIBERTUS, or Libertinus, among the Romans,
a freedman, or a gerfon fet free from a legal fervi-
iude.
i ] LIB
Thefe ftill retained fortte mark of their ancient ilate : LiBterlyi
he who made a flave free having a right of patronage ——v~“
bver the lHer tvs; fo that if the latter failed of fhow-
ing due refpeft to bis patron, he was reftored to his
fervitude ; and if the libertus died without children,,
his patron was his heir. See Slave,
In tile beginning of the republic, libertinus denoted
the fon of a libertus or freedm^n ; but afterwards, be¬
fore the time of Cicero, and under the emperors, the
terms libertus and libertir.us, as Suetonius has remarked,
were ufed as fynonymous.
LIBERTY, denotes a ftate of freedom, in contra-
diftinCtion to Jlavery or rejlraint; and may be con-
fidered as either natural or civil.
The abfolute rights of man, confidered as a free
agent, endowed with difeernment to know good from
evil, and with power of choofing tl\ofe meafures which
appear to him to be moft defirable, are ufually fum- -
med up in one general appellation, and denominated’
the natural liberty of mankind'. This natural liberty
conlifts properly in a power of afting as one thinks,
fit, without any reftraint or controul, unlefs by the
law of nature ; being a right inherent in us by birth,
and one of the gifts of God to man at his creation y
when he endued him with the faculty of free-will.
But every man, when he enters into fociety, gives up,
a part of his natural liberty, as the price of fo va¬
luable a purchafe ; and, in confideration of receiving
the advantages of mutual commerce, oblige's himfelf
to conform to thofe laws which the community has
thought proper to eftablilh. And this fpecies of le¬
gal obedience and conformity is infinitely more defire-
able than that wild and favage liberty which is facri-
ficed to obtain it. For no man, that confiders a mo¬
ment, would wifh to retain the abfolute and uncon-
trouled power of doing whatever he pleafes : the con-
fequence of which is, that every other man would alfo-
have the fame power; and then there would be no
fecurity to individuals in any of the enjoyments of-
life.
Political, therefore, or civil, liberty, which is that
of a member of fociety, is no other than natural li¬
berty, fo far reftrained by human laws (and .no farther)
as is neceffary and expedient for the general advantage
of the public. Hence we may colled:, that the law,
which reftrains a man from doing mifehief to his fel¬
low citizens, though it diminilhes the natural, in-
creafes the civil liberty of mankind: but every wan¬
ton and caufelefs reftraint of the will of the fubjed,.
whether pradifed by a monarch, a nobility, or a po¬
pular affembly, is a degree of tyranny. Nay, that
even laws themfelves,. whether made with or without
our confent, if they regulate and conftrain our condud
in matters of mere indifference, without any good end.
in view, are laws deftrudivc of liberty: whereas, if
any public advantage can arife from obferving fuch.
precepts, the controul of our private inclinations, in ,
one or two particular points, will conduce to preferve
our general freedom in others of more importance,
by fupporting that ftate of fociety which alone can
fecure our independence. Thus the ftatute of king
Edward IV. which forbad the fine gentlemen of thofe
times (under the degree of a lord) to wear pikes upon
their Ihoes or boots of more than two inches in length,
was a law that favoured of oppreffion; becaufe, how-
j&laclft.
yCsmment*
t I B l 12 ! LIB
• ever ridiculous the fafhion then In ufe might appear, be as conllantly denounced againft all thofe t’uat by loflierty.
~ the reftralning it by pecuniary penalties could ferve word, deed, or counfel, aft contrary thereto, or in any ' v—^
no purpofe of common utility. But the ftatute of degree infringe it. Next by a multitude of fublequent
King Charles II. which preferibes a thing feemingly corroborating ftatutes (Sir Edward Coke reckons 32),
as indifferent, viz. a drefs for the dead, who were all from the firft Edward to Henry IV. Then, after a
-ordered to be buried in woollen, is a law confiftent long intervalj'by the petition of right; which was a par-
with public liberty; for it encourages the flaple trade, liamentary declaration of the liberties of the people,
on which in great meafure depends the univtrfal good affented to by King Charles I. in the beginning of his
of the nation. So that laws, when prudently framed, reign. Which was olofely followed by the ftill more
are by no means fubverfive, but rather introduftive, of ample -Conceflions made by that unhappy prince to his
liberty; for (as Mr Locke has well obferved) where parliament, before the fatal rupture between them ;
there is no law there is no freedom. But then, on and by the many falutary laws, particulary the habeas
the other hand, that conflitution or frame of govern- corpus aft, puffed under Charles II. To thefe fucceed-
ment, that fyftem of laws, is alone calculated to main- ed tlye bill of rights, or declaration delivered by the lords
tain civil liberty, which leaves the fubjeft entire ma- and commons to the prince and princefs of Orange,
Iter of his own conduft, except in thofe points where- 13 th February 1688 ; and afterwards enafted in par-
in the public good requires feme direction or reftraipt. diament, when they became king and queen: which de-
The idea and praftice of this political or civil li- claration concludes in thefe remarkable words ; “ and
berty flourifh in their highefl vigour in thefe king- they do claim, demand, and infift upon, all and fingu-
xloms, where it falls little fhort of perfection, and can far the premifes, as their undoubted rights and liber-
-only be loft or deftroyed by the folly or demerits of ties.’* And the aft of parliament itfelf recognifes “all
its owner; the legiflature, and of courfe the laws of and lingular the rights and liberties afferted andclaim-
Britain, being peculiarly adapted to the prefervation ed in the faid declaration to be the true, ancient, and
of this ineftimable bleffmg even in the meaneft fubjeft. indubitable rights of the people of this kingdom.”
Very different from the modern conftitutions of other Laftly, thefe liberties were again afferted at the com-
hates on the continent of Europe, and from the genius mencement of the prefent century, in the a£t of fettle*
of the imperial law; which in general are calculated merit, whereby the crown was limited to his prefent
to veft an arbitrary and defpolic power, of controul- majefty’s ilhittrious houfe: and fome new proviiions
ing the aftions of the fubjeft, in the prince, or in a were added, at the fame fortunate era, for better fecu-
few grandees. And this ipirit of liberty is fo deeply ring our religion, laws, and liberties ; which the fla-
implanted in our conflitution, and rooted even in our tute declares to be “ the birthright of the people of
very foil, that a Have or a negro, the moment be lands England,” according to the ancient doctrine of the
in Britain, falls under the proteftion of the laws, and common law.
fo far becomes a freeman; though the mailer’s right Thus much for the declaration of our rights and li-
to his fervice may pofhbly Hill continue. berties. The rights themfelves, thus defined by thefe
The abfolute rights of every Briton (which, taken feveral flatutes, confifl in a number of private immu-
in a political and extenfive fenfe, are ufually called nities; which will appear, from what has been pre-
their liberties), as they are founded on nature and rea- mifed, to be indeed no other, than either that reft*
fon, fo they are coeval with our form of government; duum of natural liberty, which is not required by the
though fubjeft at times to fluftuate and change, their laws of fociety to be facrificed to public convenience ;
-cflablifhment (excellent as it is) being flill human, or elfe thofe civil privileges, which fociety hath enga-
At fome times we have feen them deprefled by over- ged to provide, in lieu of the natural liberties fo given
bearing and tyrannical princes; at others, fo luxuriant up by individuals. Thefe therefore were formerly, ei-
as even to tend to anarchy, a worfe Hate than tyranny ther by inheritance or purchafe, the rights of all man-
itfelf, as any government is better than none at all. kind; but, in moll other countries of the world, being
But the vigour of our free conflitution has always de- now more or lefs debafed and deflroyed, they at pre-
livered the nation from thefe embarraffments: and, as fent may be faid to remain, in a peculiar and empha-
foon as the convulfions confequeni on the llruggle have tical manner, the rights of the people of Britain. And
been over, the balance of our rights and liberties has thefe may be reduced to three principal or primary ar-
ie' tied to its proper level; and their fundamental ar- tides ; the right of perfonal fecurity, the right of per-
tides have been from time to time afferted in parlia- fonal liberty, and the right of private property : be-
ment, as often as they were thought to be in danger: caufe, as there is no other known method of compul-
Firil, by the great charter of liberties, which was iion, or of abridging man’s natural free-will, but by
obtained, fword in hand, from King John, and after- an infringement or diminution of one or other of thefe
wards, with fome alterations, -confirmed in parliament important rights, the prefervation of thefe inviolate
by King Henry HI. his fon. Which charter contain- may juflly be faid to include the prefervation of our
ed very few new grants; but, as Sir Edward Coke ob- civil immunities in their largetl and moll extenfive fenfe.
ferves, was for the moll part declaratory of the prin- See the article Rights.
cipal grounds of the fundamental laws of England. In vain, however, would thefe rights be declared.
Afterwards, by the llatute called confrmatio cartamm, afeertained, and protefted by the dead letter of the
whereby the great charter is direfted to be allowed as laws, if the conflitution had provided no other me-
the common law; all judgments contrary to it are de- thod to fecure their aftual enjoyment. It has there-
dared void ; copies of it are ordered to be fent to all fore eflablifhed certain Other auxiliary fubordinate rights
.cathedral churches, and read twice a-year to the pco- of the fubjeft, which ferve principally as barriers to
pie ; and fentence of excommunication is d!refted to proteft and maintain inviolate the three great and- pri¬
mary
L I B [ 23 ] LIB
l^ibcty. marjr rights, of perfanal iecurity, perfonal liberty, and
private property. Thefe are,
1. The conflitution, powers, and privileges of par¬
liament ; for which fee Parliament.
2. The limitation of the king's prerogative, by
bounds fo certain and notorious, that it is impoffible
he fhould exceed them without the confent of the peo¬
ple ; as to which, fee Prerogative. The former of
thefe keeps the legiflative power in due health and vi¬
gour, fo as to make it improbable that laws fhould
be ena&ed deftructive of general liberty : the latter is
a guard upon the executive power, by reliraining it
from acfting either beyond or in contradiction to the
laws that are framed and eltabliflied by the other.
3. A third fubordinate right of every Briton is that
of applying to the courts of jultice for redrefs of in¬
juries. Since the law is, in this realm, the fupreme
arbiter of every man’s life, liberty, and property,
courts of juftice mult at all times be open to the fub-
ject, and the law be duly adminiftered therein. Th«
emphatical words of rrwgna carta, fpoken in the perfon
of the king, who in judgment of law (fays Sir Edward
Goke) is ever prefent and repeating them in all his
courts, are thefe : Nulli vendemus, nulli negabimus, aut
differ emus redum vel juffitiam ; “ and therefore every
fubjecft (continues the fame learned author), for injury
done to him in bonis, in terris, velperfona, by any other
fubjeft, be he ecclefiaflical or temporal, without any
exception, may take his remedy by the courfe of the
law, and have juitice and right for the injury done to
him, freely without fale, fully without any denial, and
Jpeedily without delay.” It were endlefsto enumerate
all the affu native abts of parliament, wherein jullice is
dire tied to be done according to the law of the land s
and what that law is, every fubjeft knows ; or may
know' if he pleafes : for it depends not upon the arbi¬
trary wdll of any judge ; but is permanent, fixed, and
unchangeable, unlefs by authority of parliament. We
{hall however juft mention a few negative ftatutes,
whereby abides, perverfions, or delays of juftice, efpe-
eially by the prerogative, are. reftrained. It is ordain¬
ed by magna carta, that no freeman ihall be outlawed,
that is, put out of the protection and benefit of the
laws, but according to the law of the land. By 2
Edw\ III. c. 8. and 11 Ric. II. c. 10. it is enacted,
that no commands or letters fhall be fent under the
great feal, or the little feal, the fignet or privy feal,
in difturbance of the law ^ or to difturb or delay
common right : and, though fuch commandments
fhould come, the judges Ihall not ceafe to do right:
which is alfo made a part of their oath by ftatute-
j8 Edw'. III. ft. 4. And by 1 W. & M. ft. 2. c. 2.
it. is declared, that the pretended power of fufpending
or difpenfing with laws, or the'execution of laws, by
regal authority without confent of parliament, is il¬
legal.
Not only the fubftantial part, or judicial decifions,
of the law, but alfo the formal part, or method of
proceeding, cannot be altered but by parliament: for,
if once thofe outworks wrere demolifhed, there w'ould
be an inlet to all manner of innovation in the body of
the law itfelf. The king, it is true, may eredt new
courts of juftice; but then they muft proceed accord¬
ing to the old eftabliftied forms of the common law-.
For which-reafon it is declared, in the llatute 16 Car. I,
c. I o. upon the diflblution of the court of ftar-cliamber. Liberty,
that neither his majefty, nor his privy-council, have
any jurifdi&ion, pow'er, or authority, by Englifh bill,
petition, articles, libel fryhich were the courfe of pro-
ceeding in the ftar-chember, borrowed from the civil
law), or by any other arbitrary way whatfoever, to ex¬
amine, or draw into queftion, determine, or difpofe
of the lands or goods of any fubjefts of this king¬
dom ; but that the fame ought to be tried and deter¬
mined in the ordinary courts of juftice, and by courfe
of law.
4. If there fiiould happen any uncommon injury, or
infringement of the rights before mentioned, which
the ordinary courfe of law is too defeftive to reach,
there ftill remains a fourth fubordinate right, apper¬
taining to every individual, namely, the right of peti¬
tioning the king, or either houfe of parliament, for
the redrefs of grievances. In •Ruflia we are told, that
the Czar Peter eftablifhed a law, that no fubjedl might
petition the throne till he had firft petitioned two
different minifters of ftate. In cafe he obtained juftice
from neither, he might then prefent a third petition
to the prince ; but upon pain of death, if found to be-
in the wrong. The confequence of which was, that-
no one dared to offer fuch third petition ; and grie¬
vances feldom falling under the notice of the fovereigiv
he had little opportunity to redrefs them. The re-
ftrittions, for fome there are, which are laid upon pe¬
titioning in Britain, are of a nature extremely different $
and while they promote the fpirit of peace, they are.
no check upon that of liberty. Care only muft be
taken, left, under the pretence of petitioning, the fub-
ject be guilty of any riot or tumult; as happened in
the opening of the memorable parliament in 1640:
and, to prevent this, it is provided by the ftatute 13 -
Car. II. ft. 1. c. 5. that no petition to the king, or
either houfe of parliament, for any alteration in church
or ftate, Ihall be figned by above 20 perfons, unlefs
the matter thereof be approved by three juftices of the
peace, or the major part of the grand jury, in the
country; and in London, by the lord mayor, aider-
men, and common-council: nor Ihall any petition be
prefented by more than 10 perfons at a time. But,
under thefe regulations, it is declared by the ftatute
1 W. & M. ft. 2. c. 2. that the fubjeft hath a right
to petition; and that all commitments and profecutions
for fuch petitioning are illegal.
5. The fifth and laft auxiliary right of the fubjeft, .
that we (hall at prefent mention, is that of having arms
for their defence, fuitable to their condition and^de¬
gree, and fuch as are allowed by. law. Which is alfo
declared by the fame ftatute 1 W. & M. ft. 2. c. 2.
and is indeed a public allowance, under due reftric- •
lions, of the natural right of refiftance- and felf-pre-
fervation, when the. funftioqs of fociety and laws
are found infufficient to reftrain the violence of op—
preffion.
In thefe feveral articles- confift. the rights, or, as
they are frequently termed, the liberties of Britons : li¬
berties more generally talked of, than thoroughly un-
derftood ; and yet highly neceffary to be perfectly
known and confidered by every man of rank or pro--
perty, left his ignorance of the points whereon they
are founded ftiould hurry him into faction and been-
tioufaefs on the one hand, or a pufiliammous indiffe-
LIB T 24 ] LIB
Libert;-, rente and criminal fubmifiion on the other. And \ve ment to revive It, in the fubfequent part of that reigfi hiberty,
—' have feen that thefe rights confift, primarily, iin tire (Com. Journ. 11 Feb. 1694. 2(5 Nov. 1695. 22 Ott. , 1
free enjoyment of perfonal'fecarity, of perfonal liber- 1696. 9 Feb. 1697. 31 Jan. 1698.) yet the parliament * * IJf
ty, and of private property. So long as thefe remain refilled it fo ftrongly, that it finally expired, and the
inviolate, the fubjett is perfe&ly free ; for yvery fpe- prefs became properly free in 1694, and has continued
-ties of compulfive tyranny and oppreffion mull aft in ioeverfince.
oppofition to one or other of thefe rights, having no The liberty of the prefs, however, fo elfential to
other objeft upon which it can poffibly be-employed, the nature of a free Hate, confifts not in freedom from
To preferve thefe from violation, it is necelfary that. cenfure for any criminal matter that may be publilhed,
•the conftitution of parliaments be fupported in its full but in laying no previous rellraints upon publications,
vigour; and limits, certainly known, be fet to the royal Every freeman has undoubtedly a right to lay what
'prerogative. And, laftly, to vindicate thefe rights, fentiments he pleafes before the public; to forbid this,
'when actually violated or attacked, the fubjefts of Eri- is to deftroy the freedom of the prefs: but' if he pub-
, tain are intitled, in the fir’ll place, to the regular ad- lilhes what is improper, mifchievous, or illegal, he mull
miniftration and free courfe of juftice in the courts of take the confequence of his own temerity f. To fub- f See L/ir/. ?
law ; next, to, the right of petitioning the king and jedt the prefs to -the rellriClive power of a licenfer in
parliament for redrefs of grievances ; and, laltly, to the the manner above mentioned, is to fubjedl all freedom
right of having and uiing arms for felf preiervation of fentiment to the prejudices of one man, and make
and defence. And all thefe rights and liberties it is him the arbitrary and infallible judge of all controverted
■our birthright to enjoy entire ; unlefs where the laws points in learning, religion, and government. But to
of our country have laid them under neceffary rellraints. punifh (as the law does at prefent) any dangerous or
Rellraints in themfelves fo gentle and moderate, as offenfive writings which, when publilhed, lhall, on a
will appear upon farther inquiry, that no mart of fenfe fair and impartial trial, be adjudged of a pernicious
•or probity would wilh to fee them llackened. For all tendency, is necelfary for the prefervation of peace and
of us have it in our choice to do every thing that a good order, of government and religion, the only folid
-good man would defire to do ; and are rdlrained from foundations of civil liberty. Thus the will of indivi-
nothing, but what would be pernicious either to our- duals is Hill left free ; the abufe only of'that free-will
felves or our fellow-citizens. So that this review of is the objeft of legal punilhment. Neither is any re¬
cur fituation may fully juilify the obfervation of a ftraint hereby laid upon freedom of thought or inquiry;
learned French author, who indeed generally both liberty of private fentiment is ftill left; the diifemina-
thought and wrote in the fpirit of genuine freedom; ting or making public of bad fentiments, deftrudlive
and who hath - not fcrupled to profefs, even in the of the ends of fociety, is the crime which fociety cor-
very bofom of his native country, that the Britifh is redls. A man (fays a fine writer on this fubjedl) may
the only nation in the world, where political or civil be allowed to keep poifons in his clofet, but not pub-
liberty is the diredl end of its conftitution. Recom- licly to vend them as cordials. And to this we may
mending therefore to the Undent in our laws a far- add, that the only plaufible argument heretofore ufed
ther and more accurate fearch into this extenfive and for reftraining the juft freedom of the prefs, “ that it
important title, we lhall clofe our rerparks upon it with was neceffary to prevent the daily abufe of it,” will
the expiring wilh of the famous Father Paul to his entirely lofe its force, when it is Ihown (by a feafonable
country, “ Esto perpetua !” exertion of the laws) that the prefs cannot be abufed to
IjMertt and Necejfily. See Metaphysics. any bad purpofe without incurring a fuitable punifh-
Libfrtt of the Prefs. The art of printing, foon ment: whereas, it can never be ufed to any good one
after its introduction, was looked upon in England, when under the controul of an infpedtor. So true
as well as in other countries, as merely a matter of will it be found, that to cenfure the licentioufnefs, is t®
Hate, and fubjedt to the coercion of the crown. It was maintain the liberty of the prefs.
therefore regulated with us by the king’s proclamations, Liberty, in mythology, was a goddefs both among
prohibitions, charters of privilege and licence, and fi- the Greeks and Romans. Among the former Ihe
nally by the decrees of the court of liar-chamber, which was invoked under the title Eleutheria ; and by the
limited the number of printers, and of preffes which each latter Ihe was called Lilertas, and held in lingular ve-
Ihould employ, and prohibited new'publications unlefs neration; temples, altars, and ftatues, were eredled
previoully approved by proper licenfers. On the de- in honour of this deity. A very magnificent temple
molition of this odious jurifdidtion in 1641, the long was confecrated to her on mount Aventin, by Tibe-
parliament of Charles I. after their rupture with that • rius Gracchus, before which was a fpacious court,
prince, affumed the fame powers as the ftar-chamber called atrium libertatis. The Romans alfo ere died a
had exercifed with refpedl to the licenfing of books: new temple in honour of Liberty, when Julius Crefar
and in 1643, I(H7> 1b49, and 1652 (Scobell. i. 44, eftablilhed his empire over them, as if their liberty
134. ii. 88, 230.) iffued their ordinances for that pur- had been fecured by an event which proved fatal to
pofe, founded principally on the ftar-chamber decree it. In a medal of Brutus, Liberty is exhibited under
of 1637. In 1662, was paffed the ftatute 13 & 14, the figure of a woman, holding in one hand a cap, the
Car. II. c. 33. which, with fome few alterations, was fymbol of Liberty, and two poinards in the other, with
copied from the parliamentary ordinances. This adl the infcription idibvs martiis.
expired in 1679 » but was revived by ftatute 1 Jac. II. LIBETHRA (anc.geog.), the fountain of fong,
c. 17. and continued till 1692. It was then continued was fituated in Magnefia, a diftridt of Macedonia ar-
for two years longer by ftatute 4 W. & M. c. 24. but nexed to Theffaly; diftindl from the town of Li-
though frequent attempts were made by the govern- bethra, which flood on the mount Olympus, where it
N?i8i. 3 verges
1 I B r 25 ] LIB
s verges towards Macedonia1: lienee the Mufes are called
XMethrides, (Virgil,) Strabo places on Helicon, not
6nly Hippocrene, and the temple of the Mufes, but
alfo the cave of the nymphs Libethrides.
LIBETHRIUS mons (anc. geog.), a mountain
of Bceotia, diftant from Coronea 40 ftadia; where
ilood the ftatues of the Mufes, and of the nymphs,
furnamed Libethride. A mountain probably conjoined
with, or at leaft very near to, Helicon.
LIBITINA, in the Roman mythology, a goddefs
which pfefided over funerals. This goddefs was the
fame with the Venus inf era or Epithymbia of the Greeks.
She had a temple at Rome, where was lodged a cer¬
tain piece of money for every perfon who died, whofe
name was' recorded in a regifter called Libitina ratio.
This practice was eftablilhed by Servius Tullius, in
order to obtain an account of the number of annual
deaths in the city of Rome, and -confequently the
rate of ir.creafe or decreafe of its inhabitants.
LIBITINARII, were undertakers whofe office it
Was to take care of funerals, prepare all things necef-
fary upon the folemn .occafion, and furniffi every ar¬
ticle required.—They got their livelihood by this
gloomy bufinefs, and kept a number of fervants to
perform the working part of the profeffion, ftich as
the pnll'mclores, vefpiltones. See. The name Libitinarii is
derived from Libifina, the goddefs of funerals, in whofe
temple were fold all things relating to funerals. See
Funeral.
LIBNA (anc. geog.), a facerdotal city in the tribe
of Judah, a place of ftrength, as appears from Senna¬
cherib’s laying liege to it, 2 Kings xix. Ifafah xxxvii.
In Jerome’s time, a village, called Lobna, in the ter¬
ritory of Eleutheropolis.
LIBOURNE, a town of France, in Guienne, and
in Bourdelois. It is a populous trading town, and is
feated on the river Dordogne. W. Long. o. 1 o. N.
Lat. 44. 55.
LIBRA, or balance, ohe of the mechanical
powers. See Balance,
Libra, in aftronomy, one of the 12 figns of the
zodiac, and exaftly oppofite to Aries; fo called be-
•ca'ufe when the fun is in this fign at the autumnal
equinox, the days and nights are equal as if weighed
in a balance.—The liars in this conllellation according
to Ptolemy are 17, Tycho 10, Hevelius 20, and
Flamftead 51.
Libra alfo denotes the ancient Roman pound, bor¬
rowed from the Sicilians, who called ,it /itra.
The libra was divided into 12 uncia or ounces, and
the mince into 24 fcruples.
The divifions of the libra were, the uncia, one
tw elfth ; the fextans, one fixth; the quadrans, one
fourth 5 the triens, one third; the quincunx, five ounces;
the femis, fix ; the feptunx, feven : the bes, eight; the
dodrans, nine : the dexlrans, ten ; the deunx, eleven ;
laflly, the as weighed twelve ounces or one libra.
The Roman libra was ufed in France for the pro¬
portions of their coin till the time of Clfarlemagne,
or perhaps' till that of Philip I. in 1093, their fols being
fo proportioned, as that 20 of them were equal to the
libra. By degrees it became a term of account; and
eveiy thing of the value of twenty fols was called a
Imre.
Vol. X. Part I.
Libra penfa, ill rmr law books, denotes a pound of
money in weight. It was ufual in former days not
only to tell the money but to weigh it: becaufe many
cities, lords, and bilhops, having their mints, coined
money, and often very bad too; for which reafon,
though the pound confifted of 20 (hillings, they al¬
ways weighed it.
LIBRARII, among the ancients, were -a fort of
copyills who tranferibed in beautiful or at leaft legible
charadlers, what had been wri..ten by the notarii in
notes and abbreviatures.
LIBRARY, an edifice or apartment deftined for
holding a confiderable number of books placed regu¬
larly on fhelves ; or the books themfelves lodged in it.
Some authors refer the origin of libraries to the
Hebrews ; and obferve, that the care thefe took for
the prefervation of their facted books, and the me¬
mory of what concerned the adliqns of their anteftors,
became an example to other nations, particularly to
the Egyptians. Ofmanduas, king of Egypt, is laid
to have taken the hint firft ; who, according to Dio¬
dorus, had a library built in his palace, with this in-
feription over the door,'E-txhx iatpeion. Nor were
the Ptolemies, who reigned in the fame country, lefs
curious and magnificent in books.
The feripture alfo fpeaks of a library of the kings
of Perfia, Ezra v. 17. vi. 1. which feme imagine to
have confifted of the hiftorians of that nation, and of
memoirs of the affairs of ftate; but, in effedt, it ap¬
pears rather to have been a depofitory of laws, dhar-
ters, and ordinances of the kings. The Hebrew text
calls it the houfe of treafures, and aftenvards the houfe
of the rolls, where the treafures were laid up. We
may, with more juftice, call that a, library, mentioned
in the fecond of Efdras to have been built by Nehe-
miah, and in which were preferved the books of the
prophets, and of David, and the letters of their kings.
The firft who eredled a library at Athens, was tire
tyrant Pififtratus; and yet Strabo refers the honour
of it to Ariftotle. That of Pififtratus was tranfport-
ed by Xerxes into Perfia, and w’as afterwards brought
back by Seleucus Nicanor to Athens. Long after,
it was plundered by Irylla, and re-eftabliflied by Ha¬
drian. Plutarch fays, that under Eumenes there was
a library at Pergamus, containing 200,000 books.
Tyrannian, a celebrated grammarian, contemporary
with Pompey, had a library of 30,000 volumes. That
of Ptolemy Philadelphus, according to A. Gellius, con¬
tained 700,000, all in rolls, burnt by Caffar’s foldiers.
Conilantine, and his fuceeffors, eredled a magni¬
ficent one at Conftantinople ; which in the eighth cen¬
tury contained 300,000 volumes, all burnt by order
of Leo Ifaurus; and, among the reft, one wherein
the Iliad and Gdyffey were written in letters of gold,
on the guts of a ferpent.
The moft celebrated iibrai-ies of ancient Rome, were
the Ulpian, and the Palatine. They alfo boaft much
of the libraries of Paulus iEmilius, who conquered
Perfeus; of Lucilius Lucullus, of Afinius Pollio, At-
ticus, Julius Severus, Domitius, Serenus, Pamphilius
Martyr, and the emperors Gordian and Trajan.
Anciently, every large church had its library; as
appears by the writings of St Jerome, Anaftafius, and
others. Pope Nicholas laid the firft foundation of
D that
LIB I 26 1 LIB
Library, that of the Vatican, in 1450. It was dcftroyed by
—  1 the conftable Bourbon, in the lacking of Rome, and
reftored by Pope Sixtus V, and has been confiderably
enriched with the ruins of that of Heidelberg, plun¬
dered by Count Tilly in 1622. One of the moft com¬
plete libraries in Europe, was faid to be that ere&ed
at Florence by Cbfmo de -Medicis, over the gate
whereof is written, labor absque labore ; though
it is now exceeded by that of the French king, be¬
gun by Francis I. • jmented by Cardinal Richelieu,
and completed by M. Colbert.
The emperor’s library at Vienna, according to Lam-
becius, confifts of 80,000 volumes, and 15,940 curious
medals.
The Bodleian library at Oxford, built on the foun¬
dation of that of Duke Humphry, exceeds that of
any univerfity. in Europe, and even thofe of all the
fovercigns of Europe, except the emperor’s and French
king’s, which are each of them older by 100 years.
It was firft opened in 1602, and has lince found a
great number of benefaftors ; particularly Sir Robert
Cotton, Sir FI. Savil, Archbifhop Laud, Sir Kenelm
Digby, Mr Allen, Dr Fococke, Mr Selden, and
others. The Vatican, the Medicean, that of Beifa-
rion at Venice, and thofe juft mentioned, exceed the
Bodleian in Greek manufcripts: which yet outdoes
them all in Oriental manufcripts.
As to printed books, the Ambrofian at Milan, and
that of Wolfenbuttle, are two of the moft famous,
and yet both inferior to the Bodleian.
King's Library, at St James’s, was founded by
Henry, eldeft fon of James I. and made up partly of
books, and partly of manufcripts, with many other
curiofities, for the advancement of learning. It has
received many additions from the libraries of Ifaac
Cafaubon and others.-
Cottonian Library, originally confifted of 958 vo
lumes of original charters, grants, inftruments, letters
of fovereign princes, tranfaftions between this and
other kingdoms and ftates, genealogies, hiftories, re-
gifters of monafteries, remains of Saxon laws, the book
of Genefis, thought to be the moft ancient Greek
copy extant, and faid to have been written by Origen
in the fecond century, and the curious Alexandrian
copy or manufcript in Greek capitals. • This library
is kept in the Jlritifh Mufeum, with the large and va¬
luable library of Sir Hans Sloane, amounting to up¬
wards of 42,000 volumes, &c. There are many pu¬
blic libraries belonging to the feveral colleges at Ox¬
ford and Cambridge, and the univerfities in North
Britain. The principal public libraries in London,
Jbefide that of the Mufeum, are thofe of the college of
heralds, of the college of phyficians, of Doftors Com¬
mons, to which every bifhop, at the time of his con-
fecration, gives at leaft 20I. fometimes 50I. for the
purchafe of books; thofe of the Gray’s Inn, Lincoln's
Inn, Inner Temple, and Middle Temple ; that of
Lambeth, founded by Archbifhop Bancroft in 1610,
for the ufe of fucceeding archbifhops of Canterbury,
and increafed by the benefactions of Archbifhops Ab¬
bot, Sheldon, and Tennifon, and faid to confift of
at leaft 15,000 printed books, and 617 volumes in
manufcript; that of Red-Crofs ftreet, founded by Dr
Daniel Williams, a Prefbyterian divine, and fmce en¬
riched by many private benefactions; that of the Royal
Society, called the Arundelian or Norfolk library, be-
caufe the principal part of the colledtion formerly be¬
longed to the family of Arundel, and was given to
the fociety by Henry Howard, afterwards duke of
Norfolk, in 1666, which library has been increafed
by the valuable colledtion of Francis Afton, Efq; in
1715, and is continually increafmg by the numerous
benefadtions of the works of its learned members, and
others : that of St Paul’s, of Sion college; the queen’s
library, eredted by Queen Caroline in 1737 ; and the
furgeon’s library, kept in their hall in the Old Bailey, &c.
In Edinburgh there is a good library belonging to
the univerfity, well furnilhed with books ; which arc
kept in good order. There is alfo a noble library
of books and manufcripts belonging to the faculty of
advocates. See Advocate.
LIBRATION, in aftronomy, an apparent irregu¬
larity of the moons’s motion, whereby fhe feems to li-
brate about her axis, fometimes from the eaft to the
weft, and now and then from the weft to the eaft. See
Astronomy, n°420.
LIBURNIA (anc. geog.), a diftridl of Tllyricum,
extending towards the Adriatic between Iftria on the
weft, Dalmatia on the eaft, and mount Albius on the
north. Liburni, the people. The apparitors, who
at the command of the magiftrate fummoned the
people from the country, were called Liburn i, becaufe
generally men. of Liburnia.—Liburna, or Liburnica,
(Horace), denoted a kind of light and fwift fluff, ufed
by the Liburnians in their fea-rovings or piracies, for
which they were noted. Lilurnum (Juvenal) was a fpecias
of litter made in form of Liburnian flciffs, wherein the
noblemen of Rome were carried, and where they fat at
their eafe, either reading or writing.
LIBURNUS (anC.geog.), a mountain of Campania.
Alfo a port of Tufcany, Now Livorno, or Leghorn.
E. Long. 11. N. Lat. 43. 30.
LIBYA, in general, according to the Greeks, de»
noted Africa. An appellation derived from lub,
“ thirft,” being a dry and thirfty country. See
A.FRICA.
Libya, in a more reftrained fenfe, was the middle
part of Africa, extending north and weft, (Pliny).;
between the Mediterranean to the north, and Ethiopia
to the eaft; and was two-fold, the Hither or Exterior
Libya; and the Farther or Interior. The former lay
between the Mediterranean on the north, and the
Farther Libya and Ethiopia beyond. Egypt on the
fouth, (Ptolemy). The Farther or Interior Libya,
was a vaft country, lying between the Hither Libya
on the north, the Atlantic ocean on the weft, the
Ethiopic on the fouth, and Ethiopia beyond Egypt
on.the eaft, ^Ptolemy).
Libya, in a ftill more reftrained fenfe, called, for
diftinftion’s fake, Libya Propria, was a northern di-
ftrict of Africa, and a part of the Hither Libya ; fitu-
ated between Egypt to the eaft, the Mediterranean to
the north, the Syrtis Major and the Regio Tripoli-
tana to the weft, the Garamantes and Ethiopia be¬
yond Egypt to the fouth. Npw the kingdom and defart
of Barca. This Libya was again fubdivided into Libya
taken in the ftricteft fenfe of all, and into Marmarica
and Cyrenaica.. Libya in the ftrifteft fenfe, otherwife
the Exterior, was the moft eaftern part of Libya Pro¬
pria, next to Egypt, with Marmarica on the weft, the
Libratkin
LI1
L I C
Licence Mediterranean on the north, arid the Nubi, now called
i! Nubia, to the fouth, (Ptolemy).
^lc*ien' , LICENCE, in law, an authority given to a perfon
' v to do fome lawful aft.
Licenser of'tie Prefs. See Liberty of the Prefs,
LICENTIATE, one who has obtained the degree
of a licence.—The greateft number of the officers of
juftice in Spain are diftinguiihed by no other title
than that cf licentiate. In order to pafs licentiate in
common law, civil law, and phyfic, they mull have
ftudied feven years, and in divinity ten. Among us a
licentiate ufually means a phyfician who has a licence
to praftife, granted by the college of phyficians.
LICETUS, a celebrated phyfician of Italy, was born
at Rappollo, in the ftate of Genoa, 1577. He came, it
feems, into the world, before his mother had complet¬
ed the feventh month of her pregnancy ; but his father,
being an ingenious phyfician, wrapped him up in cotton,
and nurtured him fo, that he lived to be 77 years of
age. He was trained with great care, and became
a very diftinguiihed man in his profeffion ; and was the
author of a great number of works: his book De
Monjlris every body mull have heard of. He was
profeflbr of philofophy and phyfic at Padua, where he
died in 1655.
LICHEN, liver wort, in botany; a genus of
the natural order of algae, belonging to the ciyptoga-
mia clafs of plants. The male receptacle is roundilh,
fomewhat plain and fhining. In the female the leaves
have a farina or mealy fubftance fcattered over them.
There are about 130 fpecies, all found in Britain.
Among the moll remarkable are the following :
1. The geographicus; it is frequent in rocks, and
may be readily diftinguiihed at a diftance. The cruft
or ground is of a bright greenilh-yellow colour,
fprinkled over with numerous plain black tubercles;
which frequently run into one another, and form lines
refembling the rivers in a map, from which laft cir-
cumftance it takes its name.
2. The calcarious, or black-nobbed dyer’s lichen,
is frequent on calcarious rocks; and hath a hard,
fmooth, white, Honey, or tartareous cruft, cracked or
tefielated on the furface, with black tubercles. Dille-
nius relates, that this fpecies is ufed in dyeing, in the
fame manner as the tartareus after mentioned.
3. The ventofus, or red fpangled tartareous lichen,
hath a hard tartareous cruft, cracked and tefielated on
the furface, of a pale yellow colour when frelh, and a
light olive when dry. The tubercles are of a blood-
red colour at top, their margin and bafe of the fame
colour as the cruft. The texture and appearance of
this (according to Mr Lightfoot), indicate that it
would anfwer the purpofes of dyeing as well as fome
others of this tribe, if proper experiments were made.
4. The candelarius, or yellow farinaceous lichen, is
common upon walls, rocks, boards, and old pales.
There are two varieties. The firft has a farinaceous
cruft of no regular figure, covered with numerous,
fmall, greenifh-yellow, or olive fhields, and grows
commonly upon old boards. The other has a fmooth,
hard, circular cruft, wrinkled and lobed at the circum¬
ference, which adheres clofely to rocks and ftones. In
the centre are numerous (hields of a deeper'yellow or
orange colour, which, as they grow old, fwell in the
middle, and affume the figure of tubercles. The in-
kabitants of Smaland in Sweden fcrape this lichen from
L I G
the rocks, and mix it with their tallow, to make golden ’Lichen,
candles to burn on feftival days. 1 7 *
5. The tartarius, or large yellow-faucer’d dyer’s
lichen, is frequent on rocks, both in the Highlands
and Lowlands of Scotland. The cruft is thick and
tough, either white, or greenifh-white, and has a rough
warted furface. The ihields are yellow or buff-co¬
loured, of various fizes, from that of a pin’s head to
the diameter of a filver penny. Their margins are of
the fame colour^as the cruft. This lichen is much ufed
by the Highlanders for dyeing a fine claret or' pom¬
padour colour. For this purpofe, after fcraping it from
the rocks, and cleaning it, they fteep it in urine for
a quarter of a year. Then taking it out, they make it
into cakes, and hang them up in bags to dry. Thefe
cakes are afterwards pulverifed, and the powder is ufed
to impart the colour with an addition of alum.
6. The parellus, or crawfiih-eye lichen, grows upon
walls and rocks, but is not very common. The crufts
fpread clofely upon the place where they grow, and
cover them to a confiderable extent. They are rough,
tartareous, and aih-coloured, of a tough coriaceous fub¬
ftance. The ffiields are numerous and crowded, having
white or afh-coloured, (hallow, plain difcs, with obtufe
margins. This is ufed by the French for dyeing a red
colour.
7. The faxatilis, or grey-blue pitted lichen, is very
common upon trunks of trees, rocks, tiles, and old
wood. It forms a circle two or three inches diameter.
The upper furface is of a blue-grey and fometimes of
a whitifh afti-colour, uneven, and full of numerous finall
pits or cavities ; the under fide is black, and covered all
over, even to the edges, with (hort fimple hairs or
radicles. A variety fometimes occurs with leaves tinged
of a red or purple colour. This is ufed by finches and
other fmall birds in conftrufting the outfide of their
curioully formed nefts.
8. The omphalodes, or dark-coloured dyers lichen,
is frequent upon rockg. It forms a thick widely .ex¬
panded cruft of no regular figure, compofed of nume¬
rous imbricated leaves of a brown or dark-purple colour,
divided info fmall fegments. The margins of the (hields
are a little crifped and turned inwards, and their outfide
afti-coloured. The lichen is much ufed by the High¬
landers in dyeirig a reddifh brown colour. They fteep it
in urine for a confiderable time, till it becomes foft and
like a pafte ; then, forming the pafte into cakes, they
dry them in the fun, and preferve them for ufe in the
manner already related of the tartarius.
9. The parietinus, or common yellow wall-lichen, is
very common upon walls, rocks, tiles of houfes, and
trunks of trees. It generally fpreads itfelf in circles
of two or three inches diameter, and is faid to dye a
good yellow or orange colour with alum.
10. The iflandicus, or eatable Iceland lichen, grows on
many mountains both of the Highlands and Lowlands
of Scotland. It confifts of nearly eredl leaves about
two inches high, of a ftiff fubftance when dry, but foft
and pliant wdien moift, varioufly divided without order
into broad diftant fegments, bifid or trifid at the ex¬
tremities. The upper or interior furface of the leaves is ’
concave, chefnut colour, fmooth, and (hining, but red at
the bafe ; the under or exterior furface is fmoofh and
whitilh, a little pitted, and fprinkled with very minute
black warts. The margins of the leaves and all the
fegments from bottom to top are ciliated with fmall,
D 2 ftiort,
[ 27 1
LIC [ 28 T LI C
fhort, ftiff, hair-like fpinules, of a dark chefnut colour,
turning towards the upper fide. The fhields are very
rarely produced. For the ufes of this as an efculent
herb,fee Iceland, n° 10. Made into broth or gruel, it is
faid to be very ferviceable in coughs and confumptions;
and, according to Haller and Scopoli, is much ufed in
thefe complaints in Vienna.
■ 11. The pulmonarius, or lung-wort lichen, grows in
ihady woods upon the trunks of old trees. The leaves
are as broad as a man’s hand, of a kind,of leather-like
fubftanee, hanging loofe from the trunk on which it
grows, and laciniated into wide angular fegments. Their
natural colour, when freflr, is green; but in drying,
they turn firil to a glaucous and afterwards to a fufeous
colour. It has an aftringent, bitter tafte; and, ac¬
cording to Gmelin, is boiled in ale in Siberia, inftead of
hops. The ancients ufed it in coughs and afthmas, &c.
but it is not ufed in modern pra&ice.
12. The calicaris, or beaked lichen, grows fonletimes
upon trees, but more frequently upon rocks, efpecially
©n the fea-coads, but is not very common. It is fmooth,
gloffy, and whitilh, producing flat or convex fliields,
of the fame colour as the leaves,-very near the fummits
of the fegments, which are acute and rigid, and, being
often reflected from the perpendicular by the growth of
the fliields, appear from under their limbs like a hooked
beak. This will dye a red colour ; and promifes, in that
intention, to rival the famous Lichen Rocolla or Argot,
which is brought from the Canary Iflands, and fome-
times fold aj; the price of 801. per ton. It was formerly
ufed inftead of ftarch to make hair-powder,
13. The pninaftri, or common ragged hoary lichen,
grows upon all forts of trees ; but it is generally moft
white and hoary on the floe and old palm trees, or
lip on old pales. This is the moft variable of the whole
tribe of lichens, appearing different in figure, magni¬
tude, and colour, according to its age, place of growth,
and fex. The young plants are of a glaucous colour,
{lightly divided into fmall acute .crefted fegments. As
they grow older, they are divided like a flag’s horn,
into more and deeper fegments, fomewhat broad, flat,
foft, and pitted on both fides, the upper furface of a
glaucous colour, the under one white and hoary.—The
male plants, as Linnaeus terms them, are fhort, feldom
more than an inch high, not hoary on the under fide ;
and have pale glaucous ftiields fituated at the extremi¬
ties of the fegmenta, Handing on fhort peduncles, which
are only fmall ftiff portions of the leaf produced.—The
female fpecimens have numerous farinaceous tubercles
both on the edges of their leaves, and the wrinkles of
their furface.—The pulverifed leaves have been ufed as
a powder for the hair, and alfo in dyeing yarn of a red
colour.
14. The jupiperinus, or common yellow tree-lichen,
is common upon the trunks and branches of elms and
many other trees. Linnoeus fays it is very common up-
qn the juniper. The Gothland Swedes dye their yarn
of a yellow colour with it, and give it as a fpecific in the
jaundice.
15. The caninus, or afh-coloured ground-liverwort,
grows upon the ground among mofs, at the roots of
trees in fhady woods, and is frequent alfo in heaths and
Atony places. The leaves are large, gradually dilated to¬
wards the extremities, and divided into roundifh eleva-
Hdlobss. Their upper fide, in dry weather, is afh-co¬
loured ; in rainy weathdr, of a dull fufeous green co¬
lour ; their under-fide white and hoary, having many
thick downy nerves, from which defeend numerous,
long, white, pencil-like radicles. The peltae, or fliields,
grow at the extremities of the elevated lobes, fhaped
like the human nail; of a roundifh oval form, convex
above, and concave beneath ; of a chocolate colour oil
the upper fide, and the fame colour with the leaves on
the under. There are two varieties, the one called
rcdd'ijh, and the other many-fingered, ground-liverwort.
The former is more common than the other. This
fpecies has been rendered famous by the celebrated Dr
Mead, who afferted that it was an infallible preventative
of the dreadful confequences attending the bite of a mad
dog. He directed half an ounce of the leaves dried
and pulverifed to be mixed with two drachms of pow¬
dered black pepper. This was to be divided into four
dofes, one of which was to be taken by the patient
every morning falling, for four mornings fucceifively,
in half a pint of warm cow’s milk ; after which he was¬
te ufe the cold bath every morning for a month. It is
much to he lamented, however, that the fuccefs of this,
medicine, or. indeed any other recommended for the
fame purpofe, hath not always anfwered the expec¬
tation. There are inftances where the application has-
not prevented the hydrophobia, and it is even uncer¬
tain whether it has ever been inftrumental in keeping off
that diforder.
16. The aphthofus,.or green ground-liverwort with
black warts, grows upon, the ground at the roots of
trees in woods, and other ftoney and moffy places. It
differs very little from the foregoing, and according to-
fame is only a variety of it. Linnaeus informs us, that
the country-people of Upland in Sweden give an infu-
flon of this lichen in milk to children that are troubled,
with the diforder called the ihrujh or aphtha, which in¬
duced that ingenious naturalift to bellow upon it the
trivial name of apthofus. The fame writer alfo tells us,
that a decoflion of it in water purges upwards and
downwards, and will deftroy worms.
17. The cocciferus, or icarlet-tipped cup-lichen, is.
frequent in moors and heaths. It has inthe firft Hate
a granulated cruft for its ground, which is afterwards
turned into fmall laciniated leaves, green above, and
hoary underneath. The plant affumes a very different
afpedl, according to the age, fituation, and other ac¬
cidents of its growth; but may be in general readily
dillinguilhed by its fructifications, which are fungous
tubercles of a fine fcarlet colour, placed on the rim of'
the cup, or on the top of the ftalk. Thefe tubercles,
fteeped in an alcaline lixivium, are faid to dye a fine du¬
rable red colour.
18. The rangiferinus, or rein-deer lichen, is frequent
in woods, heaths, and mountainous places. Its gene¬
ral height, when full grown, is about two. inches. The
ftalk is hollow, and very much branched from bottom
to tdp : the branches are divided and fubdivided,
and at laft terminated by two, three, four, or five very
fine, ftiort, nodding horns. The axillae of the branch¬
es are often perforated. The whole plant is of a hoary
white or grey colour, covered with white farinaceous
particles, light and brittle when dry, foft and elaftic
when moift. The fructifications'are very minute, round,
fufeous, or reddifli-brown tubercles, which grow on
the very extremities of the fineft branches ; but thefe
6 tu*
LIC l 29 1 LID
likhen tcbercles are very feldom found. The plant feerns
H to have no foliaceous ground for the bafe, nor fcarcely
lachten- any vifible roots.—Linnxus tells us, that in Lapland
k es' this mofs grows fo luxuriant that it is fometimes found
a foot high. There are many varieties of this fpecies,
of which the principal is the fylvaticus, or brown-tipt
rein-deer lichen. The moft remarkable difference be¬
tween them is, that the fylvaticus turns fufeous by age,
while the other always continues white. For the ufes of
thefe fpecies, fee Lapland.
19. The plicatus, or officinal ftringy lichen, grows
on the branches of old trees, but is not very common.
The ftalks are a Loot or more in length, cylindrical,
rigid, and, ftring-ffiaped, very irregularly branched,
the branches entangled together, of a cinereous or afh-
colour, brittle and ftringy if doubled fhort, otherwife
tough and pliant, and hang pendent from the trees on
which they grow. The fhields grow generally at the
extremities of the branches, are nearly flat, or flightly
concave, thin, afh-coloured above, pale-brown under¬
neath, and radiated with fine rigid fibres. As the
plant grows old, the branches become covered with
a white, rough, warty cruft; but the young ones are
deftitute of it. It was formerly ufed in the fhops as an
aftringent to flop hsemorrhagies, and to cure ruptures ;
but is out of the modern praftice. Linnxus informs
us, that the Laplanders apply it to their feet to relieve
the excoriations occafioned by much walking.
20. The barbatus, or bearded lichen, grows upon the
branches of old trees in thick woods and pine-forefts.
The ftalks or firings are flightly branched and pendu¬
lous, from half a foot to two feet in- length, little big¬
ger than a taylor’s common fewing thread; cylindrically
jointed towards the bafe ; but furrounded every where
elfe with numerous, horizontal, capillary fibres, either
fimple or flightly branched. Their colour is a whitifh
green. This has an aftringent quality like the preceding.
When fleeped in water, it acquires an orange colour ;
and, according to Dillenius, is ufed in Penfylvania for
dyeing that colour.
21. The vulpinus, or gold-wiry lichen, grows upon
the trunks of old trees, but is not very common. It is
produced in ere£l tufts, from half an inch to two inches
in height, of a fine yellow or lemon-colour, which readi¬
ly difeovers it. The filaments which compofe it are not
cylindrical, but a little comprefled and uneven in the
furface, varioufly branched, the gngles obtufe, and the
branches ftraggling and entangled one with another.
Linnxus informs us, that the inhabitants of Smaland
in Sweden dye their yarn of a yellow colour with this
lichen ; and that the Norwegians deftroy wolves by
fluffing dead carcafes with this mofs reduced to pow¬
der, and mixed with pounded glafs, and fo ekpofing
them in the winter-feafon to be devoured by thofe ani¬
mals.
LICHFIELD. See Litchfield.
LICHTENBERG, a caftle of France, in Lower
Alface, and the chief place of a county of the fame
name; feated on a rock, near the mountains Vofges,
and is looked upon as impregnable. E. Long. 7. 35.
N. Lat. 48. 55.
LICHTENBURG, a town of Germany, in the
eircle of Franconia, and margravate of Cullembach.
E. Long. 12. o. N. Lat. 50. 26.
LICHTENFELS, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Franconia, and bifhopric of Bamberg, featedT Liclittn-
on the river Mayne, in E. Long. 11. 10. N. Lat. ftein
50.20.
LICHTENSTEIN,a town of Swifferland, in Tock- ,_Ll^el; ,
erberg, feated on the river Thour. E. Long. 2. 15.
N. Lat. 47. 25.
LICHTSTALL, an handfome town of Swiflerland,
in the county of Bade ; feated on the river Ergetz. In
E. Long. 7. 57. N. Lat. 47. 40.
LICINIUS Stolo, a famous Roman tribune,
ftyled Slo/o on account of a law he made, while tribune,
that no Roman citizen ftiould poffefs more than 500
acres of land ; alleging, that when they occupied more,
they could not cultivate it with care, nor pull up the ufe-
lefs fhoots (Jio/ones) that grow from the roots of trees. He
is memorable alfo for enabling, that one of the confuls.
Ihould always be of a Plebeian family. He lived about
362 B. C.
LICNON,. in the Dionyfian folemnities, the my-
ftical van of Bacchus ; a thing fo effential to all the
folemnities of this god, that they could not be duly cele*-
brated without it. SccDionysia.
LICNOPHORI, in the Dionyfian folemnity,,
thofe who carried the licnon.
LICOLA, or Lago-bi-Licola, a lake in the king¬
dom of Naples, formerly famous for plenty of excellent
fiffi; but in the year 1538 an explofion of a volcano
changed one part of it into a mountain of affies, and the
other into a morafs. It was anciently known by the
name of the Lucrine-lake.
LICONIA, in botany : A genus of the digynia or¬
der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. There
are five petals inlaid in the pit of the ne&arium at its
bafe ; the capfule is bilocular and feed-bearing.
LICTORS, among the Romans, were ofiicers efta-
blifhed by Romulus, who always attended the chief ma-
giftrates when they appeared in public.
The duty of their office confifted in the three follow-
ing particulars : 1. Submotio, or clearing the way for the
magiftrate they attended : this they did by word of
mouth ; or, if there was occafion, by ufing the rods they
always carried along with them. 2. Ammadverfw, or
caufing the people to pay the ufual refpedl to tlie magi¬
ftrate, as to alight, if on horfeback or in a chariot ; to,
rife up, uncover, make way, and the like. 3. Praitio, or
walking before the magiftrates : this they did not con-
fufedly, or altogether, nor by two or three abreaft, .
but fingly following one another in a ftraight liner They
alfo preceded the triumphal car in public triumphs; and
it was alfo part of their office to arreft criminals, and to
be public executioners in beheading, &c» Their enfigni
were the fasces and securis.
As to the number of lidlors allowed each magiftrate,
a dictator had twenty-four, a mafter of the horfe fix, a
conful twelve, a prxto.r fix ; and each veftal virgin, when
ftie appeared abroad, had one.
LIDD. See Lydd.
LIDDEL (Dr Duncan), profeflbr of mathematics,
and of medicine in the univerfity of Helmftadt, was born
in the year 1561 at Aberdeen, where he received the firft
part of his education in languages-andphilofophy. About
the age of eighteen he repaired to the univerfity of Franc-
fort, where he fpent three years in a diligent application
to mathematics and phildfophy. From Francforf he
proceeded to Wratiflaw, or Bre-flaw, in Silefia, where
Lidfbrd
I-iddeJ.
LID L 30 ] LID
he is faid to have made uncommon progrefs in his fa¬
vourite ftudy of mathematics, under the direction of a
very eminent profefibr, Paulus Wittichius. Having ftu-
died at Breflaw for the fpace of one year, he returned to
Francfort, and remained there three years, paying the
moft intenfe application to the ftudy of pbyfic. A con¬
tagious diftemper having broke out at that place, the
Undents were difperfed,and Liddel retired to the univer-
fity of Roftock. Here he renewed his ftudies, rather as
a companion than as a pupil of the celebrated Brucaeus,
who, though an excellent mathematician, did not fcruple
to confefs that he was inftrudted by Liddel in the more
perfect knowledge of the Copernican fyftem, and other
aftronomical queftions. In 1590 he returned once more
to Francfort. But having there heard of the increafing
reputation of the Academia Julia, efcablifiled at Helm-
ftadt by Henry duke of Brunfwick, Mr Liddel removed
thither ; and foon after his arrival was appointed to
the firft or lower profefibrftiip of mathematics. From
thence he was promoted to the fecond and more digni¬
fied mathematical chair, which he occupied for nine
years, with much credit to himfelf and to the Julian
Academy. In 1596 he obtained the degree ofM. D.
was admitted a member of that faculty, and began pu¬
blicly to teach phyfic. By his teaching and his writings
he was the chief fupport of the medical fchool at Helm-
ftadt ; was employed as firft phyfician at the court of
Brunfwick, and had much practice among the princi¬
pal inhabitants of that country. Havingbeenfeveral times
elected dean of the faculties both of philofophyand phyfic,
he had in the year 1604 the honour of being chofen pro-
reftor of the univerfity. But neither academical honours,
nor the profits of an extenfive praftice abroad, could make
Dr Liddel forget his native country. In the year 1600
he took a final leave of the Academia Julia ; and after
travelling for fome time through Germany and Italy, he
at length fettled in Scotland. He died in the year
1613, in the fifty-fecond year of his age. By his laft
will he beftowed certain lands purchafed by him near
Aberdeen upon the univerfity there, in all time co¬
ming, for the education and fupport of fix poor fcho-
lars. Among a variety of regulations and injun&ions .
for the management of this charity, he appoints the
magiftrates of Aberdeen his truftees, and folemnly de¬
nounces the eurfe of God on any perfon who (hall abufe
or mifapply it. His works are, 1. Difputationes M#di-
einales, Helmjladt, 1603, 410. 2. sirs Medico, fuccincte
et perfpicue explicata, Hamlurgbi, 1607, 8«o. This per¬
formance is dedicated to king James VI. and is divid¬
ed into five books, viz. Introduilio in totam Medicinam;
De Phyjiologia ; De Pathologia ; De Signonem doclrina ;
De Therapcutica. 3. De Febribus Lilri tres, Hamburghi,
1610, l2mo. A...Tra8atns de dente aureo,Hamburghi, 1628,
12mo. This laft performance Dr Liddel publiftied in
order to refute a ridiculous ftoiy then current of a
poor boy in Silefia, who, at feven years of age, having
loft fome of his teeth, brought forth, to the aftonifti-
ment of his parents, a new tooth of pure gold. Ja¬
cobus Horftius, doctor and profeflbr of medicine in
the Academia Julia, at the fame time with our author,
had publiftied a book, which he dedicated to the Em¬
peror Rudolphus II. to prove that this wonderful tooth
was a prodigy fent from heaven to encourage the Ger¬
mans then at war with the Turks, and foretelling, from
this golden tooth, the future vidtories of the Chrif-
tians, with the final deftrudtion of the Turkifti empire
and Mahometan faith, and a return of the golden age in
1700, preparatory to the end of the world. Theimpof-
ture was foon after difcovered to be a thin plate of gold,
fkilfully drawn over the natural tooth by an artift of that
country, with a view to excite the public admiration and
charity. 5. Artis confervandiSanitatem,lihri duo,Aberdonite,
1651, 12mo.; a pofthumous work. The merit of thefc
works of Dr Liddel, it is not now neceffary to efti-
mate with>precilion. They appear, however, to con-'
tain the moft fafhionable opinions and practice, in the
medical art, of the age in which he lived ; nor is there
almoft any difeafe or medical fubject then known of
which he has not treated in one or other of his writings.
Of his language it may be fufficient to obferve, that
the Latin is at leaft as pure as is generally found among
medical writers, and that his ftyle is plain and perfpi-
cuous, and fometimes even elegant.
LIDFORD, a village of Devonihire in England,
fituated on the river Lid, two or three miles eaft of
Brent Tor, was formerly a famous town, with a caltle,
which was always committed to men of quality, and
twice fent burgefles to parliament. It was fadly {bat¬
tered by the Danes in 997: and though now a con¬
temptible village, the parifh may for lands and liberties
compare with any in the kingdom, the whole foreft of
Dartmore being in the' verge of it. The river here
being pent up at the bridge with rocks, has made itfelf
fo deep a fall, by its continual working, that paflengers
only hear the noife of the water without feeing it.
LIDKOPING, a town of Weft Gothland in Swe¬
den, feated on the lake Wenar, in E. Long. 13. 40.
N. Lat. 58. zy.
LIDNEY, a town of Gloucefterfhire in England,
71 miles from London, is feated on the weft bank of
the river Severn, and has a market onWednefdays, with
two fairs in the year. In the neighbourhood are the
remains of a large Roman encampment, with founda¬
tions of many ancient buildings, among which are the
ruins of a Roman hypocauft of an oval form, and Ro- ■
man antiquities and coins are often found here in great
number. Mr Bathurft has a fine feat here called Syd¬
ney-Park, with very extenfive woods adjoining.
LIE, in morals, denotes a criminal breach of ve¬
racity. —Archdeacon Paley, in treating of this fubieft,
obferves, that there are falfehoods which are not lies;
that is, which are not criminal: and there are lies which
are not literally and dire&ly falfe.
I. Cafes of the firft clafs are thofe, 1. Where no one
is deceived: as for inftance in parables, fables, novels,
jefts, tales to create mirth, or ludicrous embellifhments
of a ftory, in which the declared defign of the fpeaker
is not to inform, but to divert; compliments in the
fubfcription of a letter ; aprifoner’s pleading not guil¬
ty ; an advocate aflerting the juftice, or his belief of
the juftice, of his client’s caufe. In fuch inftances no
confidence is deftroyed, becaufe none was repofed ; no
promife to fpeak the truth is violated, becaufe none
was given or underftood to be given. 2. Where the
perfon you fpeak to has no right to know the truth,
or more properly where little or no inconveniency re-
fults from the want of confidence in fuch cafes; as
where you tell a falfehood to a madman for his own
advantage ; to a robber to conceal your property ; to
an affaflin to defeat or to divert him from his purpofe.
It is upon this principle, that, by the laws of war, it
is allowed to deceive an enemy by feints, falfe colours,
4 fpies.
L 1 E [ ;
Lie fpies, falfe intelligence, and the like: but, by no means,
l. !I ^ in treaties, truces, Cgnals of capitulation, or furrender:
' and the difference is, that the former fuppofe hoftili-
ties to continue,. the latter are calculated to terminate
or fufpend them.
Many people indulge in ferious difcourfe a habit of
fiction and exaggeration, in the accounts they give of
themfelves, of their acquaintance, or of the extraordi¬
nary things which they have feen or heard ; and fo
long as the fails they relate are indifferent, and their
narratives though falfe are iuoffenfive, it may feem a
fuperititious regard to truth to cenfure them merely
for truth’s fake. Yet the practice ought to be check¬
ed : for, in the firft place, it is almoft impoffible to
• pronounce beforehand, with certainty, concerning any
lie, that it is inoffenfive ; or to fay what ill confe-
quences may refult from a lie apparently inoffenfive :
And, in the next place, tire habit, when once formed,
is eafily extended to ferve the deligns of malice or in-
tereft ; like all habits, it fpreads indeed of itfelf. Pious
frauds, as they are improperly enough called, pretend¬
ed infpirations, forged books, counterfeit miracles, are
impoutions of a more ferious nature. It is poffible
that they may fometimes, though feldom, have been
fet up and encouraged with a defign to do good: but
. the good they aim at requires, that the belief of them
fhould be perpetual, which, is hardly poffible ; and the
. detection of the fraud is fure to difparage the credit
of all pretenfions of the fame nature. Chriftianity has
fuffered more injury from this caufe than from all other
eaufes put together.
II. As there may be falfehoods which are not lies,
Jo there may be lies without literal or diredt falfehood.
An opening is always left for this fpecies of prevarica¬
tion, when the literal and grammatical fignification of
a fentence is different from the popular and cuftomary
meaning. It is the wilful deceit that makes the lie ;
and we wilfully deceive, when our expreffions are not
true, in the fenfe in which we believe tlfe hearer ap¬
prehends them. Befides, it is abfurd to contend for
any fenfe of words, in oppofition to ufage ; for all
fenfes of all words are founded upon ufage, and upon
nothing elfe.. Or a man may acl a lie ; as by pointing
his finger in a wrong direction, when a traveller in¬
quires of him his road ; or when a tradefman ffiuts up
his windows, to induce his creditors to believe that he
is abroad : for to all moral purpofes, and therefore as
to veracity, fpeech and action are the fame ; fpeech
being only a mode of adtion.
LIECHTENAU,,a town of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Franconia and margrayate of Anfpach, fubjedt
to Nurenburg. E. Long. 9. 5. N. Lat. 48. 43.
LIEGE {Ligius,) in law, properly fignifies a vaf-
fal, who holds a kind of fee, that binds him in a clo-
fer obligation to his lord than other people.
The term feems to be’ derived from the French Her
“tobind on-account of a ceremony ufed in render¬
ing faith or homage : which was by locking the vaffal’s
thumb or his hand in that of the lord, to Ihow that
he was faff bound by his oath of fidelity. Cujas,
Vigenere, and Bignon, choofe rather to derive the
word from the fame fource with leudis or leodi, “ loy¬
al, faithful.” But Du Cange falls in with the opi¬
nion of thofe who derive it from //Vi, a kind of vaffals,
* fo firmly attached to their lord, on account of lands or
i ] LIE
fees held of him, that they were obliged to do him all
manner of fervice, as if they were his domeltics. He "
adds, this was formerly called Utgium fervitiurr,. and the
perfon litge. In this fenfe, the word is ufed, Leg.
Edw. cap. 29. Judai fab tutela regis Ugea debent ejfe;
that is, wholly under his prote&ion.
By liege homage, the vaffal was obliged to ferve his
lord towards all, and againft all, excepting his father.
In which fenfe, the word was ufed in oppofition to
fimple homage ; which laft only obliged the vaffal to pay
the rights and accuftomed dues to his lord ; and not to
bear arms againft the emperor, prince, or other fupe-
rior lord : fo that a liege man was a perfon wholly de¬
voted to his lord, and entirely under his command.
Omnibus, &c. Regimldus, rex Infularum, falutetn. Sciatis
quoddeveni homo ligeus domini regis Anglia Johannis, contra
omnes mart ales, quamdiu vixero ; iff inde ei Jidelitatem iff fa-
cramentum prajliti, &c. MS. penes W. Dugdale.
But it muff be obferved, there were formerly two
kinds of liege homage : the one, by which the vaffal
was obliged to ferve his lord, againft all, without ex¬
ception even of his fovereign ; the other, by which he
was to ferve him againft all, except fuch other lords as
he had formerly owed liege homage to.
In our old ftatutes lieges, and liege people, are
terms peculiarly appropriated to the king’s fubjebls ; as
being'liges, ligi, or ligati, obliged to pay allegiance to
him; 8 Henry VI. 14 Hen. VIII. &c. though pri¬
vate perfons had their lieges too. Reinaldus, Dei gra¬
tia, abbas Ramefue, prapofito iy hominibus de BranceJIre,
iff omnibus vicinis Francis iff Anglis, falutem. Sciatis
me dedijfe terr am Ulfe, in depedene (hodie depedale) huic
Bofelino, iff uxori ejus Alfuia—-ea conditione quod eJfeSi
Jint homines leges. Lib. Ramef.
LiEGF.-PouJlie, in Scots law, is oppofed to death¬
bed ; and fignifies a perfon’s enjoying that ftate of
health in which only he can difpofe of his property at
pleafure'.
LIEGE, a biffiopric of Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia; bounded to the north by Brabant, to the
fouth by Champagne and Luxemberg, to the eaft by
Limburg and Juliers, and to the weft by Brabant,
Namur, and Hainault. It is very unequal both in
length and breadth; the former being in fome places
above 90 miles, in others not half fo much ; and the
latter in forpe places 45, in others hardly 25. The
air here is very temperate; and the foil fruitful in
corn, wine, wood, and pafture. Here alfo are mines
of lead and iron, pits of coal, quarries of marble and
ftone, and fome celebrated mineral waters, as fhofe
of Spa and Chau-fontaine. The principal rivers are,
the Maes and Sambre. The manufaftures and com¬
modities of the country are chiefly beer, arms, nails,
ferge, leather, with the produbts we have juft men¬
tioned. The ftates of the biftiopric are compofed of.
three bodies: the firft is the chapter of Liege; the
fecond, the nobility of the country ; and the third, the
deputies of the capital and the other towns. The
three eftates are feldom called together, except to
raife taxes for the fervice of the province, or upon
fome particular emergency ; but there is a committee
of the ftates, who meet thrice a-week, and in time of
war daily. They are always about the prince-bifhop,
to make retnonftrances, and demand the redrefs of
grievances. The bilhop is fpiritual and temporal lord
of
LIE t 3-
of the vv4iole country; but, as bifhop, is fuffragan to
the archbifliop of Cologne. He ftyles himfelf, by the
grace of God, bi/hop and prince of Liege, duke of Bou¬
illon, marquis of Franchimont, count of Looz, Hoorn, 8cc.
•His arms for Liege are, a pillar argent, on a pede-
ftal of the fame, with a crown or, in a field ruby.
In the matricula he was formerly rated at 50 horfe
and 170 foot; or 1280 florins monthly, in lieu of
them, but now only at 826. An abatement of one
third has alfo been granted of the ancient affefiment
to the chamber-court, which was 360 rix-dollars
621 kruitzers for each term. Here are feveral col¬
leges which fit at Liege, for the government of the
country, and the decrfion of caufes, civil, criminal,
fpiritual, and feudal, and of fuch alfo* as, relate to the
finances. The chapter confifts of 60 perfons, who
•muft either prove their nobility for four generations,
both by father and mother, before they can be ad¬
mitted : or if they cannot do that, muft at leaft have
"been doctors or, licentiates of divinity for feven years,
or, of law, for five years, in feme famous univerfity.
The bilhopric is very populous and extenfive, contain¬
ing 1500 parilhes, in which are .24 walled towns, be-
fides others, 52 baronies, befides counties and feignio-
ries, 17 abbeys for men, who muft be all gentlemen,
and 11 for ladies, exclufive of others.
Liege, the capital of the biflioprre of the fame
—name, ftands upon the Maes, in a fine valley, fur-
rounded with woods and hills, being a free imperial
city, and one of the largeft and moft eminent in Europe.
Though it is too miles from the fea by water, the
Maes is navigable up to it. The city has 16 gates;
17 bridges, fome of them very handfome ; 154 ftreets,
many of them ftraight and broad; a fine epifcopal
palace; a very large ftately cathedral, in which, be¬
fides five great filver coffers full of reliques, are feveral
lilvcr ftatues of faints, and a St George on horfeback
of maffy gold, prefented to the cathedral by Charles
the Bold, by way of atonement for ufing the inhabi¬
tants cruelly in the year 1468. Of the other churches,
•that of St Paul is the moft remarkable, both for its
ftrudlure and fine ornaments in painting and marble.
The city is well fortified, and there are alfo two
caftles on the mountain of the Holy Walburg for its
defence. • Befides a great number of other convents of
both fexes, here is a college of Englifh Jefuits, found¬
ed in the year 1616, and a fine nunnery of Engliftr
Jadies. Indeed, churches, convents, (and other reli¬
gious foundations, take up the greater part of it.
The reader, therefore, no doubt, will take it for
granted, that it is a moft bleffed, holy, and happy
city. But however it may fare with the profane, un¬
hallowed laity, it is certainly the paradife of priefts,
as it is exprefsly called, by way of eminence. It is
divided into the old and new, or the upper and lower;
and the latter again into the ifland, and the quarter
beyond the Maes. The houfes are high, and built
of bluilh marble. In the town and fuburbs are 12
public places or fquares, 10 hofpitals, a beguin-houfe,
-and two fine keys, planted with feveral rows of trees,
for the burghers to take the air ; but a great part of
that within the walls is taken up with orchards and
vineyards. The manufactures of this city are arms,
nails, leather, ferge, and beer. In St William’s
convent, without the city, is the tomb of the fara@u»
N° 181,
T LIE
Englifh traveller Sir John Mandeville, with an in*
feription in barbarous French, recuefting thofe who
read it to pray for his foul. Near it are kept the
faddle, fpurs, and knife, that he made ufe of in his
travels. After having feen moft of the cities of any
note in the world, he made choice of this to fpend the
eve of his life in. A little way from the city, on the
other fide the Maes, ftands the epifcopal palace of
Seraing, in which the bifhops generally refide during
the fummer. The latitude of this city is 50. 36. N. and
the longitbde 5. 40. E.
Some difturbances took place here in the year 1789,
in confequence of certain difputes that had arifen be¬
tween the prince-bifhop and the inhabitants. The latter
having demanded certain privileges, which he did not
think proper to grant, they took up arms, and compelled
• him and his chapter to comply with their requeft. The
prince, together with many of the clergy, nobility, and
citizens, alarmed by this commotion, and dreading the
confequences of popular fury, which when once roufed,
feldom knows any bounds, fought fafety by a voluntary
exile. They then appealed to the imperial -chamber 1
and this tribunal, inftead of acting the part of arbiter,
decided as afovereign, and ordered the circles of the
Lower Rhine and Weftphalia to execute the fentence.
The king of Pruffia, at whofe court one of the chiefs
of the infurrefHon had refided, and who wifhed to gain
a party at Liege, became mediator •; and feemed to fa¬
vour the Liegoife, many of whofe claims were juft,
though they attempted to enforce them by violence
and the moft illegal fteps. Intoxicated with this pro-
teftion, the people of Liege treated the remonftrances
of their bifliop, the decrees of the imperial chamber,
and the refolutions of the directory of the two circles,
with the utmoft contempt; and proceeded fo far as
even to dethrone their prince, by appointing a regent
in the perfon of a French prelate. The electoral col¬
lege having deliberated on the beft means of putting
an end to thefe difturbances, its propofitions, though mo¬
dified by M. Dohm the Pruflian plenipotentiary, made
the infurgents break out into open fedition. Deluded by
their leaders, they gave themfelves up every day to new
exceffes; the effefts of the citizens were expofed t«
pillage, and their perfons to infult. The king of
Pruffia, who was defirous to bring matters to an ac¬
commodation, and not, to inftigate the Liegoife to
become independent, finding that the efforts of his
minifter were not attended with the defired fuccefs,
feemeed unwilling to interfere any farther in an affair
which might have led him into a quarrel with the em¬
pire. The executive troops, at the fame time, re¬
mained almoft in a ftate of fnaftivity; and feemed ra¬
ther to guard the frontiers of this petty ftate, than to
make any attempt to reduce it to obedience. Neither
this conduct, however,' nor the exhortations of Pruflia,
added to the moral certainty of their being foon com¬
pelled to lay down their arms, made any change in tlic
conduct of the malecontents. They declared openly,
in the face of all Europe, that they would either con¬
quer or die ; and they perfifted in this refolution, while
commerce, manufactures, and the public revenues,
were going daily to decay.
Having at length openly attacked the executive
forces without the territories of their city, the empe¬
ror could no longer remaitf an indifferent fpe&ator. It
was
LIE T 33 1 LIE
Liege, was now full time to put a period to that madnefs to
Lie vers t^ie Pe0P^e abandoned themfelves ; and to
’, accomplilh this in an effectual manner, the imperial
chamber at Wetzlar requefted the emperor, as a mem¬
ber of the ancient circle of Burgundy, to execute its
orders refpefting this objeft. In confequence of this
meafure, Baron Alvinzi, who commanded a body of
Auftrians cantoned in Limburgh and the confines of
Brabant, notified, by order of Marlhal Bender, to
the ftates and municipality of Liege, that the em¬
peror intended to fend troops into their city and terri¬
tories, for the purpofe of reftoring tranquillity and
good order. The ftates had already been informed of
this refolution by their agent at Wetzlar. They there¬
fore wrote to Marlhal Bender, to affure him of the
refpeftful confidence which they placed in the jullice
and magnanimity of the emperor, and to requeft that
the Auftrian troops might enter alone, without thofe
ef the electors ; and that they might be confined to occu¬
py the gates and the fuburbs only. To this letter, which
was carried to Bruflels by a deputation of the ftates,
Marihal Bender returned a very fatisfaftory anfwer, re¬
lating to the difpofition of the eleftoral troops: but
Baron Alvinzi, in a note which he wrote to the ftates,
infifted among other articles, that all the citizens fliould
throw down their arms; that proper accommodations
fhould be prepared for the officers and men ; that the
warlike ftores, collected for making refiftance, fliould
. be removed ; and that cockades, and every other di-
ftin&ive mark of the like kind, ftiould be laid afide be¬
fore the arrival of the Imperial troops. However hu¬
miliating thefe preliminaries might be, efpecially that
of a general difarming, the ftates and municipalities ac-
quielced without the leaft referve ; and their fubmiffion,
as fudden as complete, was communicated to the people,
with an exhortation to follow their example.
Notwithftanding this pacific appearance, two days
before the entrance of the Imperial troops, the muni¬
cipal council of Liege, flattering themfelves, perhaps,.
with the hopes of affiftance from Pruffia, affured the
inhabitants that they would remain unftiaken in their
poft, and that they had fworn never to defert the caufe
in which they were engaged. This, however, did not
prevent the Auftrian troops, to the number of 6000,
from penetrating, without oppofition, into the heart
of the city ; where they occupied every poft; made
the citizens lay afide their arms, uniforms, and cock¬
ades ; and, in a Angle hour, dethroned fo many fove-
reigns of a year. The greater part of the municipal
officers, who, two days before, had folemnly promifed
fuch great things, betook themfelves to flight, and re¬
tired either to France or Wefel; while the ancient
magiftracy, which had been expelled in the month of
Auguft 1789, was provifionally re-inftated by the di-
reftorial commiffioners.—The decrees of the imperial
chamber at Wetzlar have fince been executed in their
-utmoft extent. The ancient magiftracy and the privy-
council of the prince bifliop have been reftored; and
the prince himfelf having returned, peace and good
order have been re-eftablilhed.
L1ENTERY, a flux of the belly, in which the
aliments are difcharged as they are fwallowed, or very
little altered either in colour or fubftance. See (Index
fubjoinedto) Medicine.
LIEVENS (John or Jan), a celebrated painter, was
Vou X. Part L
born at Leyden in 1607. He dilcovered an early in- Lieou-
clination for the arts, and was the difciple firft of Joris K>C811'
van Schooten, and afterwards of Peter Laftman. He v
excelled principally in painting portraits; but he alfoexe-
cuted feveral hiftorical fubjefts with great fuccefs. He
came over into England, where he refided three years,
and painted the portraits of Charles I. the queen, the
prince of Wales, and feveral of the nobility; after
which he returned to Antwerp, where he met with
full employment for his pencil. We have feveral etch¬
ings by this mafter, which are performed in a flight,
but mafterly manner. The chiaro fcuro is very flril-
fully managed in them, fo as to produce a mpft power¬
ful effeft. His ftyle of etching bears fome refemblance
to that of Rembrandt; but it is coarfer in general, and
lefs finiftied.
LIEOU-KIEOU, the name of certain iflands of
Afia, fubjeft to China; but hitherto little known to
geographers, who have been fatisfied with marking
their exiftence and latitude' in their charts. They,
however, form a powerful and extenfive empire, the
inhabitants of which are civilized, and ought not to
be confounded with other favage nations difperfed
throughout the iflands of Afia. Father Gabil, a Je-
fuit, has furnilhed us with fome interefting details rc-
fpe£ting thefe iflanders, which he extraded from a
Chinefe relation, publiftied in 1721, at the end of a
voyage that was undertaken on the following account.
The emperor Kang-hi having refolved, in 1719, to
fend an ambaflador to the king of Lieou-kieou, chofe
for this purpofe one of the great doctors of the em¬
pire, named Supao-Koang. This learned man depart¬
ed from China in 1719, and returned to Peking in
1720, where, in the year following, he caufed a rela¬
tion of his voyage to be publiftied in two volumes. It
is in the firft of thefe that he gives an accurate and
particular defcription of the ifles of Lieou-kieou; and
what he relates appears to be worthy of the greater credit,
becaufe, being on the fpot, he examined, as he him¬
felf fays, according to the orders of the emperor, what-
everjie found curious or interefting, refpe&ing the num¬
ber, fituation, and productions of thefe ifles; as all*
the hiftory, religion, manners, and cuftoms of the people
who inhabit them.
Thefe ifles, fituated between Corea, Formofa, and
Japan, are in number 36. The principal and largeft
is called Lieou-kieou ; the reft have each a particular de*
nomination. The largeft ifland extends from north to
fouth almoft 440 lys, and 120 or 130 from eaft to weft ;
but on the fouth fide, the extent from eaft to weft is
not 100 lys. The fouth-eaft part of the ifland, where
the court refides, is called Cheouli; and it is there that
Kint-ching, the capital city, is fituated. The king’s
palace, which is reckoned to be four leagues in /cum-
ference, is built on a neighbouring mountain, it has
four gates, which correfpoud to the four cardinal points;
and that which fronts the weft forms the grand entry.
The view which this palace commands is moft extenfiv#
and delightful; it reaches as far as the port of Napa-
kiang, at the diftance of ten lys, to the city of Kint-
ching, and to a great number of other cities, towns,
villages, palaces, temples, monafteries, gardens, and
pleamre-houfes. It ftands in longitude 146° 26' eaft,
and in latitude 26° 2' north.
If we believe thefe iflanders, the origin of their em-
E . pure
L I E
pire is lo-ft in the remoteft antiquity.
25 fuceeffive dynafties, the duration of which forms
period of more than 18,000 years. It would be ufe-
lefs to employ a fmgle moment in pointing out the ab-
furdity of thefe pretenfions. It is however certain,
that the exiftence of the country called Lieou-kieou was
not known in China before the year 605 of the Chri-
ftian sera. It was in the courfe of that year, that one of
the emperors of the dynally of Soui, having heard of
thefe ifles, was defirous of knowing their fituation.
This prince at fir It fent fome Chinefe thither ; but
their expedition proved fruitlefs, as the want of inter¬
preters prevented them from acquiring that knoTedge
which was the objeft of their voyage. They only
brought fome of the iflanders with them to -Sigan-fou,
the capital of the province of Chen-fi, which was the
ufual refidence of the emperors of the dynafty of Soui.
It fortunately happened, that an embafiador of the king
of Japan was then at court. This ambaflador and
his attendants immediately knew the ftrangers to be na¬
tives of Lieou-kieou ; but they fpoke of thefe ifles as
of a miferable and wretched country, the inhabitants of
which had never been civilized. The emperor of'China
afterwards learned, that the principal ifland lay to the
call of a city called at prefent Fou-tcheou-fou, which is
the capital of the province of Fo-kien ; and that, in a
paffage of five days, one might reach the large ifland
where the king kept his court.
On this information, the emperor Yang-ti fent flcil-
ful men, accompanied by interpreters, tp fummon the
prince to do homage to the emperor of China, and to
pay him tribute. This propofal was very ill received.
The king of Lieou-kieou fent back the Chinefe, telling
them, fternly, that he acknowledged no prince to be
his fuperior. This anfwer irritated the emperor, who,
to obtain revenge, caufed a fleet to be immediately
equipped in Fo-kien, in which he embarked ia,ooo
men. This fleet fet fail, and arrived in fafety at the
port of Napa-kiang. The army, in fpite of every effort
made by the natives, landed on the ifland; and the
king, who had put himfelf at the head of his troops to
oppofe the enemy, having fallen in battle, the Chinefe
pillaged, facked, and burnt the royal city, made more
than 5000 flaves, and returned to China.
The emperors of the dynafty of Tang, thofe of tire
fl.ort dynafties that followed, and thofe of the dynafty
«f Song, although they were fully informed of every
[ 34 1 LIE
They reckon up commiffion, and he acquitted himfelf of it with all the 1
prudence and addrefs of an able minifter. In a private *
audience which he had with Tfay-tou, he exhorted
this prince to declare himfelf a tributary of the empire,
and laid before him the advantages he would derive
from this ftep. His reafonihg, fupported by the pow¬
er of his natural eloquence, made fo much impreflioa
on the mind of Tfay-tou, that he embraced the propo¬
fal made him, and fent immediately to the emperor to
demand the inveftiture of his ftates.
Hong-vou received his envoys in a magnificent man¬
ner, and loaded them with prefents. He folemnly de¬
clared Tfay-tou a vafial of the empire; and, after ha¬
ving received his firft tribute (which confifted in valu¬
able hones, aromatic wood, fulphur, copper, tin, &c.)
he fent to this prince a golden feal, and confirmed the
choice he had made of one of his fons for fucceflbr.
The emperor afterwards fent 36 families, almoft all
from the province of Fo-kien to Lieou-kieou. Tfay-
tou received them, affigned them lands near the port of
Napa-kiang, and appointed certain revenues for their
ufe, at the fame time that Hong-vou made them con-
fiderable remittances. Thefe families firft introduced
into Lieou-kieou the learned language of the Chinefe,
the ufe of their chara&ers, and the ceremonies practi-
fed in China in honour of Confucius. On the other
hand, the fons of feveral of the grandees of the court
of Tfay-tou were fent to Nan-king, to ftudy Chinefe
in the imperial college, where they were treated with
diftinftion, and maintained at the emperor’s expences.
The ifles of Lieou-kieou had neither iron nor por¬
celain. Hong-vou fupplied this want; he caufed a
great number of utenfils of iron and inftruments to be
made, which he fent thither, together with a quantity
of porcelain veflels. Commerce, navigation, and the
arts foon began to flourifli. Thefe iflanders learned to
caft bells for their temples, to manufacture paper and
the fineft ftuffs, and to make porcelain, with which
they had been fupplied before from Japan.
The celebrated revolution which placed the Tartars
on the imperial throne of China, produced no change
in the conduct of the kings of Lieou-kieou. Chang-
tche, who was then reigning, fent embafladors to ac¬
knowledge Chun-tchi, and received a feal from him, on
which were engraven fome Tartar characters. It was
then fettled, that the king of Lieou-kieou fliould pay
_ , j hi»-tribute only every two years, and that the number
thingrefpeCting the Lieou-kieou ifles, made no attempts of perfons in the train of his envoys fliould not exceed
to render them tributary. In 1291, Chi-tfou, empe- 150.
ros of the dynafty of Yven, was defirous of reviving the
pretenfions of his predeceffors. He fitted out a fleet
to fubdue thefe iflands ; but fchemes of conqueft had
become difagreeable to the Chinefe, fince the difafter
that befel their army in an expedition againft Japan.
The fleet of Chi-tfou went no farther than the ifles of
Pbng-hou, and the weftern coaft of Formofa, from
whence, under divers pretences, they returned to the
ports of Fo-kien.
The emperor Kang-hi feemed to pay more atten¬
tion to thefe ifles than any of his predecefibrs. He
caufed a fuperb palace to be ereCted in honour of Con¬
fucius, and a college where he maintained matters to
teach the feiences and the Chinefe characters. He al-
fo inftituted examinations for the different degrees of
the literati. He ordained, that the king of Lieou-
kieou fhould never fend in tribute rofe-wood, clovesT
or any other production which was not really of the
It was only in 1372, under the reign of Hong-vou, growth of the country; but that he fliould fend a
founder of the dynafty of Ming, that thefe iflands fub- fixed quantity of fulphur, copper, tin, {hells, and mo-
mitted voluntarily to the Chinde government. Hong- ther of pearl, which is remarkably pretty in thefe
vou had fent one of the grandees of his court to Tfay- iflands. He permitted, that, befides the ufual tribute,
tou, who. was then reigning at Lieou-kieou, to inform he might prefent him horfe-furniture, piftol-cafes, and
him of his acceflion to the throne. The Chinefe noble- other things of the fame kind, which thefe iflanders
man had received particular inftruCtions refpeCting this are faid to manufacture with great tafte and neatnefs.
It
LIE [ 35 ] LIE
1>gu* it Is more than 900 years fmce the bonzes of Chi-
Kieou, na Introduced at Lieou-kieou the worfhip of Fo, and
the principal books belonging to their fe£t. This
worlhip is at prefent the eftablilhed religion both of
the grandees and of the people. There is ftill to be
feen in the royal city a magnificent temple, erected in
honour of another idol borrowed from the Chinefe,
named Tfin-fey, which fignifies cehjlial queen or lady.
Thefe iflanders do not make promifes or fwear be¬
fore their idols. When they have occafion to do this,
they burn perfumes, prefent fruits, and Hand refpeft-
fuliy before fome ftone, which they call to witnefs the
folemnity of their engagements. Numbers of ftones
are to be feen in the courts of their temples, in moll
public places, and upon their mountains, which are en¬
tirely appropriated to this purpofe. They have alfo
among them women confecrated for the worlhip of
fpirits, who are fuppofed to have great influence over
thefe beings. They vifit the lick, diftribute medi¬
cines, and recite prayers for their recovery.
They refpeft the dead as much as the Chinefe, and
they are no lefs ceremonious in wearing mourning;
but their funerals are neither fo pompous, nor attended
with fo much expence. Their coffins, which are of an
hexagonal or ^diagonal figure, are three or four feet
high. They burn the flelh of the bodies of their dead,
and preferve only the bones. They never offer pro-
vifions to them ; they are contented with placing lamps
round them, and burning perfumes.
Different families are diltinguilhed in Lieou-kieou
by furnames, as in China; but a man and a woman of
the fame furname cannot be united in marriage. The
king is not permitted to marry but in the three grand fa¬
milies, which always enjoy the higheft offices. There is
a fourth, of equal diftinction to the three former ; but
neither the king nor the princes contract any alliances
with this family ; for it is doubtful, whether it be not
fprung from the fame Item as the royal line.
A plurality of wives is allowed in thefe illes. Young
men and young women enjoy the liberty of feeing one
another, and ofconverfing together ; and their union is
always in confluence of their own choice. < The wo¬
men are very referved ; they never ufe paint, and wear
no pendants in their ears ; they colledt their hair on the
top of their heads in the form of a curl, and fix it in
that manner by means of long pins made of gold or
filver.
Befides the vaftdomains which the king poffeffes, he
receives the produce of all the fulphur, copper, and tin-
mines, and of the falt-pits, together with what arifes
from taxes. From thefe revenues he pays the falaries
of the mandarins and officers of his court. Thefe fala¬
ries are eftimated at a certain number of facks of rice ;
but under this name is comprehended whatever the king
gives in grain, rice, filk, cloth, &c. The whole is va¬
lued according to the price of the facks of rice.
There are here, as In China, nine orders of manda¬
rins, who are diftinguilhed by the colour of their caps,
or by their girdles and cuftiions. The greater part of
the titles of thefe mandarins are hereditary in their
families ; but there are fome which are only bellowed
upon merit. In the royal city there are tribunals efta-
blilhed for managing the revenue and affairs of the prin¬
cipal illand, and of all the others which are dependent
on it. The latter have agents, who refide at court. Lleutaui,
There are alfo particular tribunals for civil and criminal Lieutenant.-
matters ; for whatever concerns the families of the gran- '-"""V—"”'
dees and princes ; for the affairs of religion ; for in-
fpedting the public granaries, king’s revenues, duties ;
for commerce, manufadtures, civil ceremonies, and for
navigation, public edifices, literature, and war.
The veffels that are built in this country are greatly
valued by the people of China and Japan. In thefe
the natives go not only from one ifland to another, but
alfo to China, Tong-king, Cochinchina, Corea, Nanga-
za-ki, Satfuma, the neighbouring ifles, and to Formofa,
where they difpofe of their different commodities. Be¬
fides thofe articles of commerce which their manufac-
turies of filk, cotton, paper, arms, copper utenfils, &c.
furniih them, they alfo export mother of pearl, tortoife
and other fhells, coral and whet-ftones, which are in
great requeft both in China and Japan.
LIEUTAUD (Dr Jofeph), counfellorof ftate and
firft phyfician at the court of France, was born at Aix
in Provence, and refided principally there till he took
the degree of dodtor of medicine. After this he profe-
cuted his ftudies for fome years at Montpelier. He
returned to Aix, where he foon acquired extenfive
pradtice, and became eminent for literary abilities. He
refided there till the year 1750, when he was invited
to adt as phyfician to the royal infirmary at Ver-
failles. There he pradtifed with fuch reputation and
fuccefs, that he foon arrived at the head of his pro-
feffion ; and in the year 17 74, upon the death of M.
Senac, he was appointed archiater. His extenfive en-*
gagements in pradtice did not prevent him from culti¬
vating the fcience of medicine in all its branches, and
from freely communicating to others the refult of his
own ftudies. He publhhed many valuable works; a-
mongft which the following may be accounted the molt
remarkable. 1. Elementa Pbilologia. 2. Precis de la
Medecine. 3. Pratique Precis de la Maticre Medicale.
4. EJfais Atiatomique. 5. Synopjis Univerfa Praxeos
Medicines. 6. Hijloria Anatomico-Medica. He died at
Verfaillesin 1780, aged 78 years.
LIEUTENANT, an officer who fupplies the
place and difcharges the office of a fuperior in his
abfence. Of thefe, fome are civil, as the lords lieu¬
tenants of kingdoms, and the lords-lieutenants of
counties ; and others are military, as the lieutenant-
general, lieutenant-colonel, &c.
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, is properly a viceroy ;
and has all the ftate and grandeur of a king of Eng¬
land, except being ferved upon the knee. He has
the power of making war and peace, of bellowing all
the offices under the government, of dubbing knights,
and of pardoning all crimes except high treafon ; he
alfo calls and prorogues the parliament, but no bill
can pafs without the royal affent. He is affifted in
his government by a privy-council; and, on his lea¬
ving the kingdom, he appoints the lords of the re¬
gency, who govern in his abfence.
Lord Lieutenants of Counties, are officers, who*
upon any fnvafion or rebellion, have power to raife
the militia, and to give commiffions to colonels and
other officers, to arm and form them into regiments*
troops, and companies. Under the lord-lieutenants,
are deputy-lieutenants, who have the fame power-;
E 2 thefe
LIE [ 36 ] L I F
iiieuteijaat. thefe are chofen by the lords-lieutenants, out of the
l"" principal gentlemen of each county, and prefented to
the king for his approbation.
LiEUTENANT-Colonel. See Colonel.
LiEvrENAXr-General. See General.
Lieutenant, in the land-fervice, is the fecond
eommiffioned officer in every company of both foot
and horfe, and next to the captain, and who takes the
command upon the death or abfence of the captain.
Lieutenant of Artillery. Each company of ar¬
tillery hath four; 1 firil and 3 fecond lieutenants.
The hril lieutenant hath the fame detail of duty with
the captain ; becaufe in his abfence he commands the
company : he is to fee that the foldiers are clean and
neat; that their clothes, arms, and accoutrements, are
in good and ferviceable order ; and to watch over every
thing elfe which may contribute to their health. He
muft give attention to their being taught the exercife,
fte them punftually paid, their meffes regularly kept,
and to vifit them in the hofpitals when fick. He muft
affift at all parades, &c. He ought to underftand the
doctrine of projectiles and the fcience of artillery, with
the various eftedts of gun-powder, however managed
' or directed; to enable him to conftruCt and difpofe
his batteries to the bell advantage ; to plant his can¬
non, mortars, and howitzers, fo as to produce the
greateft annoyance to an enemy. He is to be well
ikilled in the attack and defence of fortified places ; and
to be converfant in arithmetic, mathematics, mecha¬
nics, &c.
Second Lieutenant in the Artillery, is the fame as
an enfign in an infantry regiment, being the youngeft
commiffioned officer in the company, and muft affift
the firft lieutenant in the detail of the company’s duty.
His other qualifications ffiould be equal with thofe of
the firft lieutenant.
Lieutenant of a jhip of IVar, the officer next in
rank and power to the captain, in whofe abfence he is
accordingly charged with the command of the Ihip, as
alfo the execution of whatever orders he may have re¬
ceived from the commander relating to the king’s fer-
tice.
The lieutenant who commands the watch at fea,
keeps a lift of all the officers and men thereto belong¬
ing, in order to mufter them when he judges it expe¬
dient, and report to the captain the names of thofe who
are abfent from their duty. During the night-watch,
he occafionally vifits the lower decks, or fends thither
a careful officer, to fee that the proper centinels are at
their dtity, and that there is no diforder amongft the
saen ; no tobacco fmoked between decks, nor any fire
or candles burning there, except the lights which are
in lanthorns, under the care of a proper watch, on par¬
ticular occafions. He is expected to be always upon
deck in his watch, as well to give the neceffary orders
with regard to trimming the fails and fuperintending the
navigation, as to prevent any noife or confufion ; but
he is never to change the flap’s courfe without the cap¬
tain’s direftions, unlefs to avoid an immediate dan-
The lieutenant, in time of battle, is particularly to
fee that all the men are prefent at their quarters,
where they have been previoufiy ftationed according
to the regulations made by the captain. He orders
and. exhorts them every where to perform their duty ;
and acquaints the captain at all other times of the mif- Lieufena«I;
behaviour of any perfon in the Ihip, and of whatever -1' fe~
elfe concerns the fervice or difcipline. *
The youngeft lieutenant in the ffiip, who is ffifo
ftyled lieutenant at arms, befides his common duty, is.
particularly ordered, by his inftruAions, to train the
feamen to the ufe of fmall arms, and frequently to ex¬
ercife and difcipline them therein. Accordingly his
office, in time of battle, is chiefly to direct and attend
them ; and at all other times to have a due regard to
the prefervation of the fmall arms, that they be not loft
or embezzled, and that they are kept clean and in good
condition for fervice.
LiEUTENANT-Reformed, he whofe company or troop
is broke or dilbanded, but continued in whole or half¬
pay, and ftill preferves his right of feniority and rank
in the army.
LIFE, is peculiarly ufed to denote the animated
ftate of living creatures, or the time that the union of
their foul and body lafts.
The Prolongation of Life is made by Lord Bacon one
of the three branches of medicine ; the other two re¬
lating to the prefervation of health, and the cure of
difeafes. See Medicine.
The theory of prolonging life he numbers among the
defiderata. Some means or indications that feem to
lead to it, he lays down as follow.
Things are preferred in two manners; either in their |
identity, or by reparation. In their identity ; as a fly or
ant in amber ; a flower, or fruit, or wood", in a con-
fervatory of fnow; a dead carcafe in balfams. By
reparation ; as a flame, or a mechanical engine, See. To
attain to the prolongation of life, both thefe methods
muft be ufed. And hence, according to him, arife
three intentions for the prolongation, of life : Retarda¬
tion of confumption, proper reparation, and renovation
of what begins to grow old.
Cbnfumption is occafioned by two kinds of depreda¬
tion ; a depredation of the innate fpirit, and a depre¬
dation of the ambient air. Thefe may be each pre¬
vented two ways; either by rendering thofe agents lefs
predatory, or by rendering the paffive parts [viz. the
juices of the body) lefs liable to be preyed on. The'
fpirit will be rendered lefs predatory, if either it's'fub-
ftance be condenfed, as by the ufe of opiates, grief,
See.; or its quantity diminifhed, as in fpare and mo-
naftic diets; or its motion calmed, as in idlenefs and
tranquillity. The ambient air becomes lefs predatory,
if it be either lefs heated by the rays of the fun, as in
cold climates, in caves, mountains, and anchorets cells ;
or be kept off from the body, as by a denfe Ikin, the
feathers of birds, and the ufe of oils and unguents with¬
out aromatics. The juices of the body are rendered
lefs liable to be preyed on, either by making them
harder or more moift and oily ; harder, as by a coarfe
fharp diet, living in the cold, robuft exercifes, and fome
mineral baths : moifter, as by the ufe of fweet foods,
&c. abftaining from falts and acids ; and efpecially by
fuch a mixture of drink as confifts wholly of fine fub-
tile particles, without any acrimony or acidity.
Reparation is performed by means of aliment; and.
alimentation is promoted four ways: By the conco&ion
of the vifcerft, fo as to extrude the aliment: By exciting
the exterior parts to the attraftion of the aliment; as
in proper exercifes and frications, and fome undtions
and
L I G [ 37 ] L I G
Life,
I-igature.
and baths :. By the preparation of the food itfelf, fo as
it may more eafily infmuate itfelf, and in fome meafure
anticipate the digeftion ; as in various ways of dreffing
meats, mixing drinks, fermenting breads, and reducing
the virtues of thefe three into one : By promoting the
a6t of affimilation itfelf, as in feafonable fleep, fome ex¬
ternal application, &c.
The renovation of what begins to grow old, is per-
formcd two ways : By the inteneration of the habit of
the body ; as in the ufe of emollients, emplafters, unc¬
tions, &c. of fuch a nature, as do not extract but im-
prefs : Or'by purging off the old juices, and fubllitu-
ting frefh ones ; as in feafonable evacuations, attenua¬
ting diets, &c.
The fame author adds thefe three axioms: That the
prolongation of life is to be expected, rather from fome
ftated diets, than either from any ordinary regimen or
any extraordinary medicines ; more from operating on
the fpirits, and mollifying the parts, than from the
manner of feeding ; and this mollifying of the parts
without is to be performed by fubftantials, impriments,
and occludents. See Longevity.
Vegetable Life. See Plants.
Life-Rent, in Scots law. When the ufe and enjoy¬
ment of a fubject is given to a perfon during his life,
it is faid to belong to him in life-rent.
LIGAMENT, in its general fenfe, denotes.any
thing that ties or binds one part to another.
Ligament, in anatomy, a ftrong compaft fubftance,
ferving to join two bones together. See Anatomy,
n° 7-
LIGARIUS (Quintus), a Roman proconful in
Africa, 49 B. C. Taking part with Pompey, he was
forbid by Julius Csefar to return to Rome: to obtain
his pardon, Cicero made that admired oration in his
defence which has immortalized the memory of the
client with that of his celebrated advocate.
LIGATURE, in furgeiy, is a cord, band, or
firing; or the binding any part of the body with a
cord, band, fillet, &c. whether of leather, linen, or any
other matter.
Ligatures are ufed to extend or replace bones that
are broken or dillocated ; to tie the patients down in
lithotomy and amputations ; to tie upon the veins in
phlebotomy, on the arteries in amputations, or in large
wounds ; to fecure the fplints that are applied to frac¬
tures ; to tie up the precedes of the peritoneum with
the fpermatic veffeis in caftration; and, laflly, in taking
off warts or other excrefcences by ligature,
Ligature, is alfo ufed to fignify a kind of bandage
or fillet, tied round the neck, arm, leg, or other part
of the bodies of men or beads, to divert or drive off
fome difeafe, accident, &e.
Ligature is alfo ufed for a ftate of impotency, in
refpecl to venery, pretended to be caufed by fome
charm or witchcraft.
Kaempfer tells of an uncommon kind of ligature or
knotting, in ufe among the people of Maffacar, Java,
Malaja, Siam, &c. By this charm or fpell, a man
hinds up a woman, and a woman a man, fo as to put
it out of their power to have to do with any other
perfon ; the man being thereby rendered impotent to
any other woman, and all other men impotent with
refpedl to the woman.
Some of their philofophers pretend, that this liga- Idcature,
ture may be effedted by the fhutting of a lock, the
drawing of a knot, or the flicking of a knife in the wall, v ^
at the point of time wherein the prieil is joining a
couple together; and that a ligature, thus effedted,
may be dilfolved, by the fpoufe s urining through a
ring. This piece of fuperftition is faid to obtain alfo
among the Chriftians of the Eaft.
The fame author tells us, that during the ceremony
of marriage in Raffia, he obferved an old fellow lurking
behind the church-door, and mumbling over a ftring.
of words; and, at the fame time, cutting a long rod,
which he held under his arm, into pieces; which, it
feems, is a common pradlice at the marriages of great .
perfons, and done with defign to elude and counterr
work any other perfon that might poffibly be inducing'
the ligature.
The feeret of inducing a ligature is delivered by
the fame author, as he was taught it on the fpot by
one of their adepts: but it is too abfurd and obfeene
to deferve being tranferibed here.
M. Marfhal mentions a" ridiculous, form of ligature,,
which he received,from a bramin at Indoftan : “ If
(fays he) the little worm in the wood lukerara kara
be cut into two, and the one part ftirs and the other
not, if the ftirring part be bruifed, and given with half
a beetle to a man, and the other half to a woman, the
charm will keep each from ever having to do with any
other perfon.” Phil. Tranf. N3 268.
Ligature, in. the Italian mufic, fignifies a tying
or binding together of notes. Hence fyncopes
are often called ligatures, becaufe they are made by
the ligature of many notes. There is another fort
of ligatures for breves, when there are many of thefe
-on different lines, dr on different fpaces, to be fung to
one fyllable.
Ligatures, among printers, are types confifting of
two letters or characters joined together; as 9,
Jl, Ji. The old editions of Greek authors are extreme¬
ly full of ligatures; the ligatures of Stephens are by
much the moil beautiful. — Some editions have been
lately printed without any ligatures at all; and there
was a defign to explode them quite out of printing.
Had this fucceeded, the fineft ancient editions would1
in time have grown ufelefs; and the reading of old-
manuferipts would have been rendered almoft impradli-
cable to the learned themfeives.
LIGHT, in the moil common acceptation of the
word, fignifies that invifible etherial matter which makes-
objects perceptible to our fenfe of feeing. Figurative¬
ly, it is alfo ufed for whatever conveys inftrudlion to-
our minds, and likewife for that inllruction itfelf.
The nature of light hath been .a fubjedl of fpecula- opinions-
tlon from the earlieil ages of philofophy. Some of of the fir fir.
thofe firft diftinguiihed by the appellation of philofo-'-
phers even doubted whether objedls became vifible by, V*ler.s COB*'
means of any thing proceeding from them,, or from*^™®
the eye of the fpe&ator. The fallacy of this notion
mutt very foon have been apparent, becaufe, in that
cafe, we ought to have feen as well in the night as in
the day. The opinion was therefore qualified by Em¬
pedocles and Plato; who maintained, that vifion was-
occafiofied by particles continually flying off from the;
furfaces of bodies, which met with others proceeding;
from.
L I G [ 38 ] L I G
Light, from the eye; but Pythagoras afcribed it folely to
the particles proceeding from the external objefts and
entering the pupil of the eye.
Among the modern philofophers there have been
two celebrated opinions, viz. the Cartefian and New¬
tonian. According to the former, light is an invifible
fluid prefent at all times and in all places, but which
requires to be fet in motion by an ignited or otherwife
properly qualified body in order to make objefts vi-
Of Sir Ifaac ^je to us.—The Newtonians maintain, that light is
ewton. not ^ conp,^8 Qf a vafl. nuTnber 0f ex_
ceedingly fmafl particles fhakcn off in all directions
from the luminous body with inconceivable velocity
by a repulfive power ; and which moil probably never
return again to the body from which they were emit¬
ted. Thefe particles are alfo faid to be emitted in
right lines by the body from whence they proceed:
and this reCtilinear direction they preferve until they
are turned out of their original path by the attraction
of fome other body near which they pafs, and which
is called infledlon; by palling through a medium of
different denfity, which is called refraBion, or by be¬
ing thrown obliquely ordireCtly forward by fome body
which oppofes their palfage, and which is called re-
AeSion; or, laflly, till they are totally flopped by the
fubftance of any body into which they penetrate, and
which is called their extinBion. A fucceflion of thefe
particles following one another in an exaCtly ftraight
line is called a ray of light; and this ray, in whatever
manner it hath its direction changed, whether by re-
fraCtion, reflection, or inflection, always preferves its
reCtilinear courfe; neither is it poffible by any art what¬
ever to make it pafs on in the fegment of a circle, el-
lipis, or other curve. —From fome obfervations on the
eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites, and alfo on the aberration
of the fixed liars, it appears that the particles of light
move at the rate of little lefs than 200,000 miles in a
4 fecond of time. See AsTRQNOMY-/n</?x.
Objedtions To this doCtrine concerning the nature of light fe-
to’heNew-yeral objections have been made; the moll confiderable
trine11 t*°C" which is> That in this cafe, as rays of light are con¬
tinually palling in different directions from every vi-
fible point, they mufl necefiarily interfere with and de-
flroy each other in fuch a manner as entirely to con¬
found all dillinCt perception of objeCts, if not to de-
flroy the fenfe of feeing altogether; not to mention
the continual wafle of fubftance which a conftant emif-
fion of particles muft occafion in the luminous body,
and which fince the creation ought to have greatly di-
minilhed the fun and ftars, as well as increafed the bulk
of the earth and planets by the vaft quantity of par¬
ticles of light abforbed by them in Inch a long period
5 of time.
Anfwer by In anfwer to this objection, Mr Melville gives fome
vhle^*" ingenious illuftrations concerning the extreme fubtilty
1 e' of light, or the fmallnefs of the particles of which it
confifts, and of which few perfons, even of thofe who
admit the hypothefis, have any idea. He obferves,
that there is probably no phyfical point in the vifible
horizon that does not fend rays to every other point,
unlefs where opaque bodies interpofe. Light, in its
palfage from one fyftem to another, often palfes thro’
torrents of light iffuing from other funs and fyftems,
without ever interfering or being diverted in its courfe,
either by it, or by the particles of that elaftic medium
4
Of Des
Cartes.
3
which fome phenomena give us reafon to fuppofe
are diffufed through all the mundane fpace. To ac- w—<
count for this faCt and others fimilar to it, he con¬
cludes, that the particles of which light confifts muft be
incomparably rare, even when they are the moft denfe;
that is, that the femidiameters of the two neareil par¬
ticles, in the fame or in different beams, foon after
their emiffion, are incomparably lefs than their diftance
from one another. This difficulty concerning the non¬
interference of the particles of light is not folved, as
he obferves, by fuppofing with Mr Bofcovich and
others, that each particle is endued with an infuper-
able impulfive force; becaufe, in that cafe, their fphere*
of impulfion would even be more liable to interfere, and
they would on that account be more likely to dilturb
one another. g
The difficulty, according to Mr Canton, will nearly ByMrSai*.
vanifh, if a very fmall portion of time be allowed be- ton.
tween the emiffion of every particle and the next that
follows in the fame direction. Suppofe, for inftance,
that one lucid point of the fun’s furface emits 150 par¬
ticles in a fecond, which are more than fufficient to
give continual light to the eye without the leaft ap¬
pearance of intermiffion; yet ftill the particles of
which it confifts, will on account of their great velo¬
city be more than 1000 miles behind each other, and
thereby leave room enough for others to pafs in all di¬
rections. y
In order to determine whether light really confifts Expeii-
of particles emitted from the luminous body, or only in ments to
the vibrations of a fubtile fluid, it has been attempted ‘^e™'ne
to find out its momentum, or the force with which it nientuin of
moves. The firft who fet about this matter with any light,
tolerable pretenfions to accuracy was M. Mairan. O- 8
thers indeed, particularly Hartfocker and Homberg,
had pretended, that in certain cafes this momentum
was very perceptible ; but M, Mairan proved, that the
effeCts mentioned by them were owing to currents of
beated air produced by the burning-glaffes ufed in
their experiments, or to fome other, caufes overlooked
by thefe philofophers. To decide the matter therefore,
if poffible, he began with trying the effeCls of rays col¬
lected by lenfes of four and fix inches diameter, and
thrown upon the needle of a compafs; but the refult
was nothing more than fome tremulous motion from
whence he could draw no conclufion. After .this, he
and Mr du Fay" conftruCted a kind of mill of copper,
which moved with an exceeding flight impulfe ; but
though they threw upon it the focus of a lens of feven *
or eight inches diameter, they were ftill unable to draw
any conclufions from the refult.
M. Mairan afterwards procured a horizontal wheel
of iron three inches in diameter, having fix radii, at
the extremity of each of which was a fmall wing fixed
obliquely. The axis of the wheel, which was alfo of
iron, was fufpended by a magnet. The wheel and the
axis together did not weigh more than 30 grains; but
though a motion was given to this wheel when the fo¬
cus of the burning glafs was thrown upon the extre¬
mities of the radii, yet it was fo irregular, that he could
not but conclude that it was occafioned by the motion
of the heated air. He then intended to have made his
experiment in vacuo, but he concluded that it was un-
neceffary. For, befides the difficulty of making a va¬
cuum, he was perfuaded that there was in our atmo-
5 fpherc
L I G [ 39 ] L I G
Light, fphere a thinner medium which freely penetrates even
‘““"’V”—' glafs itfelf, the exiftence of which he imagined that he
had fufficiently proved in his treatife on the aurora bo-
9 realis. See Aurora Borealis, n j 5.
By Mr Mr Michell fome years ago endeavoured to afcer-
.Miche . ta;n momentum of light in a manner ftill more ac¬
curate. The inftrument he made ufe of for this pur-
pofe confifted of a very thin plate of copper, a little
more than an inch fquare, which was fattened to one
end of a flender harpfichord-wire about ten inches long.
To the middle of this was fixed an agate cap, fuch as
is commonly ufed for fmall mariner’s-compaffes, after
the manner of which it was intended to turn ; and at
the other end of the wire was a middling fixed ihot-
corn, as a counterpoife to the copperplate. The inftru¬
ment had alfo fixed to it in the middle, at right angles
to the length of the wire, and in an horizontal direc¬
tion, a fmall bit of a very fiender fewing-needle, about
one-third or perhaps half an inch long, which was.
made magnetical. In this ftate the whole inftrument
might weigh about 10 grains. It was placed on a very
(harp-pointed needle, or which the agate cap turned
extremely freely ; and to prevent its being difturbed
by any motion of the air, it was included in a box, the
lid and front of which were of glafs. This box was
about 12 inches long, fix or feven inches deep, and
about as much in width; the needle Handing upright
in the middle. At the time of making the experiment,
the box was placed in fuch a manner that a line drawn
from the fun patted at right angles to the length of it;
and the inftrument was brought to range in the fame
dire&ion with the box, by means of the magnetical bit
of needle above mentioned, and a magnet properly pla¬
ced on the outfide, which would retain it, though with
extremely little force, in any fituation. The rays of
the fun were now thrown upon the copperplate above
mentioned from a concave mirror of about two feet
diameter, which, palling through the front-glafs of the
box, were collefted into the focus of the mirror upon
the copperplate. In confequence of this the plate be¬
gan to move, with a flow motion of about an inch in a
fecond of time, till it had moved through a fpace of
about two inches and a half, when it ftruck againft the
back of the box. The mirror being removed, the in¬
ftrument returned to its former fituation by means
of the little needle and magnet; and the rays of the
fun being then again thrown upon it, it again be¬
gan to move, and ftruck againft the back of the box
as before; and this was repeated three or four times
with the fame fuccefs.—The inftrumentwas then placed
the contrary way in the box to that in which it had
been placed before, fo that the end to which the cop¬
perplate was affixed, and which had lain, in the former
experiment, towards the right hand, now lay towards
the left; and the rays of the fun being again thrown
upon it, it began to move with a flow motion, and
ftruck againft the back of the box as before ; and'this
was repeated once or twice with the fame fuccefs. But
by this time the copperplate began to be fo much al¬
tered in its form, by the extreme heat which it under¬
went in each experiment, and which brought it nearly
into a ftate of fufion, that it became very much bent,
and the more fo as it had been unwarily fupported by
the middle, half of it lying above and half below the wire
to which it was faftened. By this means it now varied
fo much from the vertical pofition, that it began to- Light.
aft; in the fame manner as the fail of a windmill, being  
impelled by the ftream of heated air which moved up¬
wards, with- a force fufficient to drive it in oppofition
to the impulfe of the rays of light.
“ If we impute (fays Dr Prieftley) the motion-pro- j)r p^ft,
duced in the above experiment to the impulfe of the ley’s con-
rays of light, and fuppofe that the inftrument weighed dufions*
ten grains, and acquired a velocity of one inch in a
feeond, we (hall find that the quantity of matter con¬
tained in'the rays falling upon the inftrument in that
time amounted to no more than one twelve-hundredth-
millionth part of a grain, the velocity of light exceed¬
ing the velocity of one inch in a fecond in the pro¬
portion of about 12,000,000,000 to 1. Now the light
in the above experiment was collefted from a furface
of about three fquare feet, which reflefting only about
half what falls upon it, the quantity of matter con¬
tained in the rays of the fun incident upon a fquare
foot and an half of furface in one fecond of time, ought
to be no more than the twelve-hundred-millionth part
of a grain, or, upon one fquare foot only, the eighteen-
hundred-millionth part of a grain. But the denfity of
the rays of light at the furface of the fun is greater
than at the earth in the propoHon of 45,000 to 1 :
there ought, therefore, to iffue from one fquare foot
of the fun’s furface in one fecond of time, in order to
fupply the wafte by light, one forty-thoufandth part
of a grain of matter ; that is, a lit^fe more than two
grains in a day, or about 4,752,000 grains, or 670
pounds avoirdupoife nearly, in 6000 years ; a quantity
which would have (hortened the fun’s femidiameter no
more than about ten feet, if it was formed of the den¬
fity of water only.” • rI
The Newtonians, befides the anfwer juft now given ObjetfUonr
to the moft formidable objeftions of their opponents, agaii]ft the
have endeavoured to prove the impoffibility of light be- ^3”?^”
ing a vibration in any fluid. Sir Ifaac, in his Princi-s;r |fa4C *
pia, demonftrates, that no reftilinear motion can be Newton,,
propagated among the particles of any fluid unlefs
thefe particles lie in right lines; and he hath alfo (hown,
that all motion propagated through a fluid diverges
from a reftilinear progrefs into the unmoved fpaces.
Hence he concludes, “ a preffure on a fluid medium
(i. e. a motion propagated by fuch a medium beyond
any obftacle, which impedes any part of its motion),
cannot be propagated in right lines, but will be al¬
ways inflefting and diffufing itfelf every way, to the
quiefcent medium beyond that obftacle. The power
of gravity tends downwards; but the preffure of water
riling from it tends every way with an equable force,
and is propagated with equal eafe, and equal ftrength,
in curves, as in ftraight lines. Waves, on the furface
of the water, gliding by the extremes of any very large
obftacle, infleft and dilate themfelves, ftill diffufyig
gradually, into the quiefcent water beyond that ob¬
ftacle. The waves, pulfes, or vibrations of the air,
wherein found confifts, are manifeftly inflefted, though
not fo confiderably as the waves of water ; and founds
are propagated with equal eafe, through crooked tubes
and through ftraight lines; but light was never known
to move in any curve, nor to infleft itfelf ad umbrarn.'” ^
To this Mr Rowning adds another proof. “ The By Mr
Cartefian notion of light (fays he), was not that itRowning,
is propagated frt>m luminous bodies by the emiffion of
ftnall
L I G [ 40 ] L I G
fmall particles, but that it was communicated to the
tm-y—». organ 0f flgjjj. j^y their preffure upon the materia fub-
tilis, with which they fuppofed the univerfe to be full.
But, according to this hypothefis, it could never be
dark ; becaufe, when a fluid fuftains any preffure, if
that fluid Alls all the fpace it takes up, abfolutely,
without leaving any pores, which is the cafe of the
fuppofed materia fubtilis, then that preffure muff ne-
cefl’arily be communicated equally and injlantaneoujly
to every part. And therefore, whether the fun were
above or below the horizon, the preffure communica¬
ted, and confequently the light, would be the fame.
And farther, as the preffure would be inftantaneous, fo
would the light, whicli is contrary to what is collefted
from the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites.”
It is obvious, however, that whatever fide we take
concerning the nature of light, many, indeed aim oft
all the circumftances concerning it, are incomprehen-
13 fible, and beyond the reach of human underftanding.
TTnaccount- Moft of the difcous flowers, by fome power unknown
pertieTof t0 US’ ^°^ow t^ie ^un *n courfe- They attend him
light. to his evening retreat, and meet his rifing luftre in the
morning with the fame unerring law. If a plant alfo
is (hut up in a dark room, and a fmall hole is afterwards
opened by which the light of the fun may enter, the
plant will turn towards that hole, and even alter its
own ihape in order to get near it; fo that though it
was ftraight before, it will in time become crooked,
that it may get near the Ijght. It is not the heat, but
the light of the fun, which it thus covets ; for, though
a fire be kept in the room, capable of giving a much
ftronger heat than the fun, the plant will turn away
from the fire in order to enjoy the fun’s light.—The
green colour of plants alfo depends on the fun’s light
being allowed to Ihine upon them; for without this'
they are always white.— From this laft circumftance,
and likewife the property which the folar light has of
* See Che- blackening precipitates of filver from the nitrous acid*,
withy, it has been thought that light either contains the
n® 756. phlogijlon in very confiderable quantity, or is itfelf a
modification of ..that unknown fubftance. But that
anodifica- t^1‘s cannot be the cafe, we have now a proof little
tion of the Ihort of demonftration, from the laft experiments of
phiogifton. Dr Prieftley concerning the production of pure de-
j phlogifticated air from pump-water, by means of the
4 See Aero Adar light f. If light either were the phlogifton it-
l0gy\n° 36j feT, or contained it in very confiderable quantity, it is
et feq. impoffible the air produced by its means could be pure
and dephlogifticated.—For the properties of light a Cl¬
ing as the medium of our perceptions by the fenfe of
fight, fee the article Optics.
Dr For In the Philofophical TranfaCtions for 1776, Dr
dyce’s ex- Fordyce gives an account of fome experiments upon
periments the light produced by Inflammation. They were made
on the light to determine, whether there was any light.produced by
by°inflam- t^ie inflammation itfelf, independent of ignition. Sub-
mation. ftances, he obferves, begin to be luminous in the dark
when heated to between 6 and 700 degrees of Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer. If the fubftances be colourlefs,
they firft emit a red light; then a red mixed with
yellow ; and laftly, with a great degree of heat, a pure
white. This whitenefs, however, feems to depend
greatly upon the denfity of the body; for the vapour
at the end of the flame urged by a blow-pipe is not
vifibly luminous, though its. heat be fufficieutly great to
give a white heat to glafs. The colour of the ignited Light,
matter, according to our author, has an effect upon v-*—*
the colour of the light emitted. Thus, during the *6
calcination of zinc, the calx of which is white, a light.^°
is produced farce inferior in beauty to that of the fun matter fup-
himfelf. A beautiful green is communicated by the pofed to
green calx of copper to the flame of a fire into which an in-
it is thrown; and the yellow empyreumatic oil into
which tallow or any common oil is converted in burning, 0f ^
communicates a part of its own colour to the flame, flame,
which very much alters the appearance of bodies feen by
candle-light from what it is by day-light. It does not,
however, appear that this always holds good; for the
fletme of burning iron is intenfely white; and yet
neither the metal itfelf nor any of its calces are of that
colour.
Light produced by the decompofition of bodies by pro¬
inflammation without ignition is always blue, and pro-ducedin
duces very little heat. Thus phofphorus of urine is de-cafe8
compofed by mere expofure to the air; and gives but jY^g teat,
very little heat, though a confiderable light is emitted.
The following proof is adduced by our author that this
emiflion of light is a true inflammation. “ Take a re¬
ceiver of white glafs, capable of holding fix or eight
gallons; put into it a drachm of phofphorus finely
powdered, and half an ounce of water; cork the mouth
of the receiver, and tie it over with a bladder, fo as
to exclude the external air: incline the receiver to all
fides gently, and afterwards fet it to reft; the powder
will adhere to the fides, and the water will drain from
it. As foon as the water is fufficiently drained off,
the particles of the phofphorus will become luminous,
and emit a thick fmoke; this will continue for fome
days; but at laft no more light or vapour will appear.
Open the receiver, and you will find that the air will
have contracted, as it does from the inflammation of a
candle in Van Helmont’s experiment; that is, about a
twentieth part. It is become unfit for inflammation ;
for if a lighted candle be immerfed in it, it will be ex-
tinguilhed as well as the phofphorus, and an animal will
be fuffpeated by it. The air then has fuffered the fame
change as that which has ferved for the inflammation of
other bodies-; and the phofphorus is partly decompofed,
the water in the receiver being impregnated with its
acid, and the air faturated with its phlogifton. Blow
frelh air into the receiver, and the light and fmoke will
immediately re-appear. In like manner it is known that
fulphur will burn and give light without heat fufficient
for ignition. Take a piece of iron heated nearly red
hot, and throw a little gun-powder upon it. If the
heat be of a proper degree, the fulphur will burn off
with a blue flame, without heat fufficient for ignition ;
for if fuch heat had been produced, the gun-powder
would certainly have taken fire. It is the inflammation
and decompofition of the fulphur, and not its evapora¬
tion, which produces the light; for'if we fublime fulphur
in veffels of the moft tranfparent glafs, no light will be
vifible except at the very beginning, when a fmall
portion of it burns till the air in the veffel be faturatid,
and rendered unfit for inflammation.” ,g
Our author is of opinion, that the light produced by Lipht from
inflammation is of a blue colour, from whatever body it
is derived. This he endeavours to prove from an oh- feTm be°
fervation on the flame of a candle, the lower part of always
which, where the inflammation is, always appears ofhlue.
r a
L I G [ 41 3 L I G
Light, a blue colour. “Or (fays he) take a candle which has
V v— burned for fome time; extinguifh it by applying tallow
to the wick, and let it Hand to cool; afterwards fet
it on fire by the flame of another candle; at firfl no
more vapour will arife than can be a£ted upon by the
air at once ; inflammation, therefore, will go on in the
whole fmall flame, and it will be blue. When a candle
Obferva- burns, the following procefs takes place. The tallow
tions on boils in the wick; and is converted into empyreumatic
in the form of vapour. As it rifes
from every part of the wick, the volume is increafed
till it comes to the top, and gives to the lower part of
the flame the form of the fruftum of an inverted cone.
The air is applied to the outer furface of the column
of vapour; and there decompofingthe empyreumatic oil,
produces heat and blue light: the ftratum of vapour,
within the outer burning furface, is heated white-hot;
the heat diminiihes towards the centre, which, if
the flame be large, is fcarcely red hot; as the column
rifes, decompofition taking place conftantly on its
furface, it neceflarily diminilhes, and the upper part of
the flame is conical. That the tallow boils in the wick,
can be feen: that it is converted into empyreumatic
oil, is proved by drawing the vapour, rifingin the middle
of the flame, where it does not burn, into a glafs-
tube : the empyreumatic oil condenfes; this alfo fhows
that the flame does not burn in the middle. That
the heat is produced on the outer furface, appears, if we
take a fmall rod of glafs, and put the end of it in the
blue flame on the furface ; it will be heated white hot,
and melt. Immerfe the rod into'the flame, fo that the
point fliall be in the centre: it will melt and bend
where it is in the blue flame on the furface; whereas, if
the flame be large, the point which is in the centre will
hardly he heated red-hot. That the empyreumatic oil
is depompofed, is proved by burning a candle with a
very fmall wick in diftilling veffels; no condenfation of
ao empyreumatic oil takes place.”
Mr Mor- In the 75th volume of the Tranfa&ions, Mr Morgan
gan’s ob- treats the fubject of light at fome length. As a founda-
fervatjons tion for his reafoning he aflumes the following data,
upon light, j _ That light is a body, and, like all others, fubjeft to
the laws of attraftion. 2. That light is an heterogeneous
body; and that the fame attractive power operates
with different degrees of force on its different parts.
3. That the light which efcapes from combuftibles when
decompofed by heat, or by any other means, was, pre¬
vious to its efcape, a component part of thefe fubllances.
Hence he concludes, that when the attractive force by
which the feveral rays of light are attached to a body
is weakened, fome of thofe rays will efcape fooner
than others ; it being evident that thofe which are de¬
tained by the' fmallefl: power will fooneft go off when
the general attractive force is weakened. This he
illuftrates by the example of a mixture of fpirit of
wine, water, and other more fixed fubftances. The
application of a .gentle heat will carry off the fpirit of
wine only ; a heat not much greater will evaporate the
fpirits and water mixed together; and a ftill greater degree
will carry off a mixture of all the particles together.
“ In like manner (fays he), when the furface of a com-
- buftible is in a ftate of decompofition, thofe parts of it
which are the leaft fixed,1 or which are united with the
leaft force, will be feparated firfl:. Amongft thefe the
indigo rays of light will make the earlieft appearance.
Vol.X. Part I.
By increafing the heat, we fliall mix the violet with Light,
the indigo: by iricreafing it ftill more, we fliall add
the blue and the green to the mixture, till at length we
reach that intenfity of heat yhich will caufe all the rays
to efcape at the fame inftaflt, and make the flame of
a combuftible perfectly white. By examining the flame Rcmarks
of a common candle, we may obferve, that its loweft ex- on thefiame
tremities, or the part in which the black colour of the a candle,
wick terminates, difeharges the leaft heat; and that, as.
the vertex of the flame is approached, a fucceffive order
of parts is paffed through, in which the loweft is conti¬
nually adding to the heat of that which is juft above it,
till we come to the top of the flame, near which all
the heat is collected into a focus. At the loweft: ex¬
tremity, however, where the heat is inconfiderable, a
blue colour may always be obferved ; and from this ap¬
pearance, amongft others, I think it may be concluded,
that the blue rays are. fome of thofe which efcape from
combuftibles in an early period of their decompofition;
and that if the decompofition could be examined in a
peiiod ftill more early, the colour of the flame would be
violet. By an a priori dedudtion of this kind, I was led
to obferve, that to the external boundary of the flame of
a common candle is annexed a filament of light; which
if proper care be taken to prevent the efcape of
too much fmoke, wall appear moft beautifully coloured
with the violet and indigo rays. If fulphur or ether be
burned, or any other cdmhuftible whofe vapour is
kindled in a fmall degree of heat, a blue flame will ap¬
pear ; which, if examined by the prifm, will be found
to confift of the violet, the indigo, the blue, and fome-
times a fmall quantity of the green rays. The beft
mode, however, of Ihovving the efcape of fome rays by
that degree of heat which will not feparate others till
increafed, is the following. Give a piece of brown Curious ex*
paper a fpherical form, by preffing it upon any hard periment
globular fubftance. Gradually bring the paper thus “
fomed to that diftance from the candle at which it will brown pa-
begin to take fire. -In this cafe a beautiful blue flame per.
may be feen hanging, as it were, by the paper till a hole
is made in it; when the flame, owing to the increafed
aftion of the air upon all parts of it, becomes white,
though the edges ftill continue of a blue or violet colour.
As a confirmation of this, it may be obferved, that the
very flame, which when expofed toa certain degree of heat
emits only the moft refrangible rays, will,, if expofed to
one confiderably greater, emit alfo thofe which are
lefs fo. The flames of fulphur and fpirit of wine, if
fuddenly expofed to the heat of a reverberatory, will
change their blue colour for One that is perfectly
white.” . 33
To obtain a more perfect knowledge of this matter, Experl-
our author examined the light proceeding from com- ments on
buftible bodies by Mr Melville’s method. Having
darkened the room, he interpofed betwixt the eye method! *
and combuftible a fheet of pafteboard, in which- was a
very fmall hole for tranfmkting the light. Viewing the
light which paffed through this hole with a prifm,
he obferved, that the blue and violet rays were in
greater abundance than any of the reft, though all the
different kinds paffed through it when fpirit of wine
only was made ufe of. When the combuftion of the fpirit
of wine was checked by throwing, in fal ammoniac, the
red rays difappeared, but made their appearance again
as foon as the fait became heated tp fuch a degree as to
F increafe
L I G
Light.
increafe father than diminifh the combuftion of the
^ fpirits. On examining the different parts of the flame
feparately, it was always found that the colours varied
according to the degree of heat. At the bafe of the
flame, or where the heat was leaft, the indigo, violet,
and blue always appeared in gfeateft quantity ; but as
the vertex was approached, the other rays appeared,
and at the very top they were all vifible through a
24 Prifm-
Condufions From thefe fafts Mr Morgan concludes, 1. That light,
from thefe as an heterogeneous bo^y, is gradually decompofed
mems* during combultion ; that the indigo rays efcape with
the leall heat, and the red with the greateft ; and from
this again he explains the reafon why flames affume
different colours. “ If a piece of paper (fays he), im¬
pregnated with a folution of copper in nitrous acid, be
fet on fire, the bottom and fides of the flame are always
tinged green. Now this flame is evidently in that weak
ftate of decpmpofition in which the moil refrangible rays
efcape in the greatefl abundance; but of thefe the
green rays efcape moft plentifully through the unignited
vapour and that portion of the atmofphere which is
interpofed betwixt the eye and the flame. This pe¬
culiarity may be obferved in greatefl; perfection in brafs
founderies. Here the heat, though veiy ftrong, is
fcarcely fufficient to decompofe the metallic vapour
which efcapes from the melted brafs; whence the flame
has a very Angular appearance, the edges being green,
and the body of fuch an appearance, as to give fubfiances
viewed by it a pallid and ghaftly appearance, owing to
the want of a fufficient quantity of red rays to make
1$ a perfect white.”
Redap- 2. Mr Morgan explains the red appearance of bodies
bodies in ^ t^e*r ^ ^ate ignition, from the previous efcape
their laft of the more refrangible rays, fo that only the red ones re-
ftate of ig- main. “ Again, (fays he), we may confider the external
nition cx- furface of the combuftible body as annexed to an inner
* aiBe ' furface, which may be partly, but not fo perfectly de¬
compofed as itfelf: for the violence of the heat will
be found to leflen in its effeCts the nearer it approaches
to the centre of the fubftance which is expofed to it.
Hence we are to confider the parts which are juft
covered by the external furface as having loft lefs of
their component light than the external fnrface itfelf;
or the former may retain the green rays when the
latter has loft both indigo, violet, blue, and green.
3. “ Thofe parts which are nearer the centre of the
body than any of the preceding, mull, as they are far¬
ther from the greateft violence of the heat, have loft
proportionably fewer of their rays ; or while the ex¬
ternal parts may have loft all but the red, thefe may
have loft only the indigo and violet.
( 42 )
L I G
pearances fimilar to the preceding may be obferved in Light.
a comtpon kitchen fire. When it is fainteft,>its colour 
is molt red, the other rays having been emitted, and
the combWtion at a Hand ; but by blowing upon it in '
this ftate, itshfightnefs will be encreafed, and more and
more of the rays which are yielded by the internal parts
of the body will come to the eye, till at length, by con¬
tinuing to blow, the combuftion will be made fo com¬
plete as to yield all the rays, or to make it appear
perfectly white.” 2(S
Our author concludes the fubjeCt with a criticifir^ir Ifaac
upon Sir Ifaac Newton’s definition of flame, Viz..Newl0.11’*
that it is a vapour heated red hot. In his opinion, flame
is an inftance of combuftion whofe colour will be crjtid"fed by;
determined by the degree of decompofition which takes.Mt Mor-
place. When very imperfed, only the moft refrangible £an*
rays will appear. If it be very perfeCt, all the rays will
appear, and its flame will be brilliant in* proportion.
But there are flames which confiit of burning particles,
the rays of which havepartlyefcaped before they afcend-
ed inform ofvapour. “ Such (fayshe) would be the flame
of a red hot coal, if expofed to fuch a heat as would
gradually convert it into vapour. When the fire is veiy.
low under the furnace of an iron foundery, at the.
upper orifice of the chimney a red flame of this kind may
be feen, which is different from the flame that appears
immediately after frefh coals have been thrown upon the
fire | for in confequence of adding , fuch a fupply to-
the burning fuel, a vafl column of fmoke afcends, and
forms a medium fo thick as to abforb molt of the
rays excepting the red.”
Thus we have a moft elaborate theory for the. Wr
folving of phenomena which feem not eafily to admit jran’s thee-
of any folution. It is obvious, however, that thedatan' not
upon which he builds his fyitem are altogether -un-wfAhamd*
founded and hypothetical. That light is fubjeCt toe<*'
the laws of attraction, cannot be proved unleis we
could examine it independent of any other fubftance
whatever; that is to fay, in a perfeCt vacuum ; and even
in the moft perfeCt vacuum that can be formed, we
are far from being certain that no other matter is pre-
fent. Light is infleCted and turned out of its courfe
in many different ways when aCting in the common at¬
mofphere, but we have no reafon to fuppofe that it
would be the fame in a perfeCt vacuum; at leaft ws
have not a right to lay it down as a principle to argue
from, unlefs it were verified by experience. Even the
heterogeneous nature of light feems far from being ab-
folutely eftablifhed. The refraCtion into different cot
lours by the prifm feems infufficient to do fo ; for
though, by a quick revolution of thefe colours when
painted upon any fubftance, we may produce a kind
4.“ The moft central parts may be unaffeCted by the of white colour, it is by no means perfeCt, but looks
heat; and whenever the fire does reach thefe parts, they if fome black had got amongft it. The opinion of thofe
•wall immediately difcharge their indigo rays, and be who maintain that the prifmatic colours.are no other
decompofed in the gradual manner already mentioned, than different mixtures of light and fhade, feems there-
A piece of rotten wood, while burning, will exemplify fore equally probable with the other. His third pofi-
and confirm the preceding illufiration. When in- tion, that the light emitted by combuftible bodies form-
fluenced by the external air only, if examined through ed part of their fubftance before combuftion, feems flill
a prifm, no rays will be found to efcape but the orange worfe founded ; for inftead of being ■ fixed in folid
and the red. By blowing upon the burning wood fubftances, all the light and heat proceeding from com-
with a pair of bellows, the combuftion being increafed, bullion feem entirely to come from the air. By means of
will affeCt thofe internal parts of the body which were heat originally applied, the fubftance, or part of it, is ra-
not aCted upon before. Thefe parts therefore will refied into vapour ; and this vapour, we have every rea-
begin to lofe their light, and a prifm will Ihow the green, fon to fuppofe, confifts of elementary fire united with
blue, violet, and indigo, all appearing in fucceffion. Ap- the folid fubltance. It is this fire, heat, or light, which
L I G I 43 ] L I G
tJght, is afterwards thrown out from the vapour in combuf-
tron ; and new fupplies of it perpetually come from
the atmofphere, as is abundantly rtiown under the ar¬
ticles Combustion, Fire, Flame, and many others
throughout this work. We cahnot therefore think
it either inconfiftent, or very improbable, that in the
beginning of combuftion, when the white light is
clouded with a great quantity of vapour, it Ihould ap¬
pear of a blue or violet colour; and that in propor¬
tion as this vapour is diflipated, it fhbuld appear green,
yellow, red, or perfectly white : for it is obfervable,
that in dephlogiftieated air, even thofe flames which
in the common atmofphere always appear blue, fuch
as fulphur and fpirit of wine, are then changed to a
dazzling white. The pure light of the fun alfo feeti
through fmoke, or even through a great quantity of
aqueous vapour, appears red ; and there is not the
leaft doubt, that if we were to view the fun while he
thus appears red through any blue medium, he would
. -appear purple; and in like manner, were we to view
n blue flame through a yellow medium, it would ap¬
pear of a green colour.
^ie fame paper Mr Morgan has fome curious ob-
vadons on fc'rvatl'ons upon the eleftric light. There is neither
«le<ftric fluid nor folid, he fays, through v/hich the electric
light. fluid in its pafiage will not appear luminous, if we do
not make the quantity, through which it has to pafs,
too great. In his experiments on fluids, he puts them
into a tube about three quarters of an inch diameter
and four inches long. The orifices are then flopped
up with twro corks, through which two pointed wires
are thruft, fo that the points may approach within one
eighth part of an inch of each other; and in this
cafe the electric matter which pafies through the fluid
is always luminous, provided a fufficient force be ufed.
The experiment, however, is dangerous, unlefs great
care be taken 5 and the tube, unlefs it be very ftrong,
will be broken by a very flight difcharge. With acids
the experiment fucceeds more difficultly ; they mutt be
put into capillary tubes, and the wires placed very
near to each other. A ftripe of gold leaf one eighth of
an inch diameter, and a yard long, becomes quite lu¬
minous by difcharging a battery over it; and our au¬
thor cannot afcertain the length to which it might be
made luminous. The experiment will alfo fucceed with
Dutch metal or filver leaf. If the gold or filver leaf
be put upon a glafs, and that laid in water, the whole
will appear moft beautifully luminous on difcharging
a battery through it.
The better a condu&or that any fubftance is, the
greater is the difficulty of making the electric fpark
vifible in it. Hence it requires a much greater power
of eledtricity to make a fpark vifible in boiling than
in cold water; the former being a much better con-
•duftor than the latter. In like manner, the mineral
acids are much better conduftors than common water;
and, of confequence, the fpark is made to appear in
them with much more difficulty than in water. This
appears from what has been already mentioned; and
our author likewife obferves, that if a few drops of
acid be poured into the tube containing the water em¬
ployed for this purpofe, it will fcarcely be poffible to
make the fpark luminous in it by any force.
The rarity of any body greatly increafes the eafe
with which the ele&ric fpark is made vifible in it; as
appears from difcharging a vial through rarefied air, I^ght
the vapour of ether, fpirit of wine, or water. ——y——
In the profecution of his experiments upon this
fubjeft, our author cemented a ball of iron into the
orifice of a tube 48 inches long, and twro thirds of an inch
diameter, fo that it could bear the weight of the quick-
filver with which the tube was filled all to a fmall
fpace at the open end, which contained a few drops
of water. Having inverted the tube, and plunged
the open end of it into a bafon of mercury, that in
the tube flood nearly half an inch lower than in a ba¬
rometer with wbich it was compared at the fame time,
owing to the vapour which was formed by the wa¬
ter ; but the fpark patted as brilliant through the ra¬
refied water as it does through rarefied air. If
fpirit of wine be employed inilead of water in this ex¬
periment, the fpark wall not be fo luminous. In the
vapour of ether a great force is requifite to make the
fpark luminous, but good ether will prefs the mercury
dowm as far as 16 or 17 inches. By rarefying the va¬
pour, however, the fpark will pafs through it with
more eafe.
On examining the mineral acids in vacuo, Mr Mori
gan could not find that any vapour efcaped from
them. To give them the requifite degree of tenuity,
therefore, he traced a line upon glafs about an eighth
part of an inch broad, with a camel’s hair pencil dip¬
ped in the acids : the line extended fometimes to the
length of 27 inches ; in wbich cafe, the eleftric fpark
would pafs over the whole with great brilliancy. If
by widening the line, however, or putting on a drop
of acid in any particular part, the quantity was in-
creafed, the fpark never appeared in that part.
The brightnefs of the electric light is always in pro- Of the
portion to its condenfation. Thus, if a fpark taken brightnefs
from a powerful eleftrical machine divides itfelf into e,e<^ric
bruflies, or throw's out fparks from the fides, by which
the light is diffufed over a larger furface, it thus be¬
comes lefs brilliant; and in all cafes in which any dif-
fufion of light, whether eleftric or not, takes place,
the cafe will be the fame.
In fome cafes, Mr Morgan is of opinion, that, even
with the eleftric fluid, only the more refrangible rays th™mereM
of light make their efcape. Thus, the ele&rical brufh refrangible
is always of a purplifli or bluifli colour; and if you rays only
convey a fpark through a Torricellian vacuum not very efcai,f20.M
perfectly made, it will be of an indigo colour. This, fluii. nt
however, does not feem to arife from any other caufe
than the mere w-eaknefs of the light, which, in paf-
fing througli the vapours of the atmofphere, or per¬
haps through the humours of the eye itfelf, affefts
our organs of fight in that manner.
Our author next proceeds to examine the influence influence of
of media upon ele&ric light; which, he fays, is fimilar media upon
to their influence upon folar light, and ferves to ex-t.Ie<aric
plain feveral phenomena.
“ Let a pointed wire (fays he), having a metallic
ball fixed to one of its extremities, be forced obliquely
into a piece of wood, fo as to make a fmall angle with
its furface ; and to make the point lie about one eighth
of an inch below it. Let another pointed wire, which
communicates with the ground, be forced in the fame
manner into the fame wood, fo that its point may in
like manner be about one eighth of an inch below the
furface, and about two inches diftant from th^point
L I G
Light, of the firft wire. Let the wood be infulated, and a
t——v ftrongfpark, which ftrikes on the metallic ball, will
Curious ex ^orce 'ts waY through the interval of wood which lies
periment of ket-ween the points, and appear as red as blood. To
fending the prove that this appearance depends on the wood’s abforp-
ele&ric tion of all the rays but the red, I would obferve, that
wood t*ir° t^e greater t^e depth of the points is below the furface,
the lefs mixed are the rays. When they are deepeft be¬
low the furface, only the red come to the eye through
a prifm ; when raifcd a little nearer the furface, the
red and orange appeared; when nearer ftill, the yel¬
low ; and fo on, till, by making the fpark pafs through
the wood very near its furface, all the rays were
at length able to reach the eye. If the points be
only one eighth of an inch below the furface of foft
deal wood, the red, the orange, and the yellow rays
will appear as the fpark paffes through it. But when
the points are at an equal depth in a piece of harder
wood, box for inftance, the yellow, and perhaps the
orange, ■will dffappear. As a farther proof of this ab-
forption of the ray’s, it may be obferved, when the fpark
flrikes very bright upon one fide of the piece of deal, it
will appear quite red on the other. In like manner, a
red appearance may be given to a fpark which ftrikes
bright over the infide of a tube, merely by fpreading
- feme pitch very thinly over the outfide of the fame
33 tube'”
Different Mr Morgan now proceeds to mention fome experi-
appearance ments which feem to militate againft the dodlrine he
trie11/ark" bas been endeavouring to eftabli/h, rather than to fup-
at different Port > vl'z’ 1 • If into a Torricellian vacuum oi
diftances.; any length a few drops of ether are conveyed, and both
ends of the vacuum flopped up with metallic conduc¬
tors, fo that a fpark may pafs through it, the fpark in
its paflage will make the following appearances. When
the eye is placed clofe to the tube, the fpark will ap¬
pear perfe&ly white ; if the eye is removed to the di-
ftance of two yards, it will appear green ; but at the
„ diftance of fix or feven yards, it will appear reddilh.
“ Thefe changes evidently depend (fays our author)
on the quantity of medium through which the light
pahes ; ahd the red light more particularly, which we
fee at the greateft diftance from the tube, is accounted
for on the fame principle as the red light of the be¬
clouded fun, or a lighted candle.”
2. Dr Prieftley long ago obferved the red appear¬
ance of the ele&ric fpark, when palling through in¬
flammable air. But this appearance is very much di-
■verfified according to the quantity of medium through
■which the fpark is beheld. At a very confiderable di¬
ftance the red comes unmixed to the eye; but if the
eye be placed clofe to the tube, the fpark appears white
and brilliant. By increafing, however, the quantity
wf fluid conveyed through any portion of inflam¬
mable air, or by condenfing that air, the fpark may
be made perfectly white. It may further be obfefved,
that all weak explofions and fparks, when viewed at a di¬
L 44 1
h 1 G
Lighti
On phofphoric light Mr Morgan makes fomc curious
obfervations; but ftill argues on the fame principles *
we have already mentioned. “ Some Ihells (fays he),
prepared according to Mr Wilfon’s dire&ions*, after t;ons on'
being expofed to the fun, or to the flalh of a battery, phofphoric
emit a purple, others a green, and others a reddilh light, hght-
If, with Mr Wilfon, we fuppofe that thefe Ihells are * See
. „ . . fborus.
in a ftate of flow combuftion, may we not conclude'
that fome are juft beginning to burn, and therefore e*
mitting thd moll refrangible rays ; while others are in
a more advanced ftate of combuftion, and therefore e*
mittingthe leaft refrangible ? If this conclufion be right,
the Ihells which are emitting the purple or the green,
muft ftill retain the yellow, the orange, and the red,
which will alfo make their appearance as foon as the
combuftion is fufficiently increafed.” In confirmation
of this, Mr Morgan adduces the following experiment,
viz. that if a (hell, while emitting its green rays, be
placed upon a warm Ihovel, the colour will foon be
changed into a yellow mixed with red. —To the theory
of flow combuftion Mr Morgan makes the following
objedtions.
1. If phofphoric (hells owe their light to this caufe,
we muft confxder the word combuftipn, when applied to
them, as implying all thofe circumftances which ufually
attend a body when on fire. On this fuppolition there
ought to be an increafe of the heat as well as of the de-
compofition of the combuftible. But neither of thefe
are found to take place in faci; for a phofphoric body
never fails to lofe its light entirely in a Certain degree
. If into a Torricellian vacuum of of heat, without lofing the power of becoming phof-
J“~ —   J --J phoric again when it has been fufficiently cooled,.
While very hot, the charge of the ftrongeft battery
conveyed over it has no effeft.
2. When bodies are wafted by combuftion, they can
never be made to reaflume the appearances which they
previoufly difplayed. “ No power (fays our author)
can give to allies the phenomena of a burning coal. But
pholph^ric bodies are very different in this refpedt; for
a phofphoric fliell may be made to lofe all its light by
expofnre to heat, and again may be made as luminous
as ever by expofure to the fun,”
3. It is remarkable that fome bodies which are moft
beautifully phofphoric, are at the fame time the moft
obftinate in refilling fire. “ Let us now fee (fays
Mr Morgan) the confequence of admitting the com¬
mon hypothefis, that the detention of thofe .rays which,
fall upon phofphori is owing to fome force which pre¬
vents their immediate -refle&ion, but is not adequate to
their entire abforption. This force, whatever it be,,
cannot well be fuppofed to operate with equal power
on all thefe rays. If this be not the cafe, we cannot
well avoid concluding, that phofphoric (hells will affume
different colours, owing to the earlier and later efcape
of the different rays of light. This conclufton is jutti-
fied by an experiment already mentioned; viz. that
■when the force is fuch as to admit the efCape of the-
•fiance, make a reddifli appearance. The reafon of thefe purple, blue, and green, we have only to leffen that
appearances feems to be, that the weaker the fpark or
explofion is, the more it is difpofed to affume a r^d co¬
lour -when viewed at a diftance. This feems to con-
force, by warming the body, and the yellow, the orahge,
and red efcape. Beccaria has proved, that there is fcarce-
ly any body which is not phofphoric, or may not be-
what has already been mentioned as a probable hy-, come fo by heat. But as the phofphoric force is moft
■pothefis, that the different colours of light are en¬
tirely owing to the medium through which they are
’dewed.
powerful when the purple rays only efcape, fo we a
to conclude, that it is weakeft when it is able to retain
the red rays only. This is agreeable to feveral fadts.
3 Chalkj
L I G l 45 ] L I G
Light. Chalk, oyfter-lhells, together with thole pliQfphoric
v*— bodies whofe goodnefs has been very much impaired by-
long keeping, when finely powdered, and placed with¬
in the circuit of an eleftrical battery, will exhibit, by
their fcattered particles, a fhower of lip#ht; but thefe
particles will appear reddifli, or their phofphoric pow¬
er will be fufficient only to detain the yellow, orange,
and red rays. When fpirit of wine is in a fimilar man¬
ner brought within the circuit of a battery, a fimilar
effedl may be difcovered: its particles diverge in feve-
ral directions, difplaying a moll beautiful golden ap¬
pearance. The metallic calces are rendered phofpho¬
ric with the greateft difficulty ; but even thefe may be
fcattered into a ffiower of red luminous particles by the
eleCtric ftroke.”
In a pollfcript to this paper, by Dr Price, it is ob-
ferved, that by phofphoric force, Mr Morgan feems to
mean, not the force with which a phofphoric body emits,
but that with which it ahforbs and retains, the light.
This laft force is proportioned to the degree of attrac¬
tion between the phofphoric body and light; and there¬
fore mult, according to Mr Morgan’s theory, be weak-
eft when it fo freely emits the light it has imbibed as
mot to retain thofe rays which adhere to it molt ftrong-
iy. According to Mr Morgan’s theory, thefe are the
rays which are the leall refrangible. “ It is, how¬
ever (fays Dr Price), an objection to it, that the lefs
•refrangibility of rays feems to imply a lefs force of at¬
traction between them and the fubltances which refraCt
them ; but it ffiould be confidered, that, poffibly, the
force of cohefion, which unites the rays of light to
bodies, may be a different power from that which re-
fraCts them.”
Light independent of Heat. In general, a very con-
fiderable degree of heat is requifite to the emiffion of
light from any body; but there are feveral excep-
, tions to this, efpCcially in light proceeding from pu-
trefeent fubftances and phofphorus, together with that
of luminous animals, am! other fimilar appearances.
Light proceeding from putrefeent animal and-vege¬
table fubftances, as well as from glow-worms, is men-
2 j ce ani tioned by Ariftotle. Thomas Bartholin-mentions four
W,p! 183. kinds of luminous infeCts, two with wings, and two
aoff. 0 without; but in hot climates travellers fay they are
found in much greater numbers, and of different fpe-
cies. Columna, an induftrious naturalift, obferves, that
their light is not extinguifired immediately upon the
death of the animal.
I! htfrom Tim firlt diftinCt account that we meet with of light
putrid flefh. proceeding from putrefeent animal-flefh is Prat which
De Vifionc i* given ky Fabricius ab Aquapendente ; who fays,
p. ’ that when three Roman youths, refiding at Padua,
had bought a lamb, and had eaten part of it on Ea-
fter day 1592, feveral pieces of the remainder, which
they kept till the day following, fhone like fo many
candles when they were cafually viewed in the dark.
Part of this luminous flefh was immediately lent to A-
quapendente, who was profeffor of anatomy in that
city. He obferved, that both the lean and the fat of
this meat fhone with a whitilh kind of light;. and alfo
took noticC, that fome pieces of kid’s fiefh, which had
happened to have lain in contaCt with it, was luminous,
as well as the fingers and other parts of the bodies of
thofe perfons who touched it. Thofe parts, he
obferved, fhone the moft which were foft to the touch,
and. feemed to be tranfparent in candk light j but
where the flefh was-thick and folid, or where a bone Liglit.
was near the outfide, it did not fhine. 'v '' -v
After this appearance, we find no account of any
other fimilar to it, before that which was obferved by
Bartholin, and of which he gives a veiy pompous de-
feription in his ingenious treatife already quoted.
This happened at Montpelier in 1641, when a poor
old woman had bought a piece of flefh in the market,
intending to make ufe of it the day following. But
happening not to be able to deep well that night, and
her bed and pantry being in the fame room, fiie obfer¬
ved fo much light come from the flefii, as to illuminate
all the place where it hung. A part of this luminous
flefh was carried as a curiofity to Henry Bourbon,
duke of Conde, the governor of the place, who viewed
it forifeveral hours with the greatefl afloiiifhment.
This light was obferved to be whitifh ; and not to*
cover the whole furface of the flefh, but certain parts
Only, as if gems of unequal fplendor had been fcattered
over it. This flefh was kept till it began to putrify,
when the light vanifhed ; which, as fome religious
people fancied, it did in the form of a crofs.
It is natural to expedt, that the almoft uuiverfal ex- ^rorf.
perimenal philofopher Mr Boyle fliould try the effedt voUiiT'
of his air-pump upon thefe luminous fubftances. Ac-p. ij&.
cordingly we find that he did not fail to do it; when
he prefently found that the light of rotten wood was
extinguifhed in vacuo, and revived again on the ad-
miffion of the air, even after a long continuance in
vacuo; but the extinguifhing of this light was not fo
complete immediately upon exhaufting the receiver, as
fome little time afterwards. He could not perceive,
however, that the light of rotten wood was increafed
in condenfed air; but this, he imagined, might arife.
from his not being able to judge very well of the de¬
gree of light* through fo thick and cloudy a glafs-
veffel as he then made ufe of p but we find that the Birch's biff
light of a fhining fifh, which was put into a conden-11,3^*
fing engine before the Royal Society, in 1668, was
rendered more vivid by that means.. The principal of
Mr Boyle’s experiments were made in October 1667.
This philofopher attended to a great variety of cir-
cumftances relating to this curious phenomenon-. A-
mong other things he obferved, that change. of air
was not neceffary to the maintenance, of this light ;
for it continued a long time when a piece of the wood
was put into a very fmall glafs hermetically fealed,
and it made no difference when this tube which con¬
tained the wood was put into an exhaufted receiver.
This he alfo obferved with refpedt to a luminous fifh,
which he put into water, and placed in the fame cir-
cumftances. He alfo found, that the light of Ali¬
ning fiflies had other properties in common with that
of finning wood; but the latter, he fays, was prefent¬
ly quenched with water, fpirit of wine., a great va¬
riety of faline mixtures, and other fluids. Water,
however, did not quench all the light of fome fhining
veal on which he tried it, though fpirit of wine de-
ftroyed its virtue prefently.
Mr Boyle’s obfervation of light proceeding from
flefh-meat was quite cafual. On the 15th of* Feb¬
ruary 1662, one of his fervants was greatly alarmed
with the Ihining of fome veal, which had been kept
a few days, but had no bad fmell, and was in a ftate
very proper for ufe. The fervant immediately made
Jus naffer acquainted with this estraordinary appear-
'ancej,-
Birch, l
L I G
ance ; and though he was then in bed,' lie ordered it
to be immediately brought to him, and he examined
it with the greateft attention. Sufpefting that the
date of the atmofphere had fome (hare in the produc¬
tion of this phenomenon, he takes notice, after de¬
fending the appearance, that the wind was fouth-weft
and bluftering, the air hot for the feafon, the moon
was paft its laft quarter, and the mercury in the baro¬
meter was at 29^3- inches.
46 1 L I G
it was immerfed luminous, when they Were agitated. Light:
Galeatiusand Montius found, that wine or vinegar ex- —-v™”
tinguifhed this light: that in common oil it continu¬
ed fome days; but in rectified fpirit of wine or urine,
hardly a minute.
In order to obferve in what manner this light was
affefted by different degrees of heat, they made ufe
of a Reaumur’s thermometer, and found that water
rendered luminous by thefe fifties increafed in light
from Mr Boyle was often difappointed in his experiments till the heat arrived to 45' degrees; but that it then
on fliining fifties;, finding that they did not always
fliine in the very fame circumftances, as far as he could
judge, with others which had ftiined before. At one
time that they failed to fhine, according to his expec-
.tations, he obferved that the weather was variable,
and not without fome days of froft and fnow. In
►general he made ufe of whitings, finding them the
fitteft for his purpofe. In a difeourfe, however, up-
became fuddenly extinft, and could not be revived.
In the experiments of Beccarius, a folution of fea-
falt increafed the light of the luminous water, a folu¬
tion of nitre did not increafe it quite fo much. Sal
ammoniac diminiftied it a little, oil of tartar per deli-
quium nearly extinguiftied it, and the acids entirely.
This water poured upon frefti calcined gypfum, rock
cryftal, cerufs, or fugar, became more luminous. He
pon this fubject at the Royal Society in 1681, it was alfo tried the effedts of it when poured upon various
aflerted, that, of all fiftiy iubftances, the eggs of lob-
■fters, after they had been boiled, ftione the brighteft.
Olig. Jacoboeus obferves^ that, upon opening a fea-
other fubftances, but there was nothing very remark¬
able in them. Afterwards, ufing luminous milk, he
found that oil of vitriol extinguiftied the light, but
AS1. Hafn. polypus, it was fo luminous, as to ftartle feveral per- that oil of tartar increafed it.
p. aSz.
fons who faw it; and he fays, that the more putrid the
fifh was, the more luminous it grew. The nails alfo,
This gentleman had the curipfity to try how dif¬
ferently coloured fubltanceg were affedted by this kind
and the fingers of the perfons who touched it, became of light; and having, for this purpofe, dipped feveral
ribbons in it, the white came out the brighteft, next
to this was the yellow, and then the green ; the other
colours could hardly be perceived. It was not, how-
luminous ; and the black liquor which iffued from the
animal, and which is its bile, ftione alfo, but with a
ry faint light.
Mr Boyle draws a minute comparifon between the ever, any particular colour, but only light that was
light of burning coals and that of fhining wood or fifh, perceived in this cafe. He then dipped boards painted
ftiowing in what particulars they agree, and in what with the different colours, and alfo glafs tubes, filled
they differ. Among other things he obferves, that ex- with fubftances of different colours, in water rendered
••treme cold extinguifhes the light of fhining wood, as luminous by the fifties. In both thefe cafes the red
-appeared when a piece of it was put into a glafs tube, was hardly vifible, the yellow was the brighteft, and
and held in a frigorific mixture. He alfo found that the violet the dulleftt But on the boards the blue was
•" rotten Wood did not wafte itfelf by fhining, and that nearly equal to the yellow, and the green more lan-
the application of a thermometer to it did not difeo- guid; whereas in the glaffes, the blue was inferior to
ver the leaft degree of heat. the green.
©fthepho. There is a remarkable ftiell-fifh called pholas, which Of all the liquors into which he put the-pholades,
las, a re- forms for kfelf holes in various kinds of ftone, &c. milk was rendered the moft luminous. A Angle pho-
luminous That ^is fifh is luminous, was noticed by Pliny ; who las made feven ounces of milk fo luminous, that the
AH, -obferves, that it fhines in the mouth of the perfon who faces of perfons might be diftinguiftied by it, and it
eats it, and, if it touch his hands or cloaths, makes looked as if it was tranfparent.
.them luminous. He alfo fays that the light depends
upon its moifture. The light of this fifh has furnifhed
matter for various obfervations and experiments to
M. Reaumur, and the Bolognian academicians, efpeci-
ally Beccarius, who took fo nftich pains with the fub-
je£t of phofphoreal light.
Air appeared to be neceflary to this light ; for
when Beccarius put the luminous milk into glafs tubes,
no agitation would make it fhine, unlefs bubbles of
air were mixed with it. Alfo Montius and Galeatius
found, that, in an exhaufted receiver, the pholas loft
its light, but the water was fometimes made more lu-
M. Reaumur obferves, that, whereas other fifties minous; which they aferibed to the rifing of bubbles
-give light when they tend to putrefcence, this is more of air through it.
luminous in proportion to - its being frefti; that when
•they are dried, their light will revive if they be moiften-
Beccarius, as well as Reaumur, had many fchemes
to render the light of thefe pholades permanent. For
•ed either with frefti or fait water, but that brandy im- this purpofe he kneaded the juice into a kind of pafte,
mediately extinguifties it. He endeavoured to make with flour, and found that it would give light when
this light permanent, but none of his fchemes fucceeded. it was immerfed in warm water ; but it anfwered beft
The attention of the Bolognian academicians was to preferve the fifti in honey. In any other method of
engaged to this fubjedt by M. F. Marfilius, in 1724, prefervation, the property of becoming luminous would
who brought a number of thefe fifties, and the ftones not continue longer than fix months, but in honey it
-in which they were inclofed, to Bologna, on purpofe had lafted above a year; and then it would, when
for their examination. plunged in warm water, give as much light as ever it
Com. Benon. Beccarius obferved, that though this fifti ceafed to had done. c^/ar
vol. ii.i32. fhine when it became putrid ; yet that in its moft pu- Similar, in fome refpe&s, to thofe obfervations on rmjia,
the light of the" pholas, was that which was obferved vo‘,„v-
to Pu¬
trid ftate, it would fhine, and make the water in which
L I G [ 47 1 L I G
l Light, to proceed from wood which was nroiil, but not in a
—v ' putrid ftate, which was very confpicuous in the dark.
That the fea is fometimes luminous, efpecially when
it is put in motion by the dalhing of oars or the
I beating of it againft a fhip, lias been obferved with
. 3? admiration by a great number of perfons. Mr Boyle,
Kater^1 rccit‘ng tlie circumftances of this appearance,
as far as he could colledt them from the accounts of na¬
vigators ; as its being extended as far as the eye could
reach, and at other times being viiible only when the
water was da/hed againft fome other body ; that, in
feme feas, this phenomenon is accompanied by fome
particular winds, but not in others ; and that fome¬
times one part of the fea will be luminous, when an¬
other part, not far from it, will not be fo; concludes
with faying, that he could not help fufpe&ing that
tlitfe odd phenomena, belonging to great maffes of wa¬
ter, were in fome meafure owing to fome cofmical law
or cuftom of the terreftrial globe, or at leaft of the
1 . planetary vortex.
Dr Beal’s Some curious obfervations on the ftiining of fome
\ experi- fifties, and the pickle in which they were immerfed,
t menu on were made by Dr Beal, in May 1665 ; and had they
njfilhcs. been properly attended to and purfued, might have
led to the difcovery .of the caufe of this appearance.
Phil ’TranC. ^av'ng Put fome boiled mackerel into water, together
toLlix. with fait and fweet herbs; when the cook was, fome
p. 450. time after, ftirring it, in order to take out fome of the
fifties, ftie obferved, that, at the firft motion, the water
was very luminous ; and that the fifli ftiining through
the water added much to the light which the water
yielded. The water was of itfelf thick and blackifli,
rather than of any other colour ; and yet' it ftiined on
being ftinyd, and at the fame time the fifties appeared
more luminous than the water. Wherever the drops
of this water, after it had been ftirred, fell to the ground,
they ftiined ; and the children in the family diverted
themfelves with taking the drops, which were as broad
as a penny, and running with them about the houfe.
The cook obferved, that, when ftie turned up that fide
I of the fifti that was loweft, no light came from it; and
that, when the water had fettled for fome time, it did
not ftiine at all. The day following, the water gave
but little light, and only after a brilk agitation,
though the fifties continued to ftiine as well from the
infide as the outfide, and efpejcially about the throats
0 and fuch places as feemed to nave been a little broken
in the boiling.
When, in the light of the fun,, he examined, with a
microfcope, a fmall piece of a fifti which had ftiined very
much the night before, he found nothing remarkable
on its furface, except that he thought he perceived
what he calls aJleam, rather dark than luminous, arifing
like a very fmall dull from the fifti, and here and there
a very fmall and almoft imperceptible fparkle. Of the
fparkles he had no doubt; but he thought it poffible
that the fteam might be a. deception of the fight, or
fome dull in the air.
Finding the fifti to be quite dry, he moiftened it
with his fpittle ; and then obferved that it gave a little
light, though but for a ftiort time. The fifti at that
time was not fetid, nor yet infipid to the bell difcern-
ing palate. Two of the fifties he kept two or three
days longer for farther trial: but, the weather being
very hot, they became fetid j and, contrary to his ex-
pe£lations, there was no more light produced either by Light,
the agitation of the water or in the fifti. ^v-—»
Father Bourzes, in his voyage to the Indies in Fal^j?
1704, took particular notice of the luminous appear- BourzesV
ance of the fea. The light was fometimes fo great, account of
that he could eafily read the title of a book by it, 1.um‘nou*
though be was nine or ten feet from the furface of the fea'watei’
water* - Sometimes he could eafily diftinguilh, in the
wake of the ftiip, the particles that were luminous from
thofe that were not; and they appeared not to be all
of the fame figure. Some of them were like points of
light, and others fuch as liars appear to the naked eye.
Some of them were like globes, of a line or two in
diameter; and others as big as one’s head. Somefimes.
they formed themfelves into fquares of three or four
inches long, and one or two broad. Sometimes all
thefe different figures were vifible at the fame time;
and fometimes there were what he calls vortices of light,
which a-, one particular time appeared and difappeared
immediately like flaihes of lightning.
Nor did only the wake of the ftiip produce this
light, but fifties alfo, in fwimming, left fo luminous a
track behind them, that both their fize and fpecies
might be diilinguiftied by it. When he took fome of
the water out of the fea, and llirred it ever fo little
with his hand, in the dark, he always faw in it an in¬
finite number of bright particles; and he had the fame
appearance whenever he dipped a piece of linen in the.
fea, and wrung iirrn a dark place, even though it was.
half dry; and he obferved, that when the fparkles fell
upon any thing that was Colid, it would continue ftiining
for fome hours together.
After mentioning feveral circumllances which did His conjee,
not contribute to this appearance, this Father obftrves,,tares con-
that it depends very much upon the quality of the wn/ery cerning tha
and he was pretty fure that this light is the greateft'03^-
when the water is fatteft, and fullell of foam. For in’
the main fea, he fays, the water is not everywhere
equally pure ; and that fometimes, if linen be dipped
in the fea, it is clammy when it is drawn up again :
and he often obferved, that when the wake of the ftiip
was the brighteft, the water. was the moll fat and
glutinous, and that linen moiftened with it produced a
great deal of light, if it was ftirred or moved briikly.
Befides, in fome parts of the fea, he faw a fubftance
like faw-duft, fometimes red and fometimes yellow;
and when he drew up the water in thofe places, it
was always vifeous and glutinous. The failors told
him, that it was the fpawn of whales ; that there are
great quantities of it in the north ; and that form -
times, in the night, they appeared all over of a bright
light, without being put in motion by any veffel or fifti
palling by them.
As a confirmation of this conjefture, that the more
glutinous the fea-watsr is, the more it is difpofed to
become luminous, he obferves, that one day they took.
a fifti which was called a bonite, the infide of the mouth
of which was fo luminous, that, without any other light,
he could read the fame characters which he had before-
read by the light in the wake of the ftiip ; and the-
mouth of this lifli was full of a vifeous matter, which,
when it was rubbed upon a piece of wood, made it im¬
mediately all over luminous ; though, when the moif-
tiire was dried up, the light was extinguiftied.
The abbe Nollet was much {truck with the lumi-
ncufnefe
41
Ob refla¬
tions of M<
i|e Roi.
'Tr^nnl,
fol. iii. 144.
Experi¬
ments by
M. Ant,
Martin.
L i G t 48 3 L X G
noufnefs of the fea when he was at Venice in 1749; fea-fiihes have this property; but that it is not to be Light,
and, after taking a great deal of pains to’afcertain the found in any that are produced in frefli water. No- *~~x" l*°
circumftances of it, concluded that it was occafioned thing depended upon the colour of the fiihes, except5^*
.. by a fhining infeft; and having examined the water that he thought that the white ones, and efpecially
very often, he at length did find a fmall infect, which thofe that had white fcales, were a little more lumi-p^jj”1''"
he particularly defcribes, and to which he attributes the nous than others. This light, he found, was increafed
light. The fame hypothefis had alfo occurred to by a fmall quantity of fait; and alfo by a fmall degree
M. Vianelli, profefibr of medicine in Chioggia near Ve- of warmth, though a greater degree extinguiihed it.
nice ; and both he and M. Grizellini, a phyfician in This agrees with another obfervation of his, that it de-
Venice, have given drawings of the infe&s from which pends entirely upon a kind of moifture which they
they imagined this light to proceed. had about them, and which a fmall degree of heat
The abbe was the more confirmed in his hypothefis, would expel, when an oilinefs remained which did not
by obferving, fome tirw after, the motion of fome lumi- give this light, but would burn in the fire. Light from
nous'particles in the fea. For, going into the water, the flefh of birds or beafts is not fo bright, he fays, as
and keeping his head juft above the furface, he faw that which proceeds from fifli. Human bodies, he fays,
them dart from the bottom, which was covered with have fometimes emitted light about the time that they
weeds, to the top, in a manner which he thought began to putrefy, and the walls and roof of a place
very much refembled die motions of infefts; though, in which dead bodies had often been expofed, had a
When he endeavoured to catch them, he only found kind of dew or clamminefs upon it, which was fome-
fome luminous fpots upon his hankerchief, which were times luminous; and he imagined that the lights which
enlarged when he prefled them with his finger. are faid to be feen in burying-grounfls may be owing
M. le Roi, making a voyage on the Mediterranean, to this caufe.
'prefently after the abbe Nofiet made his obfervations From fome experiments made by Mr Canton, he By Mr
at Venice, took notice, that in the day-time, the prow concludes, that the lumiijoufnefs of fea-water is owing Ganton.
of the ftiip in motion threw up many fmall particles, to the flimy'and other putrefcent fubftances it con-
which, falling upon the water, rolled upon the furface tains. On the evening of the 14th of June 1768, he
of the fea for a few feconds before they mixed with put a fmall frefh whiting into a gallon of fea-water, in
it; apd iff the night the fame particles, as he con- a pan which was about 14 inches in diameter, and
eluded, had the appearance of fire. Taking a quan- took notice that neither the whiting nor the water,
tity of the water, the fame fmall fparks appeared when agitated, gave any light. 4. Fahrenheit’s ther-
whenever it was agitated; but, as was obferved with mometCr, in the cellar where the pan was placed, flood
refpeft to Dr Beal’s experiments, every fucceffive agi- at 540. The 15th, at night, that part of the fifli
tation produced a lefs effedt than the preceding, except; which was even with the furface of the water was lu-
after being fuffered to reft a while; for then a frefli minous, but the water itfelf was dark. He drew the
agitation would make it almoft as luminous as the firft. end of a flick through it, from one fide of the pan to
This water, he obferved, would retain its property of the other; and the water appeared luminous behind
fhining by agitation a day or two; but it difappeared the flick all the Way, but gave light only where it
immediately on being fet on the fire, though it was was difturbed. When all the water was ftirred, the
not made to boil. whole became luminous, and appeared like milk, gi-
This gentleman, after giving much attention to this ving a confiderable degree of light to the fides of the
phenomenon, concludes, that it is not occafioned by pan; and it continued to do fo for fome time after it
any fhining infefts, as the abbe Nollet imagined; efpe- was at reft. The water was moft luminous when the
cially as, after carefully examining fome of the lumi-. fifh had been in it about 28 hours; but would not give
nous points, which he caught upon an handkerchief, any light by being ftirred, after it had been in it thred
he found them to be round like large pins heads, but days.
with nothing of the appearance of any animal, though He then put a gallon of frefli water into one. pan,
he viewed them with a microfcope. He alfo found, and an equal quantity of fea-water into another, and
that the mixture of a little fpirit of wine with water into each pan he put a frefli herring of about three
Juft drawn from the fea, would give the appearance of ounces. The next night the whole fiirface of the fea-
a great number of little fparks, which would continue water was luminous, without being ftirred ; but it was
vifible longer than thofe in the ocean. All the acids, much more fo when it was put in motion ; and the
and various other liquors, produced the fame effeft, upper part of the herring, which was confiderably be¬
thought not quite fo confpicuoufly ; but no frefli agi- low the furface of the water, was alfo very bright;
tation would make them luminous again. M. le Roi while at the fame time, the frefli water, and the fifli
is far from aflerting that there are no luminous infefts that was in it, were quite dark. There were feveral
in the fea. He even fuppofes that the abbe Nollet very bright luminous fpots on different parts of the
and M. Vianelli had found them. But he was fatif- furface of the fea-water; and the whole, when viewed
fied that the fea is luminous chiefly on fome other ac- by the light of a candle, feemed covered with a greafy
count, though he does not fo much as advance a con- feum. The third night, the light of the fea-water,
jefture about what it is. while at reft, was very little, if at all, lefs than before;
M. Ant. 'Martin made many experiments on the but when ftirred, its light was fo great as.to difeover
light of fifties, with a view to difeover the caufe of the the time by a watch, and the fifli in it appeared as a
light of the fea. He thought that he had reafon to dark fubftance. After this, its light was evidently
conclude, from a great variety of experiments, that all decreafing, but was not quite gone before the 7th night.
. N°i82. The
L I G [ 49 ] L I G
t^ght. The frefli water and the fifh in it were perfectly dark
during the whole time. The thermometer was generally
above 6o°.
The preceding experiments were made with fea-
water: but he now made ufe of other water, into which
he put common or fea-falt, till he found, by an hydro¬
meter, that it was of the fame fpeclfic gravity with the
fea-water; and, at the fame time, in another gallon of
Water, he diffolved two pounds of fait; and into each
of thefe waters he put a fmall frefh herring. The next
evening the whole furface of the artificial fea-water
was luminous without being ftirred; but gave much
more light when it was difturbed. It appeared exactly
like the real fea-Water in the preceding experiment;
its light lafted about the fame time, and went off- in
the fame manner: while the other water, which was
aim oil as fait as it could be made, never gave any
light. The herring which was taken out of it the
feventh night, and wafhed from its fait, was found firm
&nd fweet; but the other hening was very foft and
putrid, much more fo than that which had been kept
'as long in frefh water. If a herring, in warm weather,
be put into 10 gallons of artificial fea-water, inftead
of one, the water, he fays, will Hill become luminous,
but its light will not be fo ftrong.
It appeared by fome of the fir ft obfervatiorts on
this fubjeft, that heat extinguifhes the light of putref-
cent fubftances. Mr Canton alfo attended to this cir-
cumftance; and obferves, that though the greateft
fummet heat is well known to promote putrefaction,
yet 20 degrees more than that of the human blood
feems to hinder it. For putting a fmall piece of a
luminous fifli into a thin glafs ball, he found, that
water of the heat of 118 degrees would extinguiih its
light in lefs than half a minute; but that, on taking
it out of the water, it would begin to recover its ligljt
in about io feconds; but it was never afterwards fo
bright as before.,
Mr Canton made the fame obfervation that Mr
Ant. Martin had done, vi%. that feveral kinds of river
fiih could not be made to give light, in the fame cir-
cumftances in which any fea-fifh became luminous.
He fays, however, that a piece of carp made the water
very luminous, though the outfide, or fcaly part of it,
did not fiiine at all.
For the fake of thofe perfons who may choofe to
repeat his experiments, he obferves, that artificial fea-
water may be made without the ufe of an hydrometer,
by the proportion fof four ounces avoirdupois of fait,
to feven pints of water, wine-meafure.
From undoubted obfervations, however, it appears,
a ric ocean .i.* i • • i • i * •
luminous ttlat m many places or the ocean it is covered with lumi-
frnm in- nous infedts to a very confiderable extent. Mr Dagelet,
fcdts. a French aftronomer who returned from the Terra Au-
ftralis in the year 1774, brought with him feveral kinds
of worms which fhine in water when it is fet in motion;
and M. Rigaud, in a paper inferted (if we are not mif-
taken' in the Journal des S^avans for the month of
March 17 70, affirms, that the luminous furface of the
fea, from the port of Breft to the Antilles, contains
an immenfe quantity of little, round, fhining poly-
Vol. X. Part I.
pufes of about a quarter of a line in diameter. Other Light,
learned men, who acknowledge the exiftence of thefe —Y"”"*
luminous animals, cannot, however, be ptrfuaded to
confider them as the caufe of all that light and fcintil-
lation that appear on the furface of the ocean: they
think that fome fubftance of the phofphorus kind, ari-
fing from putrefaftion, muft be admitted as one of the
caufes of this phenomenon. M. Godehoue has pub-
lifhed curious obfervations on a kind of fifh called in
French honife, already mentioned; and though he has
obferved, and accurately deferibed, feveral of the lumi¬
nous infefts that are found in fea-water, he is, never-
thelefs, of opinion, that the fcintillation and flaming
light of the fea proceed from the oily and greafy fub¬
ftances with which it is impregnated.
The abb£ Nollet was long of opinion, that the light
of the fea proceeded from ele&ricity (a); though he
afterwards feemed inclined to think, that this pheno¬
menon was caufed by fmall animals, either by their lu¬
minous afpeft, or at leaft by fome liquor or effluvia
which they emitted. He did not, however, exclude
other caul’es ; among thefe, the fpawn or fry of fifh de-
ferves to be noticed. M. Dagelet, failing into the bay
of Antongil, in the ifland of Madagafcar, obferved a
prodigious quantity of fry, which covered the furface
of the fea above a mile in length, and which he at firft
took for banks of fand on account of their colour; they
exhaled a difagreeable odour, and the fea had appear¬
ed with uncommon fplendor fome days before. The
fame Accurate obferver, perceiving the fea remarkably
luminous in the road of the Cape of Good Hope du- *
ring a perfeft calm, remarked, that the oars of the ca- *
noes produced a whitifh and pearly kind of luftre ;
when he took in his hand the water which contained this
phofphorus, he difeerned in it, for fome minutes, glo¬
bules of light as large as the heads of pins. When he
prefled thefe globules, they appeared to his touch like
a foft and thin pulp ; and fome days after the fea was
covered near the coafts with whole banks of thefe little
fifh in innumerable multitudes.
To putrefaction, alfo, fome are willing to attribute T^nis/atuuj.
that luminous appearance which goes by the name of
ignis faluus, to which the credulous vulgar aferibe very
extraordinary and efpecially mifehievous powers. It
is mdft frequently obferved in boggy places and near
rivers, though fometimes alfo in dry places. By its
appearance benighted travellers are faid to have been
fometimes mifled into marfhy places, taking the light
which they faw before them for a candle at a diftance;
from which feemingly mifehievous' property it has been
thought by the vulgar to be a fpirit of a malignant
nature, and been named, accordingly Will with a wifpy
or Jack with a lanthorn; for the fame reafon alfo it
probably had its Latin name ignis fatuus.
This kind of light is faid to be frequent about bury¬
ing places and dung-hills. Some countries are alfo
remarkable for it, as about Bologna in Italy, and fome
parts of Spain and Ethiopia. Its forms are fo un¬
certain and variable that they can fcarce be deferibed,
efpecially as few philofophical obfervers ever had the
good fortune to meet with it. Dr Derham, however,
G happened
(a). This hypothefis was alfo maintained in a treatife publiflied at Venice in 1746, by an officer in the
Auftrian fervice, under the title, Ddl’ EUtreafmt.
L I G r 50 ] L I G
Light- happened one night to perceive ene of them, and got
fo near that he could have a very advantageous view
of it. This is by no means eafy to be obtained ; for,
among other Singularities of the ignis faluus, it is
obferved to avoid the approach of any perfon, and
fly from place to place as if it was animated. That
which Dr Derham obferved was in fome boggy ground
betwixt two rocky hills; and the night was dark and
calm ; by which means, probably, he was enabled to
advance within two or three yards of it. It appeared
like a complete body of light without any divifion, fo
that he was fure it could not be occafioned by infefts
as fome have fuppofed ; the feparate lights of which
he cOuld not have failed to diltinguifh, had it been
occafioned by them. The light kept dancing about
a dead thiftle, till a very flight motion of the air, oc¬
cafioned, as he fuppofed, by his near approach to it,
made' it jump to another place; after which it kept
flying before him as he advanced. M. Beccari en¬
deavoured to procure all the intelligence he could
concerning this phenomenon, by inquiring of all his
acquaintance who might have had an opportunity of
observing it. Thus he obtained information that
two of thefe lights appeared in the plains about
Bologna, the one to the north, and the other to the
fouth, of that city, and were to be feen almoft every
dark night, efpecially that to the eaftward, giving a
light equal to an ordinary faggot. The latter ap¬
peared to a gentleman of his acquaintance as he was
travelling; moved conftantly before him for about a
mile; and gave a better light than a torch which was
carried before him. Both thefe appearances gave a
very llrong light, and were conftantly in motion, though
this was various and uncertain. Sometimes they
would rife, fometimes fink; but commonly they would
hover about fix feet from the ground; they would
alfo frequently difappear on a fudden, and appear again
in fome other place. They differed alfo in fize and
figure, fometimes fpreading pretty wide, and then con-
tratding themfelves; fometimes breaking into two, and
then joining again. Sometimes they would appear
like waves, at others they would feem to drop fparks
of fire : they were but little affetted by the wind; and
in wet and rainy weather were frequently obferved
to caft a ftronger light than in dry weather : they
were alfo obferved more frequently when fnow lay
upon the ground, than in the hotteft fummer; but
he was affured that there was not a dark night
throughout the whole year in which they were not
to be feen. The ground to the eaftward of Bologna,
where the largeft of thefe appearances was obferved,
is a hard chalky foil mixed with clay, which will re¬
tain the moifture for a long time, but breaks and
cracks in hot weather. On the mountains, where the
foil is of a loofer texture, and lefs capable of retaining
moifture, the ignes fafui were lefs.
From the beft information which M. Beccari was
able to procure, he found that thefe lights were very
frequent about rivers and brooks. He concludes
his narrative with the following lingular account.
“An intelligent gentleman travelling in the evening,
between eight and nine, in a mountainous road about ten
miles fouth of Bologna, perceived a light which Ihone
very ftrangely upon fome ftones which lay on the banks
4
of the river Rioverde. It feemed to be about two Mght.
feet above the ftones, and not far from the water. In ——v~"
fize and figure it had the appearance of a parallelepiped,
fomewhat more than- a foot-- in length, and half a foot
high, the longeit fide being parallel to the horizon.
Its light was fo-ftrong, that he could plainly difeera
by it part of a neighbouring hedge and the water of
the river ; only in the eaft corner of it the light-was
rather faint, and the fquare figure lefs perfect, as if it
was cut off or darkened by the fegment of a circle.
On examining it a little nearer, he was furprifed to
find that it changed gradually from a bright red, firft
to a yellowifti, and then to a pale colour, in proportion
as he drew nearer ; and when he came to the place
itfelf, it quite vaniihed. Upon this he ftepped
back, and not only faw it again, but found that the
farther he went from it, the ftronger and brighter it
grew. When he examined the place of this luminous,
appearance, he could perceive no fmell nor any other
mark of fire.” This account was confirmed by another
gentleman, who informed M. Beccari, that he had feen
the fame light five or fix different times in fpring and in
autumn ; and that it always appeared*of the fame fliape, "
and in the very fame place. One night in particular,,
he obferved it come out of a. neighbouring field to
fettle in the ufual place..
A very remarkable account of an ignis fatuus is
given by Dr Shaw in his Travels td the Holy Land.
It appeared in the valleys of mount Ephraim, and at¬
tended him. and his company for more than an hour,.
Sometimes it would appear, globular, or in the ft ape of
the flame of a candle ; at others it would fpread to fuch a
degree as to involve the whole company in a pale inof-
fenfive light, then contract itfelf, and fuddenly difap¬
pear ; but in lefs than a minute would appear again ;
fometimes running fwiftly along, it \vou*l expand itfelf
at certain intervals over more than two or three acres of
the adjacent mountains. The atmofphere from the
beginning of the evening had been remarkably thick
and hazy ; and the dew, as they felt it on the bridles
of their horfes, was very clammy and unttuous.
Lights refembling the ignis fatuus are fometimes
obferved at fea, ikipping about the mafts and rigging
of ftips; and Dr Shaw informs us, that he has feen
thefe in fuch weather as that juft mentioned when he
faw the ignis fatuus in Paleftine. Similar appearances
have been obferved in various other fitnations ; and we
are told of one which appeared about the bed of a
woman in Milan, furrounding it as well as her body
entirely. This light fled from the hand which ap¬
proached it; but was at length entirely difperfed by the
motion of the air. Of the fame kind alfo, moft pro¬
bably, are thofe fmall luminous appearances which fome¬
times appear in houfes or near them, called in Scot¬
land Elf-candles, and which are fuppofed to portend
the death of fome perfon about the houfe. In general
thefe lights are harmlefs, though not always; for we
have accounts of fome luminous vapours which v^ould
encompafs ftacks of hay and corn, and fet them on
fire; fo that they became objefts of great terror and
concern to the country people. Of thefe it was
obferved, that they would avoid a drawn fword, or
ftarp-pointed iron inftrument, and that they would
be driven away by a great noife ; both which methods
were
L 1 G [5
light were made ufe o? to diflxpate them ; and it was iike-
wife obferved, that they came from fome diitance, as it
were on purpofe to do mifchief.
Several philofophers have endeavoured to account
for thefe appearances, but hitherto with no great
fuccefs ; nor indeed does there feem to be fufficient
data for folving ail their phenomena. Willoughby,
Ray, and others, have imagined that the light was
occafioned by a number of fhining infefts; but this
opinion was never fupported in fuch a manner as
to gain much ground. The ignis fatuus feen by
Dr Derham above mentioned, as well as all the other
inftances we have related, feem to demonftrate the
contrary. Sir Ifaac Newton calls it a vapour fhin-
ing without heat} and fuppofes that there is the fame
difference between the vapour of ignis fatuus and
flame, that there is between the fhining of rotten
wood and burning coals. But though this feems gene¬
rally to be the cafe, there are ftill fome exceptions,
as has been inftanced in the vapours which fet fire to
the flacks of corn. Dr Prieflley fuppofes that the light
is of the fame nature with that produced by putref-.
cent fubflances ; and others are of opinion, that the
ele&rical fluid is principally concerned; but none
have attempted to give any particular folution of the
phenomena.
From the frequent appearance of the ignis fatuus
in marfhes, moifl ground, burying places, and dung¬
hills, we are naturally led to conclude, that putrefaction
is concerned in the production of it. This procefs,
we know, is attended with the emiffion of an aqueous
fleam, together with a quantity of fixed, inflam¬
mable, phlogifticated, and alkaline airs, all blended to-
■ gether in one common vapour. It is likewife attend¬
ed with fome degree of heat; and we know that there
are fome vapours, that of fulphur particularly, which
become luminous, with a degree of heat much lefs than
that fufficient to fet fire to combuftible bodies. There
is no inconfiftency, therefore, in fuppofing that the
putrid vapour may be capable of fhining with a ftill
fmaller degree of heat than that of fulphur, and confe-
quently become luminous by that which putrefaction
alone affords. This would account for the ignis
fatuus, were it only a fleady luminous vapour arifing
from places where putrid matters are contained; but
its extreme mobility, and flying from one place to an¬
other on the approach of any perfon, cannot be account¬
ed for on tl Iri principle. If one quantity of the putrid
vapour become i luminous by means of heat, all the
reft ought to do fo likewife : fo that though we may
allow heat and putrefaction to be concerned, yet of
neceflity we mult have recourfe to fome other agent,
which cannot be any other than eleCtricity. Without
this it is impoffible to conceive how any body of move-
able vapour fhould not be carried away by the wind; but,
fo far is this from being the cafe, that the igms futui
defcribed by M. Beccari were but little affected by
the wind. It is befides proved by undoubted experi¬
ment, that electricity always is attended with fome
degree of heat; and this, however fmail, may be
luffieient to give a luminous property to any vapour
on which it aits ftrongly ; not to mention, that the
eleCtric fluid itfelf is no other than that of light, and
may therefore by its aCtion eafily produce a luminous
appearance independent of any vapour.
i 1 L I G
We have a ftrong proof that electricity is con* Light,
cerned, or indeed the principal agent, in producing " » "r
the ignis fatuus from an experiment related by Dr
Priellley of a flame of this kind being artificially pro¬
duced. A gentleman, who had been making many
eleCtrical experiments for a whole afternoon in a fmall
room, on going out of it, obferved a flame following
him at fome little diftance. This, we have no reafoa
to doubt, was a true ignis fatuus, and the circumftances
neceflary to produce it were then prefent, viz. an
atmofpKere impregnated with animal vapour, 5nd
likewife ftrongly eleCtrified. Both thefe circumftances
undoubtedly muft have taken place in the prefent cafe ;
for the quantity of perfpiration emitted by a human
body is by no means inconfiderable ; and it as well as
the eleCtricity would be collected by reafon of the
fmallnefs of the room. In this cafe, however, there
feems to have been a confiderable difference between
the artificial ignis fatuus and thofe commonly met with;
for this flame followed the gentleman as he went
out of the room ; but the natural ones commonly fly
from thofe who approach them. This may be ac¬
counted for, from a difference between the eleCtricity
of the atmofphere in the one room and the other; in
which cafethe flame would naturally be attracted towards
that place where the eleCtricity was either different in
quality or in quantity ; but in the natural way, where
all bodies may be fuppofed equally eleCtrified for a
great way round, a repulfion will as naturally take
place. Still, however, this does not feem to be always
the cafe. In thofe inftances where travellers have been
attended by an ignis fatuus, we cannot fuppofe it
to have been influenced by any other power than what
we call attraBion, and which eleCtricity is very ca¬
pable of producing. Its keeping at fome diftance is
likewife eafily accounted for; as we know that bodies
poffeffed of different quantities of eleCtricity may be
made to attraCl one another for a certain fpace, and
then repel without having ever come into contaft.
On this principle we may account for the light which
furrounded the woman at Milan, but fled from the
hand of any other perfon. On the fame principle may
we account for thefe mifehievous vapours which fet
fire to the hay and corn ftacks, but were driven away
by prefenting to them a pointed iro'n inftrument, or
by making a noife. Both thefe are known to have a
great effeCt upon the eleCtric matter; and by means of.
either, even lightning may. occafionally be made to fall
upon or to avoid particular places, according to the
circumftances by which the general mafs happens to be
affeCted at that time.
On the whole, therefore, it feems molt probable, that
the ignis fatuus is a collection of vapour of the pu-
trefeent kind, very much affeCted by eleCtricity; ac¬
cording to the degree of which, it will either give a
weak or ftrong light, or even let fire to. certain fub-
ftances difpofed to receive its operation. This opinion
feems greatly to be confirmed from fome luminous
appearances obferved in privies, where the putrid
vapours have even colleCted tbemfelves into balls, and
exploded violently on the approach of a candle. This
lalt effeCt, however, we cannot fo well aferibe to the
eleCtricity, as to the accenfion of the inflammable
air which frequently abounds in fuch glaces.
In the appendix to Dr Prieftley’s third volume of
G 2 experiments
L I G [ 52 ] L I G
JLight. experiments and obfervations on air, Mr Warltire gives
an account of feme very remarkable ignes fatal, which
he obferved on the road to Bromfgrove, about five
miles from Birmingham. The time of obfervat/on was
the 12th of December 1776, before day-light. A
great many of thefe lights were playing in an Adjacent
field, in different direftions ; from fome of which there
fuddenly fprung up bright branches of light, fome-
thing refembling the explofion of a rocket that con¬
tained many brilliant ftars, if the difeharge was up¬
wards, inftead of the ufual direction, and the hedge
and trees on each fide of the hedge were illuminated.
This appearance continued but a few feconds, and
then the jack-a-lanterns played as before. Mr Warl¬
tire was not near enough to obferve if the apparent
explofions were attended with any report.
Cronftedt gives it as his opinion, that tgnh fatuus,
as well as the meteors called falling furs, are owing to
collections of inflammable air raifed to a great height
in the atmofphere. But, with regard to the latter,
the vaft height at which they move evidently (hows
that they cannot be the effeft of any gravitating vapour ^
whatever; for the lightell inflammable air is one-twelfth
ef that of the common atmofphere : and we have no
reafon to believe, that at the diftance of 40 or 50 miles
from the earth, the latter has near t't of its weight at
the furface. From the account given by Mr Warltire, we
fltould be apt to conclude, that there is a ftrong affinity
betwixt the ignes fatui and fire-balls, infomuch that the
one might be very eafily converted into the other.
From this then we muft aferibe an eleftrical origin to
the one as well as the other. EleCtricity, we know,
can aflume both thefe appearances, as is evident in the
cafe of points ; or even when the atmofphere is vio¬
lently eleftrified, as around the firing of an eleClrical
kite, which always will appear to be furrounded with a
blue flame in the night, if the eleCtricity be very ftrong.
On the whole, it appears, that eleCtricity aCting up¬
on a fmall quantity of atmofpherical air, with a certain
degree of vigour, will produce an appearance refem¬
bling an ignis fatuus ; with a fuperior force it will pro¬
duce a fire-ball; and a fudden increafe of ekCtrical
power might produce thofe fparks and apparent ex¬
plofions obferved by Mr Warltire. The only diffi¬
culty therefore is, Why does eleCtricity exert its
power upon one portion of the atmofphere rather than
another, feeing it has an opportunity of diffufing it-
felf equally through the whole ? To this it feems im-
poffible to give any other reafon than that we fee the
faCt is fo 5 and that in all cafes where there is a quan¬
tity of eleClrified air or vapour, there will be an accu¬
mulation in one part rather than another. Thus, in
the experiment already related, where the gentle¬
man perceived a blue flame following him, the whole
air of the room was eleClrified, but the greateft power
of the fluid was exerted on that which gave the lumi¬
nous appearance.
With regard to the ufes of the ignes fatui in the
fyftem of nature, we can only fay, that they feem to
be accidental appearances refulting from the motion of
the eleClrig fluid, and are, no doubt, like other meteors,
fubfervient to the prefervation of its equilibrium, and
thus are ufeful in preventing thofe dreadful commo¬
tions which enfue when a proper n^edium for fo doing
t ttefickqt.
A light in fome refpeCls fimilar to thofe above men- Idgirt.
tioned has been found to proceed from that celebrated ~v -
chemical production called phofphorus, which always
tends to decompofe itfelf, fo as to take fire by the aecefs phofphoriftj
of air only. Phofphorus, therefore, when it emits light,
light, is properly a body ignited; though when, a very
fmall quantity of it is ufed, as what is left after, draw¬
ing it over paper, or what may be diflblved in eflfential
oil, the heat is not fenfible. But perhaps the matter
which emits the light in what we call putrefeent fib-
fiances may be fimilar to it, though it be generated by
a different procefs, and burn with a lefs degree of heat.
Putrefcence does not feem to be neceffary to the light
of glow-worms, or of the pholades; and yet their light
is fufficiently fimilar to that of (hining wood or flefh.
EleCtric light is unqueftionably fimilar to that of phof¬
phorus, though the fource of it is apparently very dif¬
ferent.
Kunckel formed his phofphorus into a kind of pills
about the fize of peas, which being moiftened a little,
and feraped in the dark, yielded a very confiderable
light, but not without fmoke. The light was much
more pleafing when eight or ten of thefe pills were put
into a glafs of water; for being ftiaken in the dark,
the whole glafs feemed to be filled with light. Kunc¬
kel alfo reduced his phofphorus into the form of lar¬
ger ftones ; which being wanned by a perfon’s hand,
and rubbed upon paper, would deferibe letters that
were very legible in the dark.
The greateft variety of experiments with the light
of phofphorus was made by Dr Slare ; who lays, that
the liquid phofphorus (which is nothing more than the
folid phofphorus diffolyed in any of the effential oils)
would not hurt even a lady’s hand ; or that, when the
hands or face were walhed with it, it would not only
make them vifible to other perfona in the dark, but
that the light was fo confiderahle as to make other
neighbouring objefts vifible.
When the folid phofphorus is quite immerfed in wa¬
ter, he obferves that it ceafes to fhine ; but that if any
part of it chance to emerge, or get into the air, it will
ftiine though the glafs be hermetically fealed. In a
large glafs he kept it without water for feveral days }
and yet it continued fliining, with very little diminu¬
tion of its light or weight. If the letters that were
written with this phofphorua were warmed by the fire,
they prefently became dark lines, which continued up¬
on the paper, like ink. To try how nveh light was
given by a fmall quantity of this phofphorus, he obfer¬
ved that it continued to flame in the open air for feven
or eight days; the light being vifible whenever he ftmt
his window.
As air was generally thought to contain the pabu¬
lum of flame, Dr Slare was determined to try this with
refpeCt to phofphorus; and for this purpofe he placed
a large piece of it in a receiver ; hut upon exhaufting it,
he perceived that it became more luminous, and that,
upon admitting the air, it returned to its former ftate.
This property of the light of phofphorus, which is
the very reverfe of that of Ihiriing wood and fifties, was
alfo afeertained by feveral very accurate experiments
of Mr Haukfbee’s.
Endeavouring to blow the phofphorus. into a flame
with a pair of bellows, Dr Slare found that it was pre¬
fently blown out, and that it was a confiderable tiiuc
before
Lie F 53 1 . L I G
before the light revived again. All liquors would ex- brought into the dark room, it mujl be expofed to the
tinguiih this light when the phofphorus was put into fun-fhine, or at leaft to the open day-light, to imbibe ^
them ; nor would it fliine or burn, though it was even a fufficient quantity of rays ; and this is done in one
boiled in the moll inflammable liquors, as oil of olives, minute, or even lefs ; eight or ten feconds having
fpirit of turpentine, or even fpirit of wine. been found to furnilh as much light as a ftone is ca-
In order to keep his phofphorus from confuming, pable of receiving; and when brought into the dark,
he ufed to put it in a glafs of water 5 and fometimes he
has feen it, when thus immerfed in water, make fuch
bright and vigorous corufcations in the air, as, he fays,
its light continues about twelve or thirteen minutes,
weakening all the while by infenfible degrees. It is
^ ^ . very remarkable, that in bodies fo extremely flmilarto
would furprife and frighten thofe who are not ufed to each other as diamonds are, fome fliould have this pro.
the phenomenon. This fiery meteor, he fays, is con- perty of imbibing the fun’s rays, and Ihining in the
dark, and that others Ihould not ; yet fo it is found
to be by experiment, and the moll nearly refembling
Hones fhall be found one to have this property, and
trafted in its pafiage through the water, but expands
as foon as it gets above it. If any perfon would make
this experiment to advantage, he informs them that the
glafs mull be deep and cylindrical, and not above three another to be dellitute of it; while many of the moil
quarters filled with water. This effect he perceived in
warm weather only, and never in cold.
The phofphorus of which we .have been treating is
prepared from urine 1 but in fome cafes the fweat, which
is fimilar to'urine, has -been obferved to be phofphora-
Afla Cefa- ceous, without any preparation. This once happened
rienfa, to a perfon who ufed to eat great quantities of fait, and
voi. v. who was a little fubjeft to the gout, after fweating
P- 334* violent exercife. Stripping himfelf in the dark,
his Ihirt feemed to be all on fire, which furprifed him
very much. Upon examination, red fpots were found
upon his Ihirt; and the phyfician who was prefent per-
dilfimilar have the property in common. There feems
to be no rule, nor even the leall traces of any imper-
fe£t rule of judging, which diamonds have, and which
have not this property ; their natural brightnefs, their
purity, their fize, or their fhape, contribute nothing to
it; and all that has been yet difeovered of the leall re¬
gularity among them, is, that all the yellow diamonds
have this property. This may probably arife from
their having more fulphur in their compofition, and
therefore illuminating more readily,, or emitting a more
vifible flame.
The burning of diamonds is a term ufed among the
ceivedan urinous fmell, though it had nothing in it of jewellers, for putting them into a fierce fire, as they
volatile alkali, but of the muriatic acid; the fame, he frequently do, when they are fouled with brown, cr
fays, that ilfues from cabbage much falted, and llrong- yellow, or the like ; this always divells them of their
4*.
All thefe
lights
ly fermented.
The eafiell method of accounting for all thefe kinds
of lights, perhaps, is from ele&ricity. If light confifts
counted for in a certain vibration of the eledlric fluid f, then it fol-
from elec- lows, that in whatever fubftances fuch a vibration takes
tr'city- place, there light mull appear, whether in putrefeent
tU-Zj-y. fC* an'mal fubftances, fea-water, phofphorus, or any thing
elfe. We know that the eledtric matter pervades all
terreftrial fubftances, and is very liable to be fet in mo¬
tion from caufes of which we are ignorant. The ac¬
tion of the air by which putrefaction is produced may
be one of thefe caufes ; and it can by no means appear
colour, without doing them the leaft fenfible injury.
M. du Fay, having been informed of this common prac¬
tice, formed a conjedture, that the difference of dia¬
monds in their Ihining, or not fhining in the dark, was
owing to it; and that either all thofe which had been
burnt, or all thofe which had not, were thofe which
alone (hone in the dark. But this was found an erro¬
neous conjedlure ; for two diamonds, one lucid in the
dark, the other not, were both burnt, and afterwards
both were found to retain the fame properties they
had before. It is not only the open funflune, or open
day-light, which gives to thefe diamonds the power of
furprifing that the eledlric matter fhould adt in the bo- ftiining in the dark ; they receive it in the fame manner.
dies-of living animals in fuch a manner as to produce
permanent- light, when we certainly know it adls in
fome of them fo powerfully as to produce a ftiock fimi¬
lar to that of a charged vial.   On this fubjedl we
ftiall only obferve farther, that when this vibration be-
even jf laid under a glafs, or plunged in water or in
milk.
M. du Fay tried whether it was pofiible to make the
diamond retain, for any longer time, the light it natu¬
rally parts with fo foon ; and found, that if the dia-
comes fo powerful as to penetrate the folid fubftance of mond, after being expofed to the light, be covered
the body itfelf, the luminous body then becomes tranf- with black wax, it will fliine in the dark, as well fix
parent, as in the milk mentioned in the former part of hours afterwards as at the time it was firft impreg-
this article ; but, when it is only fuperficial, the body, nated with the light.
though it emits light, is itfelf opaque.
Light from Diamonds. Among luminous bodies the
diamond is to be reckoned; as fome diamonds are known
to fliine in the dark. But on account of the feeblenefs
The imbibing light, in this manner, being fo nice
a property as not to be found in feyeral diamonds, it
was not to be fuppofed that it would be found in any
other ftones: accordingly, on trial, the ruby, the fap-
of their fplendor, it is neceffary for the perfon who is phire, and the topaz, were found wholly deftitute of
to obferve them, previoufly to ftay in the dark at leaft
a quarter of an hour; that the pupil of the eye may
be dilated and enlarged, and fo rendered capable of certainty of thefe accidents.
and among a large number of rough emeralds, one
only was found to poffeft it. Such is the ftrange un¬
receiving a larger quantity of the rays of light. M. du
Fay has alfo obferved, that the eyes ought to be ftiut
for this time, or at leaft one of them ; and that, in that
cafe, the light of the diamond is afterwards only feen by
All the other lefs precious Hones were tried, and
found not to pofiefs this property of imbibing light
from the day-light or fun-fliine, but they all became
luminous by the different means of heating or fridtion 5
that eye which has been ftiut. Before the diamond is with this difference, that fome
quired it by one of
thefe
L I G [ 54 1 ^ I G
tli'efe methods, and others by the other; each being
unaffected by that which gave the property to the
other. The diamond becomes luminous by all thefe
ways.
Beccarius alfo difeovered, that diamonds bavO the
property of the Bolognian phofphorus, about the fame
time that it occurred to M. du Fay. Com. Bomn.
vol. ii. p. 276. M. du Fay likewife obferved, that the
common topaz, when calcined, had all the properties of
this phofphorus ; and purfuing the difeovery, he found
the fame property, in a great degree, in the belemni-
tes, gypfum, lime-ftone, and marble : though he was
obliged to diffolve fome very hard fubftances of this
kind in acids, before calcination could produce this
change in them; and with fome fubftances he could
not fucceed even thus; efpecially with flint-ftones, ri*
ver-fand, jafpecs, agates, and rock-cryital.
Light from Plants. In Sweden a very curious phe¬
nomenon has been obferved on certain flowers by M.
Haggern, lecturer in natural hiftory. One evening
he perceived a faint flafh of light repeatedly dart from
a marigold. , Surprifed at fuch an uncommon appear¬
ance, he refolved to examine it with attention ; and,
to be affured it was no deception of the eye, he placed
a man near him, with orders to make a fignal at the
moment when he obferved the light. They both faw
it conftantly at the fame moment.
The light was moft brilliant on marigolds of an
orange or flame colour; but fcarcely vifible on pale
ones.
The flafh was frequently feen on the fame flower two
or three times in quick fuccefiion ; but more common¬
ly at intervals of feveral minutes : and when feveral
flowers in the fame place emitted their light together,
it could be obferved at a confiderable diftance.
This phenomenon-was remarked in the months of
July and Auguft at fun-fet, and for half an hour, when
the atmofphere was clear; but after ayainy day, or
when the air was loaded with vapours, nothing of it
was feen.
The following flowers emitted flafhes, more or lefs
vivid, in this order:
1. The marigold, galendula officinalis.
2. Monk’s-hood, tropalum majus.
3. The orange-lily, lilium bulbiferum.
4. The Indian pink, tagetes potula & ereBa.
To difeover whether fome little infedls or phofpho-
ric worms might not be the caufe of it, the flowers
were carefully examined, even with a microfcope, with¬
out any fuch being found.
From the rapidity of the flafh, and other circumftan-
ces, it may be conjeftured that there is fomething of
ele&ricity in this phenomenon. It is well known, that
when the piftil of a flower is impregnated, the pollen
burfts away by its elafticity, with which electricity may
be combined. But M. Haggern, after having obferved
the flafh from the orange lily, the anthers; of which are
a confiderable fpace diftant from the petals, found that
the light proceeded from the petals only ; whence he
concludes, that this electric light is caufed by the pol¬
len, which, in flying off, is fcattered on the petals.
Whatever be the caufe, the effedt is Angular and highly
curious.
Lights, in painting, are thofe parts of a piece
which are illuminated, or that lie open to the luminary,
by which the piece is fuppofed to be enlightened ; and Light
which, for this reafon, are painted in bright vivid co* .. JL
lours. *■
In this fenfe, light is oppofed to fhadow.
Different lights have very different effects on a pic¬
ture, and occaiion a difference in the management of
every part. A great deal therefore depends on the
painter’s choofing a proper light for his piece to be
illuminated by; and a great deal more, in the condudt
of the lights and fhadows, when the luminary is pitched
upon.
The ftrength and relievo of a figure, as well as its
gracefulnefs, depend entirely on the management -of
the lights, and the joining of thofe to the fhadows.
The light a figure.receives is either direct or reflec¬
ted ; to each of which fpecial regard muft be had. The ‘
dodtrine of lights and fhadows makes that part of
painting called chair vbfeure.
LiGtif-Horfc) an ancient term in our Englifh cuf-
toms, fignifying an ordinary cavalier or horfeman
lightly armed, and fo as to enter a corps or regiment;
in oppofition to the men at arms, who were heavily ac¬
coutred, and armed at all points. See Light-HoRSE.
LtGHT-Houfe, a building erected upon a cape, or pro¬
montory on the fea-coaft, or upon fome rock in the
fea, and having on its top in the night-time a great
fire, or light Formed by candles, which is conftantly
attended by fome careful perfon, fo as to be feen at a
great diftance from the land. It is ufed to direct the
ihipping on the coaft, that might otherwife run afhore,
or fleer an improper courfe when the darknefs of the
flight and the uncertainty of currents, &c. might ren¬
der their fituation with regard to the fhore extremely
doubtful. Lamp-lights are, on many accounts, pre¬
ferable to coal-fires or candles ; and the effedt of thefe
may be increafed by placing them either behind glafs-
hemifpheres, or before properly dffpofed glafs or me¬
tal reflectors, which lafl method is now very generally
adopted. See Beacons.
LiGHT-Room, a fmall apartment, inclofed with glafs-
windows, near the magazine of a fliip of war. It is
ufed to contain the lights by which the gunner and his
afliftants are enabled to fill cartridges with powder to
be ready for adtipn.
LIGHTER, a large, open, flat-bottomed veflel,
generally managed with oars, and employed to carry
goods to or from a fhip when fhe is to be laden or de¬
livered.— There are alfo fome lighters fuxnifhed with
a deck throughout their whole length, in order to con¬
tain thofe merchandifes which would be damaged by
rainy weather : thefe are ufually called clofe lighters.
LIGHTFOOT (John), a moft learned Englifh
divine, was the fon of a divine, and born in March
1602, at Stoke upon Trent in Staffordfhire. After
having finifhed his ftudies at a fchool on Morton-green
near Congleton in Chefhire, he was removed in 1617
to Cambridge, where he applied himfelf to eloquence,
and fucceeded fo well in it as to be thought the belt
orator of the under-graduates in the univerfity.- He
alfo made an extraordinary proficiency in the Latin
and Greek ; but neglected the Hebrew, and even loft
that knowledge he brought of it from fchool. His
' tafte for the oriental languages was not yet excited;
and as for logic, the ftudy of it, as managed at that
time among the academics, was too quarrelfome and
fierce
L l G l 55 3 L I G
Lightfoof. fieyCe for his quiet and meek dlfpofition. As foon as
he had taken the degree of B. A. he left the univer-
fity, and became affiftant to a fchool at Repton in
Derbyihire. After he had fupplied this place a year
■ 7 or two, he entered into orders, and became curate of
Norton under Hales in Shropfhire. This curacy gave an
OCcaiion of awakening his genius for the Hebrew
tongue. Norton lies near Bellaport, then the feat of
Sir Rowland Cotton.; who was his coaftant hearer,
made him his chaplain, and took him into his houfe.
This gentleman being a perfedl mailer of the Hebrew
language, engaged Lightfoot in that lludy; who, by
converting with his patron, foon became fenfible that
without that knowledge it was impoflible to attain an
accurate underilanding of the fcriptures. He there¬
fore applied himfelf to it with extraordinary vigour,
and in a little time made a great progrefs in it: and
his patron removing with his family to reiide in Lon¬
don, at the requeil of Sir Alland Cotton his uncle,
who was lord-mayor of that city, he followed his pre¬
ceptor thither. But he did not ftay long there : for,
having a mind to improve himfelf by tiavelling abroad,
he went down into Staffordihire to take leave of his
father and mother. Faffing through Stone in that
county, he found the place dellitute of a miniiter: and
the preffing inftances of thd pariffiioners prevailed up¬
on him to undertake that cure. Hereupon, laying
afide his defign of travelling abroad, he began to turn
his thoughts upon fettling at home. During his refi-
dence at Bellaport, he hadfallen into the acquaintance of
a gentlewoman who was daughter of William Cromp¬
ton of Stonepark, Efq; and now, being in polfeffion
of that living, he married her in 1628. But not-
withftanding this fettlement, his unquenchable third
after rabbinical learning would not fuffer him to con¬
tinue there. Sion-college library at London, he knew,
was well docked with books of that kind. He there¬
fore quitted his charge at Stone, and removed with his
family to Hornfey, near the city ; where he gave the
public a notable fpecimen of his advancement in thofe
ftudies, by his “ Erubhim, or Mifcellanies Chriilian
and Judaical,” in 1629. He- was at this time only
27 years of age ; and appears to have been well ac¬
quainted with the Latin and the Geeek fathers^ as well
as the ancient heathen writers. Thefe firft fruits of his
iludies were dedicated to Sir Rowland Cotton ; who,
in 1631, prefented him to the redlory of Affiley in
Staffordffiire.
He feemed now to be fixed for life : Accordingly,
be built a ftudy in the garden, to be out of the noife
of the houfe ; and applied himfelf with indefatigable
diligence in fearching the fcriptures. Thus employ¬
ed, the days palled very agreeably; and he continued
quiet and unmolefted,. till the great change which
happened in the public affairs brought him into a lhare
of the adminiftratipn relating to the church; for he
was nominated a member of the memorable affembly
of divines for fettling a new form of ecclefiaftical po-
?ity. This appointment was purely, the effect of his
dillinguilhed merit;. and he accepted it purely with a
view to ferve his country, as far as lay in his power.
The non-refidence, which this would neceffarily occa-
fion, apparently induced him to refign his rectory:
and having obtained the prefentation for a younger
brother, he fet out for London in 1642.. He had now
fatisfied himfelf in clearing up many of the abllruleft Lightfuot.
paffages in the Bible, and therein had provided the chief ——
materials, as well as formed the plan, of his “ Harmo*
nyand an opportunity of infpedting it at the prel's
was, no doubt, an additional motive for his going to
the capital: where he had not been long before he
was chofen miniiter of St Bartholomew’s, behind the
Royal Exchange. The affembly of divines meeting in
1643, our author gave his attendance diligently there,
and made a diftinguilhed figure in their debates ; where
he ufed great freedom, and gave fignal proofs of his
courage as well as learning, in oppofing many of thofe
tenets which the divines were endeavouring to eftablilh.
His learning recommended him to the parliament,
whofe vifitors, having ejedted Dr William Spurltow
from the mafterlhip of Catharine-hall in Cambridge,
put Lightfoot in his room, this year 1653 ; and he
was alfo prefented to the diving of Much-Munden in
Hertfordlhire, void by the death of Dr Samuel Ward,
Margaret-profeffor of divinity in that univerlity, before
the expiration of this year. Meanwhile he had his turn
with other favountes in preaching before the houfe of
commons, molf of which fermons were printed ; and in
them we fee him warmly preffing the fpeedy fettlement
of the church in the Prefbyterian form, which he cor¬
dially believed to be according to the pattern in the
Mount. He was all the while employed in preparing
and publilhing the feveral branches of his-Harmony ; all
which were fo many excellent fpecimens of the ufeful-
nefs of human learning to true religion : and he met
with great difficulties and difcouragements in that work,
chiefly from that antieruditional fpirit which prevailed^,
and even threatened the deftrudtion of the univerfities.
In 1655 he entered upon the office of vice-chancellor
of Cambridge, to which he was chofen that year, ha¬
ving taken the degree of dodtor of divinity in 1652.
He performed all the regular exercifes for. his degree
with great applaufe, and executed the vice-chancellor’s
office with exemplary diligence and fidelity ; and, par¬
ticularly at the commencement, fupplied the place of
profeffor of divinity, then undifpofed of, as an a£l which
was kept for a doctor’s degree in that profeffion. At
the fame time he was engaged with others in perfedling
the Polyglott Bible, then in the prefs. At the Relto-
ration he offered to refign-the mafterthip of Catharine-
hall: But, as what he had done had been rather in
compliance with the neceffity of the times, than from
any zeal, or fpirit of oppoiltion to the king and govern¬
ment, a confirmation was granted him from the crown^
both of the place and of his living. Soon after this he
was appointed one of the affiftants at the conference
upon the .liturgy, which was held in the beginning of
1:661, but attended only once or twice ; probably-dif-
gufted at the heat with which that conference was ma¬
naged. However, he ttuck clofe to his defign of per-
fedling his Harmony : and being of a ftrong and heal¬
thy conftitutioa, which was aflSted by an exa6l tem¬
perance, he profecuted his ftudies with unabated vi¬
gour to the laft, and continued to publifli, , notwith-
ftanding the many difficulties he met with from the ex¬
pence of it. However, not, long before he died, fome
hookfellers got a promife from him to colie61 and me¬
thodize his works, in order to print them ; but the ex¬
ecution was prevented by his death, which happened
Dec. 6. 1675. The do6lor was twice married : his
full,
L I G l c6 ] L I G
firfl \dfe, already mentioned, brought him four fons
and two daughters. His fecond wife was likewife
a widow, and relift of Mr Auftin Brograve, uncle of
Sir Thomas Brograve, Bart, of Hertfordlhire, a gentle¬
man well verfed in rabbinical learning, and a parti¬
cular acquaintance of our author. He had no iffue by
her. She alfo died before him. and was buried in
Munden church; where tire doftor was himfelflike¬
wife interred near both his wives. Dr Lightfoot’s
\yorks were collefted and publifhed firft in 1684, in
two volumes folio. The fecond edition was printed at
Amfterdam, 1686, in two volumes folio, containing all
his Latin writings, with a Latin tranflation of thofe
which he wrote in Englilh. At the end of both thefe
editions there is a lift of fuch pieces as he left unfinifh-
ed. It is the chief of thefe, in Latin, which make
■ up the third volume, added to the former two, in a
third'edition of his works, by John Leufden, at Utrecht,
in 1699, fob They were communicated by Mr
Jptrype, who, in 1700, published another colleftion of
thefe papers, under the title of “ Some genuine re¬
mains of the date pious and learned Dr John Light-
foot.
LIGHTNING, a bright and vivid flafh of fire,
fuddenly appearing in the atmofphere, and commonly
difappearing in an inftant, fometimes attended with
clouds and thunder, and fometimes not.
x The phenomena of lightning are always furprifing,
different and fometimes very terrible ; neither is there any kind
*PP~0f natural appearance in which there is more diverfity,
' not two dallies being ever obferved exaftly fimilar to
one another. In a ferene Iky, the lightning, in this
country at leaft, almoft always hath a kind of indi-
ftinft appearance without any determinate form, like
the fudden illumination of the atmofphere occafioned
by firing a quantity of loofe gunpowder; but when
accompanied with thunder, it is well defined, and hath
very often a zig-zag form. Sometimes it makes only-
one angle, like the letter V, fometimes it hath fe-
veral branches, and fometimes it appears like the arch
of a circle. But the moft formidable and deftruftive
form which lightning is ever known to affume is that
of balls of fire. The motion of thefe is very often
eafily perceptible to the eye ; but wherever they
fell, much mifehief is occafiosed by their burfting,
which they always do with a ludden explofion like
that of fire-arms. Sometimes they will quietly run
along, or reft for a little upon any tiling, and then
break into feveral pieces, each of which will explode;
or the whole ball will burft at once, and produce its
mifehievous effefts only in one place. The next to
this in its deftruftive effefts is the zig-zag kind ; for
that which appears like indiftinft flames, whofe form
cannot be readily obferved, is feldom or never known
to do hurt.—The colour of the lightning -alfo indi¬
cates in fome meafure its power to do mifehief; the
paleftand brighteft flafties being moft deftruftive; fuch
as are red, or of a darker colour, commonly doing lefs
damage.
2 . A very' furprifing property of lightning, the zig-
oninipre-11^ zaS kind efpecially when near, is its feeming omni-
fence. prefence. If two perfons are ftanding in a room look¬
ing different ways, and a loud clap of thunder accom¬
panied with zig-zag lightning happens, they will
both diftinftly fee the flafh, not onlv by that indi-
N° 182.
ftinft illumination of the atmofphere which is occa-lngfeLsg.
fioned by fire of any kind; but the very form of the
lightning itfelf, and every angle it makes in its courfe,
will be as diftinftly perceptible, as though they had
looked direftly at the cloud from whence it proceeded,.
If a perfon happened at that time to be looking on a
book, or other objeft which he held in his hand, he
would diftinftly fee the form of the lightning between
him and the objeft at which he looked. This pro¬
perty feems peculiar to lightning, and to belong to no
other kind of fire whatever.
The effefts of lightning" are generally confined with-
in a fmall fpace; and are feldom fimilar to thofe which abie efFe>$k
afecompany explofions of gun-powder, or of inflam-of ILht-
mable air in mines. Irtftances of this kind, however, n*no>
have occurred; the following is one of the moft re¬
markable of which we have any diftinft account.
“ Auguft 2. 1763, about fix in the evening, there
arofe at Anderlight, about a league from Bruffels, a
conflift »f feveral winds borne upon a thick fog. This
conflift lafted four or five minutes, and was attended
with a frightful hilling noife, which could be compared
to nothing but the yellings of an infinite number of
wild beafts. The cloud then opening, difeovered a
kind of very bright lightning, and in an inflant the
roofs of one fide of the houfes were carried off and
difperfed at a diftance-; -above 1000 large trees were
broke off, fome near the ground, others near the top,
fome torn up by the roots; and many both of the
branches and tops carried to the diftance of 60, 100,
or 120 paces } Whole coppices were laid on one fide,
as corn is by ordinary winds. The glafs of the win¬
dows which were moft expofed was Ihivered to pieces.
A tent in a gentleman’s garden Was carried to the
diftance'of 4000 paces; and a branch torn from a large
tree, ftruek a girl in the forehead as Ihe was coming
into town, at the diftance of 4© paces from the trunk
of the tree, and killed her on the fpot.”
Thefe terrible effefts feem to have been owing to
the prodigious agitation in the air, occafioned by the
emiffiori of fuch a vaft quantity of lightning at once;
or perhaps to the agitation of the eleftric fluid itfelf,
which is ftill more dangerous than any concufiion of
the atm&fphere; for thunder-ftorms will fometimes
produce moft violent whirlwinds, fuch as are by the
heft philofophers attributed to eleftricity, nay, even
occafion an agitation of the waters of the ocean itfelf;
and all this too after the thunder and lightning had
ceafed.—Of this we have the following inftances.
“ Great Malvern, Oftober 16. 1761. On Wed-
nefday laft," we had the moft violent thunder ever
known in the memory of man. At a quarter paft
four in the afternoon I was furprifed with a moft
fliocking and difmal noife; 100 forges (the neareft
refemblance I can think of), were they all at work at
once, could fcarce equal it. I ran to the fore-door,
and cafting my eye upon the fide of the hill about
400 yards to the fouth-weft of my Loufe, there ap¬
peared a prodigious fmoke, attended with the fame
violent noife. I ran back into the houfe, ahd cried
out, a volcano (for fo I thought) had burft out of
the hill; but I had no fooUer got back again, than I
found it had defeended, and-was palling on within
about 100 yards of the Couth end of my houfe. It
feemed to rife again in the meadow juft below it; and
6 con-
LIC [ 57 3 LIG
lightning, continued Its progrefs to the eaft, riling In the fame
—v manner for four different times, attended with the
fame difmal noife as at firft; the air being filled with
a naufeous and fulphureous fmell. I faw it gradually
decreafe till quite extinguxlhed in a turnip-field about
a quarter of a mile below my houfe. The turnip
leaves, with leaves of trees, dirt, fticks, &c. filled the
air, and flew higher than any of thefe hills. The
thunder ceafed before this happened, and the air foon
afterwards became calm and ferene.”—The vaft co¬
lumn of fmoke mentioned in the above letter was fo
large, that a phyfician of eminence at Worcefterfawit
in its progrefs down the hill, about a mile from Fec-
kenham, which is above 20 miles from Malvern.—In
Auguft 1763, a moft violent .ftorm of thunder, rain,
and hail, happened at London, which did damage in
the adjacent country, to the amount of 50,000!.
Hailftones fell of an immenfe fize, from two to ten
inches circumference ; but the moft furprifing circum-
ftance was the fudden flux and reflux of the tide in
Plymouth pool, exaft’ly correfponding with the like
agitation in the fame place, at the time of the great
earthquake at Lifbon.
Inftances are alfo to be found, where lightning, by
its own proper force, without any affiftance from thofe
lefs common agitations of the atmofphere or eledlric
fluid, hath thrown ftones of immenfe weight to con-
fiderable dift.ances ; torn up trees by the root, and broke
them in pieces; (battered rocks; beat down houfes,
and fet them on fire, &c.
Extraordi- A very Angular effeft of lightning is mentioned in
nary effects the 66th volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions,
ofhghtnii.g Up0n a pyed bullock. It happened in the county of
bullock.6 Suffex about the end bf Auguft 1774. The bullock
was white and red ; and the lightning ftripped off the
white hair leaving the red untouched. The following
is a particular account of the matter. “ In the evening
of Sunday, the 28th of Auguft, there w*as an ap¬
pearance of a thunder-ftorm, but we heard no report.
A gentleman who was riding near the marfhes not far
diftant from this town (Lewes) faw two ftrong flafbes
of lightning, feemingly running along the ground of
the marfh, at about nine o'clock in the evening. On
Monday morning, when the fervants of Mr Roger, a
farmer at Swanborough, in the parifh of Iford, went
into the marfh to fetch the oxen to their work, they
found one of them, a four-year-old fleer, Handing up
to appearance much burnt, and fo rveak as to be fcarce
able to walk. The animal feemed to have been ftruck
by lightning in a very -extraordinary manner, fie is
of a white and red colour; the white in large marks,
beginning at the rump bone, and running in various
directions along both the fides; the belly is all white,
and the whole head and horns white likewife. The
lightning, wuth which he muft have been undoubtedly
ftruck, fell upon the rump bone, which is white, and
-diftributed itfelf along the fides in fuch a manner as
to take off all the hair from the white marks as low
as the bottom of the ribs, but fo as to leave a lift of
white hair, about half an inch broad, all round where
it joined to the red, and not a Angle hair of the red
appears to be touched. The whole belly is unhurt,
but the end of the (heath of the penis has the hair
taken off; it is alfo taken off from the dewlap: the horns
and the curled hair on the forehead are uninjured; but
Vol. X. Part I.
the hair is taken off from the fides of the face, from Lightning.
the flat part of the jaw-bones, and from the front of
the face in ftripes. There are a few white marks on the
fide and neck, which are furrounded with red; and
the hair is taken off from them, leaving half an inch
of white adjoining to the red. The farmer anointed
the ox wiih oil for a fortnight; the animal purged
very much at firft, and was greatly reduced in flefli, but
is now recovering.”
In another account of this accident, the author fup-
pofes that the bullock had been lying down at the time
he was ftruck ; which (hows the reafon that the under
parts were not touched. “ The lightning, conducted
by the white hair, from the top of the back down the
fides, came to the ground at the place where the
white hair was left entire.”
The author of this account lays, that he inquired of
a Mr Tooth a farrier, whether he ever knew of a fimi-
lar accident; and that he told him “ the circumftance
was not new to him ; that he had feen a great many
pyed bullocks ftruck by lightning in the fame manner
as this ; that the texture of the (kin under the white
hair was always deftroyed, though looking fair at firft;
but after a while it became fore, throwing out a pu-
tiid matter in puftules, like the fmall-pox with us,
which in time falls off, when the hair grows again, and
the bullocks receive no farther injury which was the
cafe with the bullock in queftion. In a fubfequent
letter, however, the very fame author informs us, that
he had inquired of Mr Tooth “ whether he ever faw a
ftroke of lightning aftually fall upon a pyed bullock,
fo as to deitroy the white hair, and (how evident marks
of burning, leaving the red hair uninjured? He faid
he never did; nor did he recollecl any one that had.
He gave an account, however, of a pyed horfc, be-C)n ^ fi(j
longing to himfelf, which had been ftruck dead by hotfe.
lightning in the night-time.” The explofion was fo
violent, that Mr Tooth imagined his houfe had been
ftruck, and therefore immediately got up. On going
into the ftable he found the horfe almoft dead to ap¬
pearance, though it kept on its legs near half an hour
before it expired. The horfe was pyed white on the
(boulder and greateft part of the head; viz. the fore¬
head and nofe, where the greateft force of the ftroke
came. “ The hair was not burnt nor difcoloured,
only fo loofened at the root, that it came off with the
lead touch. And this is the cafe, according to Mr
Tooth’s obfervation, with all that he has feen or heard
of; viz. the hair is never burnt, but the ikin always
aftedled as above mentioned. In the horfe, all the
blood in the veins under the white parts of the head
was quite ftagnated, though he could perceive it to
flow in other parts as ufual; and the (kin, together
with one fide of the tongue, was parched and dried up
to a greater degree than he had ever feen before.”
Another inftance is mentioned of this extraordinary
effedl of lightning upon a bullock, in which even the
fmall red fpots on the fides were unaffecled ; and in
this, as well as the former, the white hair on the un¬
der part of tlie belly, and on die legs, was left un¬
touched.
All thefe, however, are to be confidered as the
more unufual phenomena of lightning ; its common
mode of a&ion being entirely fimilar to that of a char¬
ged Leyden vial, where the eledric matter difeharges
H itfelf
L I G [ 58 1 L I G
Ughtning. ftfelf from a fubftance pofitively eleftrified to one that
t-~—v is negatively fo. The indentity of electric matter and
lightning feems now, indeed, fo well eftabliihed, that
there is not the leaft foundation for feeking any other
folution of the phenomena of lightning, than what
may be obtained by comparing them with thofe of
. 6 . our eleftrical experiments. The different forms of the
between ^ Aa:^es are ah exemplified in thofe of electrical fparks.
«le<ftric Where the quantity of ele&ricity is fmall, and confe-
fpark& and quently incapable of ftriking at any confiderable di-
ligfetmng. (tancej the fpark appears flraight, without any cur¬
vature or angular appearance : but where the electri¬
city is very ftrong, and of confequence capable of ftri¬
king an objeCt at a pretty confiderable diftance, it af-
fumes a crooked or zig-zag form. This is always the
cafe with Mr Nairn’s very powerful machines, the con¬
ductors of which are fix feet in length and one foot
in diameter. Sparks may be taken from them at the
diftance of 16, 17, or even 20 inches ; and all of thefe
Why^it id-- Put on the angular zig-zag form of lightning. The
fumesazig-reafon of this appearance, bath in thefe fparks and in
zag form, the lightning, is, that the more fluid eleCtric matter
hath to pafs through the denfer and lefs fluid at-
mcfphere with great rapidity; and in faCt, this is the
way in which all the more fluid fubftances pafs through
thofe that are lefs fo, at leaft when their velocity be¬
comes confiderable. If bubbles of air or fleam pafs
very gently up through water, their courfe from the
bottom to the top of the veffel will differ very little,
if at all, from a ftraight line ; but when they are im¬
pelled by a confiderable force, as in air blown from a
bellows, or the bubbles of ffeam which arife in boiling
water, their courfe is then marked by waved and
crooked lines, and the defleCtion of he bubbles to the
right or left will be precifely in pre portion to their
afcending velocity, and to the weight of the water by
which they are refifted.
In the cafe of air blown through water, however,
©r fteam afcending from the bottom of a veffel of
boiling water, though the courfe of the bubbles is
waved and crooked, we never obferve it to be angular
as in lightning. The reafon of this is, that there is
no proportion between the capacity of the air for
yielding to the impetus of lightning, and the velocity
with which the latter' is moved. From Mr Robins’s
experiments in gunnery, it appears, that the air can¬
not yield with a velocity much greater than 1200 feet
in a fecond, and that all projectiles moving with a
greater degree of velocity meet with a violent refift-
ance. But if we fuppofe lightning to move only
with one half the velocity of light, that is, near
100,000 miles in a fecond, or even with that of 1000
• See Fin- miles in a minute, which moft probably is the cafe*,
its motion in the fluid atmofphere will meet with a re-
fiftance very little inferior to what air would meet with
in paffing through the moft folid bodies. The fmalleft
difference of the refiftance of the atmofphere on either
fide, muft determine the lightning to that fide; and in its
paffage to that new place where the refiftance is leaft,
it muft pafs on in a ftraight line, making an angle with
its former courfe, becaufe the atmofphere is altogether
incapable of yielding with fuch rapidity as the eleCtric
matter requires, and therefore refifts like a folid rock.
The cafe is otherwife in the former examples : for tho’
« fuaall difference in. the refiftaace. forces.the bubbles of
air <?r fteam to deviate from fide to fide, yet there E.glunmg,
is always a confiderable proportion between the ca- ^ l't
pacity of water for yielding, and that force by which
the bubbles urge it to yield; fo that though it does
make a refiftance fufficient to prevent the bubbles
from moving in a ftraight line, yet it alfo percep¬
tibly yields at all times, and therefore- the traCt of
the bubbles is formed by a number of curves and
not angles. _ g
Hence we may underftand the reafon why^the zig-why fuck
zag kind of lightning is fo dangerous, namely, be-kind of
caufe it muft overcome a very violent refiftance of the "IS
atmofphere ; and wherever that refiftance is hi the^^n5*n'
fmalleft degree leffencd, there it will undoubtedly ftrike,"
and at a very confiderable diftance too. It is other-
wife with that kind which appears in flaflies of no de¬
terminate form. The eleCtric matter of which thefe
are compofed, is evidently dillipated in the airbyfome
conducting fubftances yvhich are prefent there ; and
of confequence, though a man, or other conducing
body, happened to be very near fuch a flalh, he would-
not be ftruck or materially injured by it, though a zig¬
zag flafti, in fuch circumftances, would have probably
difcharged its whole force upon him. ^
• The moft deftruCtive kind of lightning, however, aswhy iigbt-
we have already obferved, is that which affumes the ning af-
form of balls. Thefe are produced by an exceeding
great power of eleCtricity gradually accumulated till baj:s>
the refiftance of the atmofphere is no longer able to
confine it. In general, the lightning breaks out from
the eleCtrified cloud by means of the approach of fome
conducting fubftanee; either a cloud, or fome terre-
ftrial fubftance: but the fire-balls feem to be formed,
not becaufe there is any fubftance at hand to attraCt
the eleCtric matter from the cloud, but becaufe the
eleCtricity is accumulated in fuch quantity that the
cloud itfelf can no longer contain it. Hence fuch balls
fly off flowly, and have no particular deftination. Their
appearance indicates a prodigious commotion and ac¬
cumulation of eleCtricity in the atmofphere, without a
proportionable difpofition in the earth to receive it.
This difpofition, however, we know, is perpetually al¬
tered by a thoufand circumftances, and the place which
firft becomes moft capable of admitting eleCtricity will
certainly receive a fire-ball. Hence this kind of light¬
ning has been known to move flowly backwards and
forwards in'the air for a confiderable fpace of time, and
then fuddenly to fall on one or more houfes, accord¬
ing to their being more or lefs affeCted with an eleCtri¬
city oppofite to that of the ball at the time. It will
alfo run along the ground, break into feveral parts, and
produce feveral explofions at the fame time.
It is very difficult to imitate lightning of this kind
in our eleCtrical experiments. The only cafes in which
it hath been done in any degree are thofe in which Dr
Prieftley made the explofion of a battery pafs for a con¬
fiderable way over the furface of raw flefh, water.
See. and in Mr Arden’s experiment, when a fire-ball
afeended to the top of an eleCtrified jar, and burft it-
with a violent explofion. See Electricity n° 89, &c.
In thefe cafes, if, while the eleCtric flafti paffed over
the furface of the flefti, it had been poffible to inter¬
rupt the metallic circuit by taking away the chain,
the eleCtric matter difcharged from the battery would
have, been precifely in the fituation of one of- the ftre~
balk
L I G t 59 ] L I G
I lightning, balls above-mentioned ; i. e. it would have been at a
, v  lofs for a conductor. The negative fide of the battery
- was the place of its deftination ; but to that it would
not have eaiily got, becaufe of the great quantity of
atmofphere which lay in its way, and the incapacity
of the neighbouring bodies to receive it. But, while
the ele&ric matter was thus ftationary for want of a
conductor, if any perfon ftanding near, or touching
the negative fide of. the battery, prefented a finger to
that feemingly inoffenfive luminous body, he would in-
ftantly be ftruck very violently; becaufe a free com¬
munication being now made by means of his body, the
powers by which the eleftric fluid is impelled from
one place to another would inftantly urge it upon
him. But if we fuppofe a perfon, who hath no com¬
munication with the battery, to prefent his finger to the
fame body, he may perhaps receive a flight fpark from
it; but not a (hock of any confequence, becaufe
there is not a perfedt communication by means of-
his body with the place to which the electric fire is
deftined.
10 Hence we may account for the feemingly capricious
lightning nature of lightning of all kinds, but efpecially of that
in general kind which appears in the form of balls. Sometimes
accounted ft will Itrike trees, high houfes, fteeples, and towers,
kr< without touching cottages, men, or other animals,
who are in the neighbourhood. In fuch cafes, people
would be apt to fay that the neighbourhood of thefe
higher objedts preferved the others from the "ftroke ; but
with little reafon, fince low houfes, men walking in
the fields, cattle, nay the furface of the earth itfelf,
have all been ftruck, while high trees and fteeples in
the neighbourhood have not been touched. In like
manner, fire-balls have palled very near certain per-
fons without hurting them, while they have, as it
were, gone confiderably out of their way to kill others.
The reafon of all this is, that in thunder-ftorms there is
fionftantly a certain zone of earth confiderably under the
furface, which the lightning defires (if we may ufethe
expreffibn) to ftrike, becaufe it hath an eledtricity oppo-
fite to that of the lightning itfelf, Thofe objedts, there¬
fore, which form the moft perfedt condudtors between
the eledtrified clouds and that zone of earth, will be
ftruck by the lightning, whether they are high or low;
and becaufe we know not the condudting quality of
the diflerent terreftrial fubftances, the fuperftitious are
apt to afcribe ftrokes of lightning to the divine ven¬
geance againft particular perfons, whereas it is cer¬
tain that this fluid, as well as others, adts according to
invariable rules from which it is never known to de-
i ■ part.
Lightning, in the time of fevere thunder-ftorms, is
fuppofed to proceed from the earth, as well as from
the clouds: but this fadt hath never been well afcer-
tained, and indeed from the nature of the thing it
feems very difficult to be afcerfained; for the motion
of the eledtric fluid is fo very quick, that it is altoge¬
ther impoflible to determine, by means of our fenfes,
■whether it goes from the earth or comes to it. In
fadt, there are in this country many thunder ftorma in
which it doth not appear that the lightning touches
any part of the earth, and confequently can neither go
to it nor come out from it. In thefe cafes, it flafhes
cither from an eledtrified cloud ,to one endowed with
an oppofite eledtricity, or merely into thofe parts of Lightning,
the atmofphere which are ready to receive it. But if 'r~J
not only the clouds, but the atmofphere all the way be¬
twixt them and the earth, and likewife for a coniider-
able fpace above the clouds, are eledtrified one way,
the earth muft then be ftruck. The reafon of this will
appear from a confideration of the principles laid down
under the article Electricity, fedt. vi. It there ap¬
pears, that the eledtric fluid is altogether incapable" ei¬
ther of accumulation or diminution in quantity in any
particular part of fpace. What we call eledricity is only
the motion of this fluid made perceptible to our fenfes.
Pofitive eledtricity is when the current of eledtric mat¬
ter is diredted from the eledtrified body. Negative
eledtricity is when the current is diredted towards it.
Let us now fuppofe, that a pofitively eledtrified cloud
is formed over a certain part of the earth’s furface.
The eledtric matter flows out from it firft into the at*-
mofphere a(l round ; and while it is doing fo, the at¬
mofphere is negatively eledtrified. In proportion,
however, as the eledtric current pervades greater and
greater portions of the atmofpherical fpace, the great¬
er is' the refiftance to its motion, till at laft the air be¬
comes pofitively eledtrified as well as the cloud, and
then both adt together as one body. The furface -of
the earth then begins to be affected, and it filently
receives the eledtric matter by means of the trees, grafs.
See. till at laft it becomes pofitively eledtrified alfo,
and begins to fend off a current of eledtricity from
the furface downwards. The caufes which at firft
produced the eledtricity of the clouds (and which are
treated of under the article Thunder), ftill continu¬
ing to adt, the power of the eledtric current becomes
inconceivably great. The danger of the thunder-ftornt
now begins; for as the force of the lightning is di¬
redted to fome place below the furface of the earth,
it will certainly dart towards that place, and fliatter
every thing to pieces which refills its paffage. The i r
benefit of condudting-rods will now alfo be evident: Ufe of con¬
fer we are fure that the eledtric matter will in all 'cafes
take the way where it meets with the leaft refiftance; r°
and this is through the fubftance, or rather over the
furface, of metals. In fuch a cafe, therefore, if there
happen to be a houfe furnilhed with a condudtor di-
redtly below the cloud, and at the fame time a zone of
negatively eledtrified earth not very far below the
foundation of the houfe, the condudtor will almoft
certainly be ftruck, but the building will be unhurt.
If the houfe wants a condudtor, the lightning will
neverthelefs ftrike in the fame place, in order to get at
the negatively eledtrified zone above mentioned ; but
the building will now be damaged, becaufe the materialt
of it cannot readily condudt the eledtric fluid. j t
We will now be able to enter into the difpute, Whe-Whedur
tlier the preference is due to knobbed or pointed con- knobbed or
dubtors for preferving buildings from ftrokes of light- ^ndudors
ning? Ever fince the difeovery of the identity of are'pi efa_
eledtricity and lightning, it hath been allowed by all cable,
parties, that .condudtors of fome kind are in a manner
effentially neceffary for the fafety of buildings in thofe
countries where tliunder-ftorms are very frequent. The
principle on which they adt hath been already ex¬
plained ; namely, that the eledtric fluid, when im¬
pelled by any power, always goes to that place where
Hz it
L I G [ 60 ] L I G
lightning, {t meets with the leaft refiftance, as all other fluids
• • - alfo do. As metals, therefore, are found to give
the leaft refiftance to its paflage, it will always choofe
to run along a metalline rod, in preference to a paf-
fage of any other kind. We muft, however, care¬
fully confider a circumftance which feems to have been
too much overlooked by ekftrieians in their reafon-
ings concerning the efk&s of thunder-rods; namely.
That lightning, or eleftricity, never ftrikes a body,
merely for the fake of the body itfelf, but only be-
cftufe by means of that body it can readily arrive at
the place of its deftination. When a quantity of elec¬
tricity is colledted from the earth, -by means of an
electric machine, a body communicating with the
earth will receive a ftrong fpark from the prime con-
duftor. The body receives this fpark, not becaufe it
is itfelf capable of containing all the eledlricity of
the conductor and cylinder, but becaufe the natural
fituation of the fluid being difturbed by the motion of
the machine, a ftream of it is fent off from the earth.
The natural powers, therefore, make an effort to fup-
ply what is thus drained off from the earth; and as
the individual quantity which comes out is mdft pro¬
per for fupplying the deficiency, as not being employed
in any natural purpofe, there is always an effort made
for returning it to the earth. No fooner, then, is
a conduCling body, communicating with the earth,
prefented to the eleftrical machine, than the whole
effort of the eledlricity is diredled againft that body,
not merely beeaufe it is a condudlor, but becaufe it
leads to the place where the fluid is diredled by the
natural powers by which it is governed, and at which
it would find other means to arrive, though that body
were not to be prefented. That this is the cafe, we
may very eafily fatisfy ourfelves, by prefenting the very
fame conducing fubftance in an infulated ftate to the
prime condu&or of the machine; for then we fhall
find, that only a very fmall fpark will be produced.
In like manner, when lightning ftrikes a tree, a houfe,
or a thunder-rod, it is not becaufe thefe objects are
high, or in the neighbourhood of the cloud ; but be¬
caufe they communicate with fome place' below the
furface of the ground, againft which the impetus of
the lightning is directed ; and at that place the light¬
ning would certainly arrive, though none of the above-
mentioned objefts had been interpofed.
The fallacy of that kind of reafoning generally em¬
ployed concerning the ufe of thunder-rods, will now
be fufnciently apparent. Becaufe a point prefented to
an electrified body in our experiments, always draws
off the de&ricity in a filent manner; therefore Dr
Franklin and his followers have concluded, that a
pointed conductor will do the fame thing to a thunder¬
cloud, and thus •effectually prevent any kind of danger
from a ftroke of lightning. Their reafoning on this fub-
jeCt, they think, is confirmed by the following faCt
among many others. “ Dr Franklin’s houfe at Phila¬
delphia was furniflied with a rod extending nine feet
above the top of the chimney. To this rod was con¬
nected a wire of the thicknt-fs of a goofe-quill, which
defcended through the wall of the ftair-cafe ; where
an interruption was made, fo that the ends of the wire,
to each of which a little bell was fixed, were diilant
from each other about fix inches j an infulated brafs
ball hanging between the two bells. The author was Lightning. :
one night waked by loud cracks, proceeding from hi$ ——y—^
apparatus in the ftair-cafe. He ^perceived, that the
brafs ball, inilead of vibrating as ufual between the bells,
was repelled and kept at a diftance from both ; while
the fire fometimes paffed in very large quick cracks di-
reftly from bell to bell; and fometimes in a continued
denfe white ftream, feemingly as large as his finger ;
by means of which the whole ftair-cafe was enlightened,
as with fun-fhine, fo that he could fee to pick up a
pin. - From the apparent quantity of eleftric matter
of which the cloud was thus evidently robbed, by
means of the pointed rod (and of which a blunt con¬
ductor would not have deprived it), the author con¬
ceives, that a number of luch conductors muft confi-
derably leffen the quantity of eleCtric fluid contained
in any approaching cloud, before it comes fo near as
to deliver its contents in a general ftroke.”
For this very reafon, Mr Benjamin Wilfon and his
followers, who conftitute the oppofite party, have de¬
termined that the ufe of pointed conductors is utterly
unfafe. They fay, that in violent thunder ftorms the
whole atmofphere is full of eleCtricity; and that at¬
tempts to exhauft the vaft quantity there collected, are
like attempting to clear away an inundation with a
fhovel, or to exhauft the atmofphere with a pair of
bellows. They maintain, that though pointed bodies
will effectually prevent the accumulation of eleCtricity
in any fubftance; yet if a non-eleCtrified body is in¬
terpofed between a point and the conductor of an
eleCtrical machine, the point will be ftruck at the fame
moment with the non-eleCtrified body, and at a much
• greater diftance than that at which a knob would be
ftruck. They affirm alfo, that, by means of this filent
folicitation of the lightning, inflammable bodies, fuch
as gun-powder, tinder, and Kunckel’s phofphorus,
may be fet on fire ; and for thefe laft faCts they bring
decifive experiments. From all this, fay they, it is
evident that the ufe of pointed conductors is unfafe.
They folicit a difcharge to the place where they are ;
and as they are unable to conduCt the whole eleCtricity
in the atmofphere, it is impoffible for us to know
whether the difcharge they folicit may not be too
great for our conductor to bear ; and confequently all
the mifchiefs arifing from thunder-ftorms may be
expeCted, with this additional and mortifying cir¬
cumftance, that this very conductor hath probably
folicited the fatal ftroke, when without it the cloud
might have paffed harmlefs over our heads without
Itriking at all.
Here the reafoning of both parties feems equally wrong.
They both proceed on this erroneous principle. That
in thunder-ftorms the conductor will always folicit a
difcharge, or that at fuch times all the elevated objeCts
on the furface of the earth are drawing off the electri¬
city of the atmofphere. But this cannot be the cafe,
unlefs the eleCtricity of the earth and of the atmo¬
fphere is of a different kind. Now, it is demonftrable,
that until this difference between the eleCtricity of the
atmofphere and of the furface of the earth ceafes, there
cannot be a thunder-ftorm. When the atmofphere
begins to be eleCtrified either pofitively or negatively,
the earth, by means of the inequalities and moifture of
its furface, but efpecially by the vegetables which
grow
L I G [ t
U^htninp. grow upon it, abforbs that eleftricity, and quickly be-
^ » comes eleftrified in the fame manner with the atmo-
fphere. This abforption, however, ceafes in a very fliort
time, becaufe it cannot be continued without fetting in
motion the whole of the ele&ric matter contained in
the earth itfelf. Alternate zones of politive and negative
electricity will then begin to take place belowthe furface
of the earth, for the reafons mentioned under the article
Electricity, fe£t. vi.-j 9. Between the atmofphere
and one of thefe zones, the ftroke of the lightning always
will be. Thus fuppofing the atmofphere is pofitively
eleftrified, the furface of the earth will, by means of
trees, &c. quickly become pofitively eleftrificd alfo;
we fliall fuppofe to the depth of 10 feet. The eleftri-
city cannot penetrate farther on account of the refi¬
nance of the eleftric matter in the bowels of the earth.
At the depth of ro feet from the furface, therefore, a
zone of negatively ele&rified earth begins, and to this
zone the electricity of the atmofphere is attracted ;
but to this it cannot get, without breaking through
the pofitively electrified zone which lies uppermoft,
and lhattering to pieces every bad conductor which
comes in its way. We are very fare, therefore, that
in whatever places the outer-zone of pofitively electri¬
fied earth is thinneft, there the lightning will flrike,
whether a condu&or happens to be prefent or not. If
there is a conductor, either knobbed or fharp-pointed,
the lightning wall indeed infallibly flrike it ; but it
would alfo have flruck a houfe fituated on that fpot,
• ithout any conductor ; and though the houfe had not
been there, it would have flruck the furface of the
ground itfelf.— Again, if we fuppofe the houfe with
its conduClor to hand on a part of the ground where
the pofitively. electrified zone is very thick, the con¬
ductor will neither filently draw off the eleCtricity,
nor will the lightning flrike it, though perhaps it may
ftrike a much lower objeCt, or even the furface of the
.ground itfelf, at no great diftance; the reafon of
. which undoubtedly is, that there the zone of pofi¬
tively eleCtrified earth is thinner than where the con¬
ductor was.
We mult alfo obfewe, that the Franklinians make
their pointed conductors to he of too great confe-
quence. To the houfes on which they are fixed, no
doubt, their importance is very great: but in exhauft-
ing a thunder-cloud of its eleCtricity, their ufe muff
appear trifling ; and to infift on it, ridiculous. Innu¬
merable objeCts, as trees, grafs, &c. are all confpiring
to draw off the.eleCtricity, as well as the conductor, if
it could be drawn off; but of effeCting this there is an
Mnpoffibiiity, becaufe they have the fame kind of eleCtri¬
city with the clouds themfelves. The conductor hath not
even the power of attraS'ivg the lightning a few feet
out of the direction which it would choofe of itfelf. Of
this we have a moll remarkable and decifive inftance in
what happened to the magazine at Purfleet in Effex,
on May 15. 1777. That houfe was furnifhed with a
pointed conductor, raifed above the highell part of
the building ; neverthelefs, about fix in the evening of
the abovementioned day, a flafh of lightning ftruck an
iron cramp in the corner of the wall confiderably
lower than the top of the conductor, and only 46 feet
in a Hoping line diffant from the point.—This pro¬
duced a long difpute with Mr Wilfon concerning the
propriety of ufing pointed conductors; and, by the
5
] l r g
favour of his majefty, he was enabled to conftruCt aLiphurng.
more magnificent eleCtrical apparatus than apy private ——v—
perfon could be fuppofed to ereCt at his own expence,
and of which fome account is given under the article
Electricity, n° 83. The only new experiments,
however, which this apparatus produced, were the
firing of gunpowder by the eleCtric aura, as it is called ;
and a particularly violent fhock which a perfon re¬
ceived when he held a fmall pointed wire in his hand,
upon which the conductor was difcliarged. We muff
obferve, that the eleCtrified furface of the conductor
was 620 feet; and we can have but little idea of the
llrength of fparks from a conductor of this magnitude,
fuppofing it properly eleCtrified. Six turns of the
wheel made the difeharge felt through the whole body
like the ftrong Ihock of a Leyden vial; and nobody
chofe to make the experiment when the conductor had
received a higher charge. A very ftrong fliock was
felt, as already obferved, when this conductor, was dif-
charged upon a pointed wire held in a perfon’s hand,
even though the wire communicated with the earth ;
which was not felt, or but very little, when a knobbed
wire was made ufe of. To account for this difference
may, perhaps, puzzle eleCtricians ; but with regard to
the ufe of blunt or pointed thunder-rods, both experi¬
ments feem quite inconclufive. Though a very great
quantity of eleCtric matter filently drawn, off will fire
gunpowder, this only proves that a pointed conductor
ought not to pafs through a barrel of gunpowder;
and if a perfon holding a pointed wire in his hand re¬
ceived aitrong {hock from Mr Wilfon’s great conduc¬
tor, it can thence only be inferred, that in the time of
thunder nobody ought to hold the conductor in their
hands; both which precautions common fenfe would dic¬
tate without any experiment. From the accident at
Purfleet, however, the difputants on both fides ought
to have feen, that, with regard to lightning, neither
points nor knobs can attratt. Mr Wilfon furely had
no reafon to condemn the pointed conductor for foli-
citlng the flafli of lightning, feeing it did not ftrike the
point of the conductor, but a blunt cramp of iron ;
neither have the Franklinians any reafon to boait of
its effeCt in Jilevtly drawing off the eleCtric matter, fince
all its powers were neither able to prevent the flafli,
nor to turn it 46 feet out of its way. The matter of
faCt is, the lightning was determined to enter the earth
at the place where the board-houfe ftands, or near it.
The conductor fixed on the houfe offered the eafieft
communication : but 46 feet of air intervening be¬
tween the point of the conductor and the place of
explolion, the refiftance was lefs through the blunt
cramp of iron, and a few bricks moiftened with rain¬
water, to the fide of the metalline conductor, than
through the 46 feet of air to its point; fdr the former
was the way in which the lightning aCtually paffed.
Mr Wilfon and his followers feem alfo miltaken in
fuppofing that a pointed conductor can folicit a greater
difeharge than what would otherwife happen. Allow¬
ing the quantity of eleCtricity in the atmofphere du¬
ring the tiipe of a thunder-ftorm to be as great as they
pleafe to fuppofe; neverthelefs, it is impoflible that
the aif can part with all its eleCtricity at once, on ac¬
count of the difficulty with which the fluid moves in
it. A pointed conductor, therefore, if it does any
thing at all, Can only folicit the partial difchdrge
which
'■Lightning.
T.nrd Ma¬
hon’s theo¬
ry of light-
LIC [ 62 1 L I G
•which is to be made at any rate : and if none were to is evidently occafioned by the fudden re entrance of the Lightning,
be made though the conductor was abfent, its prefence elefitrre fire naturally belonging to his body and to the -—"v
will not be able to effeft any. fecond conduftor, which had before been expelled from
An objection to the ufe of condu&ors, whether them by the a&ion of the charged prime condu&or
blunt or pointed, may be drawn from the accident upon them; and which returns to its former place
which happened to the poor-houfe at Heckingham, the inftant that adlion or elaftic preflure ceafes. The
which was ftruck by lightning though furnilhed with author {hows, that there can be no reafon to fuppofe
eight pointed condudlors; but from an accurate con- that the ele&rical difeharge. from the prime condu&or
fideration of the manner in which the conductors were fiiould in this experiment divide itfelf at the inftant of
fituated, it appears, that there was not a poffibility of the explofion, and go different ways, fo as to ftrike the
their preventing any ftroke. See Philofophical Tran- . fecond conductor and infulated perfon in this manner,
.factions, Vol. LXXII. p. 361. and at fuch a-diftance from it.
In a late publication on the fubjedt of electricity by When the fecond conductor and the infulated per-
Lord Mahon, we find a new kind of lightning made fon are placed in the denftjl part of the eledtrical atmo-
mention of, which he is of opinion may give a fatal fphere of the prime condudtor, or jujl beyond the ftri-
ftroke, even though the main explofion be at a con- kii)g diftance, the effedts are ftill more confiderable;
fiderable diftance; a mile, for inftance, or more. This the returning Jlroke being extremely fevere and pungent,
he calls the eleHrical reluming Jlroke ; and exemplifies it and appearing confiderably (harper than even the main
in the following manner, from fome experiments made Jlroke itfelf, received diredtly from the prirfie condudtor.
with a very powerful eledtrical machine, the prime This circumftance the author alleges as an unanfwer-
-coududtor of which (fix feet long, by one foot diame- able proof that the effedt which he calls the returning
ter) would generally, when the weather was favourable, Jlroke, was. not produced by the main Jlroke being any
llrike into a brafs ball connedted with the earth, to the wife divided at the time of the explofion, fince no ejfect
diftahee of 18. inches or more. In the following ac- can ever be greater than the caufe by which it is mme-
count, this brafs ball, which we (hall call /], is fuppofed diately produced.— Having taken the returning Jlroke
to be conftantly placed at the Jlriking dijlance ; fo that eight or ten times one morning, he felt a confiderable
the prime condudtor, the inftant that it becomes fully degree of pain acrofs his cheft during the whole even-
charged, explodes into it. ing, and a difagreeable fenfation in his arms and wrifts
Another large condudtor, whieh we (hall call the all the next day.
fecond condudor, is fufpended, in a perfedtly infulated We come now to the application of this experiment^
ftate, farther from the prime condudtor than the Jlri- and of the dodtrine deduced from it, to what paffe*
king dijlance, but within its elearical aimofphcre; at the in natural electricity, or during a tlulnder-ftorm ; in
diftance of fix feet, for inftance. A perfon Handing which there is reafon to expedt fimilar effedts, but on
on an infulating ftool touches this fecond condudor very a larger fcale i — a fcale fo large indeed, according to
lightly with a finger of his right hand ; while, with a the author’s reprefentation, that perfons and animals
finger of his left hand, he communicates with the may be deftroyed, and particular parts qf buildings
earth, by touching very lightly a fecond brafs ball fixed may be confiderably damaged, by an eledtrical return-
at the top of a metallic Hand, on the floor, and which ing froke, dccafioned even by fome very d'Jlant explo-
we (hall call B. Jion from a thunder-cloud poffibly at the diftance of
While the prime condudtor is receiving its eledtricity, a mile or more,
fparks pafs (at leaft if the diftance between the two It is certainly eafy to conceive, that a charged ex-
■condudtors is not too great) from the fecond condudtor tenfive thunder-cloud muft be productive of effects fi-
to the infulated perfon’s right hand; while fimilar and milar to thofe produced by the author's prime conduc-
fimultaneous fparks pafs out from the finger of his left tor. Like it, while it continues charged, it will, by
•hand into the fecond metallic ball B, communicating the fuperinduced elaflic eleflricalpreffure of its atmofphere-,
with the earth. Thefe fparks are part of the natural to ufe the author’s own expreffion, drive into the
quantity of eledlric matter belonging to the feeond earth a part of the eledlric fluid naturally belonging to
condudlor, and to the infulated perfon; driven from the bodies which are within the reach of its widely
them into the earth, through the ball B, and its Hand, extended atmofphere ; and which will therefore become
by the elaftic preffure or action of the eledtrical atmo- negatively electrical. This portion too of their eledlric
fphere of the prime condudlor. The fecond condudtor fire, as in the artificial experiments, will, on the ex-
and the infulated perfon are hereby reduced to a ne- plofion of the cloud, at a dijlance, and the ceffation of
gative ftate. its adtion upon them, fuddenly return to them ; fo as
At length, however, the prime condudtor, having to produce an equilibrium, and reftore them to their
acquired its full charge, fuddenly ftrikes into the ball natural ftate. I4
A, of the firft metallic ftand, placed for that purpofe To this theory, the authors of the Monthly Review Anfwered
at the Jinking dijlance of 17 or 18 inches. The ex- have given the following anfwer: “We cannot, how- by the R«-
plofion being made, and the prime condudtor fuddenly ever, agree with the ingenious author, with refpedt toviewers*
robbed of its eledtric atmofphere, its preffure or adtion the greatnefs of the effedts, or of the danger to be ap-
on the fecond condudtor, and on the infulated perfon, prehended from, the returning Jlroke in this cafe; as we
as fuddenly ceafes; and the latter iiiftantly feels a fmart think his eftimate is grounded on an erroneous founda-
returningJlroke, though he has no diredt or viftble com- tion.—‘ Since (fays he) the denfity of the eledtrical at-
munication (except by the floor) either with the Jlri- mofphere of a thunder-cloud is fo immenfe, when compa-
king orfruck body, and is placed at the diftance of five red to the eledtrical denfity of the eledtrical atmofphere
arfiK feet from both of them. This returning ftroke of any prime conductor, charged by means of any eledtri¬
cal
L I G [ 63 ] L I G
Lighti;!' g. cal apparatus whatfoever ; and fince a returning Jlroh,
when produced by the fudden removal of even the nveak
elaftic electrical preffure of the eleCtrical atmofphere of
a charged prime conductor, may be extremely jlrong, as
we have feen above ; it is mathematically ei'ident, that,
when a returning Jlrake comes to be produced by the
Judden removal of the very ftrong elaftic eleCtrical pref¬
fure of the eletlrical atmofphere of a thunder-cloud
I powerfully charged ; the ftrength of fuch a returning
Jlrohe muft be enormous.’
“ If indeed the quantity of eledtric fluid naturally
contained in the body of a man, for inftance, were im-
menfe, or indefinite, the author’s eftimate between the
effefts producible by a cloud, and thofe caufed by a
prime conductor, might be admitted. But furely an
ekCtrified cloud,—how great foever may be its ex¬
tent, and the height of its charge when compared
with the extent and charge of a prime conductor—
cannot expel from a man’s body (or any other body)
more than the na/ard/ quantity of eleCtricity which it
contains. On the fudden removal, therefore, of the
preffure by which this natural quantity had been ex¬
pelled, in confequence of the explofion of the cloud
into the earth; no more (at the utmoft) than his whole
naturalJlocl of eleCtricity can re-enter his body (c).
But we have no reafon to fuppofe that this quantity is
fo-great, as that its fudden re-entrance into his body
fiiould deftroy or even injure him.
“ In the experiment above defcribed, the infulated
perfon receives into his body, at the inftant of the re¬
turning Jlrole, not only all that portion of his own
natural eleftric fire which had been expelled from it;
but likewife tranfmits through it, at the fame inftant,
in confequence of his peculiar fituation, all the electric fire
of which the large fecond conduftor had been robbed;
and which muft neceffarily re-pafs through his body,
to arrive at that conduClor. To render the cafe
fomewhat parallel, in natural eleHricity, the man’s body
muft be fo peculiarly circumftanced, fuppofing him to
be in a houfe, that the eleCfric matter which has been
expelled from the houfe into the earth, by the preffure
of an extenfive thunder-cloud, could not return back
into the building, on the explofion of the cloud at a di-
ftance, without paffing through his body: a cafe not
likely to happen, unlefs the houfe were infulated {like
the feeoiid conductor in the preceding experiment),
and his body became the channel through which alone
the houfe could have its eleClric matter reftored to it;
it appears much more probable that the eleClric mat¬
ter returns to the houfe through the fame channels by
which it before infenfibly paffed out, and with equal
filence, though more fuddenly.
“ In the eafe of a man who is abroad, and in aeUglttning.
open field, during the time of an explofion :—as he is “—“v '
unconnected with other maffes of matter above him,
no more than the precife quantity of eleClric fire, which
had been before expelled from his body, will fuddenly
return into it at the inftant of a diftant explofion : and
that this quantity is not ufually very large, may be in¬
ferred from many confiderations.
“ When a perfon ftanding on the ground holds a
pair of Mr Canton’s balls in his hand, while a highly
charged thunder-cloud is fufpended over his head; the
angle made by the balls indicates the eleBrlcalfate of
that perfon, or the quantity of natural eleClricity of
which his body is at that time deprived, by the aClion
' of the {poflively) charged cloud hanging over him.
But we have never feen the repulfion of the balls fo
confiderable, as to furnifh any juft apprehenfions that
the return of his natural eleftric matter, however fud¬
den, could be attended with injury to him: nor would'
he be fenfible of any commotion on the balls fuddenly
coming together; though a fpark might undoubtedly
be perceived, at that inftant, were he infulated, and
placed in the fame manner with the author when he
tried the above-related experiment.
“ The author neverthelefs obferves, that ‘ there have
been inftances of perfons who have been killed by na¬
tural eleftricity, having been found with XheXr Jhoes torn,
and with their feet damaged by the cleftrical fire ; but
who have not had, over their w'hole body, any other
apparent marks of having been ftruck with lightning.’
He adds, ‘ if a man walking out of doors were to be
killed by a returning Jlrokc, the eleftrical fire would
ruftx into that man’s body through his fet, and his feet
only ; which would not be the cafe, were he to be'
killed by any main Jlrole of explofion, either poiitive or
negative.’
“ It would be no difficult tafk, we think, to account
for thefe appearances in a different manner; were all
the circumftances attending the cafe minutely afeer-
tained: but without interrogating the dead on this
fubjeft, we may more fatisfaftorily appeal to the ex¬
perience of the living (b), to fhow, that though the
ret urning frole muft take place, in all thunder-ftorms,
in fame degree or other i yet it is not of that alarming
magnitude \vhich the author aferibes to it. If, in any
particular thunder-ftorm,, a man in the open fields could-
be killed, at the inftant of a diftant explofion, merely
by the .return of his own eleftric. lire, which had before
been driven out of his body; furely numerous obfer-
vations of perfons who had experienced the returning
frole, infighter degrees, would be familiar ; and fcarce
a great thunder-ftorm muft have occurred, in which
(c) “ We fuppofe the perfon not to be fo fituated, that the returning fre of other bodies muft neceffarily
pafs through his body.”
(d) “ The author does indeed produce a living evidence, in the cafe of a perfon at Vienna, who, he has
been credibly informed, received an eleftrical fhock, by having held one hand accidentally in contaft with an
interrupted metallic condufting rod, at the inftant that a thunder-cloud exploded at the diftance, as was con-
jeftured, of above half an Englilh mile. Helikew'ife obferves, that a ‘ very ftrong, bright, and fudden frolef'
(or fpark) of elefttical fire has been feen, by feveral eleftricians, to pafs in the interval, or interruption, pur-
pofely left in the condufting rod of a houfe at the inftant of a diftant explofion; and ‘ when it was fully-
proved, by the fharp point of the conduftor not being melted, or even tinged,’ that the conduftor itfelf had
not been ftruck.—Thefe obfervations, however, do not by any means prove the magnitude ox. danger of the. re*-
turning ftroke, but merely its exfence ; which we do not eonteft.”
L I G [ 64 ] L I G
lightning', one perfon or another muft not, at the inftant of an
v*—'v-~~ expl0f10I1} have felt the effe&s of the returningJlroha, in
fom? degree or other— from that of a violent concujjion, to
that of a flight and almoft imperceptible pulfation. But
no obfervations of this kind are known to us; nor have
we ever heard of any perfon's experiencing any kind
of ele&rical commotion in a thunder-ftorm, except
fuch as have either been directly ftruck, or have hap¬
pened to be in the wry rear neighbourhood of tire fpot
where the explofion took place.
“ The author has been aware of this objection,
which he propofes, and endeavours to remove: but his
anfwerto it amounts to little more than what has been
already quoted from him; that is, to a Ample efli-
mate of the enormous difference between the elfc&rical
denfity, or the elajlic electricalprejfure, of the atmofphere
of an extenflve thunder cloud, and ’ that of a charged
prime conductor. We have already obferved, that this
is not the proper method of eflimating their different
effects, when thefe two caufes, how unequal foever in
power, are conlidered as exerting that power on bodies
containing a limited and comparatively /mall, quantity
of eledlric matter.
“ We have been induced to difeufs this fubjeft thus
particularly, with a view to quiet the minds of the ti¬
morous; as the author’s extenflon of his principles, re-
fpefting the returning flroke in artificial electricity, to
what paffes in natural eleftricity, holds out a new,
and, in our opinion, groundlefs fubjeft of terror to
thofe who, in the midft of their apprehenAons, have
hitherto only dreaded the effefts of a thunder-ftorm
when it made near approaches to them ; but who, if
this doftrine were believed, would, never think them-
felves in fecurity while a thunder-cloud appeared in
Aght, unlefs fheltered in a houfe furnifhed with pro¬
per condu&ors: —for we fhould not omit to remark,
that a fubfequent obfervation tends to diminifh their
fears, by fhowing that high and pointed conductors tend
to fecure both perfons. and buildings againft the va¬
rious effects of any returningJlroke whatever, as well as
of the main/roke.”
A late melancholy accident which happened in Scot¬
land has afforded 'Lord Mahon an opportunity of
bringing additional arguments in favour of his fyftem.
An account of this accident is given by Patrick Bry-
aWeaeci* done, Efq; F. R. S. in the 77th volume of the Philo-
dent by an fophical Tranfactions. It happened on the 19th of
electrical July 1785, near Coldftftream on the Tweed.- The
from ti°n *norn’rl£> was ^ne» with the thermometer at 68 '; but
earth." 6 aiJ<,ut eleven o’clock the fky became obfeured with
clouds in the fouth-eaft : and betwixt twelve and one
a ftorm of thunder and lightning came on. This
ftorm was at a conftderable diftance from Mr Brydone's
houfe, the intervals between the flalli and crack being
from 25 to 30 feconds, fo that the place of exploAon
muft have been betwixt flve and Ax miles off: but
while our author was obferving the progrefs of the
ftorm, he was fuddenly furprifed with a loud report,
neither preceded nor accompanied by any flafh of light¬
ning, which refembled the exploAon of a great num¬
ber of mufkets, in fuch quick fucceffion, that the ear
could fcarcely diferiminate the founds. On this the
thunder and lightning inftantly ceafed, the clouds be¬
gan to feparate, and the fky foon recovered its fereni-
ty. In a little time Mr Brydone was informed, that
No 182.
a man with two horfes had been killed by the thun. Ivvhminp,
der; and, on running out to the place, our author  v—■*,
found the two horfes lying on the fpot where they had
been ftrft ftnjck, and ftill yoked to the cart. As the
body of the man who was killed had been carried off,
Mr Brydone himfelf had not an opportunity of exa¬
mining it, but was informed by Mr Bell, miniiter of
Coldftream, who faw it, that the fkin of the right
thigh was much burnt and fhrivelled ; that there were
many marks of the fame kind all over the body, but
none on the legs : his clothes, particularly Ins fhirt,
had a ftrong fmell of burning; and there was a zig¬
zag line of about an inch and a quarter broad, extend¬
ing from the chin to the right thigh, and which feem-
ed to have followed the direfition of the buttons of his
waiufroat. The body was buried in two days without
any appearance of putrefaction.
Mr Brydone was informed by another perfon who
accompanied him that was killed, of the particular cir-
cumftances. They were both' driving carts loaded
with coals; and James Lauder, the perfon who was
kdled, .had the charge of the forfcmoft cart, and was fir¬
ing on the fore part of it. They had crofted the
Tweed a few minutes before at a deep ford, and had
almoft gained the higheft part of an afeent of about 65
or 70 feet above the bed of the river, when he was
ftunned with the report above mentioned, and ftuv his
companion with the horfes and cart fall down. On
running up to him, he found him quite dead, with his
face livid, his clothes torn in pieces, and a great fmell
of burning about him. At the time of the exploAon
he was but about 24 yards diftant from Lauder’s cart, *
and had him full in view when he fell, but felt no
fliock, neither did he perceive any flafh or appearance
of Are. At the time of the explofion his horfes turned
round, and broke their harnefs. The horfes had fallen
on their left Ade, and their legs had made a deep im-
preflion on the duff; which, on lifting them up, fhowed
the exa£t form of each leg, fo that every principle of
life feemed to have been extinguifhed at once, without
the leaf! ftrnggie or convulAve motion. The hair was
Anged over the greateft part of their bodies," but was
moft perceptible on their belly and legs. Their eyes
were dull and opaque, as if they had been long dead,
though Mr Brydone faw them in half an hour after the
accident happened. The joints were all fupple, and he
could not obferve that any of the bones were broken or
diffolved, as is And. to be fometimes the cafe with thofe
who are killed by lightning. The left fhaft of the
cart was broken, and fplinters had been thrown off in
many places ; particularly where the timber of the
cart was connedted by nails or cramps of iron. Many
pieces of the coal were thrown to a conAderable di¬
ftance ; and fome of them had the appearance of being
fome time on a Are. Lauder’s hat was torn into in¬
numerable.fmall pieces ; and fome part of his hair was
ftrongly united to thofe which had compofed the crown
of it. About four feet and a half behind each wheel
of the cart he obferved a circular hole of about 20
inches diameter, the centre of which was exadtly in the
track of each wheel. The earth was torn up as if by
violent blows of' a pick-ax; and the fmall ftoncs and
dull were fcattered on each fide of the road. The
tracks of the wheels were ftrongly marked in the duft,
both before and behind thefe holes, but did not in the
fmalfeft
L I G [ 65 ] L I G
lightning, fmallefl; degree appear on the fpots themfelves for up-
‘ wards of a foot and a half. There were evident marks
of fufion on the iron rings of the wheels; the fur-
face of the iron, the whole breadth of the wheel, and
for the length of about three inches, was become blu-
iih, had loft its polifh and fmoothnefs, and was formed
into drops which projected fenlibly, and had a roundifli
form ; but the wood did not appear any way injured by
the heat which the iron muft have conceived. To deter¬
mine whether thefe were made by the explofion which
had torn up the ground, the cart was pufhed back on the
fame trails which it had defcribed on the road,; and the
marks of fufion were found exactly to correfpond with
the centres of the holes. They had made almoll half a
revolution after the explofion; which our author afcribes
to the cart being pulled a little forward by the fall of the
horfes. Nothing remarkable was obferved on the oppo-
fite part of the wheel. The broken ground had a fmell
fomething like that of ether; the foil itfelf was very dry
and gravelly.
The cataftfophe was likewife obferved by a fliepherd,
at the diftance of about 200 or 300 yards from the fpot.
He faid, that he was looking at the two carts going up
the bank when he heard the report, and faw the fore-
fnoft man and horfes fall down ; but obferved no light¬
ning, nor the leaft appearance of fire, only he faw the
dull rife about the place. There had been feveral flaflies
of lightning before that from the fouth-eaft ; whereas
the accident happened to the north-weft of the place
where he ftood. He was not fenfible of any (hock.
Our author next gives an account of feveral pheno-
menetta which happened the fame day, and which were
evidently conceited with the explofion. A (hepherd
tending his flock in the neighbourhood, obferved a
lamb drop down ; and faid, that he felt at the fame
time as if fire had palled over his face, though the
lightning and claps of thunder were at a confiderable
diftance. He ran up to the creature immediately, but
found it quite dead ; on which he bled it with his
knife, and the blood flowed freely. The earth was
not torn up ; nor did he obferve any dull rife, though
he was only a few yards diftant. This happened about
a quarter of an hour before Lauder was killed, and
the place was only about 300 yards diftant.
About an hour before the explofion, two men Hand¬
ing in the middle of the Tweed, filhing for falmon,
were caught in a violent whirlwind, which felt fultry
and hot, and almoft prevented them from breathing.
They could not reach the bank without much difficul¬
ty and fatigue ; but the whirlwind lafted only a very
ftiort time, and was fucceeded by a perfe£t calm.
A woman making hay, near the banks of the river,
fell fuddenly to the ground, and called out that Ihe
had received a violent blow on the foot, and could not
imagine from whence it came ; and Mr Bell, the mi-
nifter above mentioned, when walking in his garden,
a little before the accident happened to Lauder, felt
16 feveral times a tremor in the ground.
UrBry- The conclufion drawn from thefe facts by Brydone
clufiori/0" that at t^le time tlie exph)fion the equilibrium
from the between the earth and the atmofphere feems to have
fads. been completely reftored, as no more thunder was
heard nor lightning obferved ; the clouds were dif-
pelled, and the atmofphere refumed the moft perfedl
tranquillity : “ But how this vaft quantity of eledtric
matter (lays he.) could be difcharged fiom the one ele-
Vol.X. Part I.
ment to the other, without any appearance of fire, I Lightning*
ffiall not pretend to examine. From the whole it —~v
would appear, that the earth had acquired a great fu-
perabundance of electrical matter, which was every
where endeavouring to fly off into the atmofphere.
Perhaps it might be accounted for from the exceffive
drynefs of the ground, and for many months the al¬
moft total want of rain, which is probably the agent
that nature employs in preferving the equilibrium be¬
tween the two elements.”
Lord Mahon, now Earl Stanhope, whofe obfervations Arguments
on this accident are publifhed in the fame volume, en- drawn by
deavours to eftablilh the following pofitions as fails. Earl Stan-
1. That the man and horfes were not killed by any jV
dtrccl main Jlroke of explojion from a thunder-cloud ei- fyftem.
ther pofitively or negatively eleitrified.
2. They were not killed by any tranfmitud main
Jlroke either pofitive or negative.
3. The mifehief was not done by any lateralexphfwn.
All thefe are evidently true, at leaft with refpeil to
lightning at that time falling from the clouds ; for all
the lightning which had taken place before was at a
great diftance.
4. They were not fuffocated by a fulphureous va¬
pour or fmell which frequently accompanies electricity'.
This could not account for the pieces of coal being
thrown to a confiderable diftance all round the cart,
and for the fplinters of the wood which were thrown
off from many parts of the cart.
5. It might be imagined by fome that they were
killed by the violent commotion of the atmofphere,
occafioned by the vicinity of the eledlrical explofion,
in a manner fimilar to the fatal wounds that fometimes
have been known to have been given by the air having
been fuddenly difplaced by a cannon-ball in its paffage
through the atmofpherical fluid, though the cannon¬
ball itfelf had evidently neither ftruck the perfon
wounded nor grazed his clothes. The dull that rofe
at the time of the explofion might be brought as an ar¬
gument in favour of the opinion, that a hidden and vio¬
lent commotion of the air did occafion the effects pro¬
duced. But fuch an explanation would not account for
the marks of fufion on the iron of the wheels, nor for
the hair of the horfes being finged, nor for the Ikin of
Lauder’s body having been burnt in feveral places.
6. From thefe different circumftances hisLordfhip is
of opinion, that the effedls proceeded from electricity;
and that no eledrical fre did pafs immediately, either
from the clouds into the cart, or from the cart into the
clouds. From the circular holes in the ground, of
about 20 inches diameter, the refpective centres of
which were exactly in the track of each wheel, and the
correfponding marks of fufion in the iron of the wheels,
it is evident that the eletfrical fire did pafs from the
earth to the cart, or from the cart to the euVth, through
that part of the iron of the wheels which was in con¬
tact with the ground. From the fplinters which had
been thrown off in many places, particularly where
the timber was connefted by nails or cramps of iron,
and from various other effedls mentioned in Mr Bry-
done’s account, it is evident, that there muft have
been a great commotion in the eleftrical fluid in all, or
at leaft in different parts of the cart, and in the bodies of
the man and horfes, although there were no lightning.
7. All thefe phenomena, his lordfhip argues, may
be explained in a fatisfadlory manner from the doftrine
I already
l i o r
1 tightning. already laid down concerning the returning ftroke. Be-
T'"“J fore entering upon the fubjedl of the main cxploiion,
however, he takes notice of the other phenomena al¬
ready mentioned in Mr Brydone’s account.
With regard to the cafe of the lamb, his lordfhip is
of opinion, that it belongs to the moft fimple clafs of
returning ftrokea, viz. that which happens at a place
where there is neither thunder nor lightning near ; and
that it may be produced by the fudden removal of the
elaltic eleftrical preffure of the eleftrical atmofphere of
a Jingle main cloud, as well as of an afiemblage of clouds.
It appears (fays he) by Mr Brydone’s account, that
the Ihepherd who faw the lamb fall, was near enough
to it to feel, in a fmall degree, the eleftrical returning
Jlroke at the fame time .that the lamb dropped down.
—The blow which the woman received on the foot
was unqueftionably the returning ftroke. AVhen a
perfon. walking, or Handing, out of doors, is knock¬
ed down or killed by the returning ftroke, the elec¬
trical fire muft rufh in, or rulh out, as the cafe may be,
through that perfon’s feet, and through them only ;
which would not be the cafe were the perfon to be
killed by any main ftroke of explofion either pofitive
tnan and horfes were killed, his lordfliip premifes, that,
according to Mr Brydone’s account, the cloud muft
have been many miles in length; inafmuch as juft be¬
fore the report, the lightning was at a confiderable di-
ftance, viz. between five and fix miles. The loud re¬
port refembled the firing of feveral mufketsfo clofe to¬
gether, that the ear could fcarcely feparate the founds,
and was followed by no rumbling noife like the other
claps. This indicates, that the explofion was not far
diftant, and likewife that it was not extremely near:
for, if the explofion had been very near, the ear could
aot at all have feparated the founds.
Hypothecs 9- us now fuppofe a cloud, eight, ten, or
by which twelve miles in length to be expended over the earth,
he accounts and let another cloud be fituated betwixt that and the
for the phe* earth ; let them alfo be fuppofed charged with the fame
Bomena. 0f eIe<ftricity, and both pofitive. Let us farther
fuppofe the lower cloud to be near the earth, only a
little beyond the ftriking diftance ; and the man, cart,
and horfes, to be fituated under that part of the cloud
which is next the earth, and to be exaOlly as deferibed
by Mr Brydone, vi-z. near the fummit of an hill, and
followed by another a little farther down ; and let us
fuppofe the two clouds to be near each other juft over
i the place where the man and horfes areLet the re
mote end of the cloud approach the earth, and dif-
charge its eleftricity into it. In this cafe the follow-
in* effects'will take place.
to. When the upper cloud difeharges its electricity
into the earth from the remote end, the lower cloud
will difeharge its electricity into the nearer end of the
upper cloud, which is fuppofed to be directly over the
place of the cart and horfes, or nearly fo. This ac¬
counts for the loud report of thunder that was unac¬
companied by lightning. The report muft be loud
from its being near 5 but no lightning could be percei¬
ved, by reafon #f the thick cloud fituated immediately
between the fpe&ator and the fpace betwixt the two
clouds where the lightning appears.
11. As the lower cloud gradually approached to-
wards the earth, that part of the latter where the man
66 ] I, I G
and horfes were, muft of courfe become fuperinduced Lightning?
by the elaftic electrical preflure of the electrical atmof- t-.—
phere of the thunder-cloud ; which fuperinduced elaftic
cledlrical preffurC muft gradually have increafed as the
cloud came clofer to the earth, and approached nearer
to the limit of the ftriking diftance.
12. Hence, if any conducting body (not having
prominent or conducting points) were to be placed
upon the furface of the earth, and there electrically in-
fulated; then fuch conducing body, by the laws of
eleCtricity, muft, at its upper extremity (namely the
part neareft to the pofitive cloud) become negative;
at its lower extremity it muft become pofnive ; and,
at a certain intermediate point, it will be neither plus
nor minus. This infulated conducting body, thus fitu-
ated, will be in three oppofite ftates at the fame time,
that is to fay, it will be, at the fame time, pofitively
eleCtrified, negatively eleCtrified, and not electrified at
all.—For a demonftration of this propofition, his lord-
Ihip refers to his Principles of EleCtricity ; but it is a
generally known and eftabliftied fa£t in eleftricity.
13. If this conducting body on the furface of the
earth be not infulated, or be but imperfeCtly infulated,
then the whole of fuch body, from its being immerged
in the eleCtrical atmofphere of the pofitive cloud, will
become negative; becaufe part of the eleCtricity of the
conducting body will in this cafe pafs into the earthy
and the conducting body will become the more nega¬
tive as it becomes the more deeply immerged into the
denfe part of the elaftic eleCtrical atmofphere of the
approaching thunder-cloud.
14. When the lower cloud comes fuddenly to dif¬
eharge with an explofipn its fuperabundant eleCtricity
into the upper one, then the elaftic eleCtrical atmo¬
fphere of the former will ceafe to exift ; confequently
the eleCtrical fluid, which had been gradually expelled
into the common ftock from the conducting body on
the furface of the earth, muft, by the fudden removal
of the fuperinduced elaftic eleCtrical preffure of the
eleCtrical atmofphere of the thunder-cloud, fuddenly re¬
turn from the earth into the faid conducting body,
producing a violent commotion fimilar to the pungent
fliock of a Leyden jar in its fenfation and effeCts.
15. This, which his lordfhip calls the eleSrical rr- Suppnfed
turning Jr ole, he fuppofes to have been what killed the effects of
man and horfes in the prefent cafe, they having be-j^6
come ftrongly negative before the explofion. The 0
man, according to Mr Brydone’s account, was fitting
when he received the ftroke, and his legs were hang¬
ing over the fore part of the cart at the time of the ex¬
plofion. The returning ftroke, therefore, could not
enter his body through the legs ; and this accounts for
the Ik in of his legs not having been at all burnt or
fiirivelled, as the Ikin was on many other parts of his.
body; and it likewife Ihows the reafon why the zig¬
zag line, which was terminated by the chin, did not
extend lower than the thigh.
16. Mr Brydone likewife informs us, that the haiv
of the horfes was much finged over the greateft part
of their bodies, but was moft perceptible on the bel¬
ly and legs. This is eafily accounted for by the re¬
turning ftroke; for the lower part of the bodies of
thefe animals muft of courfe have been more affeCled.
than any other part, as the eleCtrical fire muft have
rufhed fuddenly into their bodies through their legs,
•which had made a deep imprdUoil on the dull.
*>-
L I Q [ 67 ] L I G
Itgh^ninp. jy. The various effe^s produced on the cart may
"* he explained alfo from the returning ftroke with equal
facility., The fplinters were thrown off by reafori of
|f the interruption of good conductors ; the wood being
a much lefs perfeft conduftor than the iron. It is al¬
fo evident, that it was the electrical returning fire that
produced the marks of fufion OR that part of the iron
of the wheels which was in contaft with the ground ;
inafmuch as the whole eleftricity, at the inftant of the
explc-fion, did enter at thefe places.
18. No perfon in the leall verfed in the principles
of eleftricity can hefitate to affent to the propofit’ion,
that the eleCtrical returning ftroke muft exill under
• circumftances fimilar to thofe explained above ; but it
may be objected, as the reviewers formerly did, that
the quantity of eleftricity naturally contained in the
body of a man, &c. is by for too fmall to produce fuch
violent effects. For an anfwer to this objection, his
lordfhip refers to his book : By way of corroboration,
I ao however, he makes the following remarks.
I Great I9- No perfon can reafonably conclude, that the
ftreneth of force of a returning ftroke muft always be weak when
'ile ftrok " Pro^llce<^ b7 the difturbed eleCtrical fluid of a man’s
LiScert4in body, by reafon that a man’s body contains but a fmall
cafe;. quantity of eleCtricity: for it has never been proved
■ that a man’s body contains only a fmall quantity of
eleCtrical fluid ; neither is there the fmalleft reafon to
believe fuch an hypothefis, which appears, on many
■accounts, to be completely erroneous ; and if that hy¬
pothefis be erroneous, the objection to the ftrength of
an eleCtrical returning ftroke remains altogether tin-
fupported by argument. “ When a body is faid to
be plus or pofitive (fays his lordftiip), it Amply means,
that the body contains more than its natural fhare of
eleCtricity, but does not fay that it is completely fatu-
rated with it. In like manner, when a body is faid to
be minus or negative, it only fignifios, that the body
Contains lefs than its natural ftiare of eleCtricity; but
does not imply that fuch body is completely exhaujled
of the eleCtricity which it contains in its natural ftate.
“ Now (fays he), the ftrength of natural eleCtricity is’fo
immenfe, when compared with the very weak effeCts of
our largeft and belt contrived eleCtrieal machines, that
I conceive we cannot, by means of artificial eleClricity,
expel, from a man’s body, thoufandth, or perhaps the
ten-thoufandth part of the eleCtrical fluid which it
' contains when in its natural ftate.”
20. An hypothefis which eafily accounts for aRy na¬
tural phenomenon has a much better claim to our atten¬
tion than an oppofite one, which prevents it from being
intelligibly explained. There is no reafoU to conclude
that any eleCtrical machine, of any given fize, is ca¬
pable of rendering a qonduCting body either completely
plus or completely minus ; but far otherwife. And it
would have been as logical for any perfon fome years
ago (w'hen eleCtrical machines were not brought to
their prefent ftate) to have maintained, that thofe ve¬
ry imperfeCt machines w'ere capable of rendering a body
completely pofitive or completely negative,' as for us to pre¬
tend to do it at this day. We evidently have not,
with our machines, even approached the limit of elec¬
trical ftrength, particularly in refpeCt to the returning
ftroke : for it is remarkable, that, by the laws of elec¬
tricity, the ftrength of the eleCtrical returning Jlroke,
near the limit of the ftriking diftance, does increafc in a
greater ratio than the ftrengthof the main ftroke from the Lightning,
charged body producing the elaftic eleCtrical atmofphere ’ ^
fuperinduced. Thus, let us attempt to produce the re- gtrenj,th of
turning ftroke by means of a metallic conductor of about the retum-
20 or 21 inches in length and of about two inches in jug )]\roke
diameter j and by means of another metallic body of
equal dimenfions placed parallel to the prime conduc- ces>
tor, juft out of the limit of'the ftriking diftance ; and
let the prime conductor be charged by one of the com¬
mon glafs globes of lefs than nine inches in diameter;
the returning ftroke in this cafe will be fo weak, that
it can hardly be faid to exift : but if the experiment be
made by means of a large cylinder, and by means of a
metallic prime conductor of about three feet four
inches long, by nearly four inches and an half diame¬
ter, and alfo by means of another metallic body of
equal dimenfions with this prime 'conductor, then there
will be no kind of comparifon betwixt the ftrength of
the returning ftroke obtained out of the ftriking di¬
ftance, and the ftrength of the main ftroke received
immediately from the prime conductor ; the ftiarpnefs
and pungency of the returning ftroke befog fo much
fuperior. The returning ftroke in this cafe, is like the
fudden difeharge of a weakly eleCtrified Leyden jar,
provided due attention be paid to the rules for ob¬
taining a ftrong returning ftroke.
21, In the cafe of a returning ftroke, the ftrength
depends, according to his lordfhip’s hypothefis, not fo
much on the quantity of the eleCtric fluid, as on its ve¬
locity ; whence alfo it depends lefs on the quantity of
furfaCe ufed than on the ftrength of the eleCh ical pref-
flire of the elaftic eleCfrical atmofphere fuperinduced.
upon the body ftruck previous to the explofion. But
the eleCirical preffure of the elaftic eleClrical atmo¬
fphere of the great thunder-cloud which produced the
mifehief on the prefent occafion, muft have been im-
menfely greater than that of a metallic prime conduc¬
tor 5 and it is not furprifing that the -tfte&fi flioiild be
proportioned to the caufes.
22. His lordfhip next accounts for the returning Why th;
ftroke not being felt by the man who followed Lau- returning’
der’s cart. This, he thinks, may in fome degree be hr*e was
accounted for by the latter having been higher up tbe"he man^
bank ; though it may better be done by fuppofing^the wh0 drove
Cloud to have beep pending nearer the earth over the the feccnd
fpot where Lauder was killed, than over the place£art-
where his companion was ; 'for, in order to receive a
dangerous returning ftroke, it is neceffary that he
fliould be immerged, not merely in the cloud’s atmo¬
fphere, but in the denfe part of the cloud’s eledlrical
atmofphere. It may alfo be accounted for by fuppo-
fing that the fecond cart were either better connedled
with the common flock, os better infulated ; for either
of thefe circumftances will weaken a returning ftroke
prodigioufly. NowMrBrydonementions, thatthere had
been an almoft total want of rain for many months.
He alfo fays, that the ground, at the place where Lau¬
der was killed, was remarkably dry, and of a gravelly
foil. This ftate of th^ ground was particularly adapted
to the production of the ele&rical returning ftroke,
when produced upon the large fcale of nature, where
the elaftic electrical preffure is fo powerful.
To thefe arguments adduced by his lofdfhip for the
exiftence arid ftrength of the eledtrical returning ftroke,
we lhall add an account of fome experiments publiftied
I 2 ia
L I G C 68 ] L I G
Lightning, in the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1785. They were
made with an infulated rod of iron of confiderable
_ 23 length, rifing fome feet higher than a common con-
ment^with duftor placed at the other end of the houfe. A fet
an infula- of bells were affixed to the former, which in a thunder
ted conduc-ftorm/even when the thunder was four or five miles
tor* diftant, were rung by the eleftricity of the atmofphere;
but whenever a flaffi of lightning hurft from the cloud,
even though at the diftance juft mentioned, the fame
f ajhy according to our author, paffed through the
conductor alfo, and the bells ceafed to ring fometimes
for feveral feconds; then they began again, and
continued to ring till they were ftopped by another
flafh. This flaffi which paffed thro’ the condu&or was
undoubtedly what earl Stanhope calls the returning
jlrohe ; of which we muft now give fome explanation :
And in confidering the whole dodlrine of that ftroke,
together with the particular explanation laid down by
his lordfnip, the following obfervations naturally oc¬
cur.
1. In the experiments made by his lordfliip to de-
monftrate tlx; exiftence of the returning ftroke, there
Deceptions is a deception, of which the reviewers take notice, viz.
in Earl ^ that the man touches a large prime conduftor, which,
«t>er?PC * ^7 t*le operation of the machine, becomes negatively
mtnts. eledlrified as well as himfelf. Hence when the dif-
charge is made, all the fire returning to that conduc¬
tor muft pafs through his body as well as that of which
his body itfelf is fuppofed to be deprived ; and this,
though no other caufe intervened, muft nearly double
the ftrength of the ffiock. To make the experiment
more fairly, it would be neceffary to take away this fe-
cond conductor, and let the man only touch the brafs
ball communicating with the earth.
2. In this experiment there is another deception,
not taken notice of by the reviewers, viz. that any
body immerfed in a pofitive electrical atmofphere be¬
comes negative. Hence the fecond conductor, by be¬
ing applied to the air pofitively electrified by the ma¬
chine, becomes almoft as ftrongly negative as if another
machine had been applied to it on purpofe ; and this
negative eleCtricity will be the ftronger in proportion
to the ftrength of eleCtricity in the air furrounding it.
Again, it is well known that a plate of air may be
charged by means of two fmooth pieces of metal held
at afmall diftance from each other, one of them con¬
nected with an eleCtrical machine, and the other with
the earth. Now fuppofing, inftead of the ufual com¬
munication, that a man handing upon an infulating
ftool, held the lower metallic plate in one hand, and
with the other hand touched the earth, or a conduc¬
tor communicating with it, it is plain, that by touch¬
ing the upper plate, the eleilricity acquired by the air
between them would be difcharged, and that the man
Returning would feel what earl Stanhope calls the returning
ftroke not froke; but which in truth is the ffipck of a charged
iromthat e^e^r‘c fubftance, and would therefore be proportion-
©f a char- ably pungent. Now, in his lordffiip’s experiments, the
phial, two condudors anfwer exadly to the two metallic
plates above mentioned ; the air between them, receives
a charge, and is difcharged by the explofion from the
prime condudor, becaufe this conductor forms one of
the charging plates. It is true, that the round ffiape
of the conductors renders them unfavourable for try¬
ing the experiment j and this is one reafon why it re*
quires a great power of eledrieity to make the return-Lightning,
ing ftroke fenfible. The thicknefs of the plate of air ——g—
interpofed betwixt the two condudors is another rea¬
fon : but this makes no difference as to the principles;
for his lordffiip’s experiment is undoubtedly no other
than that of the Leyden phial Were his lordffiip to
ufe two flat plates inftead of round condudors, the de¬
ception would then be removed ; and we may venture
to determine a priori^ that the returning ftroke would
then be not only very fevere, but even dangerous, with
a very powerful machine and large plates.
3. Though the fecond condudor were entirely re¬
moved, yet there would ftill be a deception in this
experiment, for then the furface of the man’s body
would ad in fome meafure as one of the metallic
plates; fo that ftill the experiment would be on the
principles of the Leyden phial, though much weaker
than before. ^
4. In order to make this experiment abfolutely with- How the
out deception, the man ffiould Hand upon the ground experiment
without touching any thing; and in that cafe we may ffiould be
venture to affirm, that he would feel no returning
ffiock. His being infulated varies the nature of the ‘
experiment entirely, as will eafily be underftood from
the following confiderations.
Under the article Electricity, we have fliown, Another
that poftive eledricity does not confift in an accu nula- explanation
tion, nor negative eledricity in a defciency, of the fluid;.011 tfle phe-
but that all eledric phenomena are to be accounted.nuniena'
for from the mere motion of the fluid, and that this mo¬
tion is always a circulation. We have ffiown, that in.
the working of a common machine, the eledric fluid
comes from the earth; that it is accumulated around,
the prime condudor; evaporates in the air; and is-
then filently abforbed by the earth, and reconduded
to the machine. Hence, in the charging of a machine
which works pofitively, the earth, and all bodies on its
furface, for fome way round, are in a negative ftate ;
becaufe they are then abforbing the eledrical fluid from
the atmofphere. That part of the earth indeed di-
redly under the feet of the machine, and perhaps fome
little way farther, is pofitive; becaufe it is giving out
eledricity: but the negative portion will be much
more extenfive. When the condudor is. difcharged
by a fpark, then the circulation ceafes in a great
meafure by the coliifion of the two oppolite ftreams of
eledric matter. All bodies on the furface of the earthy
then, as far as it was negatively eledrified, muft receiv e
what his lordffiip calls the returningJlroke: but the elec¬
tricity being diffufed among fueh a number, and over
fuch a wide extent, it is no wonder that it ffiould be
infenfible. If, however, we infulate a large condud-
ing body, and then make another part of it communi¬
cate with the earth by means of a good condudor, we
inftantly put it in a fituation fit for tranfmitting more
than its ffiare of the eledricity of the atmofphere, and
reducing it to the ftate of the infulated rubber of an
eledrical machine, through which the whole quantity
of eledrieity muft pafs to the phial held towards it, in
order to be charged negatively. In proportion to this,
quantity tranfmitted the ffiock muft be, not becaufe the
condudor has loft a large ffiare of its natural eledricity,
but becaufe a large quantity is artificially made to pafs.
through it. We may therefore fafely venture to affert,
that, in thunder ftorms, unlefs a body tranfmits more
L I G [
Lightning, than its natural proportion of ele&ric matter, no fiiock
^  will be felt, much lefs can the perfon be killed.
*8 in his explanation of the accident which hap-
which'oc'63 Pene^ t0 Lauder, his lordfhip is reduced to the great-
cur in his difficulty, and makes one of the moft unphilofophi-
Lordfhip’s cal (hifts in the world; no lefs than that of arranging
bypothtfis. the c/out/s of heaven, not according to faft, but accord¬
ing to his own imagination. He fuppofes the exift-
ance of two clouds, one below the other; and afcribes
to them various motions and fituations, which we have
already taken notice of: but who knows whether fuch
clouds ever exifted ? His Lordfisip does not pretend
that any body ever faw them ; and thus he runs into
what is termed by logicians a vicious circle; he firll
affumes data, purpofely made to accord with his hy-
pothdis, and then proves the hypothefis from the
data. »
6. Granting the arrangement of the clouds, and
tvery thing that his lordlhip defires, the main requifite
is 1H11 wanting, viz. a flafh of lightning at a diftance
to produce the returning llroke. According to him,
the diftant flafh and returning llroke mull be fimul-
taneous; but Mr Brydone mentions no fuch thing:
Cn the contrary, there had been no flalh for fome
little time before ; and the immenfe velocity of the
electric fluid will not allow us to fuppofe that it would
take up the ufual time betwixt thunder-claps in travel¬
ling live or fix miles.
7. His lordlhip accounts for no lightning being feeir
at the time of the explolion in a very arbitrary and
unnatural manner, by fuppoling it to have proceeded
from a difcharge of the one imaginary cloud into the
other; and that it was not feen on account of the
thicknefs of the lower cloud. A much more natural
fuppofltion mull be, that it happened below the cart¬
wheels, but was not feen- on account of its being day¬
light, and the cloud of duft which it raifed. The
fucceffion of noifes, too, indicated a fucceffion of explo-
fions, the flalhes of which would be lefs eafily obferved
than a Angle large one.
8. It feems altogether impoffible, that the return of
any quantity of natural electricity into a body Ihould
lhatter that body to pieces. In the prefent cafe, the
fire entered by a fmall part of the iron of the wheels,
and this part was melted. His lordlhip does not he-
fitate to own, that the fufion was a proof that the whole
fire belonging to the cart, man, and horfes, or at lealt
to the cart and man, had entered by this part of the
wheels, and confequently more than naturaiiy belonged
to that fmall part of iron. The fame evidence, how¬
ever, will hold good with regard to every other part.
We grant that the. fire entered the man’s body by his
right thigh : this might have therefore been, burnt by
receiving the lire belonging to the whole body; but it
Ought then to have quietly diffufed kfelf through the
other parts of his body, or at leall if any damage had
been done, it ought to have been done only to the in¬
ternal parts. Inllead of- this, a broad zig-zag line
, upon his body indicated a vail quantity of eleCtric
matter running along the furface without entering the
body at all. In like manner, his hat being torn in
pieces, indicated a violent explolion of eledlriamatter
at his head, where there ought to have been little or
no explofion, as none could be. wanted there except
what the hat had parted with 3 and it is ridiculous to fup-
69 ] L I G
pofe that hats part with fuch quantities of electricity Lijihtning;
as would tear them in pieces by Its return. The w-v***^
Ihivering of the cart, the burning and throwing
about of the coals, and all the other circumllances of
' the cafe, alfo point out in the clearell manner, not a
quantity .of eledlric matter returning to fupply any
natural deficiency, but an enormous explofidn of that'
matter from the earth overwhelming and dellroying
whatever Hood in its way. That two explofions were
made from the earth is very evident, becaufe there
were two holes in it; and the very fize pf thefe holes
indicates a much greater difcharge of electricity than
we- can reafonably fuppofe to have been loll by the
man, horfes, and cart.
We lhall now confider the experiment quoted from phenomena-
the coirefpondent in the Gentleman’s Magazine. Thefe, of theinfu-
as well as the accident under confideration, undoubt-lated thun-
edly Ihow, that, during the time of a thunder-ftorm, j***
both atmofphere and earth are affefted for a very con- fori
fiderable way. With regard to the quantity of this
electrical affection, however, though it mull undoubt¬
edly be exceffive when taken all together, we can by
no means agree that it is fo taken partially. From
an experiment related in the Magazine above quoted,
it appears, that the electricity of a violent thunder-
llorm extends fometimes over a circle of 100 miles
diameter “ EleCtricity (fays the author) feldom ap¬
peared without a fhower ; but I was furprifed, on the
5th of June 1784, that the bells rang with thin and
very high clouds, and without the leail appearance of
rain, till the next poll brought me an account of a
violent thunder-llorm, and very dellru&ive hail, at a
village 50 miles dillant.” We cannot by any means
fuppofe, that all this fpace was eleClrified like a charged
phial.; otherwife, great as the explofions of lightning
are, they would Hill be much greater. This is evi¬
dent even in our eleftrical machines. A fingle phial
may be charged much higher than a battery, as ap¬
pears by the electrometer; but the batteiy, though
lefs charged, will have incomparably more power than
a Angle phial. His lordlhip appears to have deceived*
himfelf in this matter, by miltaking the extent of the
eleClrified furface for the quantity of charge in every
part of it. The furface of the earth in a thunder-0f .j^
Itorm is exaClly fimilar to that of a charged conductor. t,u ,!f elecT
According to the extent of eleClrified furface, the Acity in
fpark will be great or fmall ; and juft fo -it is with '1' any gi-
lightning, for fome kinds of it are much more dellruc-tiufl
tive than others. In all cafes, however; the quantity fnc.-
of eledricity* in a particular fpot is very inconfiderable. free.
Lightning ftrikes bodies, not becaufe they are highly
eleClrified, but fltaijufe they afford a communication
betwixt the atmolphere and fome place below the
furface of the earth. This, itroke. is the aggregate of
the whole electricity qontained in a circle of probably
many miles in diameter; but the returning itroke, if
bodies are in their natural ilate, can only be in pro¬
proportion to the quantity of electricity in each fub-
ftance contained within that fpace. It is in fad the
lightning itfelf dlflufed through the earth which makes
the returning ilroke ; and it is impoffible that every
fubilance within two or three miles of the explofiom
can receive the whole flafh, or another equal to it.
It is only in cafes where the quantity of electricity^
diffufed through a great fpace, happens to difcharge
L I G t 70 ] I I G
r/jgVnmg. it Self tlirougli a human body or other concluding fub-
ilance of no great bulk, that the effeds upon the latter
can be any,way conflderable. This was undoubtedly
the cafe with the thunder-rod mentioned by the corre-
fpondent in the Magazine ; for it received either from
the atmofphere or from the earth, at the time of every
flafh, the whole quantity of ele&ricity which had been
diffufed for a conflderable way round. Pointed bodies,
we know, draw off ele&ricity very powerfully j info-
much that an highly charged jar may be deprived of
almoft all its power by merely prefenting a needle to
it. We can be. at no lofs therefore to underftand
why a pointed condu&or fhould draw off the eledrici¬
ty from a large portion of the furface of the earth, or
from a conflderable portion of atmofphere.
We mu it now, however, inquire into the reafon of
thefe appearances of fparks in places at fuch diflance
from the explofionlif the lightning. To underftand this,
we mull always keep in our eye that principle fo fully
explained under the article Electricity, viz. that
t here never is, nor can be, a real clejickncy of the eledric
fluid in any fubftance or in any place. It is to be
coniidered as art abfolute plenum^ and of confequertce
it can have no other motion than a circulatory one.
At every difeharge of lightning therefore from the
clouds into the earth, or from one cloud into another,
there muft be a return of the fame quantity to thofe
clouds which have made the difeharge. In the vaft
extent of eledrified furface, fome part of thefe re¬
turns muft undoubtedly be made at great diftances
from the place where the exploiion of lightning hap¬
pens. As long as matters remain in their natural ftate,
the eledric matter will return by innumerable paf-
fages in fuch fmall ftreams, that no perceptible effed
upon any Angle fubftance can take place. But if a
body be fo iituated, that a large portion of the eledric
' matter muft return through it from the earth, then
fuch body will undoubtedly be more affeded by every
flaih than the reft of the fubftances around it; and if
the communication with the earth be interrupted, a
flafh of fire will be perceived betwixt the concluding
fubftance and the earth at the time that a flafh burfts
out from the cloud. The ftrength of fuch a flafh,
however, muft by no means be fuppofed equivalent to
that of the main ftroke of lightning, unlefs we could
fuppofe the whole eledrical power of the vaft circle
already mentioned to be difeharged through the cort-
jj. dudor.
Particular But though this may explain the reafon of the
explanation {parks or flalhes obferved in the cafe of the thunder-
dent6 aCC1 r0(* Ju^ mentioned, we cannot from this principle ac¬
count for the accident which befel the man and horfes.
There was indeed at that time a very violent emiflion
of eledricity from the earth, but nO diftant flafh of
lightning happened at the fame moment with it, to
expel the electricity from the earth. It appears there¬
fore, that, the eledricity had in this cafe been accu¬
mulating in the earth itfelf, in a manner fimilar to
that which produces earthquakes ; and which is fully
explained under that article. The thunder-ftorm was
the natural means employed to fupply that part of the
. earth with eledricity, which was in the ftate of
charging; and the moment that the quantity thus fup-
Tp)ied was thrown back, all figna of eledricity muft
3
ceafe, as much as when that thrown in upon one fide I.ightmn£.
of a Leyden phial is again thrown off. Hence, when
the flafh burft out of the earth, and killed the man
and horfes, that portion of earth which abforbed the
eledricity till then, required it no longer; and of
confequertce the thunder-ftorm occafioned by this ab-
foi'ption naturally ceafed.
That this difpofition to an earthquake did really
prevail in the earth at that time, is evident from the-
tremor which Mr Bell felt on the ground when walk¬
ing
11 his garden. The ftroke which the vvoman re¬
ceived on the foot, the death of the lamb, and no
doubt many fimilar circumftances, concurred to fhow
that there was an attempt to re ft ore the equilibrium
from the earth, as has been already related. The
fame difpofition to an earthquake, however, was af¬
terwards renewed; and on the 1 ith of Auguft that fame
year, a fmart fhock of an earthquake did aduallytake
place, as Mr Brydone informs us in the fame paper.
Befides the dift’erent kinds of lightning already
treated of, it is by no means qncommon to fee flafhes
unattended by any report. Thefe are always of the
fheet kind; they happen very frequently in windy
weather when the fky is clear; and likewife when the
fky is cloudy, immediately before a fall of rain of
fnow. The general reafon of thefe appears to be,
that the eledtric fluid is the medium by which the
vapours are fufpended in the atmofphere ; and of con-
fequence, every feparation of vapour, whether as rain,
fnow, or hail, muft be attended with what is called a
difeharge of eledlrical matter. The reafon why this
kind of lightning is never attended with any repoit
is, that there is no particular objeft againft which
the force of the flafti is diredted; but it diftipates it¬
felf among the innumerable conducing bodies with
which the atmofphere always abounds. It is, how¬
ever, in a manner impofiible to explain the various
ways iA which this fubtile fluid adls. We know not,
for inftance, in what ftate it is when adding as a me¬
dium of connedlion betwixt the air and vapour, nor
in what its difehe/rge into other parts of the atmofphere
properly confifts-. At any rate, we fee that a flafh of
lightning, however limited its extent may appear to _
us, diftuies its effedts over a great fpace of atmo¬
fphere ; for after one of thefe iilent flafhes, it is no
uncommon thing to obferve the fky to become ob-
feure though it had been quite fe.rene before; or, if
it bad been cloudy, to fee rain or fnow begin to fall
in a very few minutes. It is probable indeed, that
there is no change whatever that can take place in
the atmofphere but by means of eledlricity ; and there
is great reafon to believe, that the filent difeharges of
this fluid from one part of the atmofphere to another,
many of which are totally invifible, ultimately occa-
fion the whole of the phenomena of Meteorology.
See that article.
Various parts of his Lordfhip’s Treatife on Elec- Dirertionj
tricity, befides thofe already quoted, tend to prove for con-
the utility of high and pointed conductors, in pre-^“^™8
ference to thofe which terminate in a hall, or round-
eel end. Towards the end of the performance, the
author difeuffes this matter very particularly; and enu¬
merates the ‘ necejfary requfiles’ in eredling- them,
in number 11 ; to every one of which we readily
fub-
L I G [71
Lightfiing. fubfcnbe. As this matter is of a-popular nature, and
on a fubjeft generally interefting, we rtiall tranfcribe this
lift; adding a ihort explanation to particular articles.—
Thcfe requifites (fays the author) are 11 in number.
‘ 1 ft, That the rod be made of fuch fubftances
as are, in their nature, the left conduBors of eleBricUy.
‘ 2dly, That the rod be uninterrupted, and perfcBly
continuous.’ — This is a very material circumftance.
One entire piece of metal cannot perhaps be had : but
it is not fuffieient that the rods, of* which the con-
du&or conftfts, be fenfibly in contaft; they ftiould be
prefled into aBual contaft by means of nuts and fcrews,
with a thin piece of ftieet-lead between the (boulders
of the joints.
‘ 3dly, That it be of a fujftcient thichnefsd — A
copper rod half an inch fquare, or an iron rod one inch
fquare, or one of lead two inches fquare, are thought
fully fufficient by the author.
‘ 4thly, That it be perfeftly connected with the
"common flock.’—That is, it (hould be carried deep
into the earth, which is frequently dry near the fur-
face ; and then continued in a horizontal direction, fo
&s to have the fai ther extremity dipped, fhould this be
practicable, into water, at the diftance of 10 yards or
more from the foundation.
‘ ythly, That the upper extremity of the rod be as
acutely pointed as poflible.’—This termination {hould
be of copper; or rather a very fine and exceedingly
acute needle of gold (hould be employed, which will
not materially add to the expence.
‘ 6thly, That it be very finely tapered —fo that
the upper extremity may be a cone, the diameter of
the bale of which may bear an extremely fmall pro¬
portion to its height; for inftance, that of one to
forty.
‘ ythly, That it be extremely prominent—that
is, 8, 10, or 15 feet at lead above the higheft parts
of the building. The author lays great ftrefs on this
circumftance; in confequence of the law above-men¬
tioned, deduced by him from his experiments, relating
to eleftric atmofpheres. According to this law, the
denfity of an eledtric atmofphere (the negative atmo-
fphere, for inftance, of the roof of a h6ufe, &c. while
poftively charged cloud hangs orer it) diminilhes in
the inverfe ratio of the fquare of the dill a nee from the
furface of the body to which that atmofphere belongs.
Accordingly* if the rod project 12 feet into this atmo¬
fphere, it will reach to a part of it four times lefs
den ft than if the rod projected only to half that di¬
ftance, or fix feet; — and to a part one hundred and forty
■ four times rarer, than if it projected only one foot.
‘ 8thly, That each rod be carried, in the (horteft
convenient direction, from the point at its upper end,
to the common .flock.
‘ qthly, That there he neither large nor prominent
bodies of metal upon the top of the building propofed
to be fecured, but fuch as are connected with the
conductor, by fome proper metallic communication.
‘ ipthly, That there be 3 fujftcicnt number of high
and pointed rods.’—On edifices of great importance,
efpecially magazines of gun-powder, the author thinks
thefe ought never to be above 40 or 50 feet afunder.
‘ 1 ithly, That every part of the rods be very lub-
Ibntially eredted.*
1 L I G
The author declares that he has 1 never been able lightning,
to hear of a fingle inftance, rior does he believe that ^ 1 J
any one can be produced, of an high, tapering, and a-
ctt/f/y/wnta/metallic condufilor, having ever, in any
country, been (truck by lightning 5 if it had a//the
neceffary requifites abovementioued, efpecially the fe-
cor.d and fourth.* 33
On the whole, it feems to be pretty certain, that ot COi‘’
both pointed and knobbed metalline conductors '’11' °r**
have the power of preferving any body placed at a
fmall diftance from them from being (truck by light¬
ning. This they do, not becaufe they can attract the
lightning far out of its way, but becaufe the refiftance
to its paffage is always lead on that fide where they
are ; and as pointed conductors diminifti the refiftance
more confiderably than blunt ones, they feem in all
cafes to be preferable.—It appears, however, that a
fingle conductor, whether blunt or pointed, is not ca¬
pable of fecuring all the parts of a large building from
ftrokes of lightning; and therefore leveral of them
will be required for this purpofe: but to what diftance
their influence extends, hath not been determined, nor
does it feem eafily capable of being afeertained.
It now remains only to explain fome of the more Why light-
uncommon appearances and effeCts of lightning. One ning
of thefe is, that it is frequently obferved to kill al-tir!ies k‘113
ternately: that is, fuppofing a number of people a*ternaa'Ii\
(landing in a line; if the firft perfon was killed, the
fecond perhaps would be fafe ; the third would be
killed, and the fourth fafe; the fifth killed, £:c.—
EffeCts of this kind are generally produced by the moft.
violently kind of lightning ; namely, that which ap¬
pears in the form of balls, and which are frequently
feen to divide thenrfelves into feveral parts before they
(trike. If one of thefe parts of a fire-ball (trike a
man, another will not llrike the perfon who (lands
immediately clofe to him ; becaufe there is always a
repulfion between bodies electrified the fame wav.
Now, as thefe parts into which the ball breaks have
all the fame kind of eleCtricity, ij is evident that they
mnft for that reafon repel one another; and this re¬
pulfion is fo ftrong, that a man may be interpofed
within the flroke of two of them, without being hurt
by either.
The other effeCt. of lightning is mentioned under Wlij-it
the article Jerusalem, where thofe who attempted•fonietiire*'
to rebuild the temple had the marks of erodes 1'm_ dies^wtth*
prefled upon their garments and bodies. This mayyhefOT-rn
reafonably be thought to arife from the fame caufe to of a croft*
which the angular appearance of lightning in the air
is owing, namely, its violent impetus and velocity,
together'with the oppofition of the atmofphere. A
fmall ftroke of lightning, fometimes indeed a very con-
fiderable one, cannot always enter the fubftance of ter-
rcftrial bodies, even when it touches them, for reafons-
already given. In this cafe it runs along their furface,
and, as in its motion it is perpetually refifted by the
atmofphere, it undoubtedly has the fame angular mo¬
tion which we often perceive in the atmofphere. If.
in this fituation it happens to touch the human (kin,,
or a garment, efpecially of linen, as being a conductor,
it will undoubtedly leave a mark upon it; and this
mark being of a zig-zag form, might, in the above in-
ftance, have been, either taken for the cxaCt form of a<
-crofe
L I G [ ;
J»ightnlng crofs by the beholders, or have fuggeded that Idea
_ . II in relating -the ftory to make it appear more won-
derful.
Thefe obfervations may ferve to give fome idea of
the nature of lightning, and its operations after it ap¬
pears in its proper form and burfts out from the
cloud ; but for an account of its original formation,
and of the powers by which the clouds are at firft
eleftrified, and their electricity kept up notwith-
ftanding many fuccefiive difcharges of lightning, and
the quantity of elettric matter continually carried off
by the rain, See. fee the article Thunder.
Artificial Lightning. Before the difeoveries of
Dr Franklin concerning the identity of electricity
and lightning, many contrivances were invented in
order to reprefent this terrifying phenomenon in mi¬
niature : the corufcatious of phofphorus in warm wea¬
ther, the accenfion of the vapour of fpirit of wine
evaporated in a clofe place, -&c. were ufed in order to
fupport the hypothefis which at that time prevailed;
namely, that lightning was formed of fome fulphu-
reous, nitrous, or other combuftible vapours, floating
in long trains in the atmofphere, which by fome un¬
accountable means took lire, and produced all the
deftruftive effects of that phenomenon. Thefe repre-
fentations, however, are now no more exhibited;
and the only true artificial lightning is univerfally ac¬
knowledged to be the difeharge of eleftric matter from
bodies in which it is artificially fet in motion by our
machines.
Lightning was looked uponasfacred both by the
Greeks and Romans, and was fuppofed to be fent to
'execute vengeance on the earth : Hence perfons kill¬
ed with lightning, being thought hateful to the gods,
were buried apart by themfelves, left the allies of other
men fliould receive pollution from them. Some fay
they were interred upon the very fpot where they died;
others will have it that they had no interment, but
were fuffered. to rot where they fell, becaufe it was
unlawful for any man to approach the place. For
this reafon the ground was hedged in, left any perfon
unawares Ihould contract pollution from it. All
_places ftruck with lightning were carefully avoided and
fenced round, out of an opinion that Jupiter had ei¬
ther taken offence at them, and fixed upon them the
marks of his difpleafure, or that he had, by this means,
pitched upon them as facred to himfelf. The ground
thus fenced about was called by the Romans bidentul.
Lightning was much obferved in augury, and was a
.good 01 bad omen, according to the circumftances at¬
tending it.
LIGNICENCIS terra, in the materia medica,
"the name of a fine yellow bole dug in many parts of
Germany, particularly about Emeric in the circle of
Weftphalia, and ufed in cordial and aftringent com¬
plaints.
LIGNUM vitje. See Guaiacum.
Lignum Aloes. See Excoecaria.
Lignum Nephnticum. See Guilandina.
Lignum Rhodium, or Rofe<wood, in the materia me-
dica a wood, or root, chiefly brought to us from the
'Canary iflands. The writers on botany and the ma¬
teria medica are much divided about the lignum rho¬
dium, not only with regard to the plant which affords
it, but like wife in their accounts of the drug itfelf, and
'N° 182.
■2 1 L 1 G
have deferibed, under this name, firoples manifeftly Limua
different. This confufion feems to have arifen from an II .
opinion, that the rhodium, and the afpalathus (an ar- ,a‘
tide of confiderabk efteem among the ancients, but
with regard to which the moderns are very much at a
lofs), are the fame ; whence different woods brought
into Europe for the unknown afpalathus, were fold
again by the name of rhodium.
In thofe modern. pharmacopoeias which admit the
lignum rhodium, -different Linmean names are at pre-i
fent given to it: thus the authors of the Difpenfa-
toriumBrunfvieenfe fuppofe it to be the Rhodiola rofa of
Linnaeus; and thofe of the Pharmacopoeia Roffica,
the Genijla Canarienfs. As to Afpalathus, the ancients
themfelves difagree ; Diofcorides meaning by this ap¬
pellation the wood of a certain fhrub freed from the
bark, and Galen the bark of a root. At prefent we
have nothing under this name in the fliops. What
was heretofore fold among us as afpalathus, were pie¬
ces of a pale-coloured wood brought from the Eaft
Indies, and more commonly called calamlour.
The afpalathus, calambour, and lignum aquike, are
fuppofed to be woods of the nature of agallochum, or
lignum aloes, but weaker in quality. The lignum
rhodium of the (hops is ufually in long crooked pieces,
full of knots, which when cut appear of a yellow co¬
lour like box, with a reddilh caft : the largeft, fmooth-
eft, moft compaft, and deepeft coloured pieces, fhould
be chofen ; and the fmall, thin, or pale ones, rejefted.
The tafte of this wood is lightly bitterifh, and fome-
what pungent; its fmell is very fragrant, refembling
that of rofes : long kept, it feems to lofe its fmell ;
but on cutting, or rubbing one piece againft the other,
it fmells as well as at firft. Diftilled with water, it
yields an odoriferous effential oil, in very fmall quan¬
tity. Rhodium is at prefent in efteem only upon ac¬
count of its oil, which is employed as an high and a-
greeable perfume in feenting pomatums and the like.
But if we may reafon from analogy, this odoriferous
Ample might be advantageoufly applied to more
ufeful purpofes; a tin61 ure of it in re6tified fpirit of
wine, which contains in fmall volume the virtue of a
confiderable deal of the wood, bids fair to prove a fer-
viceable cordial, not inferior perhaps to any thing of
this kind.
Lignum Campechenfe. See Hematoxilum.
Lignum Colubrinum. See Ophiorhiza.
LIGULATED, among botanifts, an appellation,
given to fuch flofcules as have a ftraight end turned
downwards, with three indentures, but not feparated
into fegments.
LIGURIA (anc. geog.), a country of Italy, bound¬
ed on the fouth by the Mediterranean fea, on the
north by the Appennine mountains, on the weft by-
part of Tranfalpine Gaul, and un the eaft by Etruria.
- There is a great difagreement among authors concern¬
ing the origin of the Ligurians, though moft pro¬
bably they were defcended from the Gauls. Some
carry up their origin as far as the fabulous heroes of
antiquity ; while others trace them from the Ligyes,
a people mentioned by Herodotus as attending Xerxes
in his expeditions againft Greece. Thefe Ligyes are
by fome ancient geographers placed in Colchis; by
others, in Albania. --According to Diodorus Siculus,
the Ligurians led a 'very wretched life ; their country
LIC [ 73 J L I L
iLIgnftiaiir, being entirely overgrown with Woods, which they
Uguftrum. were obliged to pull up by the root* in order to cul-
- tivate their land, which was alfo encumbered with
great Hones, and, being naturally barren, made but
very poor returns for all their labour. They were
much addifted to hunting ; and, by a life of continual
exercife and labour, became fo ftrong, that the weakeft
Ligurian was generally an overmatch for the ftrongeft
and moft robuft among the Gauls. The women are
faid to have been almoft as ftrong as the men, and to
have borne an equal (hare in all laborious enterprifes.
With all their bravery, however, they were not able
'to refill the Roman power; but were fubdued by that
warlike nation, about 2x1 B. C.
LIGUSTICUM, lovage, in botany : A genus of
the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
45th order. Umbellate. The fruit is oblong, and quinque-
fulcated on each fide ; the florets are equal; the petals
involuted or rolled inwards, and entire. There are feven
fpecies; of which the moft remarkable are, the levi-
fticum or common, and the fcoticum or Scots, lo¬
vage. The firft is a native of the Apennine moun¬
tains in Italy. It has a thick fleflxy, deeply-pe¬
netrating perennial root, crowned by very large,
many-parted, radical leaves, with broad lobes, ha¬
ving incifions at top, upright, ftrong, channelled (talks,
branching fix or feven feet high, and all the branches
terminated by yellow flowers in large umbels. The
fecond is a native of Scotland, and grows near the fea
in various parts of the country. It has a thickiftx,
fleftiy, penetrating, perennial root, crowned by large
doubly-trifoliated leaves, with broad, (hort, indented
lobes, upright round (talks, half a yard high, ter¬
minated by fin all yellow umbels. Both fpecies are
hardy, and eafily propagated by feeds fown in fpring
or autumn.
Medicinal ufes, &c. The root of the firft fpecies
agrees nearly in quality with that of angelica : the
principal difference is, that the lovage root has a
ftronger fmell, and a fomewhat lefs pungent tafte, ac¬
companied with a more durable fweetnefs, the feeds
being rather warmer than the root; but although cer¬
tainly capable of being applied to ufeful purpofes,
this root is not regarded in the prefent practice. The
leaves of the fecond are fometimes eaten raw as a falad,
or boiled as greens, by the inhabitants of the Hebrides.
The root is reckoned a good carminative. They give
tan infufion of the leaves in whey to their calves to
purge them,
LIGUSTRUM, privet, in botany: A genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 44th order, Seplarid>. The corolla is quudrifid;
the berry tetrafpermous. There is but one fpecies;
of which there are two varieties, the deciduous and
the evergreen. They are hardy plants, rifing from 10
to 15 feet high, adorned with oblong entire leaves, and
fpikes of infundibuliform oblong white flowers, fuc-
ceeded by black-berries. They are eafily propagated
by feed, layers, fuckers, or cuttings. They are ufed for
making hedges. Tke purple colour upon cards is pre¬
pared irom the bemes. With the addition of alum,
thefe berries are faid to dye wool and filk of a good
and durable green; for which p’^rpofe they mult be
Vol.X. Parti.
gathered as foon as they are ripe. The leaves are IdWne,
bitter and (lightly aftringent. Oxen, goats, and (heep, , LlKurr*
eat the plant; horfes refufe it. *
LILBURNE (John), an enthufiaftic demagogue,
who was tyrannically punilhed by the ftar-chamber
court, being put in the pillory, whipped, fined, and
imprifoned, for importing and publiftiing feditioun
pamphlets, which he had got printed in Holland;
they chiefly reflected on the church of England
and its bifhops: he fuffered in 1637, and in prifon
was doubly loaded with irons.' In 1641, he was re¬
leafed by the long parliament: and from this time,
he had the addrefs to make himfelf formidable to all
parties, by his bold, afpiring genius. He fignalized
himfelf in the parliament army ; and was at one time
the fecret friend and confident of Cromwell, and at
another his avowed enemy and accufer; fo that, in
1650, Cromwell found it to be his intereft to filenee
him, by a grant of fome forfeited eftates. But after
this, he grew outrageous againft the protestor s go¬
vernment ; became chief of the levellers; and was
twice tried for high treafon, but acquitted by the
juries. The lad was for returning from exile (having
been baniflied by the parliament) without a pafs. He
died in 1657, aged 88.
LILIACEOUS, in botany, an appellation given
to fuch flowers as refembk thofe of the lily.
LILIUM, the lily, in botany: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
10th order, Coronaria. The corolla is hexapetalous,
and campanulated, with a longitudinal nectariferous
line or furrow ; the capfules connected by fmall can¬
cellated hairs. There are many fpecies; all of them
bulbous-rooted, herbaceous, flowery perennials, rifing
with ereCt annual (talks three or four feet high, gar-
niflied with long narrow leaves, and terminated by fine
clufters of large, bell-ftiaped, hexapetalous flowers
of exceeding great beauty, of white, red, fcarlet, orange,
purple, and yellow colours.
Culture. All the fpecies are propagated by fowing
the feeds; and if care is taken to preferve thefe feeds
from good flowers, very beautiful varieties are often
produced. The manner of fowing them is as follows:
Some fquare boxes (hould be procured, about fix inches
deep, with holes bored in the bottoms to let out the
wet: thefe muft be filled with frefti, light, fandy earth;
and the feeds fown upon them pretty thick in "the bCr
ginning of Auguft, and covered over about half an
inch deep with light fifted earth of the fame kind.
They (hould then be placed where they may have the
morning fun; and if the weather proves dry, they muft
be watered at times, and the weeds carefully picked
out. In the month of October the boxes are to be
removed to a place where they may have as much fun
as pofiible, and be fecured from the north and north-
eaft winds. In fpring the young plants will appear,
and the boxes are then to be removed into.their for¬
mer fituation. In Auguft the fmalleft roots are to be
emptied out of thefe boxes, and ftrewed over a bed of
light earth, and covered with about half an inch depth
of earth of the fame kind fifted over them. Here
they muft be watered, and (haded at times, and de¬
fended from the feverity of winter by a (light covering
of draw.or peafe-haulm in the hardeft weather.; in
K Fe-
L I L L 74 ] L 1 L
February, the furface of the bed fhould be cleared,
and a little light earth lifted over it. When the leaves
' are decayed, the earth Ihould be a little ftirred over
the roots; and in the month of September following
fome more earth fifted on. In the September of the
following year, the roots mull be tranfplanted to the
places where they are to remain, and fet at the diftance
of eight inches; the roots being placed four inches
below the furface : this fhould be done in moift wea¬
ther. They will now require the fame care as in the
preceding winters; and, the fecond year after they
are tranfplanted, the ftrongeft roots will begin to flower.
The fine ones ftiould then be removed at the proper
feafon into flower beds, and planted at great diftances
from one another that they may flower ftrong.
Medical ufes. The roots of the white lily are e-
mollient, maturating, and greatly fuppurative. They
are ufed externally in cataplafms for thefe purpofes
with fuccefs. The common form «f applying them is
boiled and bruifed; but fome prefer the roafting them
till tender, and then beating them to a pafte with oil,
in which form they are faid to be excellent againft
burns. Gerard recommends them internally againil.
dropfies.
The Kamtfchatence, or Kamtfchatka lily, called there
faranne, makes a principal part of the food of the Kamt-
fchatkans. Its roots are gathered by the women in
Auguft, dried in the fun, and laid up for ufe : they
are the befl. bread of the country; and after being
baked are reduced to powder, and ferve inftead of flour
in foups and feveral diihes. They are fometimes wafh-
td, and eaten as potatoes; are extremely nourifliing,
and have a pleafant bitter tafte. Our navigators boil¬
ed and eat them with their meat. The natives often
parboil, and beat it up with feveral forts of berries, fo
as to form of it a very agreeable confection. Provi¬
dentially it is an univerfal plant there, and all the
grounds bloom with its flower during the feafon. An¬
other happinefs remarked there is, that while fifh are
fcarce the faranne is plentiful; and when there is a
dearth of this, the rivers pour in their proviiions in
redoubled profufion. It is not to the labours of the
females alone that the Kamtfchatkans are indebted for
thefe roots-i A fpecies of moufe faves them a great
deal of trouble. The faranne forms part of the win¬
ter provifions of that little animal: they not only ga¬
ther them in the proper feafon, and lay them up in
their magazines, but at times have the inltinCt of bring¬
ing them out in funny weather to dry them, left they
ihould decay. The natives fearch for their hoards ;
but .with prudent tendernefs leave part for the owners,
being unwilling to fuffer fuch ufeful caterers to perifh.
LILLO (George), an excellent dramatic writer,
born at London in 1693. He was a jeweller by pro-
fefiion, and followed his bufinefs for many years in
that neighbourhood with the faireft reputation. He
was at the fame time ftrongly attached to the raufes,
yet feemed to have laid it down as a maxim, that the
devotion paid to them ought always to tend to the
promotion of virtue, morality, and religion. In pur-
fuance of this aim, Lillo was happy in the choice of
his fubje&s, and ihowed great power of affe&ing the
teart, by working up the paflions to fuch a height, as
to render the diftrefles of common and domeftic life
*<jually interefting to the audiences as that of kings
and heroes, and the ruin brought on private families. Lilly
by an indulgence of avarice, lull, &c. as the havock —v—
made in ftates and empires by ambition, cruelty, or
tyranny. His “ George Barnwell,” “ Fatal Curiofi-
ty,” and “ Arden of Feverfliam,” are all planned on
common and well-known ftories; yet they have per¬
haps more frequently drawn tears from an audience
than the more pompous tragedies of Alexander the
Great, All for Love, &c. In the prologue to “ El-
meric,” which was not aCted till after the author’s
death, it is faid, that when he wrote that play, he
“ was deprefled by want,” and afflidted by difeafe ;
but in the former particular there appears to be evi¬
dently a miftake, as he died poffefled of an eftate of
L. 60 a-year, befides other effects to a confiderable
value. His death happened in 1739, in the 47th year
of his age. His works have been lately collected, and
publifhed, with an account of his life, in 2 vols i2mo,
by Mr T. Davis.
LILLY (John), a dramatic poet, was born in the
wilds of Kent, about the year 1553, and educated in
Magdalen-college, Oxford, where he took the degree
of bachelor of arts in 1573, and that of mafter in
1575. From Oxford he removed to Cambridge; but 1
how long he continued there, is uncertain. On his
arrival in London, he became acquainted with fome of
Queen Elizabeth’s courtiers, by whom he was careffed,
and admired as a poet and a wit; and her majefty,
on particular feftivals, honoured his dramatic pieces
with her prefence. His plays are nine in number.
His firft publication, however, printed in 1580, was a
romance called Euphues, which was univerfally read and
admired. This romance, which Blount, the editor of
fix of his plays, fays introduced a new language, efpe-
cially among the ladies, is, according to Berkenhout,
in fa<ft a moft contemptible piece of affettation and
nonfenfe : neverthelefs it feems very certain, that it
was in high eftimation by the women of fafliion of
thofe times, who, we are told by Whalley the editor
of Ben Johnfon’s works, had all the phrafes by heart;
and thofe wh» did not fpeak Enphuifm were as little
regarded at court as if they could not fpeak French.
“ He was (fays Oldys) a man of great reading, good
memory, ready faculty of application, and uncommon
eloquence ; but he ran into a vaft excefs of allufion.”
When or where he died is not known. Anthony Wood
fays he was living in 1597, when his laft comedy was
publiftied. After attending the court of Queen Eli¬
zabeth 13 years, notwithftanding his reputation as aa
author,- he was under a neceflity of petitioning the
queen for fome fmall ftipend to fupport him in his old
age. His two letters or petitions to her majefty on
this fubjedt are preferved in manufcript.
Lilly (William), a noted Englifh aftrologer*
born in Leicefterlhire in 1602 ; where his father not
being able to give him more learning than common
writing and arithmetic, he refolved to. feek his for¬
tune in London. He arrived in 1620, and lived four
years as a fervant to a mantua-maker in the parifti of
St Clements Danes ; but then moved: a ftcp higher to
the fervice of Mr Wright, mafter of the Salters comr
pany in the Strand, who not being able to write, Lilly
among other offices kept his books. In 1627, whea
his mafter died, he paid his addreffes to the widow,
whom he married with a fortune of. 10001, Being «©v?
6 hia
Lit, r 75 1 LI M
kb own mafler, he followed the puritanical preachers; ly city are now to be feer), except fome aquedufls and Lilyt!*
v Jl and, turning his mind to judicial aftrology, became pu- temples; though it was Handing in Strabo's time. L‘mit*
i-.< u ’• pH to one Evans, a profligate Welih parfon, in that LILYE (William,) the grammarian, was born in
{>t'etended art. Getting a MS. of the Ars notitia the year 1466 at Oldham in Hampfhire ; and in i486,
of Corn. Agrippa, with alterations, he drank in the was admitted a ferhi-commoner of Magdalen college,
doftrine of the magic circle, and the invocation of fpi- in Oxford* Having taken the degree of bachelor of
fits, with great eagernefs. He was the author of the arts* he left the univerflty, and travelled to Jerufalem;
MerTtnus Anglicus junior ; The Supernatural Sight ; Returning from thence, he continued five years in the
and The White King’s Prophecy. In him we have an ifland of Rhodes, where he ftudied the Greek language,
inftance of the general fuperllition and ignorante that fevefal learned men having retired thither after the ta-
prevailed in the time of the civil war between Char. I. king of Conflantinople. From Rhodes he travelled to
and his parliament: for the king conlulted this aftro- Rome ; where he improved himfelf in the Greek and
loger, to know in what quarter he fliould conceal him- Latin languages, under Sulpitius and P. Sabinus. He
felf, if he could efcape from Hampton court; and then returned to London, where for fome time he*
general Fairfax, on the other fide, fent for him to his taught a private grammar-fehool, being the firfl. per-
army, to afk him if he could tell by his art,- whe- fon who taught Greek in the metropolis. In 1510,
ther God was with them and their caufe ? Lilly, who when Dr Colet foir*icd St Paul’s fchool, Lilye was ap-
made his fortune by favourable predictions to both pointed the firft malter ; at which time, it feems, he was
parties, affured the general that God would be with married and had many children. In this employment
him and his army. In 1648, he publiflied his Treatifi he had laboured 12 years, when, being feized by the
of the three Sms feen the preceding winter; and alfo plague, which then raged in London, he died in Fe¬
an aftroldgical judgment upon a conjunction of Saturn bruary 1523, and was buried in the north yard of St
ahd Mars. This year the council of ftate gave him in Paul’s-. He had the character of an excellent gram-
money 501. and a penfion of 1001. per annum, which marian, and a fuecefsful teacher of the learned lan-
ke received for two years, and then refigned on fome guages. His principal work is Brevifrm^a inJhtutiot
difguft. In June 1660, he was taken into Guftody by feu ratio grammatices cognofcendct ; Lond. 1513. Re¬
order of the parliament, by whom he was examined printed times without number, and commonly called
concerning the perfon who cut off the head of king Lilye’s grammar. The Englilh rudiments were writ-
Charko I. The fame year he fued out his pardon un- ten by Dr Colet, dean of St Paul’s; and the preface
der the great feal ofi England. The plague raging in to the firll edition, by cardinal Wolfey. The Englifh
London, he removed with his family to his ertate at fyntax was written by Lilye ; alfo the rules for the
Herfham ; and in OCtober 1666 was examined be- genders of nouns, beginning with Propria quiz mari-
fore a committee of the houfe of commons concerning bus : and thofe for the preterperfeft tenfes and fupines,
the fire of London, which happened in September beginning with As in prefenti. The Latin fy ntax was
that year. After his' retirement to Herfliam, he ap- chiefly t^e work of Erafmus. See Ward’s preface to
plied himfelf to the ftudy of phyfic, and, by means of his edition, of Lilye’s Grammar, 1732.
his friend Mr A/hmole, obtained from archbifhop Shef- ' LIMA, a city of South America, in Peru, of which
elon a licence for the practice of it. A little before his it is capital, with an archbi(hop’s fee, and an univer-
d'eath he adopted for his fon, by the name of Merlin fity. It gives its name to the principal audience of
juniori one Henry Coley, a taylor by trade ; and at Peril; and is furrounded with brick-walls, fortified with
the fame time gave him the impreffion of his almanac, feveral ramparts and ballions, eight yards high. The
after it had been printed for 36 years. He died in ftreets are handfome, and as ftraight as a line ; but the
'1681 of a dead palfy. Mr Afhntole fet a monument houfes are generally only one ftory high, on account
over his grave in the church of Walton upon Thames-, of the earthquakes. However, they are pretty enough.
His “ Obfervations on the Life and Death of Charles and well adorned, having long galleries on the front,
late King of England,” if we overlook the aftrological One part of the roofs are covered with coarfe linen
nonfenfe, may be read with as much fatisfa&ion as cloth, and the others only with reeds, which is not in-
more celebrated hiftories; Lilly being not only very convenient, becaufc it never rains here; however, the
well informed, but ftrittly impartial. This work, with richelt inhabitants cover theirs with fine mats or beau-
the Lives of. Lilly and Alhmole, written by them- tiful cotton-cloths. There are trees planted all round
felves, were publilhed in one vol. 8vo, in 1.774, by Mr their houfes, to keep off the heat of the fun. What
Burman. the houfes want in height they have in length and
LILY, in botany. See Lilium. depth ; for fome of them are 200 feet long, and pro-
L1 ir of the Valley. See Convallaria. portionably broad,fo that they have IO or 12 large
LILYBvEUM (anc. geog.), a city of Sicily, fi- apartments on the ground-floor. The royal fquare is
tiiated on the moft welterly promontory of the iflairt^ very handfome, and in the middle there is a fountain of
of Sicily, and faid to have been founded by the Car- bronze, adorned with the image of Fame which fpouts
thaginians on their expulfion from Motya by Diony- uppvater. On the call and weft fides are the public Itruc-
fius tyrant of Syracufe. It is remarkable for three tures, which are well built. The river which croffes
fieges it fuftained ; one againft Dionyfius the tyrarit, Lima forms canals orftreams which run to moft of the
another againft Pyrrhus king of Epirus, and the third houfes, and ferve to water their gardens, as well as for
againft the Romans. The two firft failed in their at- other ufes. All the churches and convents are ex-
tempts, but the Romans with great difficulty made tremely rich ; and many images of the faints are of
themfelves mafter of it. No remains of this once ftate- maffy gold, adorned with jewels. This city is four
K 2 mika
L I M f 76 ] L I ivr
-Lima, miles in length, and two in breadth, and is divided into
^ jUmaffci gjght pari flies; and yet it contains but 28,000 inha-
* bitants, whereof 9000 are Spaniards. They make ufe
of mules to draw their coaches with, and of thefe there
are about 5000. It is the feat of the viceroy, and
contains feveral courts ; as that of the viceroy, of the
archbifhop, of the inquilition, of the crufado, and of
the wills. Earthquakes are here very frequent •, fome
of which have done this city a great deal of damage,
particularly that in 1746, whereby it was almoft de-
ftroyed: were it not for this, it would be a perfect
p&radife ; there being plenty of corn, wine, oil, fugar,
fruits, and flax. The inhabitants are fo rich, that when
the viceroy, who was duke of Palata, and fent from.
Spain to Peru in 1672, made his public entrance in-,
to this city, the inhabitants paved the ftreets he was
to pafs through with ingots of filar. The inhabitants
of Lima are very debauched, but at the fame time ex¬
tremely fuperftitious, and they have a ftrong belief in
the power of charms. About a fourth part of the city
are monks and nuns, who are not a jot more chafte
than the reft ; and if any one happens to rival a monk,
lie is in danger of his life, for they always carry a dag¬
ger under their frocks. The nuns are fuch libertines,
that it is ha^d to find any free.from the French dif-
. cafe, of which they fome.times die for want of good
phyficians. The greateft finners think they aton£ for
all their faults by hearing a mafs, and kjfiing the robe
of St Francis or St Dominic, and then they return tof
their former praftices. It is feated on a large, plea-
fant, fertile plain, on a fmall river near the fea. W.
Long. 68. 45. S. Lat. 12. 15.
Maritt t LIMASSOL, or Limisso, a town of Cyprus, in
‘Travels the fouth of the ifland. Of the ancient city nothing
through but ruins now remain ; though it was a celebrated place,
Cyprus. ev^n under the government of the dukes. King Ri¬
chard, the conqueror of the laft of thefe vaffals of the
empire, razed it in 1191, and it was never afterwards
rebuilt. This city originally was the fame as Ama-
thus, or Amathonte ; fa famous, asPaufanias tells us,
for its temple erefted in honour of Venus and Adonis.
Amathus was the refidence of the nine firft kings of
the ifland ; and amongft others of Oneliftus, who was
fubjefted afterwards, by .the arms of Artabanes, the
Perfian general. This city, ere&ed into an archbifliop-
ric in the time of the Chriftians, has produced a nunv
bcr of perfonages celebrated for their knowledge and
the fanttity of their lives. In the neighbourhood
there are feveral copper mines, which the Turks have
been forced to abandon. The following lines, in the
tenth book of Ovid's Metamorphofes, prove that they
■were known in the time of that poet:
Capta viri forma, non jam Cytherea curat
Littora, non alto repetit Paphon tequore cin&am,
Pifcofamque Guidon, gravidamque Amathunta metatlis.
The place where the new Limaflbl now hands, for*
merly had the name of Nemofia, from the multitude of
woods by which it was furrounded. Richard king of
England having deftroyed Amathonte, Guy de Lu-
fignan in the 12th century laid the foundations of that
new city which the Greeks called Neopoleos. The fa¬
mily of Lufignan, who continued to embeUHh and for¬
tify it, built there palaces, and Greek and Latin
churches; and made it the feat of a biihop. When
the ifland was taken by the Turks in 1.570, the Ot¬
toman army entered this city on the 2d of July, and Limar^
ravaged it without mercy. It was then deftroyed by Limbi
the flames; and at prefent it is only a wretched place, v
in which one can fcarcely diftinguifh any remains of its
ancient edifices. . It is governed by a commiflary and
a cadi: the latter judges cafes only provilionally, before'
they are carried to the. fuperior tribunal of Nicofia..
The harbour is very commodious-; and being fheltered
from impetuous winds, it affords a fafe and calm afy-
lum. to veffeis when overtaken by a ftorm. The carob
tree is. here more abundant than any where elfe ; and
it is from the port of Limaffol that the greateft quan¬
tity of its fruit is exported. The inhabitants export
alfo fait, procured from a lake near Salines. Cotton,,
wheat, barley, and mulberry-trees, are both plentifuL
and well cultivated in this par t of the ifland: the
ground alfo produces all kinds of garden ftuff. The
beft Cyprus wine is made from the vines that grow on
the hills of Limaffol, All the wines of the country
are collected in this city to be tranfported to Larnic,
where there are the largeft cellars, and which, on that
account becomes the natural centre of commerce.
LIMAX, the Slug, or Naked Snail; a genus of
infedfts belonging to the order of vermes mollufca. The
body is oblong, fitted for crawling, with a kind of*'
mufcular coat on the upper part; and the belly is
plain. They have four tentacula, or horns, fituated
above the mouth, which they extend or retract at plea-
fure.—This reptile is always deftitute of fhell; butbe-
fides that its ikin is more clammy a id of a greater con-
fiftency than that of the fnail, tlie black naked Hug
has- a furrowed cloak, almoft as thick and as hard as lea¬
ther, under which ‘it withdraws its head as within a
fliell. The head is diftinguiflred from the breaft by a
black line. It is in its head and back thatrthe fnail,
ftone is found ; which is a fraall pearled and fandy ftone,
of the nature of lime ftones : according to a popular
opinion, it cures the tertian ague, if faftened to the
patient.’s arm. Thefe flugs move on ftowly, leaving every
where clammy and (hining- marks of their paffage.
Their coming together is towards the end of fpring.
The organs of generation are placed, as in the fnaii,
on the light fide of the neck. The male implement
unfolds with the fame mechanifm as the finger of a
glove when turned infide out. They are foinetimes
met with hanging in the air with their heads down¬
wards ; and their tails, united by a kind of vifcous and.
thick tie, grappled to the branch of a tree. In this ft-
tuatioq they remain for three hours, and that is the
time of impregnation. They depofit their eggs in the
earth. There are eight fpecies, diftinguiflied entirely
by their colouras the black flug, the white flug, the
reddifli flug, the alh-coloured flug, &c. The black
flug is hermaphrodite, both fexes being in each indi¬
vidual, and in the coitus both impregnate and are im¬
pregnated at the fame time.—A black flug powdered
overwith fnuff, fait, or fugar, falls into convulfions, calls
forth all its foam, and dies; See Reproduction.
LIMB, in general, denotes the border or edge of
a thing ; thus we fay, the limb of a quadrant, of the
fun, of a leaf, &c.
Limb, in anatomy, an appellation given to the ex¬
tremities of the body, as to the arms and legs.
Limb, Limbus, in the church of Rome, is ufed in
two different fenfes. 1. The Iknb of the patriarchs is
4 Lid
L I M t
Limbat, faid to be the place where the patriarchs waited the re-
I.imborch ^emption of mankind : in this place they fuppofe our
v “" Saviour’s foul continued from the time of his death to
his refurredtion. 2. The limb of infants dyin^ with¬
out baptifm, is a place fuppofed to be diitindf both from
heaven and hell; fince, fay they, children dying inno¬
cent of any adfual fin, do not deferve hell; and, by
reafon of their original fin, cannot be admitted into
heaven.
L.IMBAT, the name of a periodical \Vind common
in the ifland of Cyprus, and of great fervice in mode¬
rating the heats of the climate, which would other-
wife be intolerable.
According to the Abbe Mnriti, it begins to blow
at eight in the morning the firil day; increafes as the
fun advances till noon ; then gradually weakens, and
at three falls entirely. On the fecond day it arifes at
the fame hour; but it does not attain its greateft
ftrength till about one in the afternoon, and ceafes at
four precifely. On the third day it begins as before ;
but it falls an hour later. On the five fucceeding
days, it follows the fame progreffion as on the third ;
but it is remarked, that a little before it ceafes, it be¬
comes extremely violent. At the expiration of five
days it commences a new period like the former. By
narrowly obferving the fea on that fide from which
it is about to blow a little before it arifes, one may
determine what degree of ftrength it wall have during
the day. If the horizon is clear, and entirely free
from clouds, the wind will be weak, and even almoft
infenlible ; but if it is dark and cloudy, the wind willTbe
ftrong and violent. This limbat wind, notwithftanding
its utility in moderating the exceffive heat, often becomes
the caufe of fevers, efpecially to the Europeans, from
their being lefs habituated to the climate, more apt
than the natives to fuffer themfelves to be furprifed by
the cool air when in a ftate of perfpiration. This
w ind, the falling of which happens an hour fooner or
later, is fucceeded by a calm, accompanied by a cer¬
tain moifture that renders the air fomewhat heavy.
This moifture difappears in the evening, being diffipa-
fed by a wind which arifes every day at that period.
This wind is confidered as a land breeze by the inha¬
bitants of the fouthern and'eaftern parts of the ifland;
but it is called a fea breeze by thofe in the northern and
weftern, who indeed receive it immediately from the
fea. In fummer it blows till foiu-o’clock in the morn¬
ing ; and when it ceafes, it leaves a profound calm,
which continues till the hour when the limbat com¬
mences. In autumn and winter it never falls till day¬
break, when it is fucceeded by other winds, which pro¬
ceed from the irregularity of the feafon. In fpring it
does not continue longer than midnight; and is then
fucceeded by that happy calm, during which thofe.re-
frelhing dews are formed that moiften the earth at fun-
riling. The limbat winds, which arife in the beginning
of fummer, ceafe about the middle of September ; and
this is the period when the moft infupportable heats
commence, becaufe their violence is not moderated
by the fmalleft breeze. They are, however, luckily
not of long duration ; and about the latter end of Ocr
tober they decreafe fenftbly, as the atmofphere begins
to be loaded with watery clouds..
LIMBORCH (Philip), a learned writer among the
femonftrants, born at Amfterdam in 1633. After ha^
77 ) L I M
ving made great proficiency in his ftudies, Ke was, in Limburgh
1655, admitted to preach in public, which he did iirll R
at Haerlem. His fermons had in them no affeffedelo- ™enc .
quence; but were folid, methodical, and edifying. He
was chofen minifter of Goudja ; from whence he was
called to Amfterdam, where he had the profefibrfhip
of divinity, in which he acquitted himfelf with great
reputation till his death, which happened in 17x2.
Pie had an admirable genius, and a tenacious memory.
He had many friends of diftinilion in foreign parts as
well as in his own country. Some of his letters to Mr
Locke are printed with thofe of that celebrated author.
Pie had all the qualifications fuitable to the charafler
of a fincere divine, lived an example of every virtue,,
and preferved the vigour of his body and mind to a
confiderable age. He wrote many works, which arc
efteemed ; the principal of which are, 1. Arnica col-
latio de veritate religionis Cbrijiianx cum eruddrj jfudao,
in izmo. 2. A complete body of Divinity, ac¬
cording to the opinions and doctrines of the remon-
ftrants. 3. A hiftory of the Inquifition ; which has
been tranflated into Englifh by Dr Samuel Chandler.
Limborch alfo publiflied the works of the famous
Epifcopius, who was his great-uncle by the mother's
fide.
LIMBURGH-duchy, a province of the Auftrian
Netherlands, bounded by the duchy of Juliers on ther
north and call, by Luxemburgh on the fouth, and by
the bifliopric of Liege on the weft. It is about 30
miles in length, and 25 in breadth; and confifts of good
arable and paftureland, with plenty of wood, andfome.
iron mines,
Eimburgh, the capital city of the duchy of Lim-
burgh, in the Auttrian NetherlaiMs, is feated on a fteep-
rock near the river Velfe. This town isfmall, but plea-
fa ntly feated on a hill, with fliady woods ; and confift*
chiefly of one broad ftreet, not very well built. It is
ftrong by lltuation, and almoft inaccefiible; however, it
was taken by the French in 1675, and. by the confe¬
derates under the duke of Marlborough in 1603,
for the houfe of Auftria, to whom it remains by the
treaties of Raftadt and Baden, after having been dif-
mantled. It is famous for its-cheefe, which is exceed—
ing good. E. Long. 6. 8. N. Lat. 50. 40..
LIMPh See Quicklims.
LiME-Tree. Sec Citrus.
Lime or LiNDUN-Tree. See TiLi,t.
LiME-lVater. See Pharmacy*Indei&*
Lime, or Lyme. See Lyme.
LIMERICK, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Munfter, is bounded on the eaft by Tipperary, on
the weft by Kerry, on the north by the river Shan¬
non, and ou the fouth by Cork. It is a fruitful and
populous tract, the foil requiring little or no manure
in moft places: beftdes rich pafture for ftieep and
cows, it produces rich crops of all kinds of com
and rape, with fome hemp. It gave title of earl
to the family of Dongan. It contains 375,320 Irifli.
plantation acres, about fifty-fix church livings, though
a much greater number of parifiies, ten baronies,,
three boroughs, and fends eight members to parlia¬
ment. It has fome clays, furze, fern, and mountain
lands, and is famous for good, cyder ; it has been much-
benefitedby the palatines, whofettled there and increafed’
tillage .; they are a. laborious indep endent-people, moft-
L*mer!clc.
L I M [78
ly employed in their own farms. This country is well
watered by large and fmall rivers ; the Shannon runs at
the north fide of the county, and fertilizes its banks.
The firing of the inhabitants is chiefly turf, and the
bogs are conveniently, fituated. At Loghill in the
weft of the county, there is a mine of coal or cillm,
but it is moreufed in kilns than in houfes. There are
few lakes except Lough Gur 5 and the principal hills
are Knockgreny, Knockany, Knocknring, and Tory,
hill. The mountains lie weftward, the higheft being
Knockpatrick or St Patrick’s hill. This county is
about 45 miles long, and 42 broad.
Limerick, or Lough-I/Ieath, a market-toWn, a bo¬
rough, and a bifliop’s fee, now the metropolis of the
province of Munfter. It is fituated on the river Shan¬
non, 94 miles from Dublin ; and was the ftrongeft
fortrefs in the kingdom. Its aficient name Was Lun-
^neach ; and dm ing the firft ages it was much frequent¬
ed by foreign merchants, and after the arrival of the
Danes was a place of confiderable commerce until the
f 2th century. It was plundered by Mahofi, brother
of Brien Borcfmh, after the'battle of Sulchoid, in 9704
and Brien, in a future period, exacted from the Danes
t f this city 365 tons of wine ad a'tribute, which fhows
the extenfive traffic carried on by thofe people in that
article. About the middle of the 6th century, St
Munchin eredted a church and founded a bifhopric
here; which, however, wasdeftroyed by the Danes on
their taking pbfieffion of this port in 853, and remain¬
ed in ruins until their converfion to the Ghriftian faith in
the 10th century; at which period the chitrchof StMun-
chin was rebuilt, and the biffiopric eftablifhed> Donald
0‘Brien, dboiit the time of the arrival of the Engliffi,
founded and endowed the cathedral; and Donat 0‘Bri¬
en, bifiiopof Limerick, in the 13Eh century, contributed
much to the opulence of the fee. About the clofe of
the 12th century, 'the biflioprick of Innis-Cathay was
united to that of Limerick. It was befieged by king
William III. in the year r6go ; and though there was
no army to affift it, the king was obliged to ntife the
fiege. In the year 1691, it was again befieged by the
Englifh and Dutch on the 21ft of September; and it
was obliged to furrender on the 13th of Oftober fol-
1 owing, not without the lofs of abundance of men ;
•however, the garrifon had very honourable and advan¬
tageous conditions, being permitted to retire where
they thought fit, and the Roman-catholics by thefe ar¬
ticles were to be tolerated in the Free exercife of their
religion. Within a century this place was reckoned
the fecond city in Ireland ; at prefent it has loft its
rank ; not becaufe it thrives iefs* but beeaufe Cork
thrives -more. It is compefed of the Irifh and Engliflt
town ; the latter Hands on the King’s ifland, formed
by the river Shannon. The town is three miles in
circumference, having weekly markets on Wednefday
and Saturday, and fairs on Eafter Tuefday, ift July,
4th Auguft, and x 2th December. There is a privi¬
lege annexed to the fair held on 4th Auguft, that, du¬
ring 15 days, no perfon can be arrefted in the city or
liberties, on any procefs iffuing out of the ,Tholfd
court of Limerick. Ardfert and Achadoe, in the
county of Kerry, are united, to the biftioprick of Li¬
merick. This city returns two members to parlia¬
ment ; and gives title of vifeount to the family of Ha¬
milton. It is governed by a mayor, iheritfs, recordey
] LIN
aldermen, arid burgefies ; .there is alfo a barrack arid biiiiingtofi
a military governor and town-major ; it had fome time t. A.
the privilege of coinage; and different parliaments
have been held there. The town was formerly entire¬
ly walled in ; and in 1760, there were 17 of the city-
gates Handing 5 but to the great improvement of the
place they are now all demoliflied, except the water-
gate" of king John’s eaftle. The linen, woollen, and
paper manufadtures, are carried on here to g^at extent,
and the export of provifions is Very confiderable. Here
are many charitable hofpitals and handfome public
buildings, befides the cathedral and other churches. A
charter was granted to this city by king John, and
confirmed in fuceeeding reigns. Dr Campbell ob-
ferves, that as you approach Limerick, the grounds
grow rich and exquifitely beautiful; the only difa-
greeable matter is, that the fixation renders the air
moift, and corifequently rather unwholefome to ftran-
gers. About fix miles from this is the famous Caftle-
eonnd-fpa. Limerick is 50 miles from Cork, 50
from Galway, and 73 from Waterford. It appears
that Limerick obtained the privilege of having mayors
K> ysars before that right was allowed to , the citizens’
of London. It Was before governed by provofts, of
Which the firft Was John Spafford, in 1195 and 1197}
during the provoftfhip of Henry Troy a charter was
granted, 9 Richard I. whereby the citizens were al¬
lowed to choofe mayors and bailiffs, Adam Servant, in
1198* being the firft mayor. It continued to be go¬
verned by mayors and bailiffs, until the office of bailiff
was changed ihto that of fheriff, in 1609.
Limerick is alfo the ririthe of a fair-town in the
county of Wexford and province of Leinfter; the fairs
are four in the year.
LIMINGTON, a town of Hampfliirfe in England.
See Lymington.
LIMIT, in a reftrained fenfe, is ufed by mathema¬
ticians for a determined quantity to which a variable
one Continually approaches; in which fenfe, the circle
may be faid to be the limit of its circumferibed and
inferibed polygons. In algebra, the term Until is ap¬
plied to two quantities, one of which is greater and the
other lefs than another quantity ; and in this fenfe it;
is ufed in fpeaking of the limits of equations, whereby
their folution is much facilitated.
LIMME, a town of Kent, in England, near Hithe,
and four miles from Romney, was formerly a port,
till choaked up by the fands; and though it is thereby
become a poor town, yet it has the horn and mace
and other tokens left of its ancient grandeur, and ufed
to be the place where the lord warden of the cinque-
ports was fworn at his entrance upon his office. The"
Roman road from Canterbury, called &tane-Jheet, end¬
ed here ; and from the brow of its hill may be feen
the ruinous Roman walls abnoft at the bottom of the
marfhes. Here formerly was a cattle, now converted
into a farm-houfe. When or by whom this edifice
was ere died is not known-, It has, however, great
marks of antiquity ; as has alfo the adjoining church,
in which are ffveral eld tomhftones with erodes ©n
them.
LIMNING, the art of painting in water-colours,
in contradiftindion to painting which is done in oil-
colours.
Limning is much the more ancient kind of paint¬
ing.
L I M C 79 J LIN
Ximning ing. Till a Flemifh painter, one John van Eyck, bet-
Unacre ter ^nown ^7 name J0^71 °f Bruges, found out
. in^cre- the art of paintipg in oil, the painters all painted in
^ water and in frefco, both on their walls, on wooden
boards, and elfewhere. When they made ufe of
boards, they ufually glued a fine linen cloth over them,
to prevent their opening; then laid on a ground of
white; laftly, they mixed up their colours with wa¬
ter and fize, or with water and yolks of eggs, well
beaten with the branches of a fig-tree, the juice where¬
of thus mixed with the eggs; and with this mixture
they painted their pieces.
In limning, all colours are proper enough, except
the white made of lime, which is only ufed in frefco.
The azure and ultramarine muft always be mixed with
fize or gum ; but there are always applied two layers
of hot fize before the fize-colours are laid on : the co¬
lours-are all ground in water each by itfelf; and, as
they are required in working, are diluted with fize-wa-
te'r. When the piece is finiihed, they go over it with
the white of an egg well beaten j and then with var-
nilh, if required.
To limn, or draw a face in colours: Having all the
-materials in readinefs, lay the prepared colour on the
card even and thin, free from hairs and fpots over the
place where the picture is to be. The ground being
laid, and the party placed in a due pofition, begin the
work, which is to be done at three fittings. At the
firft you are only to dead-colour the face, which will
require about two hours. At the fecond fitting, go
«ver the work more curioufly, adding its particular
graces or deformities. At the third fitting, finifli the
whole; carefully remarking whatever may conduce to
render the piece perfed, as thecalt of the eyes, moles,
fears, geftures, and the like.
LIMOGES, an ancient and confiderable town of
France, in the province of Guienne, and capital of
Limofin, with a bifhojp’s fee. It is a trading place,
and its horfes are in great efteem. It is feated on the
river Vienne, in E. Long. I. 22. N. Lat. 42. 48.
LIMOSIN, a province of France, bounded on the
north by La Marche, on the eaft by Auvergne, on the
fouth by Quercy, and on the wefl. by Perigord and
Angoumois. It is divided into the Upper and Lower;
the former of which is very cold, but the latter more
temperate. It is covered with forefts of chefnut-trees;
and contains mines of lead, copper, tin, and iron; but
the principal trade confifts in cattle and hoxfes.
LIMPET. See Patella.
LIMPURG, a barony of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, included almoft entirely within Suabia,
and feated to the fbuth of Hall in SuaBia. It is a-
bout 15 miles long, and eight broad. Gaildbrf and
Shonburg, near which is- the caltle of Limpurg, are
the principal places.
Limpurg, a town of Germany, in the electorate
of Triers or Treves, and in Wetteravia, formerly free
and imperial, but now fubject to the electorate of
Treves. It is feated on the river Lhon. E. Long. 8.
13. N. Lat. 50. 18.
LINARIA, in ornithology. See Fringilla.
LINACRE (Thomas), phyficiaq, was born at
Canterbury about the year 1460, and there educated
under the learned William Selling: thence he removed
So Oxford, and in 1484 was chofen fellow of All-
Souls college. Tilly, alias Selling, his former inllruc-
tor, being at this time appointed ambaffador from
King Henry VII. to the court of Rome, Mr Linacre
accompanied him to Italy, where he attained the
higheft degree of perfection in the Greek and Latin
languages. At Rome, he applied himfelf particularly
to the lludy of Ariftotle and Galen, in the original.
On his return to Oxford, he was incorporated doctor
of phyfic, and chofen public profeflbr in that faculty.
But he had not been long in England, before he was
commanded to court by King H&nry VII. to attend
the young Prince Arthur as his tutor and phyfician.
He was afterwards appointed phyfician to the king,,
and, after his death, to his fucceffor Henry VIII. Dr
Linacre founded two medical lectures at Oxford, and
one at Cambridge ; but that which molt effectually
immortalized his name among the faculty, is his being
the firft founder of the college of phylicians in Lon¬
don. He beheld with vexation the wretched Hate of
phyfic in thofe times; And, by an application to Car¬
dinal Wolfey, obtained a patent in 1518, by which
the phyficians of London were incorporated. The in¬
tention of this corporation was to prevent illiterate and
ignorant medicafters from praclifing the art of healing*..
Dr Linacre was the firft prefident, and held the office
as long as he lived. Their meetings were in his own
houfe in Knight-rider ftreet, whidh houfe he bequeath¬
ed to the college. But our doftor, when he was
about the age of 50, took it into his head to ftudy
divinity ; entered into orders; and was collated, in
1509, to the rectory of Merffiam. In the fame
year he was inftalled prebendary of Wells, in 1518
prebendary of York, and in the following year was
admitted precentor of that cathedral. This, we are
told, he refigned for other preferments. He died of
the ftone in the bladder in Oftober 1524, aged 64;
and was buried in St Paul’s. , Thirty-three years after
his death, Doftor John Caius caufed a monument to
be ereefted to his memory, with a Latin infeription,
which contains the outlines of his life and charafter.
He was a man of great natural fagacity, a Ikilful phy¬
fician, a profound grammarian, and one of the belt
Greek and Latin fchqlars of his time. Erafmus in
his epiftles fpeaks highly of the doftor’s tranllations
from Galen,, preferring them even to the original.
Greek. His works are,. 1. De emendata JlruSura La-
tini fermonis, lilr'i fex ; London, printed by Pynfon,
1524, 8vo, and by Stephens, 1527, 1532. 2. The
rudiments, of grammar, for the ufe of the princefs
Mary, printed by Pynfon. Buchanan tranfiated.it
into Latin ; Paris, 1536. He likewife tranfiated in¬
to very elegant Latin, feveral of. Galen’s works, which-
were printed chiefly abroad at different times,. Alfo
Procll Diadochi fphara, tranflated from, the Greek;
Venet; 1499, 1500.
LINCOLN, a city of England, and capital of a
county of the fame name, is diftant 132 miles from.
London. It Hands on the fide of a hill; at the bot¬
tom of which runs the river Withum in three final!
channels, over which are feveral bridges. The old
Lindum of the Britons, which flood on the top of the
hill, as appears from the veftiges of a rampart, and
deep ditches ftill remaining, was taken and demolilhed
by the Saxons; who built a town upon the fouth fide
of the hill down to the river fide, , which was feveral
times-..
LIN f 80 1 LI
Xinco’n. tiinea taken by the Danes, and as often retaken by the
» ■ Saxons. In Edward the Confeflbr’s time, it appears,
from Doomfday-book, to have been a very confider-
able place; and in the time of the Normans, Malmfbury
fays, it was one of the molt populous cities in Eng¬
land. William I. built a caftle upon the fummit of
the hill above the town. The diocefe, though the bi-
Ihopric of Ely was taken out of it by Henry II. and
thofe of Peterborough and Oxford by Henry VIII. is
ftill vaftly large, containing the counties of Leicefter,
Huntingdon, Bedford, and part of Bucks, making 1255
parilhes. Though the other churches are mean, the
cathedral or minfter is a moll magnificent piece of Go¬
thic architecture. Here is a prodigious large bell,
called Tom of Lincoln, which is near five ton in weight,
and 23 feet in compafs. The hill on which the church
Hands is fo high, and the church itfelf fo lofty, that
it may be feen 50 miles to the north, and 30 to the
fouth. Befides other tombs, it contains one of brafs,
in which are the entrails of Queen Eleanor, wife to
Edward I. It is faid there were anciently 52 churches,
wlrich are now reduced to 14. Such is the magnifi¬
cence and elevation of the cathedral, that the monks
thought the fight of it muft be very mortifying to the
devil; whence it came to be faid of one who was difi
pleafed, that he looked like the devil over Lincoln. The
declivity on which the city is built being ileep,
the communication betwixt the upper and lower town
is very troublefome, and coaches andjiorfes are obli¬
ged to make a-compafs.
King Edward III. made this city a ftaple for wool,
leather, lead, &c. It was once burnt; once befieged
by King Stephen, who was. here defeated and taken
prifoner ; and once taken by Henry III. from his re¬
bellious barons. It abounded heretofore with mona-
fteries and other religious houfes. There is a great
pool here, formed by the river on the weft fide of it,
called Swan-Pool, becaufe of the multitude of fwans
on it. The Romans north gate ftill remains entire, by
•the name of Newport-Gate. It is one of the noblell
of this fort in Britain. It is a vaft femieircle of ftones
of very large dimenfions laid without mortar, connedl-
cd only by' their uniform lhape. This magnificent arch
is 16 feet in diameter, the ftones are four feet thick at
■the bottom. It feems to have a joint in the middle,
not a'key-ftone ; and on both fides, towards the upper
part, are laid horizontal ftones of great dimenfions,
fome IO or 12 feet long. This arch rifes from an im¬
port: of large mouldings, which are not perceivable
now ; there are alfp divers fragments of the old Roman
wall. Over againft the caftle is an entrenchment cart
mp by king Stephen ; and here are carved the arms of
John of Gaunt, duke of Lane-after, who lived here like
a king, and liad a mint. The city has a communica¬
tion with the Trent, by a canal called the Fofs-dyke.
In the centre of the ruined old caftle there is a hand-
fome modern ftru&ure for holding the affizes. Its
walls are almoft entire, and very fubftantial: the Keep
or principal tower is fituated on a high and very fteep
•mount, which yet continues in its original Hate, but the
■remains of the tower on it are only five or fix yards
high. The outer walls of the caftle are of very con-
fiderable height, which appear ftill higher than they
' really are from their lofty fituation and the moat below
them. The great gateway is ftill entire. This city
182.
is a county of itfelf, and has a vifeountial jurifdiction
for 20 miles round, which is a privilege that no other
city in England can equal. It now confitts principal¬
ly of one ftreet above two miles long, well paved, be¬
fides feveral crofs and parallel ftreets well peopled.
Here are fome very handiome modern buildings, but
more antique ones; upon the whole, it has an air of
ancient greatnefs, arifing in a great meafure from the
number of monaftic remains, moft of which are now
converted into ftables, out-houfes, &c. Upon the hill,
in the caftle are the ruins of the biftiop’s palace, and
other ruins of ancient grandeur and magnificence.
The city is fupplied with water by feveral conduits,
among which is a modern one, fomewhat in the pyra-
midical ftyle, enriched with fculpture. It is governed
by a mayor, twelve aldermen, two fheriffs, a recorder,
four chamberlains, a fword-bearer, four coroners, and
above forty common-council men. Here are four cha¬
rity fchools, where 120 poor children are taught by
the widows of clergymen. The neighbouring courfe
is noted for its frequent horfe-races. On the down of
Lincoln, towards Bofton, that rare fowl the buftard is
feen fometimes, as well as on Salifhury-Plain. Lincoln-
Heath extends above 50 miles, viz. from Sleaford and
Ancafter fouth to the Humber north, though it is
but three or four miles over where broadeft. Five miles
from Bofton on this extenfive heath, the late Lord Le
Defpenfer built a few years ago a tower for the direfh’on
of ftrangers. It is a lofty fquare building with a ftair-
■cafe, which terminates in a flat roof, and round the
bafe is a fquare court-yard. Great part of this exten¬
five heath is lately inclofed. The markets here are
Tuefdays and Fridays ; and there are four fairs in the
year. We read that David king of Scots met king
John here, on the 22d of November, in the third year
of his reign, and performed homage to him on a hill
without the city, for his Englilh territories, in prefence
of the archbifhops of Canterbury, York, and Ragufa, 13
bilhop3,and avail: number of temporal lords and knights.
King Henry VII. kept his court here at Eafter in
i486. The Jews were once its chief inhabitants, till
they were forced to remove, after having impioufly cru¬
cified the child of one Grantham, and thrown it into a
well, to this day called Grantham’s Well. Lincoln has
given the title, of earl to the family of Clinton ever
fince the reign of Queen Elizabeth. W. Long. 27. I.
N.Lat. 53. 16.
LiNCOLN-Shire, a maritime county of England, 77
miles in length and 48 in breadth, is bounded on the
eaft by the German ocean, on the weft by Notting-
hamlhire, on the north by Yorklhire, on the fouth by
Rutlandftiire, Northamptonfture, and Cambridgelhire.
It contains 4590 houfes, 24,340 inhabitants, 631 pa-
riihes, and 31 market towns, whereof five fend mem¬
bers to parliament, which, with two for the county,
make twelve in all. The principal rivers are the Hum¬
ber, the Trent, the Witham, the Nenn, the Welland,
the Ankham, and the Dun. It is divided into three
parts, Lindfay, Keftoven, and Holland ; the air of
which laft is unwholefome and foggy, on account qf
the fens and large marfhes. The foil of the north and
weft parts is very fertile, and abounds in corn and pa-
ftures. The call and fouth parts are not fo proper for
corn ; but then they fupply them with fiftx and fowl in
great plenty, particularly ducks and geefe. Lincoln
Linrolr?,
LIN [8
Uyndesfarn is the principal town. By the late inland navigation,
. ]L this county has communication with the rivers Mer-
m, ey‘ -^eej Ribble, Oufe, Darwent, Severn, Thames,
™ * Avon, &c. which navigation, including its windings,
extends above 500 miles through diverfe counties.
LINDESFARN, or Landisfarn. See Hoir-
IJland.
LINDSAY (Sir David), a celebrated Scots poet,
was defeended of an ancient family, and born in the
reign of king James IV. at his father’s feat called the
Mount, near Cupar in Fifdhire. He was educated
at the univerfity of St Andrew’s ; and, after making
the tour of Europe, returned to Scotland in the year
1514. Soon after his arrival, he was appointed gen¬
tleman of the bed-chamber to the king, and tutor to
the young prince, afterwards James V. From the
verfes prefixed to his dream, we learn that he enjoyed
feveral other honourable employments at court: but,
in 1533, he was deprived of all his places, except that
of Lion king at arms, which he held to the time of
his death. His difgrace was moft probably owing to
his invedtivCs againft the clergy, which are frequent in
all his writings. After the deceafe of king James V.
Sir David became a favourite of the earl of Arran, re¬
gent of Scotland; but the abbot of Paifley did not
fuffer him to continue long in favour with the earl. He
then retired to his paternal eftate, and fpent the re¬
mainder of his days in rural tranquillity- He died in
the year 1553. His poetical talents, confidering the
age in which he wrote, were not contemptible ; but
he treats the Romifh clergy with great feverity, and
writes with fome humour: but, whatever merit might
be formerly attributed to him, he takes fuch licentious
liberties with words, ftretching, or carving them for
meafure or rhime, that the Scots have a proverb, when
they hear an unufual expreflion, that. There is nae
Jic a word in a' Davie Lindfay. Mackenzie tells us,
that his comedies were fo facetious, that they afford¬
ed abundance of mirth. Some fragments of thefe co¬
medies are ftill preferved in manuicript. He is faid
to have alfo written feveral tragedies, and to have firfl
introduced dramatic poetry into Scotland. One of his
comedies was played in 1515. Mackenzie fays, he
underftood nothing of the rules of the theatre. He
was cotemporary with John Heywood, the firft Eng-
lifh dramatic poet. His poems are printed in one
fmall volume ; and fragments of his plays, in manu-
feript, are in Mr William Carmichael’s collection.
LINDSEY, the third and largeft divifion of the
county of Lincolnfhire in England. On the eaff and
north i±-is wafhed by the fea, into which it runs out
with a large front; on the weft it has Yorkfhire and
ISTottinghamfhire, from which it is parted by the ri¬
vers Trent and Dun; on the fouth it has Keftevan,
from which it is feparated by the river Witham and
the Fofs-dyke, which is feven miles long, and'was cut by
Henry I. between the Witham and the Trent, for the
convenience of carriage in thofe parts. It had its
name from Lincoln, the capital of the county, which
ftands in it, and by the Romans called Lindum, by
the Britons Lindcoit, by the Saxons Lindo-collyne, pro¬
bably from its fituation on a hill, and the lakes or
woods that were anciently thereabouts; but the Nor¬
mans called it Nichol. It gives title of earl and mar¬
quis to the duke of Ancaftcr,
Vol. X. Part L
]
LIN
LINDUS, (anc. geog.), a town of Rhodes, fitua- Lindas,
ted on a hill on the weft fide of the ifland. It was Line* f
built by TIepolemus the fon of Hercules, according ".
to Diodorus Siculus; by one of the Heliades, grand-
fons of the Sun, named Lindus, according to Strabo.
It was the native place of Cleobulus, one of the wife
men. Here we fee the famous temple of Lindian Mi¬
nerva, which was built be the daughters of Danaus.
Cadmus enriched this temple with many fplendid of¬
ferings. The citizens dedicated and hung up here
the feventh of Pindar’s Olympic odes, written in let¬
ters of gold. The ruins of that fuperb edifice are ftill
to be feen on the top of an high hill which overlooks
the fea. Some remains of the walls, confifting of
ftones of an enormous fize, ftill fhow it to have, been
built in the Egyptian ftyle. The pillars and other
ornaments have been carried off. On the moft ele¬
vated peak of the rock are the ruins of a caftle, which
may have ferved as a fortrefs to the city. Its circum¬
ference is very extenfive, and is filled with rubbifh.
Lindo, the modern city, Hands at the foot of the
hill. A bay, of confiderable widenefs and depth,
ferves as a harbour to the city. Ships find good an¬
chorage there in twenty fathoms water. They are
fafely flickered from the fouth-weft winds, which con-
ftantly prevail through the fevereft feafon of the year.
In the beginning of winter, they caft anchor off a
fmall village named Maffary. Before the building of
Rhodes, Lindus was the harbour which received the
fleets of Egypt and Tyre. It was enriched by com¬
merce. Mr Savary obferves, that a judicious govern¬
ment, by taking advantage of its harbour and happy
fituation, might yet reftore it to a flourifhing ftate.
LINE, in geometry, a quantity extended in length
only, without any breadth or thicknefs. It is formed
by the flux, or motion of a point. See Fluxions,
and Geometry.
Line, in the art of war, is underftood of the dif-
pofition of an army ranged in order of battle, with
the front extended as far as may be, that it may not
be flanked.
Line of Battle, is alfo underfiood of a difpofition
of the fleet in the day of engagement; on which occa-
fion the veffels are ufually drawn up as much as poflible
in a ftraight line, as well to gain and keep the advan¬
tage of the wind as to run the fame board. See Na~
val Tactics.
Horizontal Line, in geography and aftronomy, a
line drawn parallel to the horizon of any part of the
earth.
EquinoQial Line, in geography, is a great circle
on the earth’s furface, exactly at the diftance of 90°
from each of the poles, and of confequence bife&ing
the earth in that part. From this imaginary line, the
degrees of longitude and latitude are counted.—In a-
ftronomy, the equinoctial line is that circle which the
fun feems to deferibe round the earth on the days of
the equinox'in March and September. See Astrono¬
my and Geography-
Meridian Line, is an imaginary circle drawn thro’
the two poles of the earth and any part of its furface.
See Geography, nJ 29.
Ship of the Line, a veffel large enough to be
drawn up in the line, and to have a place in a fed-
fight.
L Livtti
L
LIN f 82 ] LIN
Line
l-L
L.inf, in genealogy* a feries or fuccefiion of rela¬
tions in various degrees, all defcending from the fame
common father. See Descent.
Line, alfo denotes a French rtfeafure containing
the 12th part of an inch, or the {44th part of a foot.
Geometricians conceive the line Xubdivided into fix
points. The French line anfvvers to the Engliih
barley-corn.
Fjjhing Link. See Fishing Line.
Lines, in heraldry, the figures ufed in armories to
divide the fhield into different parts, and to compofe
different figures. / Thefe lines, according to their dif¬
ferent forms and names, give denomination to the pie¬
ces or figures which they fdrm, except the ftraight or
plain lines. See Heraldry.
LINEA alba, in anatomy, the concourfe of the
tendons of the oblique and tranfverfe mufcles of the
abdomen ; dividing the abdomen in two, in the middle.
It is called line a, line, as being ftraight; and alba, from
its colour, which is white. — The linea alba receives a
twig of a nerve from the' intercoftals in each of its di-
gitatioris or indentings, which are vifible to the eye,
in lean perfons efpecially.
LINEAMENT, among painters, is ufed for the
outlines of a face.
LINEAR numbers, in mathematics, fuch as have
relation to length only ; fuch is a number which repre-
fents one fide of a plain figure. If the plain figure be a
fquare, the linear figure is called a root.
Linear Problem; that which may be folved geo¬
metrically by the interfeclion of two right lines.
This is called dl Jimple problem, and is capable but of
one folution.
LINEN,,in commerce, a Well-known kind of
cloth chiefly made of flax.—Linen was not worn by
the Jews, Greeks, or Romans, as any part of their or¬
dinary drefs. Under tunicks of a finer texture fup-
plied the place of fhirts : Hence the occafion for fre,
quent bathing. Alexander Severus was the firft em¬
peror who wore a ftiirt: but the ufe of fo necef-
iary a garment did not become common till long after
him.
The linen manufacture was probably introduced into
Britain with the firft fettlements of the Romans. The
flax was certainly firft planted by that nation in .the
Britifti foil. The plant itfelf indeed appears to have
been originally a native of thC eaft. The woollen dra¬
pery would naturally be prior in its origin to the linen;
and the fibrous plants from which the threads of the
latter are produced, feems to have been firft noticed
and worked by the inhabitants of Egypt. In Egypt,
indeed, the linen manufacture appears to have been
very early : for even in Jofeph’s time it had rifen to a
confiderable height. From the Egyptians the know¬
ledge ^of it proceeded probably to the Greeks, and
from them to the Romans. Even at this day the
flax is imported among us from the eaftern nations ;
the weftern kind being merely a degenerate fpecies
of it.
In tirder to fucceed in the linen manufacture, one
fet of people fliould be confined to the ploughing and
preparing the foil, fowing and covering the feed, to
the weeding, pulling, rippling, and taking care of
the new feed, and watering and dreffing the flax till
it is lodged at home : others Ihould be concerned in
the drying, breaking, fcutching, and heckling the Liner, ■ j
flax, to fit it for the fpinncrs ; and others in fpinning
and reeling it, to fit it for the weaver: others fliould
be concerned in taking due care of the weaving,
bleaching, beetling, and finiftiing the cloth for the
market. It is reafonable to believe, that if thefe fe-
veral branches of the manufacture were carried on by
diftinCt dealers in Scotland and Ireland, where our
home-made linens are manufactured, the feveral parts
Would be better executed, and the whole would be
afforded cheaper, and with greater profit.
Staining of Linen. Linen receives a black colour
with much more difficulty than woollen or cotton. The
black ftruck on linen with common vitriol and galls, or
logwood, is very perifhable, and foon waflies out. — In-
ftead of the vitriol, a folution of iron in four ftrong beer
is to be made ufe of. This is well known to all the calico-
printers ; and by the ufe of this, which they call their
iron liquor, and madder-root, are the blacks and pur¬
ples made which we fee oh the common printed linens.
The method of making this iron-liquor is as follow? :
A quantity of iron is putr into the four ftrong beer ;
and, to promote the difiblution of the metal, the whole
is occaiionally well ftirred, the liquor occafionally
drawn off, and the ruftbeat from the iron, after which - |
the liquor is poured on again. A length of time is
required to make the impregnation perfeCt ; the folu¬
tion being reckoned unfit for ufe till it has flood at
lealt a twelvemonth. This folution itains the linen
of a yellow, and different ffiades of buff-coloUr; and
is the only known fubftanee by which thefe colours
can be fixed on linen. The cloth ftained deep with
the iron liquor, and afterwards boiled with madder,
without any other addition, becomes of the dark co¬
lour which we fee on printed linens and cottons ; which,
if not a perfect black, has a very near refemblance to
it. Others are ftained paler with the fame liquor di¬
luted with water, and come out purple.
Linen may alfo be ftained of a durable purple by
means of folution of gold in aqua regia. The folution
for this purpofe ftiould be as fully faturated as poffible;
it ffiould be diluted with three times its quantity of
water; and if the colour is required deep, the piece,
when dry, muft be repeatedly moiftened with it. The
colour does not take place till a confiderable time,
fometimes feveral days, after the liquor has been ap¬
plied : to batten its appearance, the fubject fliould be
expofed to the fun and free air, and oceafionally re¬
moved to a moift place, or moiftened with water.—
When folution of gold in aqua regia is foaked up in
linen cloths, the metal may be recovered by drying
and burning them.
The anacardium nut, which comes from the Eaft-
Indies, is remarkable for its property of ftaining linen
of a deep black colour, which cannot be wafhed out
either with foap or alkaline ley. The ftain is at firft;
of a reddifli-brown, but afterwards turns to a deep
black on expofure to the air. The cafhew-nut, called
the anacardium of the Wejl-Indies, differs from the
oriental anacardium in its colouring quality. The
juice of this nut is much paler than the other, and
{tains linen or cotton only of a brownifh colour ; which
indeed is very durable,but does not at all change towards
blacknefs.—There are, however, trees, natives of our
own colonies, which appear to contain juices of the
x. fame
LIN [ 83 ] LIN
ii,l Linen, fame nature with thofc of India. Of this kind are feveral,
~ .u—V-—^ and perhaps the greater number, of the fpecies of the
ijij- See Rhus, toxicodendron or poifon-tree f. Mr Catefby, in his hi-
ftory of Carolina, deferibes one called there the poifon-
ajh, from whofe trunk flowed a liquid as black as ink,
and fuppofed to be poifonous; which reputed poifonous
quality has hitherto prevented the inhabitants from
collecting or attempting to make any ufe of it. In
the Philofophical Tranfactions for the year 1755, the
abbe Mazeas gives an account of three forts of the
toxicodendron raifed in a botanic garden in France,
containing in their leaves a milky juice, which in dry¬
ing became quite black, and communicated the fame
colour to the linen on which it was dropped. The
linen thus ftained was boiled with foap, and came out
without the leaft diminution of colour ; nor did a
ftrong ley of wood-aflies make any change in it. Se¬
veral of thefe trees have beeti planted in the open
I ground in England, and fome ftill remain in the bilhop
of London’s garden at Fulham.
That fpecies called by Mr Miller the true lac tree,
was found by Dr Lewis to have properties of a fimilar
kind. It contains in its bark, and- the pedicles and
ribs of the leaves, a juice fomewhat milky, which foon
changed in the air to a reddifli-brown, and in two or
three hours to a deep blackilh or brownilh-black co¬
lour-: wherever the bark was cut or wounded, the in-
cifion became blackifti; and on feveral parts of the
leaves the juice had fpontaneoufly exfuded, and ftained
them of the fame colour. This juice dropped on linen
gave at firft little or no colour, looking only like a
fpot of oil; but, by degrees, the part moiftened with
it darkened in the fame manner as the juice itfelf.
On walking and boiling the linen with foap, the
ftain not only was not difeharged, but feemed to
have its blacknefs rather improved ; as if a brown
matter, with which the black was manifeftly debafed,
had been in part walhed out, and left the black more
pure.
As the milky juice of fome of our common plants
turn dark-coloured or blackilh in drying, the Doctor
was induced to try the effects of feveral of them on
linen. The milks of Wild-poppies, garden-poppies,
dandelion, hawk-weed, and fow-thiftle, gave brown or
brownilh-red ftains, which were difeharged by walhing
with foap ; the milks of the fig-tree, of lettuces, and
of different kinds of fpurges, gave no colour at all.
The colourlefs juice which iffues from hop-ftalks when
cut, ftains linen of a pale-reddilh, or brownilh-red, ex¬
tremely durable ; the colour was deepened by repeated
applications of the juice, but it never made any ap¬
proach to blacknefs. The juice of floes gave likewife
a pale-brownilh ftain, which by repeated walkings
with foap, and being wetted with ftrong folution of
alkaline fait, was darkened to a deeper brown :« on
baking the floes, their juice turns red; and the red ftain
which it then imparts to linen is, on walking with
foap, changed to a pale-bluilh, which alfo proves du¬
rable. Thefe colours could not be deepened by re¬
peated applications of the juice. The floes were tried
in different ftates of maturity, from the beginning of
September to the middle of December, and the event
was always nearly the fame.
In the fifth volume of Linnaeus’s Amanitates Acade¬
mic#, mention is made of a black colour obtained from
two plants which grow fpontaneoufly in Britain ; the Li g
one is the atltea fpicata, herb-chriftopher, or bane- _ li
berries; the other the erica baccifera nigra, black- L'in*'t
berried heath, crow-berries, or crake-berries. The 0‘’L_
juice of the bane-berries, boiled with alum, is faid to
yield a black ink ; and the heath-berries, boiled alfo
with alum, to dye linen of a purplilh black.
Linen flowered with Gold-leaf. Dr Lewis informs'
us of a late manufa&ure eftablilhed in London for em-
bellilhing linen with flowers and ornaments of gold-leaf.
The linen, he fays, looks whiter than moft of the printed
linens; the gold is extremely beautiful, a.'.d bears wafh-
ing well. The Doftor informs us, that he had feen a
piece which he was credibly informed had been waftied
three or four times, with only the fame precautions
which are ufed for the finer printed linens; and on which
the gold continued entire, and of great beauty. — Con¬
cerning the procefs ufed in this manufafture, he gives
us no particulars.
Foflile Linen, is a kind of amianthus, which con-
fifts of flexible, parallel, foft fibres, and which has
been celebrated for the ufes to which it has been ap¬
plied, of being woven, and forming an incombujlible
cloth. Paper alfo, and wicks for lamps, have been made
of it. See Amianthus and Asbestos.
LING, in zoology. See Gadus,
LINGEN, a ftrong town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, and capital of a county ef the
fame name. It belongs to the king of Pruflia ; and
is fituated on the river Embs, in E. Long. 7. a o'.
N. Lat. 52. 32.
LINGELBACH (John), an excellent painter,
born at Franckfort on the Maine in 1625. He firft
learned the art in Holland, but perfected himfelf at
Rome ; where he ftudied till he was 25 years of age,
when he fettled at Amfterdam. His ufual fubje&s
are fairs, mountebanks, fea-pieces, and landfcapes,
which he compofed and executed exceeding well: his
landfcapes are enriched with antiquities, animals, and
elegant figures; his fea-fights are full of exprelfion,
exciting pity and terror, and all his objefts are well
defigned. He had an uncommon readinefs in paint-
ing, figures and animals, on which account he was
employed by feveral eminent artifts to adorn their
landfcapes with fuch objects ; and whatever he inferted
in the works of other matters, were always well adap¬
ted, and produced an agreeable effedi. He died in
1687.
LINIMENT, in pharmacy, a compofition of a
confiftence fomewhat thinner than an unguent, and
thicker than an oil ufed for anointing different parts
of the body in various intentions. The materials
proper for compofing liniments are, fats, oil, balfams,
and whatever enters the compofition of unguents and
platters.
LINLITHGOW, the chief town of Weft Lothi¬
an in Scotland. It is fuppofed to be the Lindum
of Ptolemy ; and to take its name from its fituation on
a lake, which the word Lin or Llyn fignifies.—It is
diftant 16 miles from Edinburgh, and is a royal borough
and feat of a preibytery. It contains between three and
four thoufand fouls ; and carries on a confiderable trade
in dreffmg of white leather, which is fent abroad to be
manufactured. It alfo employs many hands in dreffing
of flax; alfo in wool-combing, the wool for which is
L 2 brought
LIN [ 84 ] LIN
Xinlith- brought from the borders. Its port was formerly Black-
Lmnaeu ^ut ^ince decline of that place, Burrcw/lcunncfs,
l in sus‘ about two miles diftant from Linlithgow The town
confiits of one open ftreet, from whence lanes are de¬
tached on both Tides; the houfes are built of ftone,
tolerably neat and commodious ; and the place is
adorned with feme llately public edifices. The palace,
built, as Sibbald fuppofed,on the fite of a Roman ftation,
forms a fquare with towers at the corners, and ftands
on a-gentle eminence, with the beautiful loch behind
it to the well. It was one of the nobleft of the royal
refidences ; and was greatly ornamented by James V.
and VI. Within- the palace is a handfome fquare ; one
fide of which is more modern than the others, having
been built by James VI. and kept in good repair till
1746, when it was accidentally damaged by the king’s
forces making fires on the hearths, by which means
the joifts were burnt. A ftone ornamented fountain in
the middle of the court was deftroyed at the fame
time. The other, lides of the fquare are more ancient.
In one is a room ninety-five feet long, thirty feet fix
inches wide, and thirty-three high. At one end is a
gallery with three arches, perhaps for mufic. Narrow
galleries run quite round the old part, to preferve com¬
munications with the rooms; in one of which the mw
fortunate Maiy Stuart firft faw light. On the north
fide of the high ftreet, on an eminence eaft of the pa¬
lace, ftands St Michael’s church; a handfome ttrufture,
where James V. intended to have eredted a throne and
twelve ftalls for the fovereign and knights of the order
of St Andrew. In the market-place is another foun¬
tain of two ftories with eight fpouts, and furmounted
like the former with an imperial crown. In one of the
ftreets is Ihown the gallery whence the regent Murray
was Ihot. Here was a houfe of Carmelites, founded
by the townfpeople in 1290, deftroyed by the reformers
- 1559. The family of Livingfton, who take the title
of earl from this place, are hereditary keepers of this
palace, as alfo bailiffs of the king’s bailifry, and con-
ttables of Blacknefs caftle; but by their concern in
the rebellion of 1.715 all thefe honours with their eftate
were forfeited to the crown. Sir James Livingfton,
fon of the firft earl by marriage with a daughter of
Callendar, was created earl of Callendar by Charles I.
1641, which title funk into the other.
LINNiEUS (Sir Charles), a celebrated botanrft
and natural hiftorian, was born on May 24. 1707, in
a village called Roejhuh in Smaland, where his father,
Nicolas Linnaeus, was then vicar, but afterwards pre¬
ferred to the curacy of Stenbrohult. We are told, that
on the farm where Linnaeus was born, there yet ftands
a large lime-tree, from which his anceftors took the
furnames of THiander, JJndelius', and Linnaus; and
that this-origin of furnames, taken from natural ob-
jedts, is not uncommon in Sweden.
This eminent man, whofe talents enabled him to re¬
form the whole fcience of natural hiftory, accumulated,
very early in life, fome of the higheft honours that
await the moll fuccefsful proficients in medical fcience ;
fince we find that he was made profeffor of phyfic and
botany, in the univerfity of Upfal, at the age of 34 ;
and fix years afterwards, phyfieian to his fovereign
the late king Adolphus ; who in the year 1753 honour¬
ed him ftiH farther, by creating him knight of the or¬
der of the Polar Star. His honours did not terminate
here : for in 1757 he was ennebled ; and in 1776 the
prefentking of Sweden accepted the refignation of his Llnnxts. p
office, and rewarded his declining years by doubling 1 » ’
his penfion, and by a liberal donation of landed pro- Ftom jyr ,,
perty fettled on him and his family. Pultney’s ft
It feems probable, that Linnaeus’s tafte for the ftu- General
dy of nature was caught from the example of his father;
firft amufement, a garden plentifully ftored with plants. Li mucus.
Young Linnaeus foon became acquainted with thefe, as
well as with the indigenous ones of his neighbourhood.
Yet, from the ftraitnefs of his father’s income, our young
naturalift was on the point of being deftined to a
mechanical employment: fortunately, however, this
defign was over-ruled. In 1717 he was fent to
fchool at Wexfio ; where, as his opportunities were en¬
larged, his progrefs in all his favourite purfuits was
proportionably extended. At this early period he paid
attention to other branches of natural hiftory, parti¬
cularly to the knowledge of infefts.
The firft part of his academical education Linnaeus
received under profeffor Stobaeus, at Lund, in Scania,
who favoured his inclinations to the ftudy of natural
hiftory. After a refidence of about a year, he remo¬
ved in 1728 to Upfal. Here he foon contracted a
clofe friendfhip with Artedi, a native of the province
of Angermania, who had already been four yearsa ftu-
dent in that univerfity, and, like himfelf, had a ftrong
bent to the ftudy of natural hiftory in general, but par¬
ticularly to ichthyology. Soon after his refidence at
Upfal, our author was alfo happy enough to obtain
the favour of feveral gentlemen of eftablifhed character
in literature. He was in a particular manner encou¬
raged in the purfuit of his ftudies by the patronage of Dr
Olaus Celfius, at that time profeffor of divinity, and the
reftorer of natural hiftory in Sweden j who, being ftruck
with the diligence of Linnaeus in deferibing the plants
of the Upfal garden, and his extenfive knowledge of
their names, not only patronized him in a general way,
but admitted him to his houfe, his table,, and his li¬
brary. Under fuch encouragement it is not ftrange
that our author made a rapid progrefs, both in his
ftudies and the efteem of the profeffors : in faeft, we
have a very ftriking proof of his merit and attain¬
ments, inafmuch as we find, that, after only two years
refidence, he was thought fufficiently qualified to give
lectures occafionally from the botanic chair, in the
room of profeffor Rudbeck.
In the year 1731, the royal academy of fciences at
Upfal having for fome time meditated the defign of
improving the natural hiftory of Sweden, at the in-
ftance particularly of profeffors Celfius and Rudbeck,
deputed Linnaeus to make the tour of Lapland, with
the foie view of exploring the natural hiftory of that
arftic region ; to which undertaking. Iris reputation,
already hign as a naturalift, and the {Length of his
conftitution, equally recommended him. He left
Upfal the 13 th of May, and took his route to
Gevalia or Gevels, the principal town of Geftricia,
45 miles diftant from Upfal. Hence he travelled
through Helfingland into Medalpadia, where he made
an excurfion, and afeended a remarkable mountain,
before he reached Hudwickfwald, the chief town of
Helfingland. From hence he went through Anger-
manland to Hernofand, a fea-port on the Bothnic
gulf, 70 miles diftant from Hudwickfwald. When
he had proceeded thus far, he found it proper to re-
5 tard
ngse/\
LIN [ 85 1 LIN
Linnaeus, tard his journey, as the fpring was not fufficiently ad-
^" » vanced ; and took this opportunity of vifiting thofe
remarkable caverns on the fummit of mount Skula,
though at the hazard of his life.
When Linnaeus arrived at Uma, in Weft Both¬
nia, about 96 miles from Hernofand, he quitted the
public road, and took his courfe through the woods
weftward, in order firft to traverfe the moft fouthem
parts of Lapland. Being now come to the country
that was more particularly the object of his inquiries,
equally a ftranger to the language and to the manners
of the people, and without any affociate, he committed
himfelf to the hofpitality of the inhabitants, and ne¬
ver failed to experience it fully. He fpeaks in feveral
places, with peculiar fatisfaftion, of the innocence and
limplicity of their lives and their freedom from difeafes.
In this excurlion he reached the mountains towards
Norway; and, after encountering great hardlhips,
returned into Weft Bothnia, quite exhaufted with
fatigue. Our traveller next vifited Pitha and Lula,
upon the gulf of Bothnia; from which latter place he
took again a weftern route, by proceeding up the ri¬
ver of that name, and vifited the ruins of the temple of
Jockmock in Lula Lapland or Lap Mark : thence he
traverfed what is called the Lapland Defert, deftitute of
all villages, cultivation, roads, or any conveniences;
inhabited only by a few ftraggling people, originally
defeended from the Finlanders, and who fettled in-this
country in remote ages, being entirely a diftinft people
from the Laplanders. In this diftrift he afeended a
noted mountain called Wallevari; in fpeaking of
which he has given us a pleafant relation of his finding
a fingular and beautiful new plant (Andromeda tetrago¬
nal) when travelling within the arftic circle, with the
fun in his view at midnight, in fearch of a Lalpland
hut. From hence he crofted the Lapland Alps into
Finmark, and traverfed the fhores of the north fea as
far as Sallero.
Thefe journeys from Lula arid Pitha on the Both-
nian gulf, to the north ftiore, were made on foot; and
our traveller was attended by two Laplanders, one his
interpreter, and the other his guide. He tells us, that
the vigour and ftrength of thofe two men, both old,
and fufficiently loaded with his baggage, excited his
admiration ; fince they appeared quite unhurt by their
labour, while he himfelf, although young and robuft,
was frequently quite exhaufted. In this joiYrney he
was wont to fleep under the boat with which they ford¬
ed the rivers, as a defence againft rain, and the gnats,
which in the Lapland fummer are not lefs teazing than
in the torrid zones. In defeending one of thefe ri¬
vers, he narrowly efcaped periffiing by the overfetting
of the boat, and loft many of the natural produ&ions
which he had collected.
Linnaeus thus fpent the greater part of the fummer
in examining this ar6tic region, and thofe mountains
on which, four years afterwards, the French philofo-
phers fecured immortal fame to Sir Ifaac Newton. At
length, after having fuffered incredible fatigues and
hardfhips in climbing precipices, paffing rivers in mi-
ferable boats, fuffering repeated viciffitudes of extreme
heat and cold, and not unfrequently hunger and thirft,
he returned to Tornoa in September. He did not
take the fame route from Tornoa as when he came
into Lapland, having determined to vifit and examine
the country on the eaftern fide of the Bothnian gulf: Limrau*.
his firft ftage, therefore, was to Ula in Eaft Bothnia ; '■““'v ,J
from thence to Old and New Carleby, 84 miles fouth
from Ula. He continued his route through Wafa,
Chriftianftadt, and Biorneburgh, to Abo, a fmall uni-
verfity in Finland. Winter was now fetting in apace;
he therefore crofted the gulf by the ifland of Aland,
and arrived at Upfal in November, after having per¬
formed, and that moftly on foot, a journey of ten de¬
grees of latitude in extent, exclufively of thofe devi¬
ations which fueh a defign rendered neceffary.
In 1733 he vifited and examined the feveral mines in
Sweden ; and made himfelf fo well acquainted with mi¬
neralogy and the docimaftic art, that we find he was
fufficiently qualified to give leftures on thofe fubjefts
upon his return to the univerfity. The outlines of his
fyftem on mineralogy appeared in the early editions of
the Syjlema Nature ; but he did not exemplify the whole
until the year 1768.
In the year 1734 Linnaeus was fentby baron Reu-
terholm governor of Dalekarlia, with feveral other na-
turalifts in that province, to inveftigate the natural pro¬
ductions of that part of the Swediffi dominions; and it
was in this journey that our author firft laid the plan
of an excellent inftitution, which was afterwards exe¬
cuted, in a certain degree at leaft, by himfelf, with the
affiftance of many of his pupils, and the refult publijh-
ed under the title of Pan Suecus, in the fecond volume
of the Amcenitates Academics.
After the completion of this expedition, it appears
that Linnseus refided for a time at Fahlun, the princi¬
pal town in Dalekarlia; where he tells us, that he
taught mineralogy and the docimaftic art, and praCti-
fed phyfic ; and where he was very hofpitably treated
by Dr More, the phyfician of the place. It alfo ap¬
pears, that he contracted at this time an intimacy with
one of that gentleman’s daughters, whom he married
about five years afterwards upon his fettling as a phyfi¬
cian at Stockholm.—In this journey he extended his
travels quite acrofs the Dalekarlian Alps into Norway;
but we have no particular account of his difeoveries in
that kingdom. In 1735 Linnseus travelled over many
other parts of Sweden, fome parts of Denmark and
Germany, and fixed in Holland, where he chiefly re¬
fided until his return to Stockholm, about the year
1739. In 1735, the year in which he took the degree
of M‘. D. he publifhed the firft Ik etch of his Syjlema
Natura, in a very compendious way, and in the form
of tables only, in 12 pages in folio. By this it appears,
that he had at a very early period of his life (certainly
before he was 24 years old) laid the bafis of that great
ftru&ure which he afterwards raifed, not only to the in-
creafe of his own fame, but to that of natural fcience.
In 1736, Linnaeus came into England, and vi¬
fited Dr Dillenius, the late learned profeffor at Ox¬
ford, whom he juftly confidered as one of the firft bo-
tanifts in Europe. He mentions with particular re-
fpeft the civilities he received from him, and the pri¬
vileges he gave him of infpefiting his own and the
Sherardian colle&ions of plants. It is needlefs to-
fay, that he vifited Dr Martyn, Mr Rand, and Mr
Miller, and that he was in a more Angular manner
indebted to the friendfhip of Dr Ifaac Lawfon. He
alfo contra died an intimate friendfhip with Mr Peter
Collinfon, which was reciprocally increafed by a mul¬
titude
LIN [ 86 ] LIN
lannasii*. titade of good offices, and continued to the laft with-
l| ' out any diminution. Dr Boerhaave had furniffied him
with letters to our great naturalift Sir Hans Sloane ;
but, it is with regret that we mull obferve, they did
not procure him the reception which the warmth of
his recommendation feemed to claim.
One of the molt agreeable circumftances that hap¬
pened to Linnaeus during his refidence in Holland,
arofe from the patronage of Mr Clifford, in whofe
houfe he lived a conliderable part of his time, being
now as it were the child of fortune :—Exivi putrid
iriginta fex nummis aureis dives — are his own words.
With Mr Clifford, however, he enjoyed pleafures and
privileges fcarcely at that time to be met with elfe-
where in the world; that of a gardeii,excellently Itored
with the lineft exotics, and a library furnilhed with
almoft every botanic author of note. How happy he
found himfelf in this fituation, thofe only who have
felt the fame kind of ardour can conceive. Whilft in
Holland, our author was recommended by *Boerhaave
to fill the place, then vacant, of phyfician to the
Dutch fettlementat Surinam; but he declined it on ac¬
count of his having been educated in fo oppofite a
climate.
Befides being favoured with the particular patro¬
nage and friendlhip of Boerhaave and Mr Clifford,
as is above mentioned, our author had alfo the plea-
fure of being contemporary with, and of reckoning
among the number of his friends, many other learned
perfons who have fince proved ornaments to their pro-
feffion, and whofe merit has moft defervedly raifed
* them to fame and honour. Among thefe we may pro¬
perly mention Dr John Burman, profeffor of botany
at Amlterdam, whofe name and family are well known
in the republic of letters, and to whom our author dedi¬
cated his Bibliotheca Botanica, having been greatly af-
fifted in compiling that work by the free accefs he
had to that gentleman’s excellent library; John Fre¬
derick Gronovius of Leyden, editor of Clayton’s Flo¬
ra Virginica, and who very early adopted Linnseus’s
fyftem; Baron Van Swieten, late phyfician to the
Emprefs Queen ; Ifaac Lawfon, before mentioned,
afterwards one of the phyficians to the Britiffi army,
who died much regretted at Oofterhout in the year
1747, and from whom Linnaeus received Angular and
very important civilities; Kramer, fince well known
for an excellent treatife on the docimallic art; Van
Royen, botanic profeffor at Leyden ; Lieberkun of
Berlin, famous for his /kill in microfcopical inftruments
and experiments. To thefe may be added alfo the
names of Albinus and Gaubius, and of others, were
it requifite to ffiow that our author’s talents had very
early rendered him confpicuous, and gained him the
regard of all thofe who cultivated and patronifed any
branch of medical fcience, and to which, doubtlefs,
the Angular notice with wffiich ,Boerhaave honoured
him do not a little contribute.
Early in the year 1738, after Linnaeus had left
Mr Clifford, and, as it ffiould feem, when he refided
with Van Royen, he had a long and dangerous fit of
ficknefs; and upon his recovery went to Paris, where
he was properly entertained by the Juffieus, at that
time the firft botanifts in France. The opportunity
this gave him of infpedting the Herbaria of Surian
and Tournefort, and thofe of the above-named gentle¬
men, afforded him great fatisfaftion. He had in- Linineui.
tended to have gone from thence into Germany, to
vifit Ludwig and the celebrated Haller, with whom,
he was in clofe correfpondence ; but he was not able
to complete this part of his intended route, and wras
obliged to return without this gratification.
Our author did not fail to avail himfelf of every
advantage that accefs to the feveral mufeums of this
country afforded him, in every branch of natural hi-
ftory; and the number and importance of his publi¬
cations, during his abfence from his native counr
try, fufficiently demonftrate that fund of knowledge
w'hich he muff have imbibed before, and no lefs tetti-
fy his extraordinary application. Thefe were, Ste¬
rna Natura, Fundamenta Botanica, Bibliotheca Botanica,
and Genera Plantarum ; the laft of which is juftly con-
fidered as the moft valuable of all the works of this
celebrated author. What immenfe application had
been beftowed upon it, the reader may eafily conceive,
on being informed, that before the publication of the
firft edition the author had examined the charafters
of 8000 flowers. The laft book of Linnaeus’s com-
pofition, publifhed during his ftay in Holland, was
the Clajfes Plantarum, wffiich is a copious illuftration
of the fecond part of the Fundamenta.
About the latter end of the year 1738, or the be¬
ginning of the next, our author fettled as a phyfician
at Stockholm ; wffiere he feems to have met with con-
fiderable oppofition, and was oppreffed with many
difficulties ; but all of thefe at length he overcame, and
got into extenfive practice ; and foon after his fettle-
ment, married the lady before fpoken of. By the in-
tereft of Count Teffin, who was afterwards his great
patron, and even procured medals to be ftruck in ho¬
nour of him, he obtained the rank of phyfician to the
fleet, and a ftipend from the citizens^for giving lec¬
tures in botany. And what at this time efpecially
was highly favourable to the advancement of his cha¬
racter and fame, by giving him an opportunity of dif
playing his abilities, was the eftabliffiment of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm ; of which
Linnxus w’as conftituted the firft prefident, and to
which eftablifliment the king granted feveral privi¬
leges, particularly that of free poftage to all papers
diredted to the fecretary. By the rules of the academy,
the prefident held his place but three months. At the
expiration of that term, Linnasus made hhOratiode memo-
rabilibus in Infect is, OCt.3. 1739; in wffiich he endeavours
to excite an attention and inquiry into the knowledge
of infeCts, by difplaying the many Angular phenomena
that occur in contemplating the nature of thofe ani¬
mals, and by pointing out, in a variety of inftances,
their ufefulnefs to mankind in particular, and to the
economy of nature in general.
During all this time, however; Linnosus appears to
have had his eye upon the botanic and medical chair
at Upfal, at this time occupied by Rudbeck, who
was far advanced in life. We learn indeed that he
was fo intent on purfuing and perfecting his great de-
figns in the advancement of his favourite ftudy of na¬
ture, that he had determined, if he failed in procuring
the profefforffiip at Upfal, to accept the ofter that
had been made to him by Haller of filling the botanic
chair at Gottingen. However, in courfe of time, he
obtained his wdlh. In the year 1741, upon the re-
fignatiqn
LIN [ 87 ] LIN
Agnation of Roberg, he was conftituted joint profef- From the time that Linnaeus and Rofen were ap- Linnaen*.
for of phyfic and phyiician to the king with Rofen, pointed pfofeffors at Upfal, it fhould feem that the  *
who had been appointed in the preceding year on the credit of that univerfrty, as a fchool of phyfic, had
death of Rudbeck. Thefe two colleagues agreed to been increafing : numbers of Undents reforted thither
divide the medical departments between them ; and from Germany, attracted by the character of thefe two
their choice was confirmed by the univerfity. Rofen able men ; and in Sweden itfelf many young inen were
took anatomy, phyfiology, pathology, and the the- invited to the ftudy of phyfic by the excellent manner
rapeutic part; Linnaeus, natural hiitory, botany, ma- in which it was taught, who other wife would have en-
teria medica, the dietetic part, and the diagnofis mor- gaged in different purfuits.
borum. Whilft Linnaeus was meditating one of his capital
During the interval of his removal from Stock- performances, which had long been expected and great-
holm to Upfal in confequence of this appointment, ly wifhed for, he was interrupted by a tedious and
our profeffor was deputed by the Hates of the king- painful fit of the gout, which left him in a very weak
dom to make a tour to the iflands of Oeland and Goth- and difpirited ftate; and, according to the intelligence
land in the Baltic, attended by fix of the pupils, com- that his friends gave of him, nothing was thought to
miffioned to make fuch inquiries as might tend to have contributed more to the reiteration of his fpirits
improve agriculture and arts in the kingdom, to than the feafonable acquifition, at this juncture, of a
which the Swedifh nation had for fome time paid a collection of rare and undeferibed plants,
particular attention. The refult of this journey was The fame which onr author had now acquired by
very fuccefsful, and proved fully fatisfaCtory to the his Sy/Iema Natura, of which a fixth edition, much en-
ftates, and was afterwards communicated to the pu- larged, had been publilhed at Stockholm in 1748 in
blic. On his return he entered upon the profeflbr- 8vo, pp. 232. with eight tables explanatory of the
fhip, and pronounced before the univerfity his oration dalles and orders (and which was alfo republilhed
de Peregrinationum intra Patriam necejjitate, Odtober 17. by Gronovius at Leyden , had brought, as it were, a
1741 ; in which he forcibly difplays the ufefulnefs of conflux of every thing rare and valuable in every branch,
fuch excurfions, by pointing out to the ftudents that of nature, from all parts of the globe, into Sweden,
vaft field of objects which their countiy held out to The king and queen of Sweden had their ft*parate col-
their cultivation, whether in geography, phyfics, mi- leCtions of rarities; the former at Ulrickfdahl; the
neralogy, botany, zoology, or economics, and by Ihow- latter, very rich in exotic infeCts and fhells, procured at
ing the benefit that mult accrue.to themfelves and their a great expence, at the palace of Drbttningholm ; both
country as rewards to their diligence. That animated of which our author was employed in arranging and de-
fpirit which runs through thewhole of this compoiition, feribing. Betides thefe, the mufeum of the royal acade-
renders it one of the molt plealing and inltruCtive of all my of Upfal "had been augmented by a confiderable do-
our author’s productions. nation from the king, whilit hereditary prince, in
Linnasus was now fixed in the fituation that was i 746 ; by another from Count Gyllenborg the year be--,
the belt adapted to his character, his tafte, and abili- fore ; by a third from M. Grill, an«opulent-citizen of
ties; and which feems to have been the objeCt of his am- Stockholm.
bition and centre of his hopes. Soon after his ellablilh- From this time we fee -the profefibr in a more
ment, he laboured to get the academical garden, which elevated rank and fituation in life. His reputation
had been founded in 1657, put on a better footing, had already procured him honours from almolt all the
and very foon effeCted it ; procuring alfo a houfe to be royal focieties in Europe ; and his own fbvereign,,
built for the refidence of the profelfor. The whole had truly fenfible of his merit, and greatly elteeming
been in ruin ever fince the fire in 1702 ; and at the his character and abilities, favoured him with a mark
time Linmeus was appointed profeflbr of botany, the of his diltinCtion and regard, by creating him a
garden did not contain above fifty plants that were ex- knight of the polar liar. It was co longer laudntur et
otic. His correfpondence with the firft botanilts in alget. His emoluments "kept pace with his fame and
Europe foon fupplied him with great variety. He honours : his p raft ice in ,his profeiiion became lucra-
yeceived Indian plants from Juflieu of Paris, and from tive ; and we find him foon after poflelTed of his coun-
Van Royen of Leyden ; European plants from Haller try-houfe and gardens at Hammarby, about five miles:
and Ludwig ; American plants from the late Mr Col- from Upfal. He had moreover received one of the-
linfon, Mr Catetby, and others ; and variety of annuals moft flattering teftimonies of the extent and magnitude
from Dillenius: in Ihort, how much the garden owed of his fame that perhaps was ever Ihown to any litc-
to his diligence and care in a few years, may be leen by rary charaCIer, the llate of the nation which conferred
the cataloguepublifhed underthetitle oi Hurt us Upfaiienjis, it, with all its circumftanees, duly confidered. This
exhibens Plantas exoticas borto Upfalienfts Academia a fefe was an im itation to Madrid from the king of Spain,
(Linnao)illatas ah anno 1742, in annum 1748, additis, dif~ there to prefide as a naturalift, with the offer of an an-
ferentiis fytwnymis, habitationibus, hofpitlis, rariorumque de- nual peniion for life of 2000 pilloles, letters of nobi-
feriptionibus, ingratiam Jiudiofa jwventutis ; Holm. 1748, lity, and the perfect free exercife of his own religion r
8vo, pp. 306. tab. 3. By this catalogue it appears, that But, after the molt perfeCt acknowledgments of
the profefibr had introduced 1100 fpeiies, exclufively the lingular honour done him, he returned for anfwer,
of al the Swedilh plants and of varieties; which latter, ‘ that if he had any merits, they were due to his own
in ordinary gardens, amount not unfrequently to one- country.’
third of the whole number.' The preface contains a In the year 1755, t^le Royal Academy of Sciences
curious hiitory of the climate at Upfal, and the pro- at Stockholm honoured our profefibr with one of the
grefs of the feafons throughout the whole year, firft premiums, agreeably to the will of Count Sparree;;
- j when
L I N
l
Litmius. who had decreed two gold medals, of ten ducats value
! » each, to be annually given by the academy to the au¬
thors of fuch papers, in the preceding year’s Stock¬
holm A61s, as fliould be adjudged moft ufeful in pro¬
moting agriculture particularly, and all branches of ru¬
ral economy. This medal bore on one fide the arms
of the count, with this motto, Superfles in fcientiis amor
Frederici Sparre. Linnaeus obtained it in confequence
of a paper De Plantis qwz Alpium Suecicarnm indigene,
magno ret acononiita et medic* emolumcnto "fieri pojjint ; and
the ultimate intention was to recommend thefe plants,
as adapted to culture in Lapland. This paper was
inferted in the Stockholm A&s for 1754, Vol. XV.
Linnaeus alfo obtained the premium centum aureorum,
propofed by the Imperial academy of fciences at Pe-
terfburg, for the belt paper written to eftablilh or dif-
prove, by new arguments, the doftrine of the fexes of
plants. It was, if polfible, an additional glory to Lin¬
naeus to have merited this premium from the Peterf-
88 ] LIN
commemoration was held at Stockholm, but, as a {till Linnasut.
higher tribute, in his fpeech from the throne to the af- "v 1
fembly of the ftates, he lamented Sweden’s lofs by his
death. Nor was Linnaeus honoured only in his own
country. The late worthy profefibr of botany at
Edinburgh, Dr Hope, not only pronounced an eulo-
gium in honour of him before his fiudents at the open¬
ing of his ledtures in the fpring 1778, but.alfo laid
the foundation-llone of a monument (which he after¬
wards eredted) to his memory, in the botanic garden
there j which, while it perpetuates the name and me¬
rits of Linnaeus, will do honour to the founder, and, it
may be hoped, prove the means of raifing an emula¬
tion favourable to that fcience which this illuftrious
Swede fo highly dignified and improved.
As to the private and perfonal charadter of this il¬
luftrious philofopher : His ftature was diminutive and
puny; his head large, and its hinder part very high ;
his look was ardent, piercing, and apt to daunt the
burgh academy; inafmuch as a prpfeflbr of that fo- beholder; his ear not fenfible to mufic ; his temper
ciety, a few years before, had with more than common quick, but eafily appeafed.
zeal, although with a futility like that of the other
antagonifts of our author, endeavoured to overturn the
whole Linnasan fyftem of botany, by attempting to
/how that the dodtrine of the fexes of plants had no
foundation in nature, and was unfupported by fadts
and experiments.
It appears that Linnaeus, upon the whole, enjoyed
a good conftitution ; but that he was fometimes fe-
■verely afflidted with a hemicrania, and was not exempt¬
ed from the gout. About the clofe of 1776, he was
feized with an apoplexy, which left him paralytic; and
Nature had, in an eminent'manner, been liberal in
the endowments of his mind. He feems to have been
poffefled of a lively imagination, corredfed however by
a ftrong judgment, and guided by the laws of fyftem.
Add to thefe, the moft retentive memory, an unremit¬
ting induftry, and the greateft perfeverance in all his
purfuits; as is evident from that continued vigour with
which he profecuted the defign, that he appears to have
formed fo early in life, of totally reforming and fa¬
bricating anew the whole feienee of natural hiftd'ry ;
and this fabric he raifed, and gave to it a degree of
at the beginning of the year 1777, he fuffered another perfection unknown before -, and had moreover the un-
ftroke, which vety much impaired his mental powers.
But the difeafe fuppofed to have been the more im¬
mediate caufe of his death, was an ulceration of the
urinary bladder; of which, after a tedious indifpofition,
he died, January 11. 1778, in the 71ft year of his age.
—His principal other works, befide thofe already men¬
tioned, are, The Iter Oelandicum et Gotlandicum, Iter
Scanicum, Flora Suecica, Fauna Suecica, Materia Me¬
dico, Philofophia Botanic a. Genera Morborum, different
papers in the Acta Upfalienfia, and the Amcenitates Aca¬
demic* The laft of this great man’s treatifes was the
Mantijfa Altera, publifhed in 1771 ; but before his
death he had finifhed the greateft part of the Mantijfa
‘Tertia, afterwards completed and publifhed by his
fon.
common felicity of living to fee his own ftrudlure rife
above all others, notwithftanding every difencourage-
ment its author at firft laboured under, and the oppo-
fition it afterwards met with. Neither has any writer
more cautioufly avoided that common error of building
his own fame on the ruin of another man’s. He every
where acknowledged the feveral merits of each author’s
fyftem; and no man appears to have been more fenfible
of the partial defedts of his own. Thofe anomalies
which had principally been the objedts of criticifm, he
well knew every artificial arrangement muft abound
with ; an.d having laid it down as a firm maxim, that
every fyttem muft finally reft on its intrinfic merit, he
willingly commits his own to the judgment of pofte-
rity. Perhaps there is no circumftance of Linnseus’s
To the lovers of fcience it will not appear ftrange, life which fhows him in a more dignified light than his
nor will it be unpleafant to hear, that uncommon re- condudt towards his opponents. Difavowing contro-
fpedt was fhown to the memory of this great man. We verfy, and juftly confidering it as an unimportant and
are told, that “ on his death a general mourning took fruitlefs facrifice of time, he never replied to any, nu-
place at Upfal, and that his funeral proceffion was at- merous as they were at one ft: a fon..
tended by the whole univerfity, as well profeffors as To all who fee the aid this extraordinary man has
ftudents, and the pall fupported by fixteeu dodtors of brought to natural fcience, his talents muft appear in a
phyfic, all of whom had been his pupils.” The kijig very illuftrious point of view ; but more efpecially to
of Sweden, after the death of Linnaeus, ordered a me¬
dal to be ftruck, of which one fide exhibits'Linnaeus’s
thofe who, from fimilarity of tafte, are qualified to fee
more diftindlly the vaft extent of his original defign.
bull and name, and the other Cybele, in a dejedted at- the greatnefs of his labour, and the elaborate execution
titude, holding in her left hand a key, and furrounded
with animals and growing plants; with this legend,
he has given to the whole. He had a happy <
mand of the Latin tongue, which is alone the language
Deam luBus angit amijji; and beneath, Pojl olitum Up- of fctence ; and no man ever applied it more fuccefs-
Jalia, die x. Jan. m.dcc.lxxviii. Rege jubente.—The fully to his purpofes, or gave to defeription fuch co¬
fame generous monarch not only honoured the Royal pioufnefs, united with that precifion and concifenefs
Academy of Sciences with his prefence when Linnasus’s which fo eminently charadterife his writings.
LIN f 80 1 LIN
Ltensus, The ardour of Linnasus’s inclinations to the ftudy of
H L|nnet- natnre> from his earlieft years, and that uncommon ap-
plication which he bellowed upon it, gave him a moll
comprehenfive view both of its pleafures and ufefulnefs,
at the fame time that it opened to him a wide field
hitherto but little cultivated, efpecially in his own
country. Hence he was early led to regret, that the
ftudy of natural hiftory, as a public inllitution, had
not made its way into the univerfities ; in many of
which, logical difputations and metaphyfical theories
had too long prevailed, to the exclufion of more ufeful
fcience. Availing himfelf therefore of the advantages
which he derived from a large (hare of eloquence, and
an animated ftyle, he never failed to difplay, in a lively
and convincing manner, tire relation this lludy hath
to the public good} to incite the great to countenance
and protect it; to encourage and allure youth into
ks purfuits, by opening its manifold fources of pleafure
to their view, and Ihowing them how greatly this agree¬
able employment would add, in a variety of inftances,
both to their comfort and emolument. His extenfive
view of natural hiftory, as connedled with almeft all
the arts of life, did not allow him to confine thefe mo¬
tives and incitements to thofe only who were defigned
for the praftice of phyfic. He alfo laboured to infpire
the great and opulent with a tafte for this ftudy ; and
wilhed particularly that fuch as were devoted to an ec-
clefiaftic life fhould Ihare a portion of natural fcience }
not only as a means of fweetening their rural fituation,
confined, as many are, perpetually to a country refi-
dence, but as what would almoft inevitably lead, in a
variety of inftances, to difcoveries which only fuch fi-
tuations could give rife to, and which the learned in
great cities could have no opportunities to make. Not
to add, that the mutual communication and enlarge¬
ment of this kind of knowledge among people of equal
rank in a country fituation, muft prove one of the
ftrongeft bonds of union and friendfliip, and contri¬
bute, in a much higher degree than the ufual perilh-
ing amufements of the age, to the pleafures and advan¬
tage of fociety.
Linnams lived to enjoy the fruit of his own labour
in an uncommon degree. Natural hiftory railed it-
felf in Sweden, under his culture, to a ftate of per-
feftion unknown elfewhere; and was .from thence dif-
feminated through all Europe. . His pupils difperfed
themfelves all over the globe; and, with their mailer’s
fame, extended both fcience and their own. More
than this, he lived to. fee the fovereigns of Europe
eftablilh feveral public inftitutions in favour of this
ftudy; and even profelforlhips eftablilhed in divers
univerfities for the lame purpofe, which do honour to
their founders and patrons, and which have excited a
curiofity for the fcience, and a fenfe of its-worth, that
cannot fail to further its progrefs, and in time raife it
to that rank which it is intitled to hold among the
.pufuits of mankind.
LINNET, in ornithology. See Feungilla. —It
is remarkable of this bird, that when it builds in
hedges, and when in furze-bulhes on heaths, in both
which places the nefts are very common, they are
made of very different materials. When they build in
hedges, they ufe the flender filaments of the roots of
trees, and the down of feathers and thiftles; but when
they build on heaths, they ufe mofs, principally for the
outer part, finifhing it within with fuchthings as the place
Vol. X. Part I.
will afford. ‘‘Thefe birds will have young ones three or Linfeei
four times a-year, efpecially if they are taken away be- 'i
fore they are able to leave the nefts. Linternunu,
When linnets are to be taught to whiffle tunes, or v
to imitate the notes of any other bird, they mull be
taken from the old one when they are not above four
day’s old; for at. this time they have no idea of the
note of the old ones, and will be readily taught to
modulate their voice like any thing that is moft fami¬
liar to their ears, and within the compafs of their
throats. More care is required in feeding them when
taken thus young, than when they are left in the neft
till nearly fledged; but they will be reared very well
upon a food half bread and half rapefeed boiled and
bruifed : this muft be given them feveral times a-day.
It muft be made frefti every day, and given them fuf-
ficiently moift, but not in the extreme. If it be in the
leaft four, it gripes and kills them; and if too ftiff,
it is as mifehievous by binding them up. They muft
be hung up as foon as taken from the neft, under the
bird whofe note they are intended to learn ; or, if they
are to be taught to whiffle tunes, it muft be done by
giving them leffons at the time of feeding; for they
will profit more, while young, in a few days, than in
a long time afterwards, and will take in the whole me¬
thod of their notes before they are able to crack hard
feeds. Some have attempted to learn them to fpeak
in the manner of the parrot or other birds ; and they
will arrive at fome fort of perfe&ion in it, with great
pains.
LINSEED, the feed of the plant linum.——Lin-
feed fteeped and bruifed in water gives it very foon a
thick mucilaginous nature, and communicates much of
its emollient virtue to it. See Linum.
LINT. See Flax, Linen, and Linum.
Lint, in forgery, is the ferapings of fine linen,
ufed by forgeons in drefling wounds. It is made in¬
to various forms, which acquire different names accor¬
ding to the difference of their figures. Lint made
up in an oval or orbicular form is called a pledgit; if in
a cylindrical form, or in fliape of a date, or olive-ftone,
it is called a dojfil.
Thefe different forms of lint are required for many
purpofes ; as, I. To ftop.blood in frefli wounds, by fill¬
ing them up with dry lint before the application of a
bandage : though, if feraped lint be not at hand, a
piece of fine linen may be torn into fmall rags, and ap¬
plied in the fame manner. In very large haemorrhages
the lint or rags fliould be firft dipped in fome ftyptic
liquor, as alcohol, or oil of turpentine; or fprinkled
with fome ftyptic powder. 2. To agglutinate or heal
wounds; to which end lint is very ferviceable, if fpread
with fome digeftive ointment, balfam, or vulnerary
liquor. 3. In drying up wounds and ulcers, and for¬
warding the formation of a cicatrix. 4. In keeping
the lips of wounds at a proper diftance, that they
may not haftily unite before the bottom is well di-
gefted and healed. 5. They are highly neceffary to
preferve wounds from the injuries of the air. Sur¬
geons of former ages formed compreffes of fponge,
wool, feathers, or cotton; linen being fcarce : but
lint is far preferable to all thefe, and is at prefent uni-
verfally ufed.
LINTERNUM, orLiTERUM, (anc. geog.), a ci¬
ty of Campania, fituated at the mouth of the Clanius,
which is alfo called Liturnus, between Cumae and
M Vul-
LIN [ 90 ] L I O
Lmtftock Vulturnura. It received a Roman colony at the fame
Linuir t)nie w‘t^ Puteoli and Vulturnum ; was improved and
■ ' ' 1 enlarged by Auguftus; afterwards forfeited its right
of colonyjhip, and became a prefecture. Hither Sci-
pio Africanus the Elder retired from the mean envy
of his ungrateful countrymen ; and here he died, and
was buried : though this laft is uncertain, he having a
monument both here and at Rome. No veftige of
the place now remains.
. LINTSTOCK, in military affairs, a wooden ftaff
about three feet long, having a fharp point in one
end and a fort of fork or crotch on the other; the
latter of which ferves to contain a lighted match, and
by the former the lintftock is occafionaliy ftuck in the
ground, or in the deck of a fhip during an engage¬
ment. It is very frequently ufed in fmall veffels,
where there is commonly one fixed between every two
guns, by which the match is always kept dry, and
ready for firing.
LINTZ, a very handfome town of Germany, and
capital of Upper Auflria, with two fortified caftles;
the one upon a hill, the other below it. Here is a
hall in which the ftates affemble, a bridge over the
Danube, a manufacture of gunpowder, and feveral
other articles. It was taken by the French in 1741,
but the Auftrians retook it in the-folio wing year. E.»
Long. 14. 33. N. Lat. 48. 16.
Lintz, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Lower Rhine, and electorate of Cologne, fubjeCt to
that eleCtor. It i? feated on the river Rhine, in E.
Long. 7. 1. N. Lkt. 50. 31.
L1NUM, flax ; a genus of the pentagynia order,
belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and in
the natural method ranking under the 14th order,
Gruinales. The calyx is pentaphyllous ; the petals are
five, the capfule is quin^uevalved and decemlocular;
and the feeds are folitary.
Species. 1. The ufitatiffimum, or common annual
flax, hath a taper fibrous root; upright, (lender, un¬
branched (talks, two feet and a half high ; garnilhed
with narrow, fpear-lhaped, alternate grey-coloured
leaves; and the (talks divided into footflalks at top,
terminated by fmall blue crenated flowers in June and
July; fucceeded by large round capfules of ten cells,
containing each one feed. 2. The perenne, or peren¬
nial Siberian flax, hath a fibrous perennial root, fend¬
ing up feveral upright, (trong, annual (talks, branch¬
ing four or five feet high ; garnifhed with fmall nar¬
row, fpear-lhaped, alternate leaves of a dark green co¬
lour ; and terminated by umbellate clufters of large blue
flowers in June, fucceeded by feeds in autumn. 3. The
catharticum, or purging flax, with leaves oppofite and
lanceolate ; the (tern bifurcated, and the corollae acute.
This is a very fmall plant, not above four or five inches
high; found wild upon chalky hills and in dry plea-
fere-grounds. There are 18 other fpecies.
Culture. The firft fpecies is cultivated in the fields
according to the directions given under the article1
Flax. The fecond fort is raifed from feed in. a bed
or border of common • garden-earth, in (hallow drills
fix inches- afunder; and when the plants are two or
three inches high, thin them to the fame diftance ;■
and in autumn plant them out where they are wanted.
Ufes. The firft fpecies may juftly be looked upon
as one of the moft valuable of the whole vegetable
jkingdci» jl as from the bark; of its (talks ig manufac¬
tured the lint or flax for making all forts of linen- Linus
cloth ; from the rags of the linen is-made paper; and II
from the feeds is expreffed the lintfeed oil fo ufeful in Liotard.
painting and other trades. The feeds themfelves are
efteemed an excellent emollient and anodyne : they are
ufed externally in cataplafms, to afluage the pain of in¬
flamed tumors: internally, a flight infufion of lin-
feed, by wmy of tea, is recommended in coughs as an
excellent peCtoral, and of great fervice in pleurifies,
nephritic complaints, and fuppreffions of urine. The
virtue of the third fpecies is exprefled in its title : an
infufion in water or whey of a handful of the. freflv
leaves, or a dram of them in fubftance when dried, are
faid to purge without inconvenience*
LINUS, in claffical hiftory, a native of Colchis,
cotemporary writh Orpheus, and one of the moft an¬
cient pacts and muficians of Greece. It is impoffible,
at this diftance of time, to difcover whether Linus
■was the difeiple of Orpheus, or Orpheus of Linus.
The majority, however, feem to decide this queftion
in favour of Linus. According to arbhbilhop Uftier,
he flouriflied about 1280 B. C. and he is mentioned by .
Eufebius among the poets who wrote before the time
of Mofes. Diodorus Siculus tells us, from Dionyfius of
Mitylene the hiftorian, who was cotemporary with Ci¬
cero, that Linus was the firft among the Greeks who in¬
vented verfes and mufic, as Cadmus firft taught them
the ufe of letters. The fame waiter likewife attributes
to him an account of the exploits of the firft Bac¬
chus, and a treatife upon Greek mythology, written
in Pelafgian characters, which were alfo thofe ufed by
Orpheus, and by Pronapides the preceptor of Homer.
Diodorus fays that he added the Hiring lichanos to the
Mercurian lyre ; and afcribes to him the invention of
rhime and melody; which Suidas, who regards him
as the moft ancient of lyric poets, confirms. Mr
Marpurg tell us, that Linus invented cat-gut firings
for the ufe of the lyre, which, before his time, was
only ftrung with thongs of leather, or with different
threads of flax ftrung together. He is faid by many
writers to have had feveral difciples of great renown ;
among whom were Hercules, Thamyris, and, accord¬
ing to feme, Orpheus—Hercules, fays Diodorus, in
learning from Linus to play upon the lyre, being ex¬
tremely dull and obftinate, provoked his mailer to
ftrike him ; which fo enraged the young hero, that,
inftantly feizing the lyre of the mufician, he beat out
his brains with his own inftrument.
LION, in zoology. See Felis.
LIONCELLES, in heraldry, a term ufed for fe¬
veral lions borne in the fame coat of arms.
LIOTARD, called the Turlc, an eminent painter,
was born at Geneva in 1702, and by his father was
defigned for a merchant; but, by the perfuafion of his
friends, who obferved the genius of the young man, he
was permitted to give himfelf up to the art of painting.
He went to Paris in 1725, and in 1738 accompanied
the marquis de Puifieux to Rome, who was going am-
baffador to Naples. At Rome he was taken notice
of by the earls of Sandwich and Befborough, then lord
Duncannon, who engaged Liotard to go with them
on a voyage to Conftantinople. There he became ac¬
quainted with the late Lord Edgecumbe, and Sir Eve-
rard Fawkener, our ambaffador, who perfuaded him
to come to England, where he (laid two years. In
his journey to the Levant he had adopted the eaftern
LIP r 91 ] LIP
I-Sp habit, and wore it here with a very long heard. It
f II . contributed much to the portraits of himfclf, and fome
l^ari‘ . thought to draw cuftomers ; but he was really a paint-
v er of uncommon merit. After his return to the con¬
tinent, he married a young wife, and facrificed his beard
to Hymen. He came again to England in 1772, and
brought a collection of pictures of different mailers,
which he fold by auCtion, and fome pieces of glafs
painted by himfelf, with furprifing effeCt of light and
fliade, but a mere curiofity, as it was fieceffary to
darken the room before they could be feen to advan¬
tage ; he affixed, too, as ufual, extravagant prices to
them. He ftaid here about two years, as in his former
journey. He has engraved fome Turkiffi portraits,
one of the emprefs queen and the eldeft arch-duchefs
in Turkiffi habits, and the heads of the emperor and
emprefs. He painted admirably well in miniature;
and finely in enamel, though he feldom praCtifed it.
But he is heft known by his works in crayons. His
likeneffes were as exaCt as poffible, and too like to
pleafe thofe who fat to him ; thus he had great bufi-
nefs the firft year, and very little the fecond. Devoid
of imagination, and one would think of memory, he
could render nothing but what he faw before his eyes.
Freckles, marks of the fmall-pox, every thing found its
place ; not fo much from fidelity, as becaufe he could
not conceive the abfence of any thing that appeared
to him. Truth prevailed in all his works, grace in
very few or none. Nor was there any eafe in his
out-line ; but the ftiffnefs of a bull in all his por¬
traits. Walpole.
LIP, in anatomy. See there, n° 102.
Hare-Lip, a diforder in which the upper lip is in a
manner flit or divided, fo as to refemble the upper
lip of a hare, whence the name. See Surgery.
LIPARA (anc. geog.), the principal of the
' xflands called JEolia, fituated between Sicily and Italy,
with a cognominal town, fb powerful as to have a
fleet, and the other iflands in fubje&ion to it. Ac¬
cording to Diodorus Siculus, it was famous for excel¬
lent harbours and medicinal waters. He informs us
alfo, that it fuddenly emerged from the fea about the
time of Hannibal’s death. The name is Punic, ac¬
cording to Bochart: and given it, becaufe, being a
volcano, it ffione in the night. It is now called Li-
pari, and gives name to nine others in its neighbour¬
hood ; viz. Stromboli, Pare, Rotto, Panaria, Saline,
Volcano, Fenicufa, Alicor, And Uftica. Thefe are
called, in general, the Lipari IJlandt. Some of thefe
are aftive volcanoes at prefent, though Lipari is not.
It is about 15 miles in circumference ; and abounds in
corn, figs, and grapes; bitumen, fulphur, alum, and
mineral waters.
LIPARI, an ancient and very ftrong town, and
capital of an ifland of the fame name in the Medi¬
terranean, with a biihop’s fee. It was ruined by
Barbaroffa in 1544, who carried away all the in¬
habitants into flavery, and demoliffied the place ; but
it was rabuilt by Charles V. E. Long. 15. 30. N. Lat.
38- 35-.
Lipari, properly, is the general name of a clufter of
iflands. Thefe, according to Mr Houel, are principally
ten in number, the reft being only uninhabitable rocks
of narrow extent. The largeft and the moft populous of
them, that above-mentioned, communicates its name to
the reft. Va'cano is a defert but habitable ifland, ly- hipari.
ing fouth from the large ifland of Lipari. Salines, v—■
which lies weft-north-weft from the fame ifland ; Fe-
licudi, nearly in the fame direftion, but twenty miles
farther diftant; and Alicudi, ten miles fouth-weft of
Felicudi; are inhabited. Pannari is eaft of Lipari, the
famous Stromboli north-eaft, and both of them are inha¬
bited. The reft are in a defart ftate ; fuch as Baziliizzo,
which was formerly inhabited; Attalo, which might
be inhabited; and L'Examlianca, on' which fome re¬
mains of ancient dwellings are ftill to be found.
L'Efcanera is nothing but a bare rock.
The Fermicoli, a word fignifying ants, are a chain of
fmall black cliffs which run to the north-eaft of Lipa¬
ri, till within a little way of Exambianca and Efcanera,
rifing more or lefs above the water, according as the
fea is more or lefs agitated.
Ancient authors are not agreed with refpeft to the
number of the Lipari iflands. Few of thofe by whom
they are mentioned appear to have feen them : and in
places fuch as thefe, where fubterraneous fires burft
open the earth and raife the ocean from its bed, ter¬
rible changes muft fometimes take place. Vohanella
and Volcano were once feparated by a ftraight f® as to
form two iflands. The lava and affies have filled up
the intervening ftrait'; and they are now united into
one ifland, and have by this change become much
more habitable.
The caftle of Lipari Hands on a rock on the eaft
quarter of the ifland. The way to it from the city
leads up a gentle declivity. There are feveral roads
to it. This caftle makes a part of the city ; and on
the fummit of the rock is the citadel, in which the
governor and the garrifon refides. The cathedral
Hands in the fame fituation. Here the ancients, in
conformity to their ufual pradftice, had built the tem¬
ple of a tutelary god. This citadel commands the
whole city ; and it is acceffible only at one place.
Were an hoftile force to make a defeent on the ifland,
the inhabitants might retreat hither, and be fecure a-
rpr ^ all but the attacks of famine.
‘J. ne ancient inhabitants had alfo fortified this place.
Confiderable portions of the ancient walls are ftill
Handing .in different places, particularly towards the
fouth : their ftrudlure 'is Grecian.; and the ftones are
exceedingly large, and very well cut. The layers a:e
three feet high, which ffiows them to have been raifed
in fome very remote period. Thefe remains are fur-
rounded with modern buildings. The remains of walls,
which are ftill to be feen here, have belonged not only
to temples, but to all the different forts of buildings
which the ancients ufed to ereft. The vaults, which
are in a better ftate of prefervation than any of the
other parts of thefc monuments, are now converted to
the purpofes of a prifon.
In the city of Lipari there are convents of monks
of two different orders; but there are no convents for
women, that is to fay, no cloifters in which women arc
confined ; thofe, however, whofe heads and hearts
move them to embrace a ftate of pious celibacy, are at
liberty to engage in a monaftic life, with the concur¬
rence of their confeffors. They put on the faced ha.
bit, and vow perpetual virginity, but continue to l:vt
with their father and mother, and mix in fociety like
other women. The vow and the habit even enlarge
M 2 their
LIP Igi] LIP
their liberty. This cuftora will, ilo doubt, M. Houel
obferves, appear very ftrange to a Frenchwoman ; but
this was the way in which the virgins of the primitive
church lived* The idea of ihutting them up together
did not occur till the fifth century. The life of thefe
religious ladies is lefs gloomy than that which thofe un¬
der the fame vows lead in other countries. They wear
cloaths of particular colours, according as they belong
to this or that order. Their drefs gives them a right to
frequent the churches at any hours ; and the voice of
cenfure, which takes particular pleafure in directing
her attacks againft pious ladies, goes fo far as to afiert,
that fome young women affume the. habit with no
other views but that they may enjoy greater free¬
dom.
In this jfiand oxen of a remarkably beautiful fpecies
are employed in ploughing the ground. The ancient
plough is ftill in ufe here. The mode of agriculture
praftifed here is very expeditious. One man traces
, a, furrow, and another follows to fow in it grain and
pulfe. The ploughman, in cutting ,the next furrow,
covers up that, in which the feed has been fown : and
thus the field is both ploughed and fown at once. Na¬
ture feems to be here uncommonly vigorous and fer¬
tile. Vegetation is here more luxuriant, and animals
gayer and more healthful, than almoft any where elfe.
Near the city of Lipari, the traveller enters deep
narrow roads, of a very lingular appearance. The
whole illand is nothing but an aflemblage of moun¬
tains, all of them confifting of alhes or lava difcharged
from the depths of the volcano by which it was at
firft produced. The particles of this puzzolana, or
afhes, are not very hard-; the aftion of the rain-water
has accordingly cut out trenches among the moun¬
tains; and thefe trenches being perhaps lefs uneven
than the reft of the furface, have of confequence been
ufed as roads, by the inhabitants, and have been ren-
dere4 much deeper by being worn for fo many ages
by the feet of men and other animals. Thefe roads
are more than five or fix fathoms deep, and not more
than feven or eight feet wide. They are very crooked,
and have echoes in feveral places. You would think
that you were walking through: narrow ftreets with¬
out doors or windows. Their depth and windings
fhelter the traveller from the fun while he is pafiing
hrough them ; and he finds them, delicioufly cool.
The firft volcanic eruption in the Lipari illands,
mentioned in hiftory, is that of which Callias takes no¬
tice of in his hiftory of the wars in Sicily. Callias was
contemporary with Agathocles. - That eruption con¬
tinued without interval for feveral days and nights;
and threw out great ftones, which fell at more than a
mile’s diftance. The fea boiled all around the ifiand.
The works of Callias are loft, and we know not whe¬
ther he defcended to a detail of particulars concerning
the ravages produced by this eruption. Under the
confullhip of JEmilius Lepidus and L. Aurelius O-
reftes, 126 years before the Chriftian era, thefe iflands
were affefted with a dreadful earthquake. The burn¬
ing of iEtna was the firft caufe of that. Around Lipari
and the adjacent iflands, the air was all on fire. Ve¬
getation was withered ; animals died; and fufible bo¬
dies, fuch as wax and refin, became liquid. If the inhabi
tants of Lipari, from whom our author received thefe
fads, and the writers who have handed down an ac-
2
count of them, have not exaggerated the truth, we Idparf.
muft believe that the fea then boiled around the  
ifland; the earth became fo hot as to bum the cables
by which veffels were fixed to the fliore, and confumed
the- planks, the oars, and even the fmall boats.
Pliny, the naturalift *, fpeaks of another fimilar * Ltb.n*.
event which happened 30 or 40 years afterwards, ia^‘ 10 *
the time of the war of the allied ftates of Italy againft
Rome. One of the Eolian iflands, fays he, was all
on fire as well as the fea ; and that prodigy continued
to appear, till the fenate appeafed, by a deputation, the
wrath of the gods. From the time of that war, which
happened 86 years before the birth of our Saviour;
till the year 144 of our era, we have no account of
any eruption of thefe volcanoes; and from that period
again, till the year 1444, we hear of no explofion
from them, that is, for the fpace of 1300 years. But;
at that time, both Sicily and the Eolian ifles were agita¬
ted by dreadful fhocks of earthquake : the volcano of
thefe hies poured forth ftreams of lava with an awful
violence, and emitted a volume of flame and fmoke
which rofe to an amazing height. After that it dif¬
charged enormous ftones which fell at the diftance of
more than fix miles.
A century later, in the year 1550,, the fury of-
this volcano was again renewed. The allies and ftones
difcharged from the crater filled up the ftrait between
Volcano and Volcanello.
About two centuries after that, in the year 1739;
there was a fixth eruption. The burftings of the vol¬
canic fire were attended with a noife fo dreadful, that
it was heard as far as Melazzo in Sicily.
Father Leandro Alberti fays, that on one of thofe
dreadful occafions; the women of Lipari, after cm*
ploying in vain all the faints, vowed to drink no
more wine if the volcano fliould fpare them. Their
giving up this fmall gratification was doubtlefs of
great fervice; yet the eruptions ftill continue, and
have even become more frequent fince that time;
Only 36 years intervened between this eruption and
that which happened in the year 1775. The whole
ifland was then fliaken ; fubterraneous thunder was
heard ; and confiderable ftreams of flame, with fmoke;
ftones, and vitreous lava, iffued from the crater. Li¬
pari was covered over with allies.; and part of theft
was conveyed by the winds all the way into Sicily.
Five years after, however, in the month of April 1780;
there iffued a new explofion from Volcano ; the fmoke
was thick, the Ihocks conftant, and the fubtertaneous
noife very frequent. So great was the confternation
among the inhabitants of Lipari on thisoccafion, that
the commander Deodati Dolomieu, who vifited thefe
illands not long after that event, informs us, that the
inhabitants in general, but efpecially the women, de¬
voted t-hemfelves as flaves to the fervice of the bleffed
virgin ; and wore on their arms, as tokens of their fer-
vitude, fmall iron, chains, which they ftill continue to
wear;
This aft of piety, however; was not fo efficacious
as the deputation of the fenate had been. For after
that deputation, more than 200 years paffed before the
Eolian ifles were afflifted by any other eruption, at
leaft by any confiderable one : Whereas, in three years
after the ladies devoted themfelves in fo fubmilfive a
maufter to the fervice of the virgin, the ifles of Li¬
pari
LIP l 93 ] LIP
pari were agitated anew by that fatal earthquake
which ravaged Calabria, and part of Sicily, on the
5th of February 1783.
The dry baths of St Calogero, in the ifland of Li-
pari, are doves* where fulphureous exhalations, known
to be of a falutary nature, afcend out of the earth
by holes or fpiracles. A- range of* apartments are
built around the place where the exhalations arife.
The heat is communicated through thofe apartments
in fuch a way, that when entering at one end, you ad¬
vance towards the other, the heat ftill increafes upon
you till you gain the middle apartment, and again di-
minilhes in the fame manner a-s* you proceed from the
middle to the other end of the range of chambers. In
eonfequence of- this difpofition of thefe apartments,
the Tick perforr can make choice of that temperature
which-beit fuits the nature of his difeafe. There are
a few miferafele huts and a fmall chapel for the acom-
modation of the people who repair to thefe baths.
The people of the place are ready to attend them.
Phyiicians likewife follow their patients thither, when
the difeafe is of fuch a nature as to render, their at¬
tendance requilite, and the patient rich enough to af¬
ford them handfome fees: but there is no phyfician
fettled in the place. Befides thefe dry baths, there are
baths of hot water diitinguilhed by the name of St Ca-
iogero’s baths. There are around them buildings-fuf-
hcient to lodge a confiderable number of fick people
with their neceflary attendants. At prefent, however,
thofe buildings are but in a bad'condition.
The baths confill of two halls; one fquare, the other
round. The former is antique ; it has been built by
the Romans; it is arched with a cupola, and 12 feet
in diameter ; it has been repaired : The other is like¬
wife arched with a cupola both-within and without;
The water comes very hot into the firft,. it gullies
up from among pieces of lava, which eompofe apart
©f the mountain at the foot of which thefe baths are
built. ThofeHones remain, in their natural*date. All
that has been-done is the raifing. of a fquare building
inclofing them- Within that-building the Tick per-
fons either lit down on the ftones, or immeife them*
felves in the intervening cavities which are filled with
water. They continue there for. a certain time, and
approach nearer to, or remain at a farther diftanee
from, the fpring, aecordtng as their phyfician dire ft s.
The place ferves alfo as a Rove. The hot vapours a-
rifing from* the water communicate to the furround¬
ing atmofphere a confiderable degree of heat. It is
indeed not inferior to that of the hot baths of Ter¬
mini, which* owe their heat to a fimilar caufe. In
thefe baths,* therefore, a perfon can have the benefit
either of bathing in the hot water, or of expofing him*
felf to the vapour, the heat of of which is'more mode¬
rate. The bath before mentioned, under the appella¬
tion of dry bath, is alto a ftove; but the hot vapour
with which it is filled iffues direflly from the vol¬
cano. The place of the bath is, however, at fuck a
diitance from the volcanic focus, that the heat is not
at all intolerable.
The mountain at the foot of which thefe baths are
fituated. is round, and terminates at the fummit in a
rock of pstrified allies, which a--e very hard and of a
very fine grain. This pe^Rcation confifts of pretty
regular ftrata, and appears to have been greatly prior
in its origin to the adjacent rocks ; which confift like¬
wife of alhes, but allies that have been depofited at
a much later period. From this rock there proceeds
likewife a ftream of hot water, by which fome mills
in the neighbourhood are moved.
It cannot but appear furprifing, that nature has
placed nearly on the fummit of a volcanic mountain
fprings which fupply fo confiderable a quantity of wa¬
ter. To account for fuch a phenomenon would be
well worthy of fome ingenious naturalift. Nor are
thefe hot fprings all; proceeding around the fame hill,
at about a mile’s diftance, we find a fpring of cold
water, which originates from the fummit of the fame
rock; that on the north-weft produces three hot
fprings. The cold water is very pleafant to drink,
and much ufed both by men and cattle.
Among thefe mountains there are many enormous
loofe mafles of lava, the appearance of which, M.
Houel informs us, naturally leads the obferver to take
notice, that the lava of the volcano of Lipari is of a
much greater diverfity of colours, and thofe richer
and more lively, than the lava of Vefuvius and Etna;
The lava of Lipari is in fome places, for feveral miles,
of a beautiful red colour. It contains likewife in great
abundance fmall black cryftallifed fcorite, as well as
the fmall white grains which are commonly found in
lava.
Liparr,
Among the eminenees which overlook • tlie city of
Lipari, there are fome rocks ofa fpecies which is very
rare in Europe. Thofe are large maffes of vitrified
matter, which rife fix or eight feet above the furface
of the ground, and appear to extend -to a great depth
under it. They exift, through that range of moun¬
tains, in enormous -maffes, mixed with lavas of every
different colour, and always Handing detached and in*
fulated. Were they cut and followed under ground,
they would probably be found to exift in immenfe
quarries in the bowels of the earth. The glafs of
which they confift might be employed with great ad*
vantage in manufa&ures. It is ready made, and might
be eafily purified. It is green, compadl, and tranf-
parent.
The cultivation of the ground is the chief employ*
me-nt of the inhabitants of Lipari. The pofleffion of
a few acres of land here gives a man great importance.
Parents, when they fettle their children, rather give them
money than any part of their lands.*
_ More than two-thirds of the ifland is planted v ith
vines : three-fourths of the grapes which thefe produce
are dried, and fent moftly to London under the name of
Pajfola. There are different forts of paffola : one off
thefe, called the black pajj'olina, is prepared from a par¬
ticular kind of grape, of which the berries are uncom¬
monly fmall; and fold to Marfeilles, Holland, and
Triefte. The vines are in fmaH arbours, which rife
only to the height, of two feet and an half above the
ground. U»Jer thole arbours there grow beans, gourds,
and other leguminous vegetables. In lb hot a climate,
the fliade of the vines does not injure but proteft the
vegetables growing under it: they would other-wife be
withered by the heat of the fun.
The method of- preparing paffola and paflblina is
curious enoughi They firft make a lixivium of common
afhes; after boiling this, they pafs it through a cloth
or a lieve; they then put it again on the fire; and
wheu-i
L I P
when It Is obferved to boll bard, fuddenly Iramcrfe the
grapes, but inftantly bring them out again, and ex-
pofe them to the fun to dry on broad frames of cane.
When fufficiently dry, the raifins are put into cades
and barrels to be fold and exported. The number of
cades of different forts of raifins annually exported from
L.ipari are eflimated at x 0,000.
This idand lilcewlfe produces figs. There is fome
white malmfey and a little red wine exported from it.
About 60 or 80 years fince, fulphur was one of the
articles with which the inhabitants of this ifland fup-
plied foreign merchants. But that trade has been gi¬
ven up ; from an idea which the Liparefe entertain,
that fulphur infedts the air fo as to injure the ferti¬
lity of the vines. The fame prejudice prevails in Si¬
cily ; but it feems to be ill-founded.
There are courts of juftice in Lipari, of the fame
powers and chara&er with thofe in the cities of Sicily.
Caufes of more than ordinary importance are carried
to Palermo.
The ifland is entirely free from every kind of im-
pofition. The king receives nothing from it; becaufe
Count Roger anciently beftowed on its bifhop all his
rights of royalty over Lipari. The bifhop there re¬
ceived annually from the inhabitants a tenth part of
the products of their lands. They afterwards, to pre¬
vent fraud, eftimated the value of that tithe for one
year; and on the condition of their paying in future a
fum of money equal to what that year’s tithe was va¬
lued at, he not only gave up his right to the tithe, but
alfo ceded to them a confiderable extent of land which
belonged to him.
In the archiepifcopal palace, and in the palace of
the Baron de Monizzio, there are fome noble pieces
of painting by Sicilian painters:—A St Peter, a St
Rofalia, Jefus difputing with the Jewifh debtors, the
adulterous woman, the incredulity of St Thomas.
LIPOTHYMIA, fainting, may arife from feve-
ral caufes ; as too violent exercife, fupprefiion of the
menfes or other accuftomed evacuations, &c. See (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
LIPPA, a town of Hungary, with a cattle. It
was taken by the Turks in 1552 ; by the Imperialifts
in 1688 ; and by the Turks again in ; who aban¬
doned it in 1695, after having demolifhed the fortifi¬
cations. It is feated on a mountain, in E. Long. 21.
55. N. Lat. 36. 5.
LIPPE, the capital of a country of the fame name
in Germany, and the circle of Weftphalia. It is feat¬
ed on a river of the fame name, and was formerly the
refidence of the principal branch of the houfe of Lippe.
It is now in the pofieffion of the king of Pruffia, and
carries on a good trade in preparing timber for build¬
ing vettels on. the Rhine, with which it has a commu¬
nication by the river Lippe. The country round it is un-
wholefome and marfliy. E. Long. 8.. x i. N. Lat. 51.43.
LIPPI (Lorenzo),a painter of hiftory and portraits,
was born in 1606, and learned the principles of paint¬
ing from Matteo Rofelli. He had an exquifite geniua
for mufic and poetry, as well as for painting ; and in
the latter, his proficiency was fo great, that fome of
his compofitions in the hiftorical ftyle were taken for
thofe of Rofelli. However, growing at laft diffatisfied
with the manner of that matter, he chofe the manner
#f Santi di Titi, who was excellent both in'defign and
L I 0.
invention, and appeared to have more of fimple nature Lijfej
and truth in his compofitions than any other artift of || r
that time. At Florence Lippi painted many grand Liquidara-
defigns for the chapels and convents, by which he en- bar' .
larged his reputation; and at the court of Infpruck, " v
he painted a great number of portraits of the firft no¬
bility, which were defervedly admired. Yet, altho*
he was fond of imitating fimple nature without any
embellifhments from invention, his works are held in
the higheft efteem for the graceful airs of the heads,
for the corre&nefs of his outline, and for the elegant
difpofition of the figures. He died in 1664.
LIPSIUS (Juftus), a learned critic, was born at
Ifch, a fmall village near Brufiels, in 1547. After
having diftinguiflied himfelf in polite literature, he
became fecretary to cardinal de Granvellan at Rome,
where the beft libraries were open to him ; and he
fpent much labour in collating the MSS. of ancient
authors. He lived 13 years at Leyden ; during which
he compofed and publifhed what he efteems his beft
works ; but fettled at Louvain, where he taught po¬
lite literature with great reputation. He was re¬
markable for unfteadinefs in religion, fluctuating often
between the Proteftants and Papifts ; but he became
finally a bigotted catholic. He died at Louvain in
1606 ; and his works are collected in fix volumes folio.
LIQUEFACTION, an operation by which a fo-
lid body is reduced into a liquid ; or the action of fire
or heat on fat and other fufible bodies, which puts
their parts into a mutual inteftine motion.—The lique¬
faction of wax, &c. is performed by a moderate heat;
that of fal tartari, by the mere moifture of the air.
All falts liquefy ;. fand, mixed with alkalies, becomes
liquefied by a reverberatory fire, in the making of
glafs. In fpeaking of metals, inftead of liquefaction,
we ordinarily ufe the word fjion.
LIQUID, a body which has the property of fluidi¬
ty ; and, befides that, a peculiar quality of wetting
other bodies immerged in it, arifing from fome con¬
figuration of its particles, which difpofes them to ad¬
here to the furfaces of bodies contiguous to them.
See Fluid.
Liquid, among grammarians, is a name applied td
certain confonants oppbfed to mutes. Thus 1, m, n,
and r, are liquids.
LIQUIDAMBAR,sweet-gum-tree, inbotany:
A genus of the polyandria order, belonging io the
moncecia clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking with thofe of which the order is doubtful.
The male calyx is common, and triphyllous; there is no
corolla, but numerous filaments ; the female calyces
are collected into a fpherical form, and tetraphyllous;
there is no corolla, but feven ftyles; and many bi-
valved 'and monofpermous capfules collected into a
fphere. There are only two fpecies, both decidu¬
ous, viz. 1. The ftyraciflua, or the Virginia or
maple-leaved liquidambar; a native of the rich moift
parts of Virginia and Mexico. It will flioot in a regu¬
lar manner to thirty or forty feet high, having its
young twigs covered with a fmooth, light-brown bark,
while thofe of the older are of a darker colour. The
leaves are of a lucid green, and grow irregularly on the
young branches, on king footftalks : They refemble
thofe of the common maple in figure ; the lobes are all
ferrated ; and from the bafe of the leaf a ftrong mid-
3 rib
[ 94 3
L I CL -f 95 1 L I O
Liquidam- rib runs to the extremity of each lobe that belongs to
tar. jt> The flowers are of a kind of faffron colour : They
“ are produced at the ends of the branches the beginning
of April, and fometimes fooner ; and are fucceeded by
large round brown fruit, which looks Angular, but is
thought by many to be no ornament to the tree.
2.Theperegrinum, Canada liquidambar, or fpleenwort-
leaved gale-, is a native of Canada and Penfylvania. The
young branches of this fpecies are flender, tough, and
hardy. The leaves are oblotg, of a deep green colour,
hairy underneath, and have indentures on their edges al¬
ternately very deep. The flowers come out from the
fides of the branches, like the former; and they are
fucceeded by fmall roundifli fruit, which feldom ripens
-- in England.
Propagation. This may be performed either by feeds
or layers ; but the firft method is thebeft. I. We re¬
ceive the feeds from America in the fpring. Againil
their arrival, a fine bed, in a warm well flickered
place, ftiould be prepared. If the foil is not naturally
good, and inclined to be fandy, it fliould be wholly
taken out near a foot deep, and the vacancy filled up
with earth taken up a year before from a frefli pafture
with the fward, and all well rotted and mixed by being
often turned, and afterwards mixed with a fixth part
of drift or fea-fand. A dry day being made choice of,
early in March, let the feeds be fown, and the find!
of this compoft riddled over them a quarter of an inch
deep. When the hot weather in the fpring comes on,
the beds (hould be (haded, and waterings given often,
but in very fmall quantities, only affording themagentk,
nay, a very fmall fprinkling, at a time. Millar fays, the
feeds of thefe plants never come up under two years.
But, continues Hanbury, with this eafy management,
1 hardly ever knew it longer than the end of May be¬
fore the young plants made their appearance. The
plants being come up, (hading (hould kill be afforded
them m the parching fuinmer, and a watering every
other night; and this will promote their growth, and
caufe them to become ftronger plants by the autumn.
In the autumn, the beds (hould, be hooped to be co¬
vered with mats in the fevere frofts. Thefe mats, how¬
ever, (hould always be taken off in open weather ; and
this is all the management they will require during
the firft winter. The fucceeding fummer they will re¬
quire no other trouble than weeding; though, if it
{hould prove a dry one, they will find benefit from a
little water nowr-and then. By the autumn they will
be grown ftrong enough to refill; the cold of the fol¬
lowing winter, without demanding the trouble of mat¬
ting, if the fituation is well flickered ; if not, it will
be proper to have the hoops prepared, and the mats
ready, againft the'black northern frofts, which would
endanger at lead their lofing their tops. After this,
nothing except weeding will be wanted; and in the
fpring following, that is, three years from their firft
appearance, they fnould be taken up (for they (hould
not be removed before, unlefs fome of the ftrongeft
plants be drawn out of the bed), and planted in the
nurfery a foot afunder, and two feet diftant in the
rows. Hoeing the weeds in the rows in the fummer,
and digging them in the winter, is all the trouble they
will afterwards occafion until they are finally planted
out. 2. Thefe plants are eafily increafed by layers.
The operation muft be performed in the autumn, on
the young fummer’s (hoots; and the bed way is by flit¬
ting them at a joint, as is praftifed for carnations. In Liquor
a ftrong dry foil, they will be often two years or more .. .11
before they ftrike root; though, in it fine light foil, lvl([’°nCn*
they will be found to take freely enough. By this me- , -1
thod good plants may be obtained ; though it is not
fo eligible as the other, if we have the conveniency of
procuring the feeds.
Properties. The leaves emit their odoriferous par¬
ticles in fuch plenty as to perfume the circumabient
air; nay, the whole tree exfudes fuch a fragrant tranf-
parent refin, as to have given occafion to its being
taken for the fweet ftorax f. Thefe trees, therefore, ^ See
are very proper to be planted fingly in large opens,
that they may amply difplay their fine pyramidal
growth, or to be fet in places near feats, pavilions,
&c. . The rofin was formerly of great ufe as a perfume,
but is at prefent a ftranger in tire (hops.
LIQUOR, a name for any fluid fubfiance of the
aqueous or fpirituous kind.
The principal beverage amongft the Jews, as well as
the Greeks and Romans, in their early ftate, was wa¬
ter, milk, and the juices of various plants infufed
therein. For a long time, under the commonwealth
of Rome, wine was fo fcarce, that in their facrifices
to the gods the libations were made with milk only.
Wine did not become common there till A.U.C. 6oo,.
when vines began to be planted.
Liquor of Flints. See Chemistry, n” 1069.
SmokingLiQyoRof Libavius. See Chemistry, h"8iq.
Mineral Anodyne Liquor of Hoffman. This is a
compofition of highly rettified fpirit of wine, vitriolic
ether, and a little of the dulcified oil of vitriol. It is
made by mixing an ounce of the fpirit of wine, which
rifes firft in the diftillation of ether, with as much of
the liquor which is to be diftilled, and afterwards by
diflblving in the mixture which rifes next, and which
contains the ether, 12 drops of the oil which rifes after
the ether is paffed. This has the fame virtues with
the ether, and is now generally difufed, the pure ether-
being fubftituted in its place.
LIQUORICE. See Glycyrrhiza.
LIRIODENDRON, the tulip-tree, in bo--
tany : A genus of the polyginia order, belonging
to the polyandria clafs of plants; and in the natu¬
ral method ranking under the yad order, CoadunaU.
The calyx is triphyllous ; there are nine petals; and
the feeds imbricated in fuch a manner as to form
a cone. There is but one fpecies, viz. the tulipi-
fera, a deciduous tree, native of moft part of America.
It rifes with a large upright trunk, branching 40 01 50
feet high. The trunk, which often attains to a cir¬
cumference of 30 feet, is covered with a grey bark.
The branches, which are not very numerous, of the
two-years-cld wood, are fmooth and brown ; while the
bark of the fummer’s (hoots is fmoother and (hining,
and of a bluifti colour. They are very pithy. Their
young wood is green, and when broken emits a ftrong
feent. The leaves grow irregularly on the branches,
on long footftalks. They are of a particular ftructure,
being compofed of three lobes, the middlemoft of whiclu
is (hortened in fuch a manner that it appears as if it
had been cut off and hollowed at the middle : The two
others are rounded off. They are about four or five
inches long, and as many broad. They are of two co¬
lours ; their upper furface is fmooth, and of a ftronger
green than the lower. They fall off pretty early in au-
uwaa-i
LIS [96] LIS
Luiioden-tumn; and the buds for the next year’s dhoots foon
after begin to fwell and become dilated, infomuch that,
' by the end of December, thofe at-the ends of the
branches will become near an inch long and half an
inch broad. The outward laminas^of thefe leaf-buds are
of an oval . figure, hav.e fev;eral longitudinal veins, and
are of a bluifh colour. The flowers are produced with
jus in July, at the ends of the branches: They fome-
what referable the tulip, which occafions its being cal¬
led the Tulip-tree. The number of petals of which
each-iscompofed, like thofe of the tulip, is fix,; and
t thefe are fpotted with green, red, white, and yellow,
thereby making a beautiful mixture. The flowers are
fucceeded by large cones, which never ripen in Eng¬
land.
Propagation. This is very eafy, if the feeds are
good; for by thefe, which we receive from abroad,
they are to be propagated. No particular compoft need
be fought for; neither is the trouble of pots, boxes, hot¬
beds, &c. required,: They will grow exceedingly well in
beds of common gardenmiould, and the plants will be
hardier and better than thofe raifed with more tender-
nefs and care. Therefore, as foon as you receive the
feeds, which is generally in February, and a few dry
days have happened, fo that the.mould will work freely,
flow the feeds, covering them three quarters of an ingh
deep ; and in doing of this, obferve to lay them length-
wife, otherwife, by being very long, one part, perhaps
that of the -embryo plant, may be out of the ground
fbon, and the .feed be loft. This being-done, let-the
beds be hooped; and as foon as the hot weather and
drying winds come on in the fpring, let them be co¬
vered from ten o’clock in the morning till fun-fet. If
little rain happens, they muft be duly watered every
ether day; and by the end of May the plants will
come up. Shade and watering in the hotteft fummer
muft be afforded them, and they will afterwards give
-very little trouble. The next winter they will want
no other care than, at the approach of it, flicking
dome furze-bufhes round the bed, to break the keen
edge of the black frofts ; for it is found that the feed-
lings of this fort are very hardy, and feldom fuffer by
' any weather. After they have been two years in the
feed-bed, they fhould be taken up and planted in the
nurfery, a foot afunder, and two feet diftant in the
rows. After this, the ufual nurfery care of hoeing the
weeds, and digging between the rows in the winter,
will fuffice till they are taken up for planting out.
UJes. The tulip-tree, in thofe parts of America
where it grows common, affords excellent timber for
many ufes : particularly, the trunk is frequently hol¬
lowed, and made into a canoe fufficient to carry many
people; and for this purpofe no tree is thought more
proper by the inhabitants of thofe parts. With us, it
may be ftationed among trees of forty-feet growth.
LIS or Lys (John Vander), painter of hiftory,
landfcapes, and converfations, was born at Oldenburgh
in 1570, but went to Haerlem to place himfelf as a
difciple under Henry Goltzius; and as he was endowed
with great natural talents, he foon diftinguiihed him¬
felf in that fchool, and imitated the manner of his ma¬
iler with great fuccefs. He adhered to the fame ftyle
till he went to Italy ; where, having vifited Venice
and Rome, he ftudied the works of Titian, Tintoretto,
Paolo Veronefe, and Domenico petti, fo effectually,
that he improved his tafte and judgment, and altered
K0 IBs-
his manner entirely. He foon received marks of public Lfs.
approbation ; and his compofitions became univerfally Litbrm,
admired for their good expreffion, for their lively and 'r~~“
natural colouring, and the fweetnefs and delicacy of
his pencil: although it muft be acknowledged,- that he
could never totally diveft himfelf of the ideas and tafte
peculiar to the Flemings. His fubjedls ufually were
hiftories taken from the facred writings, or the repre-
ftntation of rural fports, matriages, balls, and villagers
dancing, dreffed in Venetian habits; all which fubje&s
he painted in a fmall as well as a large fize, with a
number of figures, well defigned, and touched with a
great deal of delicacy. He was likewife accounted to
paint naked figures admirably, with natural and elegant
attitudes, and a very agreeable turn of the limbs.
A capital pifture of this mafter is, Adam and Eve
lamenting the death of Abel; which is extremely ad¬
mired, not only for the expreffion, but alfo for the
beauty of the landfcape: and in the church of St Ni¬
cholas at Venice is another of his paintings, reprefent-
ing St Jerom in the defart, with a pen in his hand, and
his head turned to look at an angel, who is fuppofed
to be founding the laft trumpet. The colouring jot
this picture is rather too red; but it is defigned in a
fine ftyle, and charmingly penciled. The paintings of
this mailer are very rarely to be purchafed. He died
in -1629.
Lis (John Vander) of Breda, hiftorical painter, was
born at Breda about the year 16© 1, and became a dif-. -
ciple of Cornelius Polemburg, whofemanner heimitated
with extraordinary exaftnefs, in the tints of hiscolouring,
his neatnefs of pencilling, and the choice of his fubjefts.
There are fome paintings of this mailer's hand, which,
tho’ they appear to have fomewhat lefs freedom and
lightnefs of touch, are nearly equal to thofe of Polem¬
burg, and are frequently taken to be his. At Rotterdam,
in the poffelfion of Mr Biffchop, there is a delicate
painting reprefenting Diana in the Bath, attended by
her nymphs ; and his moft capital performance, in
England, is faid to be in the poffeffion of the Vifcount
Middleton. The portrait of Vander Lis, painted by
himfelf, is in the poffeffion of Horace Walpole, Efq;
which is deferibed by that ingenious gentleman, as
being worked up equal to the fmoothnefs of enamel.
LISBON, the capital of the kingdom of Portugal,
fituated in the province of Eftremadura, on the banks
of the river Tagus, in W. Long. 9. zy. N.Lat. 38. 25.
It was anciently called O/t/ipo, Ohjippo, and Ulyfipo,
which are fuppofed to be derived from the Phenician
Ulifubbo or Oliftppo fignifying in that tongue a pleafant
bay, fuch as that on which this city Hands. It firft be¬
came confiderable in the reign of king Emmanuel; from
that king it hath been the capital of the kingdom, the
refidence of its monarchs, the feat of the chief tribu¬
nals, and offices of the metropolitan, .a noble univerfity,
and the receptacle of the richeft merchandize of the
Eaft and Weft Indies. Its air is excellent; being re-
frefted by the delightful fea-breezes, and thofe of the
Tagus. The city extends for about two miles along
the Tagus; but its breadth is inconfiderable. Like old
Rome, it ftands on feven hills: but the ftreets in gene¬
ral are narrow and dirty, and fome of them are very
fleep ; neither are they lighted at night. The churches,
in general, are very fine ; but the magnificence of the
chapel-royal is amazing. Here is one of the fineft
harbours in the world ; and there were a great number
hot
LIS L 97 1 LIS
not only of fine chufchcs and convents here, but alfo
of other public buildings, and particularly of royal pa¬
laces, and others belonging to the grandees ; but the
greateft part of them, and of the city, were deftroyed
by a moft dreadful earthquake, on Novvi. 1755, from
which it will require a long time to recover. The
inhabitants, before the earthquake, did not at moft
exceed 150,000. The government of it is lodged in
a council, confiftingof a prefident, fix counfellors, and
other inferior officers. The harbour has water enough
for the largeft fhips, and room enough for 10,000 fail
without being crowded. For its fecurity, there is a
fort at the mouth of the river, on each fide, and a bar
that runs acrofs it, and is very dangerous to pafs with¬
out pilots. Higher up, at a place where the river is
confiderably contradted, there is a fort called Torre de
Belem, or the Tower of Belem, under whofe guns all
fhips muft pafs in their way to the city ; and on the
other fide are feveral more forts. Before the earth¬
quake, moft of the private houfes were old and un-
fightly, with lattice-windows ; and the number of con¬
vents and colleges amounted to 50, namely, 32 for
monks and 18 for nuns. The king’s principal palace
ftands on the river, and is large and commodious. Of
the hofpitals, that called the Great is obliged to re¬
ceive all perfons, of what degree, nation, or religion
foever, without exception. At the village of Belem,
near Lifbon, is a noble hofpital for decayed gentlemen
who have ferved the king, and have not wherewithal
to maintain themfelves. That called the houfe of mercy
is alfo a noble charity. In the centre of the city,
upon one of the higheft hills, is the caftle, which com¬
mands the whole, being large and ancient, and having
always a garrifon of four regiments of foot. The
cathedral is a vaft edifice of the Gothic kind, but
heavy and clumfy : it contains, however, great riches,
and is finely adorned within. The fquare called Roffio is
large, and furraunded with magnificent buildings.
The whole city is Under the ecclefiaftical jurifdi&ion
of the patriarch, who was appointed in the year 1717.
Here is alfo an archbifhop, who has, or at leaft had
before the ercftion of the patriarchate, a revenue of
40,000 crufadoes, or 60001. The univerfity, which
was removed for fome time to Coimbra, but afterwards
reftored to its ancient feat, makes a confiderable figure,
though much inferior to that of Coimbra.
LISBURN, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Antrim and province of Ulfter, 73 miles from Dublin.
It was burnt down about 50 years ago ; but is now
rebuilt in a neat and handfome manner, and has a large
linen manufa&ory. It is feated on the river Laggan,
in W. Long. 6. 20. N. Lat. 54. 31. It gives title
of earl to the family of Vaughan ; and it returns two
members to parliament, one half of the patronage of
this borough being in the earl of Hertford. Fairs
held 2ift of July and 5th Odfober.
LISIEUX, a confiderable town of France, in Up¬
per Normandy, with a biffiop’s fee. The churches and
religious houfes, and the biftiop’s palace, are all very
handfome ftru&ures. It is a trading place; and is feat¬
ed at the confluence of the rivers Arheck and Gaffi, in
E. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 49. 11.
LISLE; a large, rich, handfome, and ftrong town
of French Flanders, of which it is the capital, with a
ftrong caftle, and a citadel built by Vauban, and faid
Vot.X. Parti.
to be the fineft in Europe, as well as the beft fortified.
The large fquare, and the public buildings, are very
handfome ; and they have manufaftures of filks, cam¬
brics, and camblets, as well as other ftuffs, which
have been brought to great perfection. It was ta¬
ken by the duke of Marlborough, after three months
fiege and the lofs of many thoufands of men, in 1708;
but reftored to the French by the treaty of Utrecht,
in confideratiOn of their demolifhing the fortifications
of Dunkirk. It is feated on the river Duele, 14 miles
weft of Tournay, 32 fouth-weft of Ghent, 37 north*
weft of Mons, and 130 north of Paris, E. Long. 3. 9*
N. Lat. 50. 38.
LISLE (Claudius de), a learned hiftoriographer,
born at Vancouleurs, in 1644. He ftudied among the
Jefuits at Pontamouflbn ; took his degrees in law, and
afterwards applied himfelf intirely to the ftudy of hi-
ftory and geography; and to perfeft himfelf in thofo
feiences went to Paris, where the principal lords of the
court became his fcholars, and among the reft the duke
of Orleans, afterwards regent of the kingdom. He
wrote, 1. An hiftorical account of the kingdom of
Siam, 2. A genealogical and hiftorical Atlas. 3. An
abridgement of univerfal hiftory. He died at Paris in
1720.
Lisle (William de), fon of the former, and the
moft learned geographer France has produced, was
born at Paris in 1675. He became firft geographer
to the king, royal cenfor, and member of the academy
of feiences. He died in 1726. He publifhed a great
number of excellent maps, and wrote many pieces in
the memoirs of the academy of feiences.
Lisle (Sir John), a brave loyalift in the time of
the civil wars, was the fon of a bookfeller in London,
and received his education in the Netherlands. Hd
fignalized himfelf upon many occafions in the civil war,
particularly in the laft battle of Newbury ; where, in
the dufk of the evening, he led his men to the charge in
his fliirt, that his perfon might be more confpicuous*
The king, who was an eye-witnefs of his bravery,
knighted him in the field of battle. In 1648, he rofe
for his majefty in Eflcx ; and was one of the royalifts
who fo obftinately defended Colchefter, and who died
for the defence of it. This brave man having ten¬
derly embraced the corps of Sir Charles Lucas, his
departed friend, immediately prefented himfelf to the
foldiers who flood ready for his execution. Thinking
that they flood at too great a diftance, he defired them
to come nearer : one of them faid, “ I warrant you.
Sir, We fhall hit you.” He replied with a fmile,
“ Friends, Ihave been nearer you when you have miffed
me.” He was executed Auguft 28th 1648.
LISMORE, one of the Weftern iflands of Scot¬
land, feated at the mouth of Loch Linnhe, a capaci¬
ous lake in Argylefhire, navigable for the largeft fhips
to Fort William, which ftands in the country called
Lochaber. This ifland is above feven miles in length
by one in breadth ; and contains 1500 inhabitants. It
abounds in limeftone; from which, however, it has hi¬
therto derived little advantage, owing to the want of
good peat, the negledt of timber, and Hill more thd
duty upon coals. Thus, with the advantages of navi¬
gation in every direftion, ahd of a foil lying upon the
richeft manure, the people are indigent, and frequently
obliged to import meal for their fubfiftertce. Many of
N them
LIS [ 98 1 LIS
Lifmore' them live a part of the year upon milk only. This
““V—ifland was formerly the refidence of the biihops of
Argyle.
Lismore, a borough, market, fair, and poft town
of Ireland, in the county of Waterford, and province
of Munfter, 100 miles from Dublin ; N. Lat. 52. 5.
W. Long. 7. 50. It was anciently called Ltjfmore or
Lias-more, i. e. the great inclofure, or habitation ; it is
now a biihopric, and formerly had an univerfity. St
Carthagh or Mochuda, in the beginning of the feventh
century founded an abbey and fchool in this place,
which in a fhoft time was much reforted to, not only
by the natives, but alfo by the Britons and Saxons,
during the middle ages. According to an ancient
writer of the life of St Carthagh, Lifmore was in ge¬
neral inhabited by monks, half of it being an afylum
into which no woman dared enter confiding intirely of
cells and monaderies, the ruins of which, with feven
churches, are yet vifible. A cadle was built here by
king John. The fite of Lifmore was in early ages
denominated magh Jkia, or the “ chofen Afield,” being
the fituation of a dim or f6rt, of the ancient chieftains
of the Decies, one of whom granted it to St Carthagh
on his expulfion from the abbey of Ratheny in Wed-
meath. On becoming an univerfity, Math Sgiath ob¬
tained the name of Dunfginne, or the “ fort of the
Saxons,” from the number of Saxons which reforted
thereto : but ibon after, it was called Lios-mor or Lefs-
more, and now Lifmore; the bifiiopric of which was
united to that of Waterford in 1363, being 730 years
. after its foundation. The public road to Cork was
formerly through this place, and at that time it had a
better face of bufinefs. St Carthagh, who retired to
this plate with fome of his religious in 636, to avoid
the fury of the then IriAi monarch, tied his difciples
to a mod drift rule of life ; they never were allowed
the ufe of fiefii, fifii, or fowl; only the vegetables that
the ground produced <tt the expence of their own la¬
bour. Lather Daniel, hi his Hijloire Monajlique, men¬
tions one on the fame foundation in France. The
cadle here, which, as we have formerly mentioned, was
built by king John, was erefted in 1195 on the ruins
of the abbey of St Carthagh; it belonged to the duke
of DevonAiire, and gave birth to the great philofopher
Robert Boyle. In 1189 it was demolifhed by the
Irifii, who took it by furprife. Being afterwards re-
edified, it was for many years an epifcopal refidence,
till Myler Magrath, archbidiop of Cadiel, and biAiop
of this fee, granted the manor of Lifmore to that not¬
ed fcholar and foldier Sir Walter Raleigh, in the reign
of queen Elizabeth, at the yearly rent of L. 13 : 6 : 8;
but that edate was lopped off with his head in the
reign of king James I. After which it fell into the
hands, of Sir Richard Boyle, who purchafed all Sir
Walter’s lands; he beautified the whole, and added
many buildings to it, mod of which were burned down
in the Irifii rebellion ; at the breaking out of which,
it was clofely befieged by 5OOO Irifii, commanded by
Sir Richard Beling, and was well defended by the
young Lord Broghill, third fon of the earl of Cork,
who obliged them to raife the fiege. The cadle is bold¬
ly feated on the verge of a rocky hill, rifing almod per-
P endicularly to a confiderable height over the river Black-
water. The entrance is by an ancient and venerable
avenue of trees. Over the gate are the venerable arms
of the fird earl of Cork. Oppofite to the entrance is a LifF*
modern portico of Bath done, of the Doric order, de- II
figned by Inigo Jones. Mod of the buildings have re- Ll(l>
mained in ruins fince the era of the rebellion ; but the 'r"
feveral offises that make up two fides of the fquare are
kept in repair. At. each angle is a tower, the chief re¬
mains of its former magnificence. In Oftober 1785,.
the late duke of Rutland, then lord-lieutenant of Ire¬
land, whild on a tour in Munder, held a council in,
and iffued proclamations from this cadle. The cathe¬
dral is dill pretty well kept in repair. Here is a fine
bridge over the river Blackwater, erefted at a very great
expence by the duke of Devonfifire : this bridge is* re¬
markable for the extent of the principal arch, the fpan
of it being 102 feet. Below the town is a rich fifiiery
for falmon, which is the greated branch of trade here.
Though this place is at prefent much reduced, yet
Cambrenfis informs us, that, not many years after the
conqued, this was a very rich city, and held out fome
time againd the Englifh, who took it at lad by dorm,
and gained rich plunder here, enough to load 16 fail
of (hips. It returns two members to parliament; pa¬
tron, the duke of Devonfhire, but the eleftors are call-
potwollopers. Fairs held on 25th May and Sep¬
tember, and 12th November.
LISSA, an ifland in, the Gulph of Venice, on the
coad of Dalmatia, belonging to the Venetians, where
they have a fifliery of fardines and anchovies. It pro¬
duces excellent wine, and is 70 miles wed of Ragufa.
E. Long. 17. o. N. Lat. 43. 22.
Lissa, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Pof-
na, of which it is the capital. E. Long. 16. o. N.
Lat. 32. 15.
Lissa, a village of Silefia, 16 miles from Breflau,
remarkable for a battle fought between the Pruffians
and the Audrians on the 15th of December 1757,
when the latter were entirely defeated.
LISSUS, (anc. geog.), the lad town of Illyricum,
towards Macedonia, -fituated on the Drilo. It had a
capacious port, the work of Dionyfius the Tyrant,
who led the colony thither, enlarged and walled it
round, (Diodorus Siculus.) Now called Alejfto, in Al¬
bania, on the Drino, near the Gulph of Venice. E.
Long. 20. N. Lat. 42.
LIST, in commerce, the border of cloth or duff;
ferving not only to Ihow their quality, but to preferve
them from being torn in the operations of fulling, dye¬
ing, &c.—Lid is ufed on various occafions; but chiefly
by gardeners for fecuring their wall-trees.
List, in architefture, a little fquare moulding,
otherwife called afillet, lifiel, &c. See Plate XXXVIII.
fig. 1.
List, is alfo ufed, to fignify the inclofed field or
ground wherein the ancient knights held their juds
and combats. It was fo called, as being hemmed
round with pales, barriers, or dakes, as with a lid.
Some of thefe were double, one for each cavalier; which
kept them apart, fo that they could not come nearer
each other than a fpear’s length. See Just, Tour¬
nament, Duel, &c.
Civil List, in the Britifh polity. The expences
defrayed by the civil lid are thofe that in any fliape re¬
late to civil government; as, the expences of the houfe-
hold; all falaries to officers of date, to the judges, and
every one of the king’s fervants} the appointments^ to
foreign
I
LIS [99
'Lift. foreign ambaffadors; the maintenance of the queen and
royal family i the king’s private expences, or privy-
purfe ; and other very numerous outgoings, as fecret-
fervice money, penlions, and other bounties : which
fometimes have fo far exceeded the revenues appointed
for that purpofe, that application has been made to
parliament to difcharge the debts contracted on the ci¬
vil lift ; as particularly in 1724, when one million was
granted for that purpofe by the ftatute x 1 Geo. I. c. 17.
and in 1769, when half a million was appropriated to
the like ufes by the ftatute 9 Geo. III. c. 34.
The civil lift is indeed properly the whole of the
Blacljl. king’s revenue in his own diftindt capacity ; the reft
iimment. being rather the revenue of the public, or its creditors,
though collected and diftributed again in the name
and by the officers of the crown : it now Handing- in
the fame place, as the hereditary income did formerly;
and as that has gradually diminiffied, the parliamen¬
tary appointments have increafed. The whole revenue
of queen Elizabeth did not amount to more than
6oo,ocJol. a-year : that of king Char. I. was 800,0001.
and the revenue voted for king Charles II. was
i,20o,oool. though complaints were made (in the firft
years at leaft) that it did not amount to fo much. But
it muft be obferved, that under tbefe fums were inclu¬
ded all manner of public expences; among which Lord
\ Clarendon, in his fpeech to the parliament, computed,
that the charge of the navy and land-forces amounted
annually to 8oo,ocol. which was ten times more than
before the former troubles. The fame revenue, fubjeit
to the fame charges, was fettled on king James II.:
but by the increafe of trade, and more frugal manage¬
ment, it amounted on an average to 1,500,000!./er
annum, ibefides other additional cuftoms granted by
parliament, which produced an annual revenue of
400,000!. out of which his fleet and army were main¬
tained at the yearly expence of 1,100,cool. After
the revolution, when the parliament took into its own
hands the annual fupport of the forces both maritime
and military, a civil-lift revenue was fettled on the new
king and queen, amounting, with the hereditary du¬
ties, to 700,000 1. per annum ; and the fame was con¬
tinued to queen Anne and king George I. That of
king Geo. II. was nominally augmented to 800,000 *1.
and in fa ft was confiderably more : but that of his
See J?1'- prefent majefty is exprefsly limited to that fum ; tho’
100,0001. hath been fince added. And upon the whole,
it is doubtlefs much better for the crown, and alfo for
the people, to have the revenue fettled upon the mo-
• dern footing rather than the ancient. For the crown,
becaufe it is more certain., and collefted with greater
cafe : for the people ; becaufe they are now delivered
from the feodal hardfhips, and other odious branches
of the prerogative. And though complaints have fome¬
times been made of the increafe of the civil lift, yet if
we confider the fums that have been formerly granted,
the limited extent under which it is now eftablifhed,
the revenues and prerogatives given up in lieu of it by
the crown, the numerous branches of the prefent royal
family, and (above all) the diminution of the value of
money compared with what it was worth in the laft
century, we muft acknowledge thefe complaints to be
void-of any rational foundation ; and that it is impof-
fible to fupport that dignity, which a king of Great
Britain Ihould maintain, with an income in any degree
] LIT
lefs than what is now eftabliffied by parliament. See Lift
Revenue. . .11
To List, or enli/l, Soldiers, to retain and enroll men Liur'y
as foldiers, either as volunteers, or by a kind of compul-
fion. Perfons lifted muft be carried within four days,
but not fooner than 24hours after, before the next juftice
of peace of any county, riding, city, or place, or chief
magiftrate of any city or town corporate (not being
an officer in the army); and if before fuch juftice or
magiftrate they diffent from fuch enlifting, and return
the enlifting-money, and alfo 20 fhillings in lieu of all
charges expended on them, they are to be difchar-
ged. But perfons refufing or neglefting to return and
pay fuch money within 24 hours, ffiall be deemed as
duly lifted as if they had affented thereto before the
proper magiftrate ; and they (hall, in that cafe, be
obliged to take the cath, or, upon refufal, they (hall
be confined by the officer who lifted them till they do
take it.
LISTER (Dr Martin), an eminent Engliih phy-
fician and naturalift, was born in 1638, and educated
at Cambridge. He afterwards travelled into France j
and at his return praftifed phyfic at York, and after¬
wards at London. In 1683, he was created doftor of
phyfic, and became fellow of the college of phyficians
in London. In 1698, he attended the earl of Port¬
land in his embaffy from king William III. to the
court of France; of which journey he publiffied an ac¬
count at his return, and was afterwards phyfician to
queen Anne. He alfo publifhed, 1. Hijloria. anima-
Uum Anglia, quarto. 2. Conchyliorum fynopjis, folio.
3. Cochlearum & Umachum exercitatio anatomica, 4 vols
8vo. 4. Many pieces in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions ; and other works.
LISTOWEL, a pariffi, alfo a poft and fair town,
of Ireland, in the county of Kerry and province of
Munfter, 131. miles from Dublin, anciently Lis Tua-
that, i. e. “ the fort of Tuathal,” who w as exiled in the
1 ft century, but returned; and his life forms a brilliant
era in Irifli hiftory. Near this are the ruins of a
caftle, pleafantly lituated on the river Feale: it was
taken in November 1600, by Sir Charles Wilmot,
being then held out for the Lord Kerry againft Queen
Elizabeth. Five miles beyond Liftowel are the ruins
of a church. The fairs are three in the year.
LITANA Silva (anc. geog.); a wood of the
Boii, in the Gallia Togata, or Cifpadana, where tha»
Romans, under L. Pofthumius Albinus (whofe head
the Boii cut off, and carried in triumph into their mod;
facred temple), had a great defeat, of twenty-five
thoufand fcarce ten efcaping (Livy). Holftenius cop-
jeftures, that this happened above the fprings of the
Scultenna, in a part of the Apennine, between Cer-
finianum and Mutina. Now Selva di Lugo. '
LITANY, a folemn form of fupplication to God,
in which the prieft utters feme things fit to be prayed
for, and the people join in their interceffion, faying,
•we befeech thee to bear us, good Lord, &c. The word
comes from the Greek x<7«»£ia, “ fupplication;” of
\i1avwo, “ I befeech.”
At firft the ufe of litanies was not fixed to any da¬
ted time, but were only employed as exigencies re¬
quired. They were obferved, in imitation of the Ni-
nevites, with ardent fupplications and fadings, to avert
the threatening judgments of fire, earthquakes, inun-
N 2 dations,
. •' I
LIT [ ioo ] LIT
J.itchfield. dations, or hoftile invafions. About the year 400, li-
tanies began to be ufed in proceffions, the people walk¬
ing barefoot, and repeating them with great devotion;
and it is pretended, that by this means feveral coun¬
tries were delivered from great calamities. The days
on which thefe were ufed were called rogation days:
thefe were appointed by the canons of different coun¬
cils, till it was decreed by the council of Toledo, that
they ffiould be ufed every month throughout the year;
and thus by degrees they came to be ufed weekly on
Wednefdays and Fridays, the ancient ftationary days
for faffing. To thefe days the rubric of our church
has added Sundays, as being the greateft days for af-
fembling at divine fervice. Before the laft review of
the common prayer, the litany was a diftinft fervice
by itfelf, and ufed fame time after the morning prayer
was over ; at prefent it is made one office with the
morning-fervice, being ordered to be read after the
third collett for grace, inftead of the interceffional
prayers in the daily fervice.
LITCHFIELD, a city of Staffordflure, in Eng-
• land, 117 miles from London. It ftands low, about
three miles from the Trent; and its ancient name is
faid to have been Licidjield, fignifying, “ a field of
carcaffes,” from a great number of Chriftians having,
as it is pretended, fuffered martyrdom here in the per-
fecution under Dioclefian. In the Saxons time, it
was a bifhoprick for a ffiort fpace ; and is now, toge¬
ther with Coventry, a biffioprick. It is divided into
two parts by a rivulet and a kind of (hallow lake, over
which are two caufeways with fluices. It is a long
ftraggling place ; but has fome very handfome houfes,
and well-paved clean ftreets. That part on the fouth
fide of the rivulet is called the city, and the other the
clofe. The city is much the largeft, and contains feve¬
ral public ftru&ures. It was incorporated by Edw. VI.
with the name of bailiffs and burgeffes ; and is both a
town and county, governed by 2 bailiffs chofen yearly
out of 24 burgeffes, a recorder, a (heriff, a ffeward, and
ether officers. The city has power of life and death
within their jurifduffion, a court of record, and a pie¬
powder-court. Here is a gaol both for debtors and
felons, a free fchool, and a pretty large well endowed
hofpital for a mafter and 12 brethren. The county
of the city is 10 ot 12 miles in compafs, which the
Iheriff rides yearly on the 8th of September, and then
ffiafts the corporation and neighbouring gentry. The
clofe is fo called from its being inclofed with a wall
and a deep dry ditch on all fides except towards the
city, where it is defended by a great lake or marffi
formed by its brook. The cathedral, which Hands in
the clofe, was originally built by Ofwius king of Nor¬
thumberland about 300. It was rebuilt and enlarged
by Offa king of Mercia in 766. In 1148 was rebuilt,
and greatly enlarged in 1296. At the reformation,
Coventry was divided from it. In the civil wars its
fpire was deftroyed, and it converted to a ftable. In
1776 a beautiful painted window, by the benefa&ion.
of Dr Adenbrook, has been fet up at the weftern end
of the cathedral. In the civil wars it was feveral times
taken and retaken, and thereby fuffered much ; but
was fo repaired after the. reftoration, at the expence of
20,000 1. that it was one of the faireft. and nobleft
ftructures of the kind in England. It is walled in like
a caftle, and Hands fo high as to be feen 10 miles round.
It is 450 feet long, of which the choir is no, and the Litchfield t
breadth in the broadeft place 80. Its portico is hard- . II . ■
ly to be paralleled in England. There were till lately ^'terati*.'
26 ftatues of the prophets, apoftles, kings of Judah, 1
and fome kings of this land, in a row above it, as big
as the life ; and on the top, at each corner of the por¬
tico, is a (lately fpire, befides a fine high fteeple on the
middle of the church. The choir' is paved in great
part with alabafter and channel-coal, in imitation of
black and white marble. In 1789 it went under a
general repair, when the maffive groined arch betwixt
the weft end of the church and the tranfcript, which
had forced the fide wall out of its perpendicular, was
removed. The prebendaries ftalls, which are thought
to be the bed in England, were mod of them rc-erecl-
ed at the charge of the country gentlemen, whofe
names and arms are painted at the top of the ftalls.
The north door is extremely rich in fculpture, but
much injured by time. The body, which is fupported
by pillars formed of numbers of flender columns, has
lately had its decayed leaden roof replaced by a neat
dated covering. The choir merits attention on ac¬
count of the elegant fculpture about the windows,
and the embattled gallery that runs beneath them ; to
which the altar-piece of Grecian architecture but ill
correfponds ; behind which is Mary’s chapel, divided • |
from it by a moft elegant (lone fkreen of beautiful work-
manfhip. Here flood St Chad’s (hrine, which coft
2000 1. The charter-houfe is an o£lagon-room. In
the fame clofe are the palaces of the bilhop and dean,,
and the prebendaries houfes in a court on the hill.
Here are three other churches; one of which, St Mi¬
chael's, has a church-yard of 6 or 7 acres. There was
a caftle here, long fince deftroyed: and ancient camps
have been difcovered in its environs. In the neigh--.
bourhood are frequent horfe-races. The markets there
are on Tuefday and Friday, and fix fairs in the year..
By the late inland navigation, this place has commu¬
nication with the fivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe,
Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon,.
&c. which navigation, including its windings, extends
above 500 miles in the counties of Lincoln, Notting--
ham, York, Lancafter, Weftmoreland, Chefter, War¬
wick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c. Litchfield,
fends two members to parliament.
LITERARY, any thing belonging to Litera¬
ture.
Literary Property, or Copy-Right. See Corr-Right..
LITERATI {letrados, “ lettered”), an epithet gi¬
ven to fuch perfons among the Chinefe as are able to
read and write their language^ The literati alone are
capable of being made mandarins.
Literati is alfo the name of a particular fe6l,.
either in religion, philofophy, or politics, confiding
principally of the learned men of that country; among
whom it is called Jznh’ao, i. e. “ learned^’
It had its rife in the year of Chrill 14QO, when the
emperor, to awaken the native affe6lion of the people
for knowledge, which had been quite banifhed by the
preceding civil wars among them, and to ftir up emu¬
lation among the mandarins, chofe out 42 of the ablell
among their doctors, to whom he gave a commiffion to.
compofe a body of doftrine agreeable to that of the
ancients, which was then become the rule or ilandard
of the learned. The delegates applied themfelves to
LIT [ ioi ] LIT
the bufmefs with very great attention ; but fome fan¬
cied them rather to have wrefted the do&rine of the
ancients, to make it confift with theirs, than to have
built up theirs on the model of the ancients.
They fpeak of the Deity, as if it were no more than
mere nature or the natural power or virtue that pro¬
duces, difpofes, and preferves, the feveral parts of the
univerfe. It is, fay they, a pure, perfect principle,
without beginning or end; it is the fource of all things,
the effence of every being, and that which determines
it to be what it is. They make God the foul of the
world : they fay, he is diffufed through all matter,
and produces all the changes that happen there. In
fhort, it is not eafy to determine, whether they refolve
God into nature, or lift up nature into God; for
they afcribe to it many of thofe things wliich we at¬
tribute to God.
This doftrine, in lieu of the idolatry that prevailed
before, introduced a refined kind of atheifm. The
work, being compofed by fo many perfons of learning
and parts, and approved by the emperor himfelf, was
received with infinite applaufe by all the people. Many
were pleafed with it, becaufe it feemed to fubvert all
religion ; others approved it, becaufe the little religion
that it left them could not give them much trouble.
And thus was formed the feft of the Literati; which
confifts of the maintainers and adherents to this doc¬
trine.
The Court, the mandarins^ and the perfons of, for¬
tune and quality, &c. are generally retainers- to it;
but a great part of the common people ftill hold to
their worlhip of idols.
Ths literati freely tolerate the Mahometans, becaufe
they adore, with them, the king of heaven, and author
of nature ; but they bear a perfect averfion to all forts
of idolaters among them : and it was once refolved to
extirpate them. But the diforder this would have oc-
cafioned in the empire prevented it: they now content
themfelves with condemning them, in general, as he-
refies ; which they do folemnly every year at Pekin.
LITERATURE denotes learning or Ikill in let¬
ters.
LITERNUM. See Linternum.
LITHANTHRAX, or Pir-Coal, is a black or
brown, laminated, bituminous fubftance ; not very ea-
fily inflammable, but, when once inflamed, burns long¬
er and more intenfely than any other fubftance. Of
this fubftance three kinds are diftinguilhed by authors.
The refiduum of the firft after combuftion is black.;
the refiduum of the fecond is fpongy, and like pumice-
ftone ; and the refiduum of the third is whitilh alhes.
Some foffil coal, by long expofure to air, falls into a
greyifti powder, from which alum may be extracted-
Foffil coal by diftillation yields, i. a phlegm or water ;
2. a very acid liquor; 3. a thin oil like naphtha; 4. a
thicker oil, refembling petroleum, which falls to the
bottom of the former, and which rifes with a violent
fire; 5. an acid concrete fait; 6. an uninflammable
earth remains in the retort. Thefe conftituent parts
of foffil-coal are very fimilar to thofe of amber and
other bitumens. For the exciting of intenfe heats, as
of furnaces for fmelting iromore, and for operations
where the acid and oily vapours would be detrimental,
as the drying of malt, foffil-coals are previoufly char¬
red* or reduced to. coair; that is, they are made to
undergo an operation fimilar to that by which char¬
coal is made. By this operation coals are deprived of
their phlegm, their acid liquor, and the greateft part of
their fluid oil. Coaks therefore confift of the two
moft fixed conftituent parts, the heavy oil and the
earth, together with the acid concrete fait, which tho*
volatile is detained by the oil and earth.
LITHARGE, a preparation of lead, ufually in
form of foft flakes, of a yellowifh reddilh colour. If
calcined lead be urged with a hafty fire, it melts into
the appearance of oil, and on cooling concretes into
litharge. Greateft part of the litharge met with in
the fhops is produced in the purification of filver from
lead, and the refining of gold and filver by means of this
metal: according to the degree of fire and other cir-
cumftances, it proves of a pale or deep colour; the firft
has been commonly called litharge of Jilver, the other
litharge of gold. See Chemisty-A^x.
LITHGOW (William), a Scotfman, whofe fuffe-
rings by imprifonment and torture at Malaga, and
whofe travels, on foot, over Europe, Alia, and Afri¬
ca, feem to raife him almoft to the rank of a martyr
and a hero, publiflied an account of his peregrinations
and adventures. Though the author deals much in
the marvellous, the horrid account of the ftrange cruel¬
ties of which, he tells us, he was the- fubjeft, have,
however, an air of truth. Soon after his arrival in
England from Malaga, he was carried to Theobald’s
on a feather-bed, that King James might be an eye-
witnefs of his martyred anatomy, by which he means
his wretched body, mangled and reduced to a Ikeleton.
The whole court crowded to fee him ; and his majefty
ordered him to be taken care of, and he was twice
fent to Bath at his expence. By the king’s command,
he applied to Gondamor, the Spanilh ambaffador, for
the recovery of the, money and other things of value
which the governor of Malaga had taken, from him,
and for L. 1000 for his fupport. He was promi-
fed a full reparation for the damage he had fuftained;
but the perfidious minifter never performed his promife..
When he was upon the point of leaving England,.
Lithgow upbraided him with the breach of his word'
in the prefence-chamber, before feveral gentlemen of
the court. This occafioned their fighting upon the
fpot; and the ambafiador, as the traveller oddly ex-
prefies it, had his fiftula- (with which diforder he was
afflicted) contrabanded with his fill. The unfortunate
Lithgow, who was generally condemned for his fpi-
rited behaviour, was fent to the Marihalfea, where he
continued a prifoner nine months. At the conclufion
of the octavo edition of his Travels he informs us,,
that, in his three voyages, “ his painful feet have tra¬
ced over (befides paffages of feas and rivers) 36,000
and odd miles,; which draweth near to twice the cir¬
cumference of the whole earth.” Here the marvellous
feems to rife to the incredible; and to fet him, in
point of veracity, below Coryat, whom.it is neverthe-
lefs certain that he far outwalked. His defcription
of Ireland is whimfical and curious. This, together
with the narrative of his fufferings, is reprinted in Mor¬
gan’s Phoenix Britannicus.
LITHIASIS, or Stone. See Medicine-/«<2!?x..
LITHOMANTIA, in antiquity, a fpecies of di¬
vination performed with ftones. Sometimes the ftone
called fderitss.wzs ufed ; this they waffled in fpring-
Litharge.
n i
Litho-
mantia.
LIT [ 102 ] LIT
..JJth'w water in the night by candle-light; the perfon that
tripticus confulted it was to be purified from all manner of pol-
Lhhoflr ^ut^on, an(^ to ^ave ^ace covere(i : this done, he
ton. r0" rePeated divine prayers, and placed certain, characters
in an appointed order ; and then the ftone moved of
itfelf, and in a foft gentle murmur, or (as fome fay)
in a voice like that of a child, returned an anfwer. By
a Hone of this nature, Helena is reported to have fore-
tola the deftruftion ofTroy.
LITHONTRIPTICUS (from « a ftone,”
and “ to break”); an epithet for medicines that
are fuppofed to break the 'ftone in the bladder. Though
the different ftones that are generated in the human
bladder require different fblvents when out of the bo¬
dy ; and though art hath not yet afforded a medicine
which, when injected into the bladder, will, without
injury thereto, diffolve the 'ftone therein lodged ; it
cannot thence be concluded, that there are no lithon-
triptic medicines. It may be here obferved, that one
folvent aftefts one fubjeft, but hath no effeCt on ano¬
ther ; fo a folvent may yet be met with that will de-
ftroy the ftone, and not hurt the human body. The
water into which the boiled white of egg diffolves will
liquefy myrrh, but may be put into the human eye
without caufmg any uneafinefs.
Soap ley taken at firft in fmall dofes in broth that
is freed from all its fat, fucceeds in moil cafes which
require an alkaline folvent. The patient may begin
with 20 drops, and gradually increafe the dofe as he
is able ; and by repeating it three times a-day for fix,
eight, or twelve months, the wifhed for effects often
follow.
LITHOPHYTA, the name of Linnseus’s third
erder of vermes. See iZooLoev.
LITHOSPERMUM, gromwell : A genus of
the monogynia order, belongingto the pentandria clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 41ft order, Afperifol'ia. The corolla is funnel-
fiiaped, with the throat perforated and naked; the ca*
lyx quinquepartite. There are feveral fpecles ; but
the only remarkable ones are the officinale or common
gromwell, and the arvenfe or baftard alkanet. Both
thefe are natives of Britain ; the former growing in
dry gravelly foil, the latter in corn-fields. The feeds
of the firft are reputed to be of fervice in calculous
cafes. Dr Grew fays, that they have fo much earth
in their compofition, that they effervefce with acids;
but if this is the cafe, it muftbe attributed rather to
an alkaline than an earthy quality.
LITHOSTROTION, in natural hiftory, the name
of a fpecies of foffil coral, - compofed of a great num¬
ber of long and flender columns, fometimes round,
fometimes angular, jointed nicely to one another, and
of a Harry or radiated furface at their tops. Thefe are
found in confiderable quantities in the northern and
vveftern parts of this kingdom, fometimes In fingle,
fometimes in complex fpecimens. See Plate CC.
LITHOSTROTON, among the Romans, was a
pavement of Mofaic wmrk, confifting of fmall pieces
of cut marble of different kinds and colours. The li-
tbojlrota began to be ufed in the time of Sylla, who
made one at Praenefte in the temple of Fortune. At
laft they were ufed in private houfes; and w’ere brought
to fuch perfection, that they exhibited moft lively re-
prefentations of nature, with all the exa&nefs of the
fineft painting.
LITHOTOMY, in forgery, the operation of cut¬
ting for the ftone. See Surgery.
LITHUANIA, an extenfive province of Poland.
By the natives it is called Letwa, and has Great Po¬
land and Ruflia on the weft ; part of Mufcovy on the
call; Livonia, the Baltic Sea, and part of Mufcovy#
«n the north ; Red Ruflia, Volhfnia, and Padolia, on
the fouth; and the Ukraine on the fouth-eaft. Its
length is faid to be about 360, and its breadth 340
miles; but it is much indented both ways. Lithuania
was anciently over-run with wood ; and there are Hill
many forefts in it, which yield a great deal of honey,
wax, pitch, tar, and timber ; and abound with wild
boars, buffaloes, elks, wild horfes, wild afl’es, uri, and
woodcocks. The lakes are alfo numerous, and well-
ftpred wuth fifh : but the air-, by reafon of thefe forefte
and lakes, is faid to be thick and foggy. The country
produces a great deal of buck-wheat and other corn,
the paftures are luxuriant, find'the flocks and herds nu¬
merous : fo that, notwithftanding agriculture is much
negleCled, provifions are exceeding cheap, but money
fo fcarce, that 10per cent, rsthe common intereft. The
principal nobility have large eftates, and live in great
pomp and fplendor, generally retaining fome hundreds
of thofe that are poor, in quality of domeftics. The
ellablilhed religion is Popery; but Lutherans, Calvi-
nifts, Jews, Turks, Greeks, and Socinians, are very
numerous. Lithuania was governed by its own dukes
till it was united to Poland, towards the end of the
14th century, when the great Duke Jagello married
Hedwig, die dowager of Louis king of Poland and
Hungary. It had even dukes after that, but they
were fubordinate to the king; and at this day, tho’
one diet ferves for both countries, yet each has its
peculiar laws, cuftoms, dialeft, and privileges. In a
diet held at Lublin in 1569, it was more clofely uni¬
ted to Poland than it had been before; and it was en¬
abled, that both countries', for the future, Ihould form
but one ftate under the fame prince. As to their
courts of jufticC, the tenth part of what is adjudged
in all real actions goes always to the judge’s box, and
is immediately paid in court; and in perfonal aftions.
he claims half the damages given. A nobleman is
only fined for murder, as in Poland. The common peo¬
ple here, excepting the burghers in the royal towns,
and the Germans, are flaves; and, in many places,
the ignorant vulgar ftill retain fome remains of idola¬
try. The poor people have only Mondays to them-
felves-; and if their lords have occafion for them even
on that day, the peafant muff: work for himfelf on
Sunday. If any of them is condemned to death by
his lord, he mull execute himfelf, or fuffer greater
cruelty. The dialedl is a language of the Sclavonic ;
and they fpeak here, as in Poland, a barbarous kind
of Latin. Lithuania is divided into nine palatinates.
Another divifion is into Lithuania properly fo call¬
ed, and Lithuanian Ruffia. Some alfo comprehend
under it Samogitia and Courland', which is a fief ot
Poland.
LITMUS, or Lacmus, in the arts, is a blue pig¬
ment, formed from archil. It is brought from Hol¬
land at a cheap rate ; but may be prepared by adding
lath's
tomy
LIT L 103 1 LIT
Litter quick lime and putrified urine, or fpirit of urine diftil-
II led from lime, to. the archil previoully bruifed by grind-
Littlcton. -n^ rfhe mixture having cooled, and the fluid fuffer-
y ’ ed to evaporate, becomes a mafs of the confiilence of a
pafte, which is laid on boards to dry in fquare lumps. It
is only ufed in miniature paintings, and cannot be well
depended on, becaufe the leaft approach of acid changes
it inftantly from blue to red. The beft litmus,is very
apt' to change and fly.
LITTER (leaica), a kind of vehicle borne upon
fhafts ; anciently efteem'ed the moft eafy and genteel
way of carriage. Du-Cange derives the word from the
■= barbarous Latin htteria “ ftraw or bedding for beafts.”
Other will rather have it come from letlus “ bed;” there
being ordinarily a quilt and a pillow to a litter in the
fame manner as to a bed.
' Pliny calls the litter the traveller's chamber : it was
much in ufe among the Romans,, among whom it was
borne by flaves kept for that purpofe ; as it ftill conti¬
nues to be in theeaft, where it is calleda palanquin.—The
Roman leftica, made to be borne by four men, was
called tetraphorum; that borne by fixand
that borne by eight oftapborum.
The invention of litters, according to Cicero, was
owing to the kings of Bithynia : in the time of Tiberius
they were become very frequent at Rome, as appears
from Seneca ; and even flaves themfelves Were borne in
them, though never by more than two perfons, where¬
as men of quality had fix or eight.
Litter alfo denotes a parcel of dry old ftraw put on
the floor of a horfe’s ftall for him to lie down and reft
upon. When a horfe comes tired into a liable, frefh
litter has the virtue of making him ftale immediately.
This is known to be a very great advantage to a horfe
in a tired ftate ; and when the litter is old and dirty, it
never has any fuch effeft upon him. If the owners knew
how refrefhing it is for a horfe to difeharge his urine
on his return from labour, they would be more care¬
ful of giving them all means and occafions of it than
they are. This ftaling after fatigue prevents thofe ob-
ftruftions in the neck of the bladder or urinary paf-
fages which horfes are too fubjefl to. The bladder be¬
ing often inflamed by the long retention of the heated
urine in it, the creature is thus in danger of perilhing.
LITTLE (William), an ancient Englifti hiftoriah,
known alfo by the name of Gvllelmus Neubrigenfts,
was born at Bridlington in the county of York, in the
year 1136; and educated in the abbey of Newborough
in the fame county, where he became a monk. In
his advanced years, he compofed a hiftory of England,
in five books, from the Norman conqueft to A. D.
1197; which, for veracity, regularity of difpofition,
and purity of language, is one of the moft valuable
productions of this period.
LITTLETON (Sir Thomas), judge of the com¬
mon-pleas, was the eldeft fon of Thomas Weftcote,
efq; of the county of Devon, by Elizabeth, foie
heirefs of Thomas Littleton of Frankley in Wor-
cefterfnire, at whofe requeft he took the name and
arms of that family. He was educated at one of our
univerfities, probably at Cambridge. Thence he re¬
moved to the Inner Temple, where he became one of
the readers ; and was afterwards, by Henry VI. made
fteward or judge of the court of the palace, or mar*
(halfea of the king’s houfehold. In 1455, t^e thirty.
6
third of that reign, he was appointed king’s ferjeant, Linleton,
and rode the northern circuit as judge of affize. In liturgy, ^
1462, the fecond of Edward IV. he obtained a par- ^
don from the crown; and, in 1466, was appointed,
one of the judges of the common-pleas, and rode the
Northamptonftare circuit. In the year 1474 he was,
with many of the firft nobility, created knight of the
Bath. He died in 1481 ; and was buried in the ca¬
thedral church of Worcefter, where a marble tomb, -y. .
with his ftatue upon it, was ere died to his memo¬
ry. As to his character as a lawyer, it is fuflicient
to inform the reader, that he was the author of the
Treatife up On Tenures, on which Sir Edward Coke
wrote a comment, well known by the title of Coke
upon Littleton.
Littleton (Adam), defeended from an ancient
family in Shroplhire, was born in 1627, educated at
Weftminfter-fchool, and went to Oxford a ftudent of
Chrift-church, whence he was ejedted by the parlia¬
ment vifitors in 1648. Soon after, he became ulhcr
of Weftminfter-fchool, and in 1658 was made fecond
mafter of Weftminfter-fchool. After the reiteration
he taught a fchool at Chelfea in Middlefex, of which
church he was admitted redtor in the year 1664. In
1670 he accumulated the degrees in divinity, being
then chaplain in ordinary to his majefty. In 1674, he
became prebendary of Weftminfter, of which church
he was afterwards fub-dean. Befide the well-known
Latin and Englifh Didtionary, he publilhed feveral
other works. He died in 1694, and was interred
at Chelfea. He was an univerfal fcholar; and ex¬
tremely charitable, humane, and eafy of accefs.
LITURGY, denotes all the ceremonies in general
belonging to divine fervice.
The word comes from the Greek Krtup-yi* “ fervice,
public miniftry;” formed of « public,” and
“ work.”
In a more reftrained fignification, liturgy is ufed a-
mong the Romanifts to fignify the mafs; and among
us the comtQon-prayer.
All who have written on liturgies agree, that in the
primitive days divine fervice was exceedingly Ample,
only clogged with a very few ceremonies, and confift-
ing of but a fmall number of prayers ;. but, by degrees,
they increafed the number of external ceremonies, and
added new prayers, to make the oflice look more awful
and venerable to the people. At length things were
carried to fuch a pitch, that a regulation became ne-
ceflary; and it was found proper to put the fervice,
and the manner of performing it, into writing; and
this was what they called a liturgy.
Liturgies have been different at different times, and
in different countries. We have the liturgy of St Chry-
foftom, that of St Peter, of St James, the liturgy of
St Bafil, the Armenian liturgy, the liturgy of the
Maronites, of the Copntse, the Roman liturgy, the
Gallican liturgy, the Englifti liturgy, the Ambrofian
liturgy, the Spanifti and African liturgies, &c.
In the more early ages of the church, every biftiop
had a power to form a liturgy for his own diocefe ;
and if he kept to the analogy of faith and dodtrine, all
circumftances were left to his own diferetion. After¬
wards the practice was for the whole province to fol¬
low the metropolitan church, which-alfo became the ge-,
neral rule of the church ; and this Lindwood acknow¬
ledges
L 1 V [ 104 ] L I V
Liturgy ledges to be the common law of the church ; intima-
11 ting, that the ufe of feveral fervices in the fame pro-
Livadia. vince> Vvhich was the cafe in England, was not to be
warranted but by long cuftom. The liturgy of the
church of England was compofed in the year 1547,
and ehablifhed in the fecond year of King Edward VI.
flat. 2. and 3 Ed. VI. cap. x.
In the fifth year of this king it was reviewed ; be-
’Caufe fome things were contained in that liturgy which
ftiowed a compliance with the fuperftition of thofe
times, and fome exceptions were taken againft it by
fome learned men at home, and by Calvin abroad.
Some alterations were made in it, which confifted in
adding the general confdfion and abfolution, and the
communion to begin with the ten commandments. The
ufe of oil in confirmatiori and extreme undtion were
left out, and alfo prayers for fouls departed, and what
tended to a belief of Chrift’s real prefence in the eucha-
rift. This liturgy, fo reformed, was eftabliihed by the
aft of 5 and 6 Ed. VI. cap. 1. However, it was abo-
lilhed by Queen Mary, who enafted, that the fervice
fliould ftand as it was moll commonly ufed in the laft
year of the reign of King Henry VIII. The liturgy
of 5 and 6 Ed. VI. was re-eftablifhed with fome few
alterations and additions, by 1 Eliz. cap. 2. Some
farther alterations were introduced, in confequence of
the review of the common prayer-book, by order of
King James, in the firft year of his reign ; particular¬
ly in the office of private baptifm, in feveral rubricks
■and other pafiages, with the addition of five or fix new
prayers and thankfgivings, and all that part of the ca-
techifm which contains the doftrine of the facraments.
The book of common-prayer, fo altered, remained in
force from the firft year of King James to the four¬
teenth of Charles II. But the laft review of the li¬
turgy was in the year 1661, and the laft aft of unifor¬
mity enjoining the obfervance of it is 13 and 14 Car.
II. cap. 4. See CoMMON-Prayer. Many applications
have been fince made for a review, but hitherto with¬
out fuccefs.
LITUUS, among the Romans, was the ftaff made
ufe of by the augurs in quartering the heavens. It
bote a great refemblance to the crofier of a bifttop, but
was ffiorter. It was crooked at one end, and thickeft
in the curved part, according to A. Gellius. We fre¬
quently meet with a reprefentation of it upon medals,
amongft other pontifical inftruments. It was called
Lituus Shiirinalis, from Quirinus, a name of Romulus,
who was flailed in all the myfteries of augury.
Lituus, was alfo an Inftrument of mufic in ufe in
the Roman army. It was ftraight, excepting that it
had a little bending at the upper end like a lituus or
faced ftaff of the augurs ; and from the fimilitude it
derived its name. The lituus, as an inftrument of mar¬
tial mufic, was of a middle kind, betwixt the cornu
and the tuba.
LIVADIA, anciently Acha'ia and Hellas, or Greece
properly fo called; a province of Turky in Europe,
bounded on the north by Epirus and Theffaly, from
which is is feparated by mount Oeta, now Banina, and
by the Euripus, now the ftrait of Negropont; on the
eaft, by the Archipelago ; on the fouth, by the gulf of
Engia or Egina, the ifthmus of Corinth, and the
N0 183.
gulf of Lepanto ; and on the weft, by the Ionian fea Livadia
and part of Epirus. Its extent is about 130 miles fl -
from north-weft to fouth-eaft ; but its greateft breadth Liver,
is not above 36 miles. I-t is in general 3 mountainous v-"*
country ; but neither unpleafant nor unfruitful. The
principal mountains are, mount Oeta in Bceotia, where
is the famous pafs of Thermopylae, not above 25 feet
broad; and Parnaflus, Helicon,andCythasron in Phocis,
which were facred to Apollo and the mufes, and con-
fequently much celebrated by the poets. The rivers
of moft note are, the Sionapro, anciently the Achelous,
the Cephiffus, the Ifmenus, and the Afopus. The
province is at prefent divided into Livadia proper,
Stramulippa, and the duchy of Athens. The prin¬
cipal places are, Lepanto, anciently Naupaftus ; Liva¬
dia, anciently Libadia or Lebadia ; the celebrated city
of Athens, now Setines ; Thebes, now Stibes ; Lep-
fina, anciently Eleufis ; Caftri, formerly Delphi; and
Megara.
Livadia, an ancient town of Turky in Europe,
and capital of a province of the fame name in Greece.
It is a large and populous place, feated on the gulf of
Lepanto, about 25 miles from the city of that name.
It has now a confiderable trade in woollen fluffs and
rice. Anciently it was celebrated for the oracle of
Trophonius, which was in a cavern in a hill above the
town. E. Long. 23. 29. N. Lat. 38.40.
LIVER, in anatomy. See there, nQ 96.—Plato,
and other of the ancients, fix the principle of love in
the liver; whence the Latin proverb, Coglt amarc
jecur: and in this fenfe Horace frequently ufes the
word, as when he fays, Si torrere jecur queens Idoneum..
—The Greeks, from its concave figure, called'it
“ vaulted, fufpended;” the Latins call it jecur, q. d-
juxia cor, as being “ near the heart.” The French call
it foye, from foyer, fecus, “ or fire-place agreeable to
the doftrine of the ancients, who believed the blood to
be boiled and prepared in it.—Erafiftratus, at firft,
called it parenchyma, i. e. effujion, or rruifs of blood ; and
Hippocrates, by way of eminence, frequently calls it
the hypochondrium.
Liver of Antimony. See Chemist ry-Ao^x.
Liver'of Arfenic, is a combination of white arfenic
with liquid fixed vegetable alkali, or by the humid
way. Arfenic has in general a ftrong difpofition to
unite with alkalis. Mr Macquer, in his Memoirs upon
Arfenic, mentions a Angular kind of neutral fait, which
refults from the union of arfenic with the alkaline balls
of nitre, when nitre is decompofed, and its acid is dif-
engaged in clofe veffels, by means of arfenic. To this
fait he has given the name of neutral arfenical fdlt f. f See Chef
The liver of arfenic, mentioned alfo by that chemift, mi.Pry*
although compofed, like the neutral arfenical fait, of***'
arfenic and fixed alkali, is neverthelefs very different
from that fait.
The operation for making liver of arfenic is eafy and
fimple. To ftrong and concentrated liquid fixed alkali,
previoufly heated, fine powder of white arfenic muft
be added. This arfenic eafily difappears and diffolves,
and as much of it is to be added till the alkali is fatu-
rated, or has loft its alkaline properties, although it is
Hill capable of diffolving more arfenic fuperabundantly*
While the alkali diffolves the arfenic in this operation.
L I V r 105 ] I. I V
It acquires a brmvnifh colour, and a fiugular and dif-
agrseable fmell; which, however, is not the fmell of
pure arfenic heated and volatilized. Laftly, this mix¬
ture becomes more and more thick, and at length of
a gluey confidence. This matter is not cryftallizable
as the neutral arfenical fait is. It is eafily decompofed
by the aftion of fire, which feparates the arfenic.
This does not happen to the arfenical fait. Any
pure acid is capable of feparating arfenic from the li¬
ver of arfenic, in the fame manner as they feparate
fulphur from liver of fulphur : whereas the neutral
arfenical fait cannot be decompofed but by means of
the united affinities of acids and metallic fubftances.
Thus we fee that arfenic may be combined with fixed
alkali in two very different manners.
The author has given to this combination the name
ef liver of arfenic, to diftinguifh. it from the neutral
arfenical fait, and in imitation of the name of the li¬
ver of fulphur, given to the combination of the fixed
alkali with fulphur.
IjIver of Sulphur. See Chemistry, Index.
LivER-Wort, in botany. See Mavichantia and
Lichen.
LivtR-Stone, (lapis hepaticus) ; a genus of inflam¬
mable fubilances, containing, befides its phlogifton, ar¬
gillaceous, ponderous, and filiceous earth, united with
vitriolic acid. See Earths, §. i. n 4.
Mr Bergman, in his Sciagraphia, informs us, that
100 parts of this ftone contain 33 of filiceous earth, 29
of cauftic ponderous earth, almoft 5 of argillaceous
earth, and 3.7 of lime, befides the vitriolic acid and
water of cryllallifation : but Mr Kirwan quotes ano¬
ther analyfis of the fame author, where it is faid that
100 parts of it contain 33 of baro-felenite, 38 of fili¬
ceous earth, 22 of alum, 7 of gypfum, and 5 of mine¬
ral oil.
LIVERPOOL, a large, flouriffiing, and populous
toivn of England, in the county of Lancafter, fituated
at the influx of the river Merfey into the fea. This
town has fo much increafed in trade fince the com¬
mencement of the prefent century, that it is now the
greateft fea-port in England except London, having
exce. led Briftol confiderably of late years ; which will
appear by the following account of the cuftom-duties,
received in the feveral ports of London, Liverpool, and
Brifiol, in the year 1784, taken from the report of the
commiffioners for infpeCting the ftate of public ac-
London, - - L. 5,187,052 9 5 I.
Liverpool, - - 640,684 2 24-
Briitol, - - - 334,909 19 34.
Liverpol exceeded Briftol, L. 305,774 2 11
The following fhows how much the trade has increafed
fince the above period :
Duties received in the port of Liverpool from July 5th
1787, to October 1 c th 1787. L. 298,361 9 io|-
The merchants here trade to all parts of the world ex¬
cept Turky and the Eaff Indies; but the moft benefi¬
cial trade is to Guinea and the Weft Indies, by which
many of them have acquired very large fortunes.
Liverpool, during the laft war, carried on more fo-
Vol. X. Part L
reign trade than any town in England; and fuch is Liverpr.
the ftate of it at this time, that there a^e near three '’■""v*
thoufand veffels cleared from that port in one year to
different parts of the world. Here are feveral manu-
faftories for China-ware, and pot-houfes which make
very fine ware, fotpe falt-works, glafs-houfes, and up ¬
wards of 50 breweries, from fome of which large quanti¬
ties of malt-liquor are fent abroad. Many of the build¬
ings are formed in the moft elegant manner ; but the'
old ftreets are narrow ; which defect w ill foon be re¬
moved, as the corporation have lately obtained an aft
of parliament for the improvement of the town, which
they have already begun to put in force with great-fpi-
rit, having taken down the principal ftfeets in the
centre of the town, and rebuilt them in a fpacious and
moft magnificent manner; fo that in a few years it will
be one of the handfomeft towns in England. This
town contains ten churches, namely, St Peter’s, St
Nicholas’s, St George’s, St Thomas’s, St Paul’s, St
Ann’s, St John’s, St James’s, St Catharine’s, and St
Mary’s. There are alfo meetings for independents,
anabaptifts, quakers, methodifts, and preibyterians.
The exchange is a noble ftrufture, built of white ftone
in the form of a fquare, and round it are piazzas where
the merchants affemble to tranfaft bufinefs. Above it
are the mayor’s offices, the feffions-hall, the council-
chamber, and two elegant ball-rooms. The expence of
erefting this building amounted to L. 30,000. The
cuftom-houfe is fituated at the head of the old dock,
and is a handfome and convenient ftrufture. Here
are many charitable foundations, among which is an
excellent grammar-fchool well endowed, and many of
the youth taught in it have exhibitions in the univer-
fities. The infirmary is a large edifice of brick and
ftone, fituated on a hill in a very pleafant airy fituation,
at one end of the town.
In the town is a charity-fchool fupported by volun¬
tary fubfcriptions and contributions for 50 boys and
12 girls, who are not only clothed and educated, but
alfo provided with food and lodging : like wife feveral
alms houfes for the widows of feamen ; and an excel¬
lent poor-houfe, fuperior to any in the kingdom,
where upwards of 800 men, women, and children, are
fupported, many of whom are employed in fpinning
cotton and wool. There are. five large wet docks,
three dry docks, and feveral graving docks for the re¬
pairing of fliipping ; which renders it the moft com¬
modious fea-port in the world. The quays which
bound thefe docks are covered with warehoufes ; which
is a convenience that enables the merchant to difcharge
his ffiip at a very fmall expence. The new prifon
lately finifhed is a noble edifice, being built entirely
on the plan of the great and benevolent Mr Howard,
for folitary confinement ; and is perhaps the moft con¬
venient, airy, magnificent building of the kind in Eu¬
rope ; being upon a very extenfive fcale.
Liverpool received its charter from king John : k
is under the government of a recorder, mayor, and an
unlimited number of aldermen, two bailiffs, and a com¬
mon-council of forty of the principal inhabitants, with
a totvn-clerk and other proper officers. The town
has a weekly market on Saturday, and is diftant from
London 204 miles. The progreffive rife of popula-
G tion
L I V [ 106 ] L I V
I.iverpool, t!on in Liverpool, may be conceived by perilling the poffeffion of lands, &c. to him who has a right toLiverymer|
I.ivery. f0U0Wing t^ le: them. ^ t , L'v_iu,■ f
LIVERYMEN of London, are a number of men v
chofen from among the freemen of each company. Out
of this body the common-council, IherifF, and other
fuperior officers for the government of the city, are
elected; and they alone have the privilege of giving
their votes for members of parliament, from which the
reft of the citizens are excluded.
LIVIUS (Titus), the belt of the Roman hiftori-
ans, as he is called by Mr Bayle, was born at Patavi-
um, or Padua. Few particulars of his life have been
handed down to us. Coming to Rome, he acquired •
the notice and favour of Auguftus, and there he long
redded. Some have fuppofed, (for there is not any
proof of it), that he was known to Auguftus before.
By the late inland navigation, Liverpool has com- by certain Philofophical Dialogues which he had de-
munication with the rivers Dee, Ribble, Ouie, Trent, dicated to him. Seneca fays nothing of the dedication :
Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon, &c. which but mentions the dialogues, which he calls hiftorical
navigation, including its windings, extends above 500 and philofophical; and alfo fame books, written pur-
miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, pofely on the fubjeft of philofophy. Be this as it will,
Weftmoreland, Chefter, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter, it is probable that he began his hiftory as foon as he
Oxford, Worcefter, &c. The Merfey,' upon which was fettled at Rome ; and he feems to have devoted
the town is fituated, abounds with falmon, cod, floun- himfelf fo entirely to the great work he had under-
ders, turbot, plaife, and fmelts; and at full fea it is taken, as to be perfectly regardlefs of his own advance-
above twro miles over. In the neighbourhood are fre- ment. The tumults and diffractions of Rome frequently
quent horfe-races, on a five-mile courfe, the find! for obliged him to retire to Naples ; not only that he might
the length in England. The foil in and near the be lefs interrupted in the purfuit of his ddlined talk,
town is dry and fandy, and particularly favourable to but alfo enjoy that retirement and tranquillity which
the growth of potatoes, on which the farmers often he could not have at Rome, and which yet he feems
depend more than.on wheat or any other grain. Frdh to have much fought after : for he was greatly dil-
water is brought into the town by pipes, from fome fatisfied with the tnanners of his age, and tells us, that
fprings four miles off, purfuant to an aft of parliament “ he ffiould reap this reward of his labour, in compo-
in the reign of Queen Anne. Liverpool fends two fing the Roman hiftory, that it would take his atten-
members to parliament. tion from the prefent numerous evils, at leaft while he
LIVERY, in matters of drefs and equipage, a was employed upon the firft and earlieft ages. ” He ufed
certain colour and form of drefs, by which noblemen to read parts of this hillory, while he was compofing it,
and gentlemen choofe to diftinguifh their fervants. to Mecaenas and Auguftus; and the latter conceived fo
Liveries are ufually taken from fancy, or continued high an opinion of him, that he pitched upon him to fa¬
in families by fucceffion. The ancient cavaliers, at perintend the education of his grandfon Claudius, who
their tournaments, diftinguifhed themfelves by wearing was afterwards emperor. After the death of Auguftus,
the liveries of their miftreffes : thus people of quality Livy returned to the place of his birth, where he was
make their domeftics wear their livery. received with all imaginable honour and rel'pecf t and
Father Meneftrier, in his Treatife of Caroufals, has there he died, in the fourth year of the reign of Tir
given a very ample account of the mixtures of colours berius, aged above feventy. Some fay, he died on
in liveries. Dion tells us, that Oenomaus was^the firft the fame day with Ovid : it is certain that he died
who invented green and blue colours, for the troops the fame year.
which, in the circus, were to reprefent land and fea- Scarce any man was ever more honoured, alive as
fights. well as dead, than this hiftorian. Pliny the younger
The Romiffi church has alfo her feveral colours and relates, that a native gentleman travelled from Gades,
liveries ; white, for confeffors and virgins, and in times in the extremeft parts of Spain, to fee Livy : and,
of rejoicing; black, for the dead ; red, for the apoftles though Rome abounded with more ftupendous and cu-
and martyrs; blue or violet, for penitents; and green, rious fpeftacles than any city in the world, yet he.im-
in times of hope. mediately returned ; as if, after having feen Livy, no-
Formerly, great men gave liveries to feveral, who thing farther could be worthy of his notice. A'mo-
were not of their family or fervants, to engage them nument was erefted to this hiftorian in the temple of
in their quarrels for that year; but this was prohibited Juno, where was afterwards founded the monaftery of
by the ftatutes 1 Rich. II. 1 Hen. IV. cap. 27. 2 and St Juftina. There, in 1413, was difcovered the fol-
7 Hen. IV. 8 Hen. VI. cap. 4. 8 Ed-. IV. cap. 2 ; lowing epitaph upon Livy r OJ/a Till Liv'ti Patavini,
and no man, of whatever condition, was allowed to omnium mortaliumjudicio digni, cujusprope inviElo calamo in-
give any livery, but to his domeftic officers, and Court- victipopuli Romani res gejla confcriberentur; that is, “ The
lei learned in the law. However, moll of the above bones of Titus Livius of Patavium, a man worthy to
ftatutes are repealed by 3 Car. I. cap. 4. be approved by all mankind, by whole almoft invin-
LiFi.nr of Sef 11, in-law, fignifies delivering the cible pen the a6ls and exploits of the invincible Ro-
1660
1680
1700
1720
1740
i 760
I780
■3
ic6
132
410
485
986
1709
2267
Buried. ! Married.
51
124
293
608
599
i544
1773
5
35
58
137
408
606
804
ILivkis.
r-'
L I V [ >07 ] I. I V
mans were written.” Thefe bones are fa id to be pre¬
ferred with high reverence to this day, and are Ihown
by the Paduans as the moft precious remains. In
1451, Alphonfus, king of Arragon, fent his ambaffa-
dor, Anthony Panormita, to defire of the citizens of
Padua the bone of that arm with which this their fa¬
mous countryman had written his hiftory : and, ob¬
taining it, caufed it to be conveyed to Naples with the
greateft ceremony as a moft invaluable relic. He is
faid to have recovered from an ill ftate of health by
the pleafure he found in reading this hiftory : and there¬
fore, out of gratitude, put upon doing extraordinary
honours to the memory of the writer. Panormita alfo,
who was a native of Palermo in Sicily, and one of the
ableft men of the 15th century, fold an eftate to pur-
chafe this hiftorian.
The hiftory of Livy, like other great works of an¬
tiquity, is tranfmitted down to us exceedingly mutilated
and imperfett. Its books were originally an hundred and
forty-two, of which are extant only thirty-five. The
epitomes of it, from which we learn their number, all
remain, except thofe of the 136th and 137th books.
Livy’s books have been divided into decades, whichfome
will have to have been done by Livy himfelf, becaufe
there is a preface to every decade ; while others fuppofe
it to be a modern contrivance, fince nothing about it can
be gathered from the ancients. The fir ft decade, begin¬
ning with the foundation of Rome, is extant, and treats
of the affairs of 460 years. The fecond decade is loft;
the years of which are feventy-five. The third decade
is extant, and contains the fecond Punic war, inclu¬
ding eighteen years. It is reckoned the moft excellent
part of the hiftory, as giving an account of a very long
and (harp war, in which the Romans gained fo many
advantages, that no arms could afterwards withftand
them. The fourth decade contains the Macedonian
war againft Philip, and the Afiatic war againft Antio-
chus, which takes up the fpace of about 23 years. The
five firft books of the fifth decade were found at Worms,
by Simon Grynasus, in 1431, but are very defective ;
and the remaindec. of Livy’s hiftory, which reaches to
the death of Drufus in Germany in 746, together with
the fecond decade, are fupplied by Freinlhemius.
Never man perhaps was furnilhed with greater ad¬
vantages for writing a hiftory than Livy. Befides his
own great genius, which was in every refpeft admi¬
rably formed for the purpofe, he was trained as it were
in a city, at that time the emprefs of the world, and
in the politeft reign that ever was; having fcarcely had
any other fchool than the court of Auguftus. He had
accefs to the very beft materials, fuch as the Memoirs
of Syfta, Caefar, Labienus, Pollio, Auguftus, and o-
thers, written by themfelves. “ What writers of me¬
morials (fays Lord Bolinbroke), what compilers of the
Materia Hiftorica, were thefe ! What genius was ne-
ceffary to finilh up the pictures that fuch mafters had
Iketched ! Rome afforded men that were equal to the
talk. Let the remains, the precious remains, of Sal-
luft, of Livy, and of Tacitus, witnefs this truth. 
What a fchool of public and private virtue had been
opened to us at the refurreftion of learning, if the lat¬
ter hiftorians of the Roman commonwealth, and the
firft of the fucceeding monarchy, had come down to us
entire ! The few that are come down, though broken
and imperfeft, compofe the beft body of hiftory that
we have ; nay, the only body of ancient hiftory that
deferves to be an objedt of ftudy. It fails us indeed
moft at that remarkable and fatal period, where our
reafonable curiofity is railed the higheft. Livy em¬
ployed forty-five books to bring his hiftory down to the
end of the fixth century, and the breaking out of the
third Punic war : but he employed ninety-five to bring
it down from thence to the death of Drufus; that is,
through the courfe of 120 or 130 years. Appian,
Dion Caffius, and others, nay, even Plutarch included,
make us but poor amends for what is loft of Livy.”
Speaking then of Tully’s orations and letters, as the
beft adventitious helps to fupply this lofs, he fays, that
“ the age in which Livy flouriflied, abounded with
fuch materials as thefe : they were frefh, they were au¬
thentic : it was eafy to procure them; it was fafe to
employ them. How he did employ them in executing
the fecond part of his defign, we may judge from his
execution of the firft ; and, I own, I ftiould be glad
to exchange, if it were poffible, what we have of this
hiftory for what we have not. Would you not be glad,
my lord, to fee, in one ftupendous draught, the whole
progrefs of that government from liberty to fervitude ;
the whole feries of caufes and effects, apparent and real,
public and private ?” &c.
The encomiums bellowed upon Livy, by both an¬
cients and moderns, are great and numerous. He not
only entertains like Herodotus ; he alfo inftrufts and
interefts in the deepeft manner. But the great probity,
candour, and impartiality, are what have diftinguilh-
ed Livy above all hiftorians; for neither complaifance
to the times, nor his particular connexions with the
emperor, could reftrain him from fpeaking well of Pom-
pey; fo well, as to make Auguftus call him a Pom¬
peian. This we learn from Cremutius Cordus, in Ta¬
citus ; who relates alio, much to the emperor’s ho¬
nour, that this gave • no interruption to their friend-
Ihip. But whatever elogies Livy may have received
as an hiftorian, he has not efcaped cenfure as a writer.
In the age wherein he lived, Afinius Pollio charged
him with Patavinity ; which Patavinity has been va-
rioufly explained by various writers, but is generally
fuppofed to relate to his ftyle. The moft common
is, that this noble Roman, accuftomed to the delicacy
of the language fpoken in the court of Auguftus,
could not bear with certain provincial idioms, which
Livy, as a Paduan, ufed in divers places of his hiftory.
Pignorius is of another mind, and believes that this
Patavinity regarded the orthography of certain words,
wherein Livy ufed one letter for another, according
to the cuftom of his country, writing Jibe and quafe
forfibi and quaji; which he attempts to prove by fe-
veral ancient infcriptions. The expreffions, however,
or the orthography of words, are not loaded with ob-
fcurity, and the perfed claffic is as familiarly acquaint¬
ed with thofe fuppofed provincialifms as with the pureft
Latinity.—Livy has been cenfured too, and perhaps
with juftice, for being too credulous, and burdening
his hiftory with vulgar notions and fuperftitious tales.
He may difguft when he mentions that milk and blood
were rained from heaven, or that an ox fpoke or a wo¬
man changed her fex ; yet he candidly confeffes that
he recorded only what made an indelible impreffion
upon the minds of a credulous age.
Is it worth while to mention here the capricious
O 2 and
1
L I V r 108 1 L I X
and tyrannic humour of the emperor Caligula, who
accufed Livy of being a negligent and wordy writer,
and refolved therefore to remove his works and ilallies
out of all libraries, where he knew they were curioully
preferred ? Or the fame humour in Domitian, another
prodigy of nature, who put to death Metius Pompo-
lianirs, becaufe he made a colleftion of fome orations
of kings and generals out of Livy’s hiftory ? Pope
Gregory the Great, alfo, would not fuffer Livy in any
Chrillian library, becaufe of the Pagan fuperftition
wherewith he abounded: but the fame reafon held
good againft all ancient authors ; and indeed Gregory’s
zeal was far from being levelled at Livy in particular,
the pontiff having declared war againlt all human learn-
iag-
Though we know nothing of Livy’s family, yet we
learn from Quintilian, that he had a fon, to whom he
addreffed fome excellent precepts in rhetoric. An an¬
cient infcription fpeaks alfo of one of his daughters,
named Livia Shjarla : the fame, perhaps, that efpoufed
the orator Lucius Magius, whom Seneca mentions ;
and obferves, that the applaufes he ufually received
from the public in his harangues, were not fo much
on his own account, as for the fake of his father in
law.
Our author’s hiftory has been often publifhed with
and without the fupplement of Freinfhemius. The
heft editions are, that of Gronovins, cum noth ’vario¬
rum. iif fu':s, Lugd. Bat. 1679, 3 vol. 8vo; that of
Le Clerc, at Amfterdam, 1709, 10 vol. 12mo ; and
that of Crevier, at Paris, 1735, 6 vol. 410. Thefe
have the fupplements.—Learning perhaps never fu-
itained a greater lofs, in any ftngle author, than by the
deftrudfion of the latter and more interefting part of
Livy. Seiteral eminent moderns have indulged the
pleafing expectation that the entire work of this noble
hiftorian might yet be recovered. It has been faid to
ex ill in an Arabic verfion : and even a complete copy
of the original is fuppofed to have been extant as late
as the year 1631, and to have perifhed at that time
in the plunder of Magdeburgh. The munificent pa¬
tron of learning, Leo X. exerted the moft generous
zeal to relicue from oblivion the valuable treafure,
which one of his moft bigotted predeceffors, above
mentioned, had expelled from every Chriftian library.
Bayle has preferved, under the article Leo, two curious
original letters of that pontiff, concerning his hopes
of recovering Livy; which afford moll honourable
proofs of his liberality in the caufe of letters.—A lately
difeovered fragment of Livy’s hiftory was publifhed
in 1773 by Dr Bruns.
Livius (Andronicus), a comic poet who flourifhed
at Rome about 240 years before the Chriftian era. He
was the firit who turned the perfonal fatyrs and fefeen-
nine verfes, fo long the admiration of the Romans, in¬
to the form of a proper dialogue and regular play.
Though the character of a player, fo valued and ap¬
plauded in Greece, was reckoned vile and defpicable
among the Romans, Andronicus a£ted a part in his
dramatical compofitions, and engaged the attention
of his audience, by repeating what he had laboured
after the manner of the Greeks. Andronicus was the
freedman of M. Livius Salinator, whofe children he
educated. His poetry was grown obfolete in the age
of Cicero, whofe nicety and judgment would not even
recommend the reading of it.
LIVONIA, a large province of the Ruffian em¬
pire, with the title of a duchy. It is bounded on the
north by the gulph of Finland, on the weft by that
of Riga, on the fouth by Courland, and on the eaft,
partly by Plefcow, and partly by Novogorod. It is
about 250 miles from north to fouth, and 150 from
eaft to weft. The land is fo fertile in corn, that
it is called the granary of the north; and would pro¬
duce a great deal more, if it was not fo full of lakes.
The fifh that abound here are i’almons, carps, pikes,
flat fifh, and many others. In the forefts there are
wolves, bears, elks, rein-deer, flags, and hares. The
domeflic animals are very numerous ; but the fheep
bear very bad wool. Here' are a great number of fo¬
refts, which confift of birch-trees, pines, and oaks ;
and all the houfes of the inhabitants are built with
wood. The merchandizes which they fend abroad are
flax, hemp, honey, wax, leather fkins, and potafhes.
The Swedes were formerly poffeffed of this province,
but were obliged to abandon it to the Ruffians after
the battle of Pultowa ; and it was ceded to them by
the peace of the North, concluded in 1722, which was
confirmed by another treaty in 1742. It is divided in¬
to two provinces, viz. Letonia and Eftonia ; and tw<5
iflands called Oefel and Dagho, which are again fubdi-
vided into feveral diftrifts.
LIVONICA-terra, a kind of fine bole ufed in
the fhops of Germany and Italy. It is found in Livo¬
nia, from whence it takes its name, and alfo in fome
other parts of the world. It is generally brought to
us in little cakes, fealed with the impreffion of a church
and an efcutcheon, with two crofs keys.
LIVRE, a French money of account, containing
20 fols. See Mon ex-Table.
LIXA, or Lixus (anc. geog.) a town on the At¬
lantic near the river Lixus ; made a Roman colony
by Claudius C as far; famous in mythology for the
palace of Anteus and his encounter with Hercules,
(Pliny). Now Larache, fixty-fi^e leagues to the
fouth of the flraits of Gibraltar.
LIXIVIOUS, an appellation given to falls ob¬
tained from burnt vegetables by pouring water on their
allies. ■
LIXIVIUM, in pharmacy, &c. a ley obtained by
pouring fome liquor upon the allies of plants v which
is more or lefs powerful, as it has imbibed the fixed
falls contained in the allies.
LIXNAW, a barony in the county of Kerry and
province of Munfter in Ireland, which gives title of
Baron to the earls of Kerry -r the village here of this
name being their ancient feat, where the caftle was
ereffed. This feat ftands agreeably on the river Brick,
which is here cut into feveral pleafant canals, that a-
dorn its plantations and gardens; the improvements
are extenlive, moft of the viftoea and avenues termi¬
nating by different buildings, feats, and farm-houfes.
The tide flows up to the gardens, whereby boats of a
confiderable burden may bring up goods to the bridge
near the houfe : here are two ftone-bridges over the
Brick, the oldeft of which was built by Nicholas the
third baron Lixnaw, who was the firft perfon that
made caufeways to this place, the land being naturally
wet
Livonia in
II I
Lixnaw. .pi
L O A [ log ] L O A
wet and marfliy. W. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 52. a vein of earth or ftone, or fome other metalline fub-
15. fiance ; in which cafe it generally happens, that one il
LIZARD, in zoology. See Lacerta. part of the load is moved to a confiderable diftance on Loango, ^
Lizard, in geography, a cape or promontory of one fide. This tranfient load is, by the miners, termed *
Cornwall, fituated, according to the moft common a jlooiintr ■ and th« part of the load which is moved,
is by them faid to be heaved. This fracture or heave
of a load, according to Mr Price, is produced by a
fubfidence of the flrata from their primary pofitions,
which he fuppofes to have been horizontal or parallel '
to the furface of the earth, and therefore fhould more
properly be called a depreffion than a heave. This
computation, in W. Long. 5. 47. N. Lat. 49. 50.
. LLANDAFF. See Landaff.
LLOYD (Nicholas), a learned Englifh writer in
the 17th century, was born in Flintfhire in England,
and educated at Wadham college, Oxford. He was
rector oTp Newington St Mary near Lambeth in Surry,
till his death, which happened in 1680. His Diciio- heaving of the load would be an inexpreffible lofs to the
narium Hijloruum. is a valuable work, to which Hoff¬
man and Moreri are greatly indebted.
Lloyd (William),' a moft learned Englifh writer
and bifhop, was born in Berkfhire in England in 1627.
He was educated under his father, reftor- of Sonning,
and vicar-of Tyle-hurft in Berkfhire; then went to
Oxford, and-took orders. In 1660 he was made pre¬
miner, did not experience teach him, that as the loads
always run on the fides of the hills, fo the part heaved
is always moved toward the defeent of the hill; fo that
the miner, working toward the afeent of the hill, and
meeting a flooking, confiders himfelf as working in
the heaved part ; wherefore, cutting through the
flooking, he works upon its back up the afeent of the
bendary eft Rippon; and in 1666 chaplain to the-king, hill, till he recovers the load, and s
Jin 1667 he took the degree of dodlor of divinity; in
1672 he was inftalled dean of Bangor; and in 1680
was confecrated bifhop of St Afaph. He was one of
the fix bifhops who, with archbiihop Sancroft, were
committed prifoners to the Tower of London, for fub-
feribing a petition to the king againft diftributing and
publifhing his declaration for liberty of confcicnce.
Soon after the revolution he was made almoner to king
William and queen Mary: in 1692 he was tranflatedto
the bifhopric of Litchfield and Coventry; and in 1699,
to the fee of Worcefter, where he fat till his death,
which happened in 1717, the 91ft ytar of his age. Dr
Burnet gives him an exalted character, and his works
are highly efteemed.
LOACH, in ichthyology. See Cobitis.
LOAD, or Lode, in mining, a word ufed efpe-
cially in the tin-mines, for any regular vein or courfe,
whether metallic or not; but moft commonly load means
a metallic vein.
verja.
Load is alfo ufed for nine difhes of ore, each difh
being about half a hundred weight.
LOADSTONE. See Magnet.
LOAMS, in natural hiftory, are defined to be earths
compofed of diflimilar particles, fluff, denfe, hard, and
rough to the touch ; not eafily broke while moift, rea¬
dily diffufible in (water, and compofed of fand and a
tough vifeid clay. Of thefe loams fome are whitifh and
others brown and yellow.
LOAN, any thing given to another, on condition
of return or payment.
Public Loans. See Funds, and National Debt.
LOANDA, a province of the kingdom of Angola
in Africa. It is an ifland about 15 miles in length,
and three in breadth; remarkable chiefly for the capi¬
tal of Angola fituated upon it, in E. Long. 12. 25.
S. Lat. 8. 45. This town was built by the Portuguefe
in 1578, under the direftion of the firft Portuguefe
governor in thefe parts. It is large, populous, and
It is to be obferved, that mines in general are veins pleafantly feated on the declivity of a hill near the
or cavities within the earth, whofe fides receding from fea-coaft, and facing the fouth-weft. The ifland is
or approaching to each other, make them of unequal fupplied with frefh water from wells dug in it; and
breadths in different places, fometimes forming large
fpaces, which are called holes; thefe holes are filled
like the reft with fubftances, which, whether metallic,
or of any other nature, are called loads. When the
fubftances forming thefe loads are reducible to metal,
the loads are by the Englilh miners faid to be alive,
otherwife they are termed dead loads.
In CornwalFand Devonshire the loads all hold their
which are not funk below the depth of three feet when
they are filled with excellent water. It is remarkable,
however, that the water of thefe wells continues good
only during the time of high-tide ; for, as that finks,
the water becomes more and more brackilh, till at laft
it is quite fait, almoft as much as the fea itfelf. On
the coaft of this ifland are fiftied the zimbis, or ihells
ufed in feve-ral parts of Africa inftead of money ; and
courfe from eaftward to weftward, tho’ in other parts of with thefe ihells, inftead of coin, is carried on a great
England they frequently run,from north to fouth. The
miners report, that the fides of the load never bear in
a perpendicular, but always overhang either to the
north or fouth above. The mines feem to have been
fo many channels through which the waters pafs with¬
in the earth ; and like rivers they have their fmHl
branches opening into them in all diredtions : thefe are
by the miners termed the feeders of the load. Moft
mines have ftreams of water running through them;
and when they are found dry, it feems owing to the
water having changed its courfe, which it feems fome¬
times to have been compelled to by the load’s having
filled up the couife, and fometimes to have fallen into
ether more eafy channels.
The load is frequently intercepted by the crofting of
5
part’of the traffic of this country.
LOANGO, a kingdom of Africa, extending itfelf
about 180 geographical miles in length from fouth to
north ; that is, from cape St Catharine under the fe-
cond degree of fouth latitude, to a final! river called
Lovanda Louifia, on the 5th degree of the fame. From
weft to eaft it extends from Cape Negro on the coaft
of Ethiopia towards the Buchumalean mountains, fo
called on account of their vaft quantity of ivory and
great droves of elephants, about 300 miles. It is di¬
vided into four principal provinces, viz. thofe of Lo-
vangiri, Loango-mongo, Chilongo, and Piri.
The inhabitants are very black, well-fhaped, and
of a mild-temper. The men wear long petticoats, from
the waift downwards, and have round their waift a
piece
LOB [ i
I^oango piece of cloth half an ell or a quarter broad, over
!1 which they wear the Ikin of a leopard, or fome other
Label a. bead, hanging before them like an apron. On
their head they wear a cap made of grafs, and quilt¬
ed, with a feather a-top of it; and on their Ihoulder,
or in their hand, they carry a buffalo’s tail, to drive
away the mulkettos. The womens petticoats are
made only of ftraw, about an ell fquare, with which
they cover their privities, but leave the greateft part
of their thighs and buttocks bare : the reft of their
body is quite bare, except that on their legs they wear
little firings of beads made of fhells, and fmall brace¬
lets of ivory on their arms. They anoint themfelves
with palm-oil, mixed with a kind of red wood redu¬
ced to powder.
This country abounds with poultry, oxen, cows,
fheep, goats, elephants, tigers, leopards, civet-cats,
and other animals; fo that here are great quantities
of elephants teeth, and fine furs, to be traded for.
The capital city, where the king refides, is called
J^oango, or Ban%a-Loangeri, and, in the language of
the negroes, Boaric. This city is fituated in South
Lat. 4L degrees, a league and a half from the fea-
coaft. It is a pretty large city, fhaded and adorned
with bananas, palm, and other trees. The king, who
refides in a large-palace in the middle of it, has about
1500 concubines. If any of them is furprifed in adul¬
tery, fhe and her paramour are inftantly conveyed to
the top of a very high hill, whence they are hurled
down headlong from the fteepeft place.
Every man marries as many wives here as he pleafes,
who are obliged to get their hufbands a livelihood, as
is the practice all along the African coaft inhabited , by
blacks. The women, therefore, cultivate the land, fow
and reap, while the lazy hufbands loiter away their
time in idlenefs.
The king’s revenue confifts in elephants teeth, cop¬
per, and a kind of petticoats made of palm-tree leaves,
and called lavogus; he has whole ftore-houfes full of
thefe lavpgus; but his greateft riches confift in Haves
of both fexes.
LOBBY, in archite&ure, is a fmall hall or waiting-
room : it is alfo an entrance into a principal apartment,
where there is a cpnfiderable fpace between that and a
portico or veftibule, and the length or dimenfions will
not allow it to be confidered as a veftibule or an anti¬
room. See Aktichamber.
LOBE, in anatomy, any flefhy protuberant part, as
the lobes of the lungs, the lobes of the ears, &c.
LOBELIA, cardinal-flower : A genus of the
monogamia order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
29th order, Campanacea:. The calyx is quinquefid ; the
corolla monopetalous, and irregular ; the capfule infe¬
rior, bilocular, or trilocular. There is a great number
of fpecies, but only four of them are cultivated in our
gardens 5 two of which are hardy herbaceous plants
for the open ground, and two fhrubby plants for the
Hove. They are all fibrous rooted perennials, rifing
with eredt ftalks from two to five or fix feet high, or¬
namented with oblong, oval, fpear-fhaped, fimple leaves;
and fpikes of beautiful monopetalous, fomewhat rin-
gent, five-parted flowers, of fcarlet, blue, and violet co¬
lours. They are eafily propagated by feeds, offsets,
*nd cuttings of their ilalks. The tender kinds require
10 ] LOG
the common treatment of other exotics. They are na- Lobetwm
tives of America; from which their feeds muff be pro- II
cured. Locarno.
The root of a fpecies called the fipb'ditica is an article ' v " """
of the materia medica. This fpecies grows in moift places
in Virginia, and bears our winters. It is perennial, has-
an eredt ftalk three or four feet high, blue flowers, a
milky juice, and a rank fmell. The root confifts of white
fibres about two inches long, refembles tobacco in
tafte, which remains on the tongue, and is apt to ex¬
cite vomiting. It is ufed by the North Amencan In¬
dians as a fpecific in the venereal difeafe. The form is
that of decodtion ; the dofe of which is ordered to be
gradually increafed till it bring on very confiderable
purging, then to be intermitted for a little, and again
ufed in a more moderate degree till the cure be com¬
pleted. The ulcers are alfo waftied with the decoc¬
tion, and the Indians are faid to fprinkle them with the
powder of the inner bark of the fpruce tree. The
fame ftridtnefs of regimen is ordered as during a faliva-
tion or mercurial courfe. The benefit to be derived-
from this article has not, as far as we know, been con¬
firmed either in Britain or by the practitioners in Vir¬
ginia: for there, as well as in this countiy, recotfrfe is
almoft univerfally had to the ufe of mercury ; and it is
probably from this reafon that the London college
have not received itinto their lift. It, however, feems
to be an article which, in fome cafes at leaft, dfcferves
a trial.
LOBETUM, anciently a town of the Hither
Spain : faid to have been built by the Libyan Hercu¬
les, (Pliny.) Now Albaraxm, a town of Arragon on
the confines of New Caftile, on the river Guadalavir.
E. Long. 2. N. Lat. 40. 40.
LOBINEAU (Guy Alexis), a Benedidtlne monk,
born at Rennes in 1666, fpent his whole life in the
ftudy of hiftory, and the writing of feveral works ; the.
principal of which are, The hiftory of Brittany, 2 vols
folio; and A continuation of Felibien’s hiftory of Paris,
9 vols folio. He died in 1727.
LOBO (Rodriguez Francis), a celebrated Portu-
guefe poet, was born at Leiria, a fmall town of Eftra-
madura. He wrote an heroic poem, fome eclogues,
and a piece intitled Euphrofyne, which is the favourite
comedy of the Portuguefe. His works were collected
and printed together in Portuguefe in 1721, in folio.
He flourifhed about 1610.
Lobo (Jerome), a famous Portuguefe Jefuit, born
at Lilbon, went into Ethiopia, and dwelt there for a
long time. At his return he was made reCtor of the
college of Coimbra, where he died in 1678. He wrote
An hiftorical account of Abyffinia, which is by fome
efteemed a very accurate performance. ■
LOBSTER, in zoology, a fpecies of cancer. See
Cancer.
LOCAL, in law, fomething fixed to the freehold,
or tied to a certain place : thus, real aCtions are local,
fince they muft be brought in the country where they
lie ; and local cuftoms are thofe peculiar to certain
countries and places.
Local Medicines, thofe deftined to aft upon par¬
ticular parts ; as fomentations, epithems, veficatories,
&c.
LOCARNO, a town of Swifferland, capital of a
bailiwick of the fame name, feated at the north end
i . of
LOG [u
Locatellus 0f the lake Maggiore, near the river Magie. It car-
ll_ ries on a great trade ; and the country abounds in
, Lnchia- pallures, wine, and fruits. £. Long. 8. 41. N. Lat.
v 46. 6.
LOCATELLUS’s BalsAm. See Pharmacy-
LOCHABER, a diftridl of the (hire of Invernefs
in Scotland. It is bounded by Moydart on the weft,
Glengary on the north, Badenoch -on the call, and
Lorn on the fouth. It derives its name from the lake
orloch Aber; and extends about 20 miles from eaft to
weft, and 36 from north to fouth. The- country is
barren, bleak, mountainous, and rugged. In one of
the moft barren parts t)f this country, near the mouth
of the river Aber, in the centre between the Weft and
North Highlands, {lands Fort-William, with the town
of Maryburgh, built upon a navigable arm of the fea,
not far from the foot of a very high mountain, called
Benevh. The town, defigned as a futlery for the gar-
rifon, was erefted into a borough ; and the fort itfelf
w.as deligned as a check upon the clan Cameron, who
had been guilty of depredations and other irregulari¬
ties. It is inhabited moftly by the Macdonalds, Ca¬
merons, and Mackintolhes ; who are not the moft ci¬
vilized people in Scotland, though their chiefs are ge¬
nerally perfons of education, honour, and hofpitality.
Macdonald of Glengary, defcended in a ftraight line
from Donald of the Hies, pofttfled a feat or caftle in
this diftridl, which was burnt to the ground,' and de-
ftroyed in the year 1715, in confequence of his decla¬
ring for the Pretender. The. elegant houfe and gar¬
dens belonging to Cameron of Lochiel underwent the
fame fate, For the fame reafon, after the extinction of
the rebellion in the year 1746. The cadets of thefe
families, which have formed a kind of inferior gentry,
are lazy, indigent, and uncleanly ; proud, ferocious,
and vindictive. The common people, though cele¬
brated for their braveiy, fidelity, and attachment to
their chiefs, are counted very favage, and-much ad¬
dicted to rapine; They fpeak the Erfe language, and
conform to- the cuftoms we have defcribed as peculiar
to the Highlanders. They pay very little, attention
to any fort of commerce but that which confills in the
fale of their black cattle, and lead a fort of vagrant
life among the hills; hunting, fowling, and fifiring, as
the fealons permit, and as their occafions require.
They delight inarms, which they learn to handle from
their infancy; fubmit patiently to difcipline in the
character of foldiers ; and never fail to fignalize them-
felves in the field by their fobriety, as well as their va¬
lour. While they remain in their own country, no¬
thing can be more penurious, mean, fordid, and un¬
comfortable, than the way of life to which thefe poor
people are inured, whether we confider their drefs, diet,
dr lodging. In point of provifion, they are fo impro¬
vident or ill fupplied, that, before the winter is. over,
whole families are in danger of ftarving. In this
emergency, they bleed their miferable cattle, already
reduced to flrin and bone, and eat the blood boiled
with oatmeal. This evacuation, added to their for¬
mer weaknefs, enfeebles the cows to fuch a. degree,
that when they lie down they cannot rife again with¬
out afliftance.
LOCHIA, in midwifery, a flux from the uterus
confcquent- to delivery. See Midwifery,
1 ] LOG
LOCK, a well-known inftrumery. ufed for fattening I-ocR.
doors, chefts, &c. generally opened by a key. y—.
The lock is reckoned the mafter-ptece in fmithery ;
a great deal of art and delicacy being required in con¬
triving and varying the wards, fprings, bolts, &c. and
adj lifting them to the places where they are to be
uied, and to the various occafions of ufing thefn.
From the various-ftruriture of locks, accommodated
to their different intentions, they acquire various names.
Thofc placed on outer-dqGrs are called Jlock-locks; thofe
on chamber-doors, fprlng-!ocls ; thofe on trunks, trunk-
locks, pad-locks. See.
Of thefe the fpring-lock is the moft confiderable,
both for its frequency and the curiofity of its ftrutture.
Its principal parts are, the main-plate, the cover-plate,
and the pin-hole: to the main-plate belong the key¬
hole, top-hook, crofs-wards, bolt-toe or bolt-knab;
drawback-fpring tumbler, pin of the tumbler, and the
ftaples; to the cover-plate belong the pin, main-ward,
crofs-ward, ftep-ward or dap-ward ; to the pin-hole
belong the hook-ward, main crofs-ward, (hank, the pot
or bread, bow-ward, and bit.
As on the proper confixLUtion of locks the fecurity
of the moft valuable kinds of property, almoft entirely
depends, and as numberleis devices are continually
fallen upon to elude the utmoft efforts of mechanical
invention in this refpedt, it thence becomes an objedl
of no fraall importance to invent a lock' which it fhould
be impofibk to open except by its proper key. A trea-
tife upon this fubjeft has been publifhed by Mr Jo-
feph Brama; who is confident that he has brought
the matter td the requifite perfection, and that every
one may reft aiTiired of the fecurity of his property
when under the protection of a lock of his invention;
Fie begins with obferving, that the principle on which
'all locks depend, is the application of a lever to an in¬
terior bolt, by means of a cpmmunication from with¬
out ; 10 that, by means of the latter, the lever arils
upon the bolt, and moves it in fuch a manner as to
fecure the lid or door from being opened by any pull
or pu/h from without. The fecurity of locks in ge¬
neral therefore depends on the number of impediments
we can interpofe betwixt the lever the key) and the
bait which fecures the door; and thefe impediments1
are well known by the name of wards, the number and
intricacy of which alone are fuppofed to diitinguifii a
good lock from a bad one. If thefe wards, however,
do not in an efferitual manner preclude the accefs of all
other inilruments befides the propef key, it is ftill
poffible for a mechanic of equal Ikill with the lock-
maker to open it without the key,, and thus to eludd
the labour of'the other.
“ Locks (fays our author) have been conftruriled;
and are at prefent much ufed and held in great efteemj
from which the picklock is excluded: but the admif-
fion of falfe keys is an imperfection for which no lock-
frmtii has ever found acorreritive; nor can this imper-
ferition be remedied whilft the protection of the bolt
is wholly confided'to-yrm/ 'ivardj.” This pofition is
proved by a remark, that the wards, let them be as
intricate as we pleafe, muft all be expreffed on what is
called the bit or web of the key: and therefore, when
all the varieties that can be expreffed on this bit or web
have been run through, every fucceeding lock muft ber
the counterpart of feme other; and confequently the
fame-
LOG [ it
■L'ick- fame key which opens one will open the other alfo.
This is evident from the locks ufually put upon drawers;
and which, though they fhould be made to rdift the
picklock, are ftill liable to be opened by ten thoufand
other keys befides that appropriated to each of them.
But though the variety of wards could be augmented
even to infinity, ftill there could be no feeurity againit
falfe keys ; for as every one of the wards mull be ex-
preffed on the web of the key, if another key with a
web quite plain be made to fit the key-hole exactly,
we have only to.cover it over with fome colouring fub-
ftance upon which the wards may make an impreffion;
after which, it is eafy to cut out tire web in a proper
manner for admitting them, when the lock will be as
eafily opened by the falfe as by the true key.
The firft perfon, according to our author, who had
any claim to merit in the branch of lock-making, is
Mr Baron ; whofe lock he acknowledges to be by far
more perfect and fecure than any that ever appeared
before ; though he ftill confiders it as unfit for giving
that abfolute fecurity which is to be wiflred for. His
improvement confifted in the proper application of
what are called tumblers. “ Thefe (fays Mr Bramah)
are a kind of grapple ; by which the bolt is confined,
as well in its adtive as in its paffive ftation, and render¬
ed immoveable till fet at liberty by the key. One of
thefe inftruments is commonly introduced into all locks
that are of any ufe or value ; it is lodged behind the
bolt, and is governed by a fpring which adls upon the
tumbler as the tumbler a&s upon the bolt: The ap¬
plication therefore of any force to the tumbler, which
is fuperiof to the force of the fpring, will caufe it to
quit its hold, and fet the bolt at liberty.” In the
common method of applying thefe machines, however,
it matters nothing how far the tumbler is lifted above
the point at which it ceafes to control the bolt; but
it is otherwife in thofe of Mr Baron’s conftruftion.
The adtion of his tumblers is circumfcribed by a cer¬
tain fpace cut in the centre of the bolt, of dimenfions
fufficient only to anfwer the purpofe intended. The
fpace in which the tumbler moves is an oblong fquare ;
and is not only furnifhed with niches on the underfide
into which the hooks of the tumblers are forced by the
fpring as in other locks, but is provided with cor-
refpondent niches on the other fide, into which the
hooks are driven, if any greater force be applied to the
tumblers than what is juft fufficient to difengage them
from the bolt. Hence it becomes abfolutely neceffary,
in the making of a falfe key, to conftrudl it in fuch a
manner, that it may with the greateft exaflnefs give
the requifite degree of preffure, and no more.
Mr Bramah allows that this is a very great improve¬
ment, but obje&s that it is ftill poflible to frame a key
which will open it as well as its own ; nor will the ad¬
dition of any number of tumblers preclude the poffibi-
lity of opening it. “ By giving (fays he) an uniform
motion to the tumblers, and prefenting them with a
face which exactly tallies wfith the key, they ftill par¬
take, in a very great degree, of the nature of fixed
wards; and the fecurity of his lock is thereby render¬
ed in a proportionable degree defective. Thus, fup-
pofe the falfe key to have pafled the wards, and to be
in contaft with the moft prominent of the tumblers,
the imprefilon, which the llighteft touch will leave on
the key, will direft the application of the file till
183.
2 ] L 0 . C
fufficient fpace is prepared to give it a free paffage. Bod?,
The key will then bear upon a more remote tumbler 5
which difficulty being in like manner got over, the
lock will be as cafily opened by the falfe as by the true
key.’*
This feemingly infuperable objeftion to the perfec¬
tion of lock-making, however, our author removes with
the greateft eafe imaginable, by caufing the tumblers
which projeft unequally to prefent a plane furface :
whence they would require a feparate and unequal mo¬
tion to difengage them; of coufequence no diftinAim¬
preffion coffid be made by them upon the plane furface
of the web that would give any idea of their pofitions
with regard, to one another, and the conftrudtion of a
falfe key would be altogether impoffible.
But though the principal difficulty with regard to
Mr Baron’s lock be now overcome, others ftill occur,
the difficulty of making locks which are conftruCt-
ed with tumblers fufficiently durable. The tumblers
themfelves, he obferves, muft be but flightly made ;
and being expofed to perpetual fririion ty the key and
their own proper motion, they muft foon decay ; and
the keys of Mr Baron’s locks, he alfo obferves, are much
lefs durable than thofe of any other locks he ever
favv.
With regard to the lock which Mr Bramah pre-
fents to the public as abfolutely perfe&, he informs
us, that the idea of conftructing it was firft fuggefted
by the alarming increafe of houfe-robberies, which may
reafonably be fuppofed to be perpetrated in a great
meafure by perfidious fervants, or accompliffied by their
connivance. Thus it is evident, that the locks which
might exclude ordinary houfe-breakevs could be no fe-
curity_ againft faithlefs fervants, who having conftant
accefs to the locks, might eafily get falfe keys fabri¬
cated at their ieifuve. In confidering the fubjedt, our
author was convinced, that his- hope of fuccefs de¬
pended entirely upon his ufing means as diffimilar as
poffible to thofe by which the old locks were con-
ftrudted ; as thefe, however varied, had been found
infufficient for the purpofe. “ As nothing (fays he)
can be more oppofite in principle to fixed wards than
a lock which derives its properties from the motion of
all its parts, I determined that the conftrudtion of fuch
a lock ffiould be the fubjedt of my experiment.” In
the profecution of this experiment he had the fatisfac-
tion to find, that the leaft perfedl of all his models
fully afeertained the truth and certainty of his prin- .
ciple. The exclufion of wards made itmeceffary to cut
off all communication between the key and the bolt;
as the fame paffage, which (in a lock /imply conftrudt-
ed) would admit the key, might give admiffion like-
wife to other inftruments. The office, therefore, which
in other locks is performed by the extreme point of
the key, is here affigned to a lever, which cannot ap¬
proach the holt till every part of the lock has under¬
gone a change of polition. The neceffity of this change
to the purpofes of the lock, and the abfolute impoffi-
bility of effefting it otherwife than with the proper
key, are the points to be afeertained; and this our
author does in the following manner.
Fig. 1. Shows Mr Bramah’s lirft attempt to con-
ftnnft a lock upon this principle : which, to his fur- CCLXXII.
prife, turned out complete and perfedl. si reprefents
a common axis on which the fix levers, croffing the
face
.
L O C r 113 3 LOG
I^ock. face of the lock, are unit ed as on a joint. Each of
-^V—- tliefe reils upon a feparate fpring fufficiently ftrong to
bear its weight; or, if depreffed by a fuperior force,
to reftore it to its proper poiition when that force is
removed. B reprefents a frame through which the
levers pafs by feparate grooves, exaftly fitted to their
width, but of fufficient depth to allow them a free
motion in a perpendicular dire&ion. The ♦art which
projefts from the oppofite fide of the joint A, and is
inferted in the bolt C, is a lever to which tivo offices
are affigned ; one to keep the bolt in a fixed pofition,
in the abfence of the key; the other, to give it its
proper motion upOn the application of the key. D is
a circular platform turning upon a centre. On this
the joint or carriage of the levers, and the fprings on
which they red, are fixed; and the motion of this plat¬
form impels the bolt, in either dire&ipn, by means of
the lever which is proje&ed from the joint A. The
inviolable reftraint upon this lock, by which means it
' is fubje&ed only to the action of the key, is lodged in
the part E, which is a thin plate, bearing at each ex¬
tremity on a block, and having of courfe a vacant fpace
beneath, equal in height to the thicknefs of the blocks
@n which it refts. By this plate the motion of the
machine is checked or guided in the following manner:
On the edge of the plate which faces the movement
there are fix notches, which receive the ends of the
levers projecting beyond the frame B; and while they
are confined in this manner, the motion of the machine
. is fo totally fufpended as to defy every power of art
to overcome.
To underftand in what manner the proper key of
this lock overcomes thefe obftacles, it mull be obfer-
ved, that each lever has a notch on its extremity, and
that thofe notches are difpofed as irregularly as pof-
fible. To give the machine a capacity of motion, thefe
notches mult be brought parallel to each other, and
by a diftindl but unequal preflure upon the levers, be
formed into a groove in a direct line with the edge of
the plate E, which the notches are exaftly fitted to
receive. The leaft motion of the machine, while the
levers are in this pofition, will introduce the edge of the
plate into the groove ; which, controuling tlie power
of the fprings, will give liberty to the levers to move in
an horizontal direction as far as the fpace between the
blocks which fupport the plate E will admit, and
which is fufficient to give the machine a power of act¬
ing on the bolt. The impoffibility of thus bringing
the notches on the points of the levers into a direCt
line, fo as to tally with the edge of the plate E by any
other means than the motion and impulfe of the key,
is that which conftitutes the principal excellency of this
lock.
.The key (fig. 2.) exhibits fix different furfaces,
again ft which the levers are progreffively admitted in
the operation of opening the lock : the irregularity of
thefe furfaces fliows the unequal and diftinct degree of
preffure which each lever requires to bring them to
their proper bearings, in order to put the machine in
motion. Hence it appears, that unlefs the various
heights of the furfaces expreffed on the bit of the key
dre exaClly proportioned to the feveral diftances necef-
fary to bring the notches into a ftraight line with each
/ other, they muff remain immoveable; “ and (fays our
author) as one ftroke of a file is fufficient to caufe
Vol.X. Part I.
fuch a difproportiem as will prove an unfurmoimtable Lock,
impediment to their motion, I may fafely affert, that
it is not in art to produce a key or other inftrument,
by which a lock, conftruCted upon this principle, can
be opened.”
On this principle it would even be a matter of great
difficulty for any workman, however fkilful, to conftruCt
a key for the lock when open to his infpe&ion : “ for
the levers being raifed, by the fubjacent fprings, to an
equal height in the frame B, prefent a .plane furfaCe ;
and confequently convey no d reCtion that can be of
any ufe in forming a tally to the irregular furface which v
they prefent when a&ing in fubjedion to the key.
Unlefs therefore we can contrive a method to bring
the notches on the points of the levers in a direft line
with each other, and to retain them in that pofition
till an exaCt impreffion of the irregular furface, which
the levers will then exhibit, can be taken; the workman
will be unable to fit a key to the lock, or to move the
bolt. This procefs muff be rendered extremely troit-
blefome by means of the fprings; and if fuch diffi¬
culties occur, even when the lock is open to the in¬
fpe&ion of a Ikilful workman, much more muff we
fuppofe it out of the power of one who has not
accefs to the internal parts to make a falfe key to a
lock of this kind.
Thefe difficulties render it neceffary in making locks
of this kind not to fit the key to the lock, as is ufual
in other locks, but to fit the lock to the key. In
this kind of lock, therefore, the key muff be made firft;
and the inequalities upon the furface of the bit work¬
ed as chance or fancy may direft, without any refe¬
rence to the lock. The key being thus completed,
and applied to the furface of the levers, will, by a gen¬
tle preffure, force them to unequal diltances from their
common ftation in the frame B, and fink their points
to unequal depths into the fpace beneath the plate E.
While the levers are in this pofition, the edge of the
plate E will mark the precife point at which the notch
on each lever muff be expreffed. The notches being
cut by this dire&ion, the irregularity which appears
when the levers refume their ilation in the frame B,
and the inequality of-the receffes on the bit of the
key, will appear as a feal and its correfponding im¬
preffion.
The following is a lock* contrived upon the fame
principle, but more curious ; and, in our author’s opi¬
nion, more extenfively ufeful. Fig. 3. reprefents a
circular block of metal divided from the centre int»
eight compartments, each containing a cell which forms
a paffage through the block, as is reprefented by the
fmall circles deferibed on the flat furface A. In each
of thefe cells two grooves are cut at oppdfite points,
which open a communication with the centre at one
point, and with the fpherical furface of the block or
barrel at the other. The fmall circle, which marks
the centre of the flat furface A, is the key-hole, which
likewife forms a paffage through the. barrel in a parallel
line with the cells which furround it- This figure re¬
prefents the frame in which the a&ive parts of the lock
are depofited.
Fig. 4. fhows a fpiral fpring lodged in the bottom
of each cell, and occupying one half of the fpace, the
other being filled with a Aider refting upon the fpring,
and repreiented by fig. 5. the office of thefe Aiders ex-
P a&ly
L O C [ i
I.ook. a^lly correfponding with that of the levers in the lock
already defcribed. Thus, when lodged in their refpec-
tive cells, they are fuftained* like the level", by the e*
lafticity of the fprings upon which they reft, till a fu-
perior power be applied ; and they are again reftored
to their ftations by the readlion of the fprings when
the weight is removed. The fide B of each Aider is
projected beyond the circular furface, as reprefented
fig. 6. in a manner fimilar to the proje&ion of the le¬
vers in the former lock beyond the curved frame in
which they move. The point C is projected through
the interior groove into the fpace which forms the
centre or key-hole, expreffed on the flat furface A.
Fig. 7. reprefents the key. When this is appli¬
ed, it muft of courfe encounter thefe interior pro-
jedtions; and when prefled forward, the indented fpaces
on its point being unequal, will force the Aiders to un¬
equal diftances from their bearers; bringingthe notches
exprefled on their exterior projections in a direct line
with each other, in a manner fimilar to that by which
the effedt is produced upon the Levers in the former
Jock. When the key is withdrawn, and the Aiders re¬
fume their ftations by the preffure of the fprings, the
difpofition of the notches muft be irregular in the fame
proportion that the indentations on the point of the
key are unequal; and they muft neceflarily fall again
into a ftraight line when adled upon by the key.
Fig. 6. ftiows the barrel completely fitted for adfion.
Its interior end is caped with a plate, which unites
its compartments, and confines the fprings and Aiders
within the cells to which they belong. From that plate
proceeds the point A, which reprefents the lever by
which the bolt is projedted or withdrawn, according
to the diredtion in which the machine performs its re¬
volution.
Fig. 8. ftiows the flat furface of a thin plate, corre¬
fponding in its office with the part C of the former
lock. The fpace cut in its centre is exadlly fitted to
the fpherical furface of the barrel; the circle defcribing
its circumference, and the notches cut on its edge,
coinciding with the projedtions of the Aiders. The Bar¬
rel, when encircled with this plate at the middle of its
fpherical furface, has its motion totally fufpended till
the notches on the projedtions of the Aiders are forced,
by the preffure of the key, into a line with each other:
a groove being thus formed on the fpherical furface of
the barrel parallel to, and coinciding with, the edge
of the plate, the machine is at liberty to perform a
revolution in any diredtion, but returns to its con¬
fined ftate when the key is withdrawn.
• The parts of the movement being thus united, the
interior end of the barrel is depofited in a bed repre¬
fented fig. 9. To this it is faftened at the angles of
the plate reprefented fig. 8. by which the barrel is en¬
circled. The ftation of the bolt is at A; the lever
which adts upon it being projedled on the other fide.
Fig. 10. is a cap or malk which covers the face of the
movement, and completes the lock.
On this lock our author obferves, that it is excellent
for ftreet-doors: “ for no method of robbery (lays he)
is more pradtifed, than gaining admittance into houfes
by thofe keys, wdiich, as is well known, may be pro¬
cured at the old iron Ihops to fit almoft any lock in
ufe. Such robberies are generally committed where
the fervants are allowed to take the key with them
2
14 ] LOG
when fent on errands, it being impradtieablc while
the key is fixed in the lock. The variations, by Lockcir
wdiich the produdlion of correfpondent keys is avoid- y
ed, have two fources: the one arifmgfrom the changes
that may be made in the difpofition of the levers; the
other, from the number of points contained on the
projedled furface of each lever; by which the pofition
of its notch may, in the fmalleft degree, be varied.
“ The variations, produceable in the difpofitions of
fix figures only, are 720: thefe, being progreffively
multiplied by additional figures, will increafe by aft O'-
nilhing degrees; and eventually (how, that a lock con¬
taining twelvejeverswill admit of 479,001,500changes;
which, writh the addition of another lever, wall increafe
to 6,229,019,500. Thefe being again multiplied by
the number of changes which the projedled furface of
the levers will admit in the difpolition of the notches,
their amount will exceed numeration, and may there¬
fore be properly faid to be infinite. The flighted in-
fpedlion will at once (how, that their conftrudlion pre¬
cludes all poflibility of obtaining an impreflion of their
internal parts, which is neceflary for the fabrication of
a falfe key; fork will be eafily feen, that the pofitions
into which the levers are forced by the preflure of the
key in opening the lock, can no more be afcertained
when the key is withdrawn, than the feal can be co¬
pied from its impreflion on a fluid, or the courfe of a
Ihip be difcovered by tracing it on the furface of the
waves. But inviolable fecurity is not the only excel¬
lence they poffefs: the funpKcity of their principle
gives them likewife a great advantage over locks that
are more complicated, in point of duration; for
their eflential parts being fubjedt to no fridtion, nor
expofed to any poffible accident from without, they
will be lefs affedted by ufe, and lefs liable to Hand in
need of repair.”
Lock, or weir, in inland navigations, the general
name for all thofe works of wood or Hone made to
confine and raife the water of a river: the banks alfo
which are made to divert the courfe of a river, are
called by thefe names in fome places. But the term
lock is more particularly appropriated to exprefs a kind
of canal inclofed between two gates ; the upper called,
by workmen the fluice-gate, and the lower called the
flood-gate. Thefe ferve in artificial navigations to
confine the water, and render the paffage of boats eafy
in palling up and down the ftream. See Canal.
LOCKE (John), a moll eminent Englifti philofo-
pher and writer in the latter end of the 17th century,
was fon of Mr John Locke of Pensford in Somerfet-
(hire, and born at Wrington near Briftolin 1632. Fie
was fent to Chrift-church in Oxford ; but was highly
dilfatisfied with the common courfe of ftudies then pur-
fued in the univerfity, where nothing was taught but
the Ariftotelian philofophy ; and had a great averfion to
the difputes of the fchools then in life. The firft books
which gave him a relilh feu* philofophy, were the wri¬
tings of Des Cartes : for though he did not always
approve of his notions, yet he thought he wrote with
great perfpicuity. He applied himfelf with vigour
to his ftudies, particularly to phyfic, in which he
gained a confiderable knowledge, though he never
praftifed it. In 1694,. he went to Germany as fe-
cretary to Sir William Swan, envoy from the Eng-
lilh court to the de&or of Brandenburg and fome
other
L O C [ n
[ J.ncke. other German princes. In lefs than a year, he re-
turned to England; where, among other {Indies, he
applied himfelf to that of natural philofophy, as ap¬
pears from a regifter of the changes of the air, which
lie kept at Oxford from June 24. 1666, to March
28. 1667. There he became acquainted with the
lord A filly, afterwards earl of Shaftelbury, who in¬
troduced him into the converfation of fome of the
moft eminent perfons of that time. In 1670, he be¬
gan to form the plan of his £Jfay on Human Under-
Jianding ; but his employments and avocations pre¬
vented him from finifliing it then. About this time
he became a member of the Royal Society. In 1672,
his patron, now earl of Shaftelbury, and lord chan¬
cellor of England, appointed him fecretary of the
prefentations, which place he held till the earl refigned
the great feal. In 1673, was made fecretary to
a commiflion of trade, worth 5001. a-year; but that
commiffion was diffolved in 1674. The earl of Shaftef-
bury being reitored to favour, and made prelident of
the council in 1679, fent for Mr Locke to London :
but that nobleman did not continue long in his poft,
being, fent prifoner to the tower; and after his dif-
charge retired to Holland in 1682.
Mr Locke followed his patron thither. He had not
. been abfent from England a year, when he was ac-
cufed at court of having written certain trafts againft
the government, which were afterward difeovered to be
written by another perfon ; and in November 1684,
he was deprived of his place of ftudent in Chrilt-
church. In 1685, the Englilh envoy at the Hague
demanded him and 83 other perfons to be delivered up
by the States General: upon which he lay concealed
till the year following ; and during this time formed a
weekly affembly with Mr Limborch, Mr Le Clerc,
and other learned men at Amfterdam. In 1689 he
returned to England in the fleet which conveyed the
princefs of Orange ; and endeavoured to procure his
relloration to his place of ftudent of Chrift-church,
that it might appear from thence that he had been un-
jultly deprived of it: but when he found the college
would admit him only as a fupernumerary lludent, he
defilled from his claim.
Being efteemed a fufferer for revolution-principles,
he might eafily have obtained a more profitable poft ;
but he contented himfelf with that of commiffioner of
appeals, worth 2001. a year, which was procured for
him by the Lord Mordaunt, afterwards earl of Mon¬
mouth, and next of Peterborough. About the fame
time he was offered to go abroad in a public charac¬
ter 4 and it was left to his choice, whether he would
be envoy at the court of the emperor, that of the elec¬
tor of Brandenburg, or any other where he thought
the air moft fuitable to him: but he waved all thefe,
on account of the infirm ftate of his health ; which dif-
pofed him gladly to accept another offer that was made
by Sir Francis Maftiam and his lady, of an apartment
in their country-feat at Oates in Effex, about 25 miles
from London.
This place proved fo agreeable to him in every re-
fpeft, that it is no wonder he fpent the greateft part
ot the remainder of his life at it. The air reftored
him almoft to a miracle, in a few hours after his return
.at any time from the town, quite fpent and unable to
fupport himfelf. Befides this happinefs here, he
j I 1. ° cr
found in lady Mafham a friend and companion exaftly Locke
to his heart’s wifh ; a lady of a contemplative and ftu- ^ ^
dious complexion, and particularly inured, from her '
infancy, to deep and refined fpeculations in theology,
metaphyfics, and morality. In this family Mr Locke
lived with as much eafe as if the whole houfe had been
his own : and he had the additional fatisfaflion of feeing
this lady breed up her only fon exadfly upon the plan
which he had laid down for the bell method of educa¬
tion ; the fuccefs of which was fuch as feemed to give
a fandlion to his judgment in the choice of that method.
In effedl, it is to the advantage of this fituation that
he derived fo much ftrength as to continue exerting
thofe talents which the earl of Shafteftniry had obfer-
ved to be In him for political fubjedls. Hence we find
him writing in defence of the revolution in one piece *;
and confidering the great national concern at that
time, the ill ftate of the filver coin, and propofing re¬
medies for it, in others. Hence he was made a com¬
miffioner of trade and plantations in 1695, which en¬
gaged him in the immediate bufinefs of the ftate ; and
with regard to the church, he publifhed a treatife the
fame year, to promote the fcheme which king William
had much at heart, of a comprehenfion with the dif-
fenters. This, however, drew him into one contro-
verfy ; which was fcarcely ended, when he entered into
another in defence of his effay, which held till 1698 :
foon after which the afthma, his conftitutional dif-
order, increafing with his years, began to fubdue him ;
and he became fo infirm, that in 1700 he refigned his
feat at the board of trade, becaufe he could no longer
bear the air of London fufficient for a regular attend¬
ance upon it- After this refignation he continued al¬
together at Oates ; in which retirement he employed
the remaining laft years of his life entirely in the itu-
dy of the holy Scriptures.
He died in 1704, aged 73. His writings will im¬
mortalize his name. The earl of Shaftefbury, author
of the Charafteriftics, though in one place he fpeaks
of Mr Locke’s philofophy with feverity ; yet obferves,
concerning his Effay on the Human Underftanding,
in general, “ that it may qualify men as well for bufi¬
nefs and the world, as for the fciences and the uni-
. verfity.” Whoever is acquainted with the barbarous
ftate of the philofophy of the human mind, when Mr
Locke undertook to pave the way to a clear notion of
knowledge, and the proper methods of purfuing and
advancing it, will be furprifed at this great man’s abi¬
lities ; and plainly difeover how much we are beholden
to him for any confiderable improvements that have
been made fince. His Difcourfes on Government,
Letters on Toleration, and his Commentaries on fome
of St Paul’s Epiftles, are juftly held in the higheft
efteem.
LOCKED Jaw. See (the Index fubjoined to)
Medicine.
LOCKMAN, an officer in the Ifle of Man, who
executes the orders of government, much like our un-
der-ftieriff.
Lot km an, an eaftern philofopher. See Lokman.
LOCLE, a fmall town in a diftri£l of the fame
name in Switzerland, adjacent to Neufchatel and Val-
lengin, and united with another named La Ghaux
de Fond. Both thefe diftrifts occupy fome valleys
formed by the mountains of Jura ; the greateft part of
P 2 which
LOG [ ii
Lode, which not many years ago was one continued foreft,
Locr1' though now converted into fine pafture-ground fitted
^ with flourifhing villages. The increafe of population
in thefe diftrifts is particularly evident from the fol¬
lowing circumftance, viz. that formerly the produce
of the country was more than fufficient to ferve the
inhabitants; but now, though confiderably better cul¬
tivated, it fcarce furniflies an eighth part of the ne-
ceflary confumption. This great increafe of numbers
is owing to the early marriages of the inhabitants ;
to the liberty allowed to every ftranger, who brings
a certificate of his good behaviour, to fettle in the
diftridt •, to follow any trade without reftriftion, and
without an apprenticeihip ; and to the want of taxes,
and an unbounded freedom of commerce. The induftry
and genius of the people in thefe diftridts is very fur-
prifmg. They carry on an extenfive commerce in lace,
ftockihgs, cutlery, and other merchandife of their own
manufadture; and particularly excel in every branch of
watch and clock making. They make all the utenfils ne-
ceflary intbefearts, and have invented feveral new ones.
There are alfo in thefe diitridts painters, gilders, enamel-
lers, engravers, and other artifts neceffary for completing
the bufinefs of watch making ; by which means thatbu-
finefs is carried on to fo great an extent, that 40,000
watches are computed to be annually made. Befides
thefe arts already mentioned, the people are extremely
ingenious in other branches of mechanics, and have in¬
vented fcveral altronomical and mathematical inftru-
ments. One of the moll eminent in this way is Ja-
quet Droz, now at Paris ; and whofe fon exhibited
feveral furprifing automatical figures in England. One
of thefe played upon a harpnehord; another drew
landfcapes; and a third copied any word prefented to
it, or wrote down whatever was di(dated by any'of the
company.
The inhabitants of thefe diftri&s are very courteous
to ftrangers who vifit them : they are in general well
informed in feveral branches of knowledge; and as
they commonly employ their leifure hours in reading,
they have circulating libraries in many of their villages.
Their houfes are plaftered, white waflied, well built,
and commodious, though fmall; being befides fur-
nilhed with a degree of neatnefs and even elegance
peculiarly ftriking in thefe fequeftered mountains.
Such perfeft eafe and plenty (fays Mr Coxe) reigns
throughout thefe mountains, that I fearedy faw one
objectof poverty: the natural effects of induftry under
a mild and equitable government.”
LOCRI, or Locm Epizephyrii, (?_nc. geog.), a town
of the Bruttii, on the Ionian fea : a colony of the Lo-
cri Ozolse (Strabo); rather of the Epicnemidii (Virgil),
who calls it Narycii Locriy from Naryx a town of the
Eocri Epicnemedii. The epithet Epizephyru is from
ksfituation near the promontory Zdphyrium (Strabo);
Eocri and Locrenfcs, the people. They are faid to
be the firft who ufed a code or body of written laws,
compiled by Zaleucus from the laws of the Cretans,
Lacedemonians, and the Areopagitas, adding amex-
prefs penalty to each law, which was before difere-
lionary, at the option of the judge (Strabo).. Adultery
was puniflied with the lofs of both eyes. His own fon
being convifted of this crime ; to maintain at the fame
%me the authority of the law, and to pay feme regard
the interceffion cf the people in favour of his fon,
6 ] LOG
Zaleucus fuffered the lofs of an eye, his fon lofing Loco's,
another (iElian, Val. Maximus.) II
LOCRIS, the diftridt or territory of Locri in the . L°g‘
Bruttii in Italy. ’
Locris, a country of Achaia in Greece ; twofold,
and divided by mount Parnaffus. The Hither was oc¬
cupied by the Locri Ozolae, called alfo Zephyrii., or
Weftern, contained between iEtolia and Phocis, be¬
ginning at Naupa&um, and running in a narrow flip
of land, fcarce 200 ftadia, along the fea to the bor¬
ders of the Phocenfes. The Farther Locris lay beyond
Parnaflus, running out towards Thermopylse, and reach¬
ing to the Euripus of Euboea ; occupied by the Locri
Opuntii, who dwelt on the Euboean fea ; and the Epic¬
nemidii, who occupied mount Cnemis (Strabo) ; and
thefe two were the Eaftern Locri.
LOCUS geometricus, denotes a line by which a
local or indeterminate problem is folved.
A locus is a line, any point 6f which may equally
folve an indeterminate problem. Thus if a right line
fuffice for the conilrudlion of the equation, it is called
locus ad re Bum; if a circle* locus ad circulum; if a
parabola, locus ad paraholam; if an ellipfis, locus ad
ellipfin : and fo of the reft of the conic fedlions.
LOCULAMENTA, and Loculi, in botany;
cells or pockets : The internal divifions of a capfule,
or other dry feed-veffel, fo termed.'—Thefe cells con¬
tain or inclofe the feeds ; and are different in number
in different plants.
The term Loculus is alfo fometimes ufed to ex-
prefs the minute divifions in fome-fpecies of anther<cy
which contain the fine impalpable powder fuppofed by
the fexualifts to be the principal agent in the genera¬
tion of plants.
LOCUST, in zoology. See Gryllus.
EocvsT-Eaters. See Acridophagi.
American Locust, or Frog-hopper. See Cicada.
Locusr-Tree. See Hymen^ea and Gleditsia.
LOCUTIUS, in mythology, the god of fpeech a»
mong the Romans, called by Livy Aius Locutius.
LOCUTORIUM. The monks and other religious
in monafteries, after they had dined in their common
hall, had a withdrawing-room, where they met and
talked together among themfelves, which room, for that
fociable ufe and converfation, they called locutorium, a
loquendo ; as we call fuch a place in our houfes parlour,
from the French parler; and they had another room,
which was called locutorium forinfecum, where they might
talk with laymen.
LODGMENT, in military affairs, a work made
by the befiegers in fome part of a fortification (after
the befieged have been driven out), to maintain it,
and be covered from the enemy’s fire.—When a lodge¬
ment is to be made on the glacis, covert-way, or in a
breach, there muft be a great provifion made of faf-
cines, fand-bags, gabions, wool-packs, &c. in the
trenches; and during the a&ion, the pioneers, under
the direction of an engineer, with fafeines, fand-
bags, &c. fliould be making the lodgment, in order
to form a covering, while the grenadiers are Homing
the covert-way.
LODE, in mining. See Load.
LOG, in the Jcwifli antiquities, a meafure which
held a quarter of a cab, and confequently five-fixths of
a pint. There is mention of a log, 2 Kings vi. 25.,
under-
LOG [ iW ] LOG
Log. under the name of a fourth part of a cab. But in Levi-
  ticus the word log is often met with, and fignifies that
meafure of oil which lepers were to offer at the temple
after they were cured of their difeafe. Dr Arbuthnot
fays, 'that the log was a meafure of liquids, the feventy-
fecond p\rt of the bath or ephah, and twelfth part of
•the bin, according to all the accounts of the Jevvifh
writers.
CCLXX1 II ■^'0G> a ^ea term> fignifying a fmall piece of timber
g 11 of a triangular, fedtoral, or quadrantal figure, on board
a fhip, generally about a quarter of an inch thick, and
five or fix inches from the angular point to the circum¬
ference. It is balanced by a thin plate of lead, nailed
upon the arch, or circular fide, fo as to fwim perpen¬
dicularly in the water, with about two thirds immer-
fed under the furface.
Log-Line, a little cord, or line, about a hundred and
fifty fathoms long, fattened to the log by means of two
legs ab (fig.4.), one of which pafies through a hole at the
corner, and is knotted on the oppofite fide, while the
other leg is attached to the ?«ch by a pin fixed into
another hole, fo as to draw out occaiionally. By thefe
legs the log is hung in equilibrio ; and the line thus
annexed to it is wound round a reel fixed for that pur-
pofc in the gallery of the fhip.
This line, from the diftartce of about ten, twelve,
or fifteen fathoms off the log, has certain knots or divi-
fions, which ought to be at leaft fifty feet from each
other ; though it was the common pradice at fea not
to have them above forty-two feet afunder.
The length of each knot ought to be the fame part
of a fea-mile as half a minute is of an hour; and ad¬
mitting the meafurement of Mr Norwood, who makes
a degree on a great circle of the earth to contain
367,200 Englifh feet, or about 69k Englifh ftatute
miles, and, therefore, ^gth part of it, or a nautical
mile, will be 6120 feet; T^th of 6120, or 51 feet,
should be the length of each knot. But becaufe it is
fafer to have the reckoning rather ^before the fhip than
after it, therefore fifty feet may be taken as the pro¬
per lengtbr of each knot. The knots are fometimes
made to confift only of forty-two feet each, even in the
prefent pra&ice ; and this method of dividing the log¬
line was founded on the fuppofition that fixty miles,
each of 5000 Engliflrfeet, made a degree ; for -r' 0 of
5000 is 4i j-, or, in round nnmbers, 42 feet. Mari¬
ners, rather than quit the old way, though known to
1 be erroneous, ufe glaffes for half minute ones, that run
but 24 or 25 feconds. They have alfo ufed a line of
45 feet to 30 feconds, or a glafs of 28 feconds to 42
feet. When this is the cafe, the diftance between
the knots fhould be coife&ed by the following pro¬
portion : as 36 is to 50; fo is the number of feconds
of the glafs to the diftance between the knots upon
the line. The heat or moifture of the weather has of¬
ten a confiderable effect upon the glafs, fo as to make
it run flower or fatter ; it fliould, therefore, be fre¬
quently tried by the pendulum in the following man¬
ner. On a round nail hang a firing that has a muff
ket-ball fixed to one end, carefully meafuring between
the centre of the ball and the firing's loop over the
peg 39 I- inches, being the length of a fecond pendu¬
lum; then fwing it, and count one for every time it
paffes under the peg,beginning at the fecond time it paf-
fcs; and the number of fwings made during the time
the glafs is running out fhows the feconds it (tonfains. Log.
The line alfo is liable to relax and fhrink, and fhould
therefore be occafionally meafured.
The ufe of the log and line is to keep/ account and
make an eftimate of the {hip’s way or diftance run ;
which is done by obferving the length of line unwound
in half a minute’s time, told by a half-minute glafs;
fqr fo many knots as run out in that time, fo many
miles the fhip fails in an hour. Thus, if there be four
knots veered out in half a minute, the fhip is compu¬
ted to run four miles an hour.
The author of this device for meafuring the fhip’s
way is not known; and no mention of it occurs till
the year 1607, in an Eaft-India voyage publifhed by
Purchas ; but from,that time its name occurs in other
voyages among his collections; and henceforward it
became famous, being taken notice of both by our
own authors and by foreigners ; as by Gunter in 1623;
Snellius in 1624; Metius in 1631; Oughtred in j 633;
Herigone in 1634; Salto nil all in 1636; Norwood in
1637 ; Pournier in 1643 ; and almoft by all the fuc-
ceeding writers on navigation of every country.
’To Heave the Log, as they call it, they throw it into
the water on the lee-fide, letting it run till it comes
without the eddy of the fhip’s wake ; then one, hold¬
ing a half-minute glafs, turns it up juft as the firfl
knot, or the mark from which the knots begin to be
reckoned, turns off the reel (fig. 2.) or pafies over the
Hern. As foon as the glafs is out, the reel is flopped,
and the knots run off are told, and their parts eftima-
ted.
It is ufual to heave the log on.ce every hour in flops
of war and Eaft-India men, and in all other veffels
once in two hours; and if at any time of the watch
the wind has increafed or abated in the intervals, fo
as to affeCt the fhip’s velocity, the officer generally
makes a fuitable allowance for it at the ck>fe of the
watch.
The log is a, very precarious way of computing,
and muft always be corrected by experience and good
fenfe; there being a great deal of uncertainty in the-
yawing of the fhip going with the wind aft, or upon
the quarter in the heaving of it, by its coming home,.
• or being drawn after the fhip, on account of the frier
tion of the reel and lightnefs of the log in the courfe
of the current, and in the ft.rength of the wind, which
feldom keeps the fame tenor for two hours together;
which is the interval between the times of ufmg the
log in fhort voyages, though in longer ones they
heave it every hour. Yet this is a much more exaCt
way of computing than any other in ufe ; much prefe¬
rable certainly to that of the Spaniards and Portuguefe,
who gueffed at the fhip’s way by the running of the
froth or water by the fhip’s fide ; or to that of the
Dutch, who ufed to heave a chip over-board, and to
number the paces they walk on the deck while the
chip fwims between any two marks, or bulk-heads on
the fide.
Compound Log.. The above mentioned errors, and par¬
ticularly the log’s beingfubjeCt to drive with the motion
which the water may have at its furface, whereas the ex¬
periment requires it to be fixed in the place where it is
when the mark commencing the knots goes off the reel;
have been confidered by writers, and many methods have
been propofed to remove, or at leaft to leffen them..
3 The
L .0 G [ n8 ] L O G
The !ate M. Bouguer propofed a method, which has
been thought deferving of particular attention, in the
Mem. Acad. Sc. 1747 ; afterwards in his Treatife on
Navigation, publiihed at Pans in 1753, and fince re¬
printed in 1760, by the abbe de la Caille. For this
purpofe, take for the log a conical piece of wood, which
iix to the log-line palled through or along its axis, at
about 40, 50, or 60, or more feet, from one end; and to
this end fix the direr, which is a body formed of two
equal fquare pieces of tin, or of thin iron plate, fixed
at right angles to one another along their diagonals;
and its lize fo fitted to that of the cone, that the whole
may float. A cone of three inches diameter in the
bafe, and of fix inches in the flant height, is propofed
by M. Bougner to fuit a diver made of plates about
9]-inches fquare ; the interfeftion of the diagonals is
joined to the log-line, and the loop and peg fixed as in
the common log. However, it has been found, that
no kind of w'ood ufed in Britiih dock-yards, when
formed into a cone of the above dimenfions, wall float
a diver made-of flout tin plates, one fide of the fquare
being 9} inches. Such a diver weighing i^lb avoir-
dupoife, required to float it a cone of five inches dia¬
meter and twelve inches on the flant fide, fo as the
point of the cone, which was made of light fir, Ihould
juft appear above the water. Now fuppofing one fide
of fuch a fquare tin-diver to be about ten inches, and
made of plates only two-thirds of the thicknefs of the
former, fuch a diver would weigh, with its folder,
about 20 ounces, and can be floated by a light fir cone
of four inches diameter in the bafe, and ten inches in
the flant height or length ; and fuch a compound log
plight perhaps be found on trial to be affected by a-
bout as much again as that propofed by M. Bouguer;
and confequendy the difference between the numbers
given by the common log and compound log, muft be
augmented by twro-thirds of itfelf for the neceffary cor-
reftion, as below. When the compound log of Bou¬
guer, above deferibed, is hove overboard, the diver
will fink too deep to be much affected by the current
or motion of water at the furface, and the log wall
thereby keep more fteadily in the place where it firil
fell; and confequently the knots run off the reel
will fhow more accurately the Ihip’g rate of failing.
As the common log is affefted by the whole motion
of the current, fo this compound log wall feel only a
part thereof, viz. fuch a part nearly as the refiftance
of the cone is to the refiftance of the diver; then the
refiftances of the above cone and diver are about as 1
to 5 ; and confequently this log will .drive but one-
fifth part of what the common log would do ; and fo
the (hip’s true run wall be affedted by one-fifth only of
the motion of the waiters. To obtain the true rate of
failing, it will be proper to heave alternately, hour and
hour, the common log and this compound log; then
the difference of their knots run off, augmented by its
one-fourth part, is the correction ; which applied to the
knots of the common log, will give the (hip’s true rate
of failing at the middle time between the hours when
thefe logs were hove. The eorredtion is additive when
the Compound log’s run is the -greateft, otherwife it is
fubtraftive. To find the courfe made good : increafe
the obferved angle between the log-lines by one fourth-
part ; and this gives the corredtion to be applied to
the apparent courfe, or the oppufite of that (hown by
the common log-; the corredtion is to be applied to the
^ ^ °f the apparent courfe, when the bearing of
the common log is to the 1 right }°f ,he compound
log. Or thus : the lengths run off both logs, toge¬
ther with their bearings, being known ; in a card or
compafs apply the knots run off, taken from a fcalc
of-equal parts along their refpedlive bearings, from the
•centre ;. join the ends ; and in this line produced, on
the fide next the compound log’s length, take one
fourth of the interval; then a line drawn from the
end, thus produced, to the centre of the card, will
(how the true courfe and diftance made good. When
a current, fuch as a tide, runs to any depth, the velo¬
city of that current may be much better afeertained by
the compound log than by the common one, provi¬
ded the diver does not defeend lower than the run of
the current; for as thofe (hips wliich are deepeft im-
merged, drive fafteft with the tide ; fo the. diver, by
being adled on below, as w ell as the log on the fur-
face, their joint motion will give the total effeft of
the current’s motion better than what could be deri¬
ved from the motion at the furface only. Alfo, by
fuch a compound'log, the depth to which any current
runs may be eafily tried.
Other Logs. We have an account in the voyage to the
North Pole,p. 97. of two other logs, which were tried by
captain Phipps: one invented by Mr Ruffel, the other
by Foxon ; both conftrufted upon this principle, that
a fpiral, in proceeding its own length in the direction
of its axis through a refilling medium, makes one re¬
volution round the axis ; if, therefore, the revolutions
of the fpiral are regiftered, the number of times it has
gone its own length through the water will be known.
In both thefe the motion of the fpiral in the water is
communicated to the clock-work within-board, by
means of a fmall line fattened at one end to the fpiral,
which tows it after the (hip, and at the other to a
fpindle, which fets the clock-work in motion. That
invented by Mr Ruflel has a half-fpiral of two threads,
made of copper, and a fmall dial with c!ock-wrork, to
regifter the number of turns of the fpiral. The other
log has a whole fpiral of wood with one thread, and a
larger piece of clock-work with three dials, two of
them to mark the diftance, and the other divided into
knots and fathoms, to (how the rate by the half-mi¬
nute glafs, for the convenience of comparing it with the
log. This kind of log will have the advantage of
every other in fmooth water and moderate weather;
and it will be ufeful in finding the trim of a (hip
when alone, in_furveying a coaft in a fingle (hip, or in
meafuring diftances in a boat between head-lands and
(hoals ; but it is fubjeft to other inconveniences, which
will not render it a proper fubftitute for the common
log.
Perpetual Log. a machine fo called by its inventor,
Mr Gottlieb of Houndfditch, London. It is intended
by it to keep a conftant and regular account of the
rate of the (hip’s velocity through the water ; whereas
the common log hitherto ufed does not indicate the
variation in her velocity in the interval of heaving the
log, and confequently does not afeertain the true di-
llance that the (hip has run in any given length of
time.
Fig.
LOG [ i!
Log. Fig. X. is a reprefentation of the whole machine ;
the lower part of which, EFG, is fixed to the fide of
Plate ^ reprefenting only the boundary line of the
•CLXX1I1 ft1*?’8 figure. EF are the feftion of a wooden external
cafe, left open at the ends KL, to admit the paffage
of the water during the motion of the fhip. At M is
a copper grating, placed to obftruft the entrance of
any dirt, &c. into the machine. I, is a feftion of a
water-wheel, made from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, as
may be neceflary, with float-boards upon its circumfe¬
rence, like a common water-wheel, that turn by the
refiltance of the water palling through the channel
EK. It turns upon a Ihouldered axis, reprefented by
the vertical fedtion at K. When the fhip is in motion,
the refiftance of the water through the channel LK
turns round the wheel f. This wheel, by means of a
pinion, is connected with and turns the rod contained
in the long copper tube N. This rod, by a pinion
fixed at its upper extremity, is connefted with and
turns upon the whole fyfiem of wheels contained in
the dial of the cafe ABCD. This dial, by means of
the copper tube N, may be fixed to any convenient
place aboard the Ihip. In the front of the dial are
feveral ufeful circular graduations, as follow : The re¬
ference by the dotted line A has an hand which is
moved by the wheels with'n, which points out the mo¬
tion of the Ihip in fathoms of 6 feet each. The circle
at B has an hand ihowing the knots, at the rate of 48
feet for each knot; and is to be obfen ed with the half¬
minute glafs at any time. The circle at C has a Ihort and
a long hand ; the former of which points out the miles
in land meafure, and the latter or longer the number of
knots contained in. each mile, viz. 128, which is in the
fame proportion to a mile as 60 minutes to the hour
in the reckoning. At e, a fmall portion of a circle
is feen through the frpnt-plate called the rtgtjier; which
{hows, in the eourfe of 24 hours (if the ftiip is upon
one tack), the diftance in miles thatThe has run;
and in the 24 hours the mariner need take but. one ob-
fervation, as this regifter ferves as an ufeful check
upon the fathoms, knots, and miles, fhown upon the
two other circles.
fy Is a plate fliowing 100 degrees or 6000 miles,
and alfo acts as another regilter or check ; and is ufe-
9 ] LOG
ful in cafe of any miftake being made in obi’erving
the diftance run by the other circles. The reckon¬
ing by thefe circles, without fear of miftake, may
therefore be continued to nearly 12,000 miles.
A communication from this machine may eafily
be made to the captain’s bed-fide, where by touching
a fpring only, a bell in the head ABCD will found
as many times im an half minute as the fhip fails
miles in an hour. ,
Mr Gottlieb has applied this machine to the Car¬
teret and Weftmoreland packets. He is very fanguine
in the hopes of its fuccefs and utility; and conceives
that the mariner will, by this contrivance, be better
enabled than heretofore to keep the veflel and his
reckoning together ; it being well known that the
moft experienced navigator is too frequently erro¬
neous in this refpeft, the fnip being fometimes a-
head, or fometimes afterti, off the reckoning.
He alfo obferves, that the conftruftion of the log is
fuch, that if the veffel was to be aground, ftrike a rock,
or ftrip off her falfe keel, the parts would not be de¬
ranged : and further, fhould fhe be laid up for repairs,
&c.. fix months, in half an hour after coming again
into the water, the lower immergcd part of the log
would clear itfelf, and be in proper action.
Loa-Board, a fort of table, divided into feveral
columns, containing the hours of the day and night,
the dire&ion of the winds, the courfe of the fhip, and
all the material occurrences that happen during the
24 hours, or from noon to noon; together with the
latitude by obfervation. From this table the different
officers of the ffiip are furnifhed with materials to com¬
pile their journals, wherein they likewife infert what-,
ever may have been omitted, or reject what may ap¬
pear fuperfluous in the log-board.
Loa-Booi, a book into which the contents of the
log-board is daily copied at noon, together with every
circumftance deferving notice that may happen to the
fhip, or within her cognizance, either at fea or in a
harbour, &c. The intermediate divifions or watches
of the log-book, containing four hours each, are
ufually figned by the commanding officer in fnips of
war or Eaft-Indiamen. See Navigation.
LOGARITH M S.
T OGARITHMS, (from ratio, and
■^number), the indices of the ratios of numbers to
one another; being aferiesof numbers.in arithmetical
progreffion, correfponding to others, in geometrical
progreffion ; by means of which, arithmetical calcula¬
tions can be made with much more eafe and expedi¬
tion than otherwife.
Sect. I. Hi/lory of Logarithms.
The invention of logarithms firft occurred to tliofe
verfant in the conftruftion of trigonometrical tables,
in which immenfe labour was required by large multi¬
plications, divifions, and extraction, of roots. The aim
propofed was, to reduce as much as pofiible the mul¬
tiplications and divifions to additions and fubtraftions:
and for thispurpofe, a method was invented by Nicho¬
las Raymer Urfus Dithmarfus, which ferves for one
cafe of the fines, viz. when the radius is the firft ternt
in proportion, and the fines of two arcs the fecond and
third terms. In this cafe the fourth term is found
by only taking half the fum or difference of the fines
of the other two arcs, and the complement of the
greater. This method was firft publifhed in 1588,
and a few years afterward was greatly improved by
Clavius, who ufed it in all proportions in the folu-
tion of fpherical triangles ; adapting it to fines, tan¬
gents, verfed fines, and fecants; and this, whether the
radius was the firft term in the proportion or not.
This method, however, though now become much
more
S20 L O G A R I
more genevally 'ufeful than before,'was ftill found at¬
tended with trouble in fome cafes; and as it depended
upon certain properties of lines belonging to the circle,
was rather of a geometrical than arithmetical nature ;
on which account the calculators about the end of the
16th and beginning of the 17th century, finding the
folution of aftronomical problems extremely trouble-
fome, by reafon of the tedious multiplications and di-
vifions they required, continued their endeavours to
leffen that labour, by fearching for a method of redu¬
cing their operations to addition and fubtra&ion. The
firft ftep towards this was, the confideration, that as in
multiplication the ratio of the multiplier to unity is
the fame as that of the produft to the multiplicand, it
will follow, that the ratio of the produft to unity mult
be equal to the fum of the two ratios of the multiplier
to unity, and of the multiplicand to unity. Could a
fet of numbers therefore be found, which would repre-
fent the ratios of all other numbers to unity, the ad¬
dition of two of the former fet of numbers would be
equivalent to the multiplication of the two numbers
together, the ratios of which they denoted ; and the
fum arifing from this-addition would denote the ratio
of their produft to unity ; whence the produdl itfelf
might be found by looking for the correfponding na¬
tural number in the table.
The next thing was to fall upon a method of calcu¬
lating fuch a table as was wanted, which indeed ap¬
peared an Herculean labour. The firff obfervation
was, that whatever numbers might be made ufe of to
reprefent the ratios of others, the ratio of equality, or
that of unity ^to unity muft be o ; for that ratio'has
properly no magnitude, neither increafing nor dimi-
nilhing any other ratio to which it is adapted, or from
which it is fubtrafted.
2. The fecond obfervatiq>n was, that though any
number might be chdfen at pleafure to reprefent the
ratio of any other number to unity, yet wdien once this
choice .was made, all the other numbers reprcfenting
the different ratios muft be determined by it. Thus,
if the ratio of 10 to I be reprefented by 1, then the
ratio of 100 to 1 muft be 2, and that of 1000 to 1
muft be 3, &c.'; or if 2 was chofen to reprefent the
ratio of 10 to I, then that of 100 to 1 muft be 4,
that of 1000 to 1 muft be 6, &c.; and no other num¬
bers cohld poffibly be ufed.
3. As thofe artificial numbers reprefented, or were
proportional to, the ratios of the natural numbers to
unity, they muft be expreffions of the numbers of fome
fmaller equal ratios contained in the former and larger
ones. Thus, if we make 1 the reprefentative of the
ratio .of 10 to x ; then 3, which reprefents the ratio of
1000 to 1, will likewife exprefs the number of ratios
of 10 to 1, which are contained in that of 1000 to 1.
If inftead of 1, we make icop to be the ratio of 10
to 1 ; then 3000 will exprefs the ratio of 1000 to 1,
and this number 3000 will exprefs the number of fmall
ratios of the 1 oooth root of 10 to x contained in the
ratio of 1000 to x ; and fo on for any larger number,
as xo,ooo, 100,000, or 10,000,000, &c. Thus, if
inftead of xcoo we make 10,000,006 the reprefen¬
tative of the ratio of 10 to 1, then the unit will re¬
prefent a veryfmall ratio,of which there are 1®,000,000
contained betwixt 1 and 10, and which ratio could not
really be had without extracting a root which involved
N° 183.
T H M S. Hiftory:
in itfelf, 10,000,000 of times would only make up 10;
which root may perhaps be moft intelligibly expreffed
thus, 10>000>000v/^^ If the ratio of 10 to 1 con¬
tained 10,000,000 of thefe roots, it is evident that the
ratio of 100 to x muft contain 20,000,000, that of
1 coo would have 30,000,000, &c.; of confequence,
the ratio of 100 to 1 will be expreffed by 20,000,000,
of 1000 to 1 by 30,000,000, &c.~Hence, as thefe
artificial numbers reprefent the ratios of natural num¬
bers to unity, or are proportional to them, they are
very properly .called the logarithms of thefe numbers,
or the numbers of their ratios ; becaufe they really do
exprefs this number of ratios.
The relation of logarithms to natural numbers may
perhaps more intelligibly be explained by two fenes of
numbers, one in an arithmetical, and the other in geo¬
metrical, progreffion. Thus,
Logarithms, o 1 2_345’6 7 8
Nat. numb. 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256
Or,
Logarithms, 0123 4 3 6
Nat. numb. 1 10 loo 1000 10,000 100,000. 1,000,000
In either of thefe feries it is evident, that by adding
any two terms of the upper line together, a number
will be had which indicates that produced by multiply¬
ing the correfponding terms of the lower line. Thus,
in the firft two feries, fuppofe we wifli to know the
produtt of 4X32. In the upper line we find 2 Hand¬
ing over the number 4, and 5 oyer 32 ; adding there- .
fore 5 to 2 we find 7, the fum of this addition, Handing
over 128, the produdl of the two numbers. In like
manner, if we vvifli to divide 256 by 8, from the num¬
ber which Hands over 256, viz. 8, fubtraCl that which
Hands over 8, viz 3 ; the remainder 5, which Hands
over 32, fliows that the latter is the quotient of 256
divided by 8. Let it be required to involve 4 as high
as the biquadrate or 4th power: Multiply 2, the num¬
ber which Hands over 4, by the index of the power to
which the number is to be involved ; which index is 4:
the produdl 8, Handing over 256, fliows that this laft
number is the biquadrate of 4 required. Laftly, let it
be required to extradl the cube root of 64 ; divide the
number 6, which ftands over 64, by 3, the index of the
root you wifh to extradl; the quotient 2, Handing over
4, fliows that 4 is the root fought.
Thefe examples are fufficient to fliow the great uti¬
lity of logarithms in the moft tedious and difficult
parts of arithmetic. But though it is thus eafy to
frame a table of logarithms for any ferks of numbers
going on in geometrical, progreffion, yet it muft be fax
more difficult to frame a general table in which the
logarithms of every poffible feries of geometricals ffiall
correfpond with each other. Thus, though in the
above feries we can eafily find the logarithm of 4, 8,
&c. we cannot find that of 3, 6, 9, &c. ; and if we af-
fume any random numbers for them, they will not cor¬
refpond with thofe which have already been affumed
for 4, 8, 16, &c. In the conftrudlion of every table,
however, it was evident, that the arithmetical or lo¬
garithmic feries ought to begin with o ; for if it began
with unity, then the fum of the logarithms of any two
numbers muft be diminiflied by unity before we could
find the logarithm of the produdl. Thus,
Logar. 1234567 8 9
Nat. N. 1 248 16 32 64 128 256
Here
121
Hiftory. L O G A R I
Here let it be required to multiply 4 by 16 ; the num¬
ber 3 Handing over 4, added to 5 which Hands
over 16, gives 8 which Hands over 128 : but this is
not juH ; fo that we muH diminifli the logarithm by 1,
and then the number 7 Handing over 64 fhows the
title produtt. In like manner it appeals, that as we
defcend below unity in a logarithmic table, the loga¬
rithms themfelves muH begin in a negative feries with
refpe& to the former; and thus the logarithm of O
will always be infinite ; negative, if the logarithms in-
creafe with the natural numbers; but pofitive, if they
decreafe. For as the geometrical feries muH diminifh
by infinite divifions by the common ratio, the arith¬
metical one mufi decreafe by infinite fubtraftions,
or increafe by infinite additions of the common dif¬
ference.
This property of numbers was not unknown to the
ancient mathematicians. It is mentioned in the works
of Euclid; and Archimedes, made great ufe of it in his
Arenar'ms, or treatife on the number of the fands: and
it is probable that logarithms would have been, much
fooner invented, had the real neceffity for them been
fooner felt; but this did not take place till the end of
the 16th century, when the conflru&ion of trigono¬
metrical tables, and folution of perplexed afironomical
problems, rendered them abfolutely indifpenfable.
About this time Tt is probable that many people
wifiied to fee fuch tables of numbers, and were
making attempts to conflrud! them; hut the in¬
vention is certainly due to Lord Napier, baron of
MerchiHon in Scotland. The invention is by fome
indeed afcribed to Longomontanus; but with very
little probability, as he never publifhed any thing
of the kind, nor laid claim to the invention, though
he lived to fee the publication of Baron Napier’s ta¬
bles. Concerning this invention we are told, that
“ one Dr Craig a Scotchman, coming out of Den¬
mark into his own country, called upon Baron Napier,
and told him of an invention of Longomontanus in
Denmark, to fave the trouble of the tedious multipli¬
cation and divifion in aflronomical calculations; but
could give no farther account of it than that it was
by proportionable numbers. From this flight hint
the baron immediately fet about the work; arid by the
time that Dr Craig returned to call upon him, he had
prepared a rude draught of it, which he called Canon
miraltln Logartlhmorum ; and this draught, with fome
alterations, was printed in 1614.
According to Kepler; one Jufle Byrge, aflSflant
aHronomer to the landgrave of Hefle, either invented
or projedted logarithms long before Baron Napier,
and compofed a table of fines for every two feconds
of the quadrant ; though, by reafon of his na¬
tural reftrvednefs, he never publiflied any thing to the
world. But whatever might have been in this, it is
certain that the world is indebted for logarithms to
Baron Napier, who died in the year 1618. This no¬
bleman likewife made confiderable improvements in
trigonometry ; and the frequent numerical computa¬
tions he had occafion for in this branch, undoubtedly
contributed to his invention of the logarithms, that
he might fave part of the trouble in thefe calculations.
Kis book publiflied in 1614 was intitled Mc/ifici Loga-
rithmorum Canonis defcriptio. At this time he did not
publifli his method of couHrudlintf the numbers until
Vol.X. Parti.
T H M S.
the fenfe of the learned fhould be known. In other
refpedts the work is complete, containing all the lo¬
garithms of the natural numbers to the ufual extent
of logarithmic tables; with the logarithmic lines, tan¬
gents, and fecants, for every minute of the quadrant,
direftions for ufmg the tables, See.
This work was publilhed in Latin; but was afterwards
tranflated into Englifli by Mr Edward Wright, in¬
ventor of the principles of what has been falfely called
Mercator’s Sailing. The tranflation was fent to his
lordfhip at Edinburgh, and returned with his appro--
bation and fome few additions. It was publiflied in
1616, after Mr Wright’s death, with a dedication to-
the EaH India Company, by his fon Samuel Wright,
and a preface by Mr Briggs, who afterwards diltin-
guilhed himfelf fo much in bringing logarithms to
perfection. In this tranflation Mr Briggs alfo gave
the defeription and draught of a feale invented by Mr
Wright, as well as other methods invented by himfelf,'
for finding the intermediate proportional numbers;
the logarithms already found having been only printed
for fuch numbers as were the natural fines of each
minute.
Mr Wright’s tranflation was reprinted in 1618, with
a new title-page, and the addition of 16 pages of new
matter, “ fliowing the method of calculating triangles,
as well as a method of finding out fuch lines and loga¬
rithms as are not to be found in the canons.”
Next year John Speidell publiflied his New Loga¬
rithms, in which were fome remedies for the inconveni¬
ences attending Lord Napier’s method. The fame year
alfo Robert Napier, the Baron’s fon, publiflied a new
edition of his father’s book, entitled Canonis Logarith-
morum Dejcriptio; with another concerning the method
of conftrufting them, which the Baron had promjfed ;
together with fome other mifcellaneous pieces, which
his father had likewife compofed along with Mr Briggs.
In 1620 alfo, a copy of thefe works was printed at
Lyons in one volume, by Bartholomew Vincent a
bookfeller there; but this publication feems to have-
been but little known, as Wingate, who carried loga¬
rithms to France four years after, is faid to have been
the firfl who introduced them into that country.
The Curfus Mathmaticus publiflied at Cologn in
1618 or 1619 by Benjamin Urfinus, mathematician to
the eledlor of Brandenburg, contains a copy of Na¬
pier’s logarithms, together with fome tables of propor¬
tional parts. In 1624 he publiflied his Trigonometries,
with a table of natural fines and their logarithms, ac¬
cording to Lord Napier’s method, to every ten feconds
in the quadrant. The fame year a book on logarithms
was publiflied at Marpurg by the celebrated Kepler,
of the fame kind with thofe of Napier. Both of thefe
begin at 90° or the end of the quadrant; and, while the
fines decreafe, the logarithms gradually increafe; till at
the beginning of the quadrant, or o, the logarithm
is infinite. The only difference betwixt the logarithms
of Napier and Kepler is, that in the former the arc
is divided into equal parts, differing by one minute
each ; and confequently their fines to which the loga¬
rithms are adapted are interminate numbers reprefent-
ed only by approximating decimals: but in Kep¬
ler’s table, the radius is divided into equal parts; which
are confidered as perfedl and terminate fines, having
equal differences, and to which the logarithms are here
adapted,
122 L O G A R
adapted. A treatifc of feme extent was prefixed to
the work ; in which the conftrudtion and ufe of loga¬
rithms is pretty largely treated of. In the year 1627
the fame author introduced logarithms into his Ru-
dolphine Tables, together with feveral others, viz. 1.
A table fimilar to that already mentioned; only that
the column of lines or abfolute numbers is omit¬
ted, and another added in its ftead, fhowing what
part of the quadrant each arc is equal to ; viz. the
quotient arifing from the divifion of the whole
quadrant by each given arc, and exprefled in inte¬
gers and fexagefimal, parts. 2. Napier’s table of lo¬
garithmic fines to every minute of the quadrant; as
alfo two other fmaller tables adapted for the calcula¬
tion of eclipfes and the latitude of planets. In this
work Julius Byrgius is mentioned as having invented
logarithms before Napier.
The kind of logarithms now in ufe were invented
by Mr Henry Briggs profeifor of geometry in Grefham
college, London, at the time they were firft difcover-
ed by Napier. As foon as- the logarithms of Napier
were publifhed, Mr Briggs directed his attention to the
ftudy and improvement of them ; and his employment
in this way was announced in a letter to Mr Ulher,.af¬
terwards the celebrated archbilhop, in the year 1615.
By him the fcale was changed, and o was made the
logarithm of 1; but lord Napier informed Mr Briggs
that he had already thought of fuch a fcheme, but
chofe rather tp publifh the logarithmic tables he had
completed, and to let thofe alone until he fhould have
more leifure as well as better health. At an inter¬
view betwixt Lord Napier and- Mr Briggs, the prefent
plan feems to have been fettled; and in confequence
of his lordfhip’s advice, Mr Briggs made fome altera¬
tion in the method of conftru&ing his tables from that
which he had begun. A correfpondenee alfp took
place betwixt his lordfhip and Mr Briggs, which con¬
tinued during the lifetime of the former. It appears,
however, that, whether Mr Briggs thought of this al¬
teration before lord Napier or not, he certainly wasthe
perfon who firft publifhed it to the world ; and fome
reflections have been thrown upon his lordihip for not
making any mention of the ftiare which Mr Briggs had
in it.
In 1617 Mr Briggs publifned his firft thoufand lo--
garithms under the title of Logarithmorum Chilias Pri-
rta ; and in 1620 Mr Edward Gunter publhhed his
Canon of Triangles, containing the artificial or loga¬
rithmic fines and tangents for every minute, to feven
places of figures befides the index ; the logarithm of
the radius being ro.QOO, &c. Thefe were the firft tables
of logarithmic fines, tangents, &c. which made their ap¬
pearance upon the prefent plan ; and in 1623 they were
reprinted in his book de SeSore et Radio, along with
the Chilias Prima of Mr Briggs. The fame year Mr
Gunter applied thefe logarithms of numbers, fines, and
tangents, to ftraight lines drawn on a ruler; and with
thefe the proportions in common numbers, as well as
in trigonometryj were folved by the mere application
of a pair of ccmpaftes; a method founded upon this
property, that the logarithms of the terms of equal ra¬
tios are equally different. The inftrument is now well
known by the name of the two-feet Gunter’s Scale.
By the fame methods he alfo greatly improved the fee-
tor, He was alfo the firft who ufed the word cojne
I T H M S. HiAoryt
for the fine of the complement of an arc ; and he in¬
troduced the ufe of arithmetical complements into the
logarithmical arithmetic. He is faid alfo to have firft
fuggefted the idea .of the logarithmic curve, fo called
becaufe the fegments of its axis are the logarithms
of the correfponding ordinates.
The logarithmic lines were afterwards drawn in
many other ways. Wingate, in 1627, drew them up¬
on two feparate rulers Hiding by each other, in order
to fave the ufe of compaffes in refolving proportions.
In 1627 alfoj they were applied by Mr Oughtred to.
concentric circles ; about 1650, in a fpiral form,
by one Mr Milburne of Yorkfhire ; and in 1657, they
were applied on the prefent Hiding-rule by Mr Seth
Partridge.
The knowledge of logarithms was*diffufed in France
by Mr Edmund Wingate, as already related, though
not carried originally thither by him. Two fmall
tracts were publiftied by him in French, and afterwards,
an edition in Englifti, all printed in London. In the
firft of thefe he mentions the ufe of Gunter’s Ruler;
and in the other that of Briggs’s Logarithms, with the
canon of artificial fines and tangents. There are like-
wife tables of thefe fines, tangents, and logarithms, co¬
pied from Gunter.
From the time that Mr Briggs firft began to ftudy
the nature of logarithms, he applied to the conftruc-
tion of tables with fuch afliduity, that by the year
1624 he publiflied his Arithmetica Logarithmica, con¬
taining the logarithms of 30,000 natural numbers to
14 places of figures befides the index viz. from 1 to
20,000, and from 90,000 to 100,000, together with
the differences of the logarithms. According to fome,
there was another Chiliad, viz. from 100,000 to
101,000;. but this does not feem to be well authenti-.
cated. In the preface to this work, he gives an account
of the alteration made in the fcale by Lord Napier and:
himfelf; and earneftly folicits other perfons to under¬
take the talk of filling up the intermediate numbers;,
offering to give inftractions, and to afford paper ready
ruled for the purpofe. He gives alfo inftnuftions at
large in the preface for the conftruction of logarithmic
tables. Thus he hoped to get the logarithms of the
other 70,000 natural numbers completed; while be
himfelf, being now pretty far advanced in years, might
be at liberty to apply to the canon of logarithmic
fines, &c. which was as much wanted by mathe¬
maticians as the others. His wilhes were accomplilhed:
by Adrian Vlacq or Flack of Gouda in Holland, who
completed the numbers-from 20 to 90,000; and thus
the world was furnilhed with the logarithms of all na¬
tural numbers from 1 to 100,000; but thofe of Vlacq
were only done to iq places of figures. To thefe was
added a table of artificial fines, tangents, and fecants,
to every minute of . the quadrant. Befides the great
work, already mentioned, Mr Briggs completed a table
of logarithmic fines and tangents for the 100th part
of every degree, to 14 places, of figures befides the
index; and a table of natural fines for the fame
parts to 15 places, with the tangents and fecants to
10 places, and the methods of conftrufting them. He
defigned alfo to have publiflied a treatife concernihg.
the ufes and application of them, but died before this
could be accompliflted. On his death-bed he recom¬
mended this work to Henry Gellibrand profeffor of*
aftumom.|\
HiAory. L 0 G A II
ailronomy in GrefTiam college, in which office he had
fucceeded Mr Gunter. Mr Briggs’s tables above mfen-
!. tioned were printed at Gouda, and publifhed in 1633 »
and the fame year Mr Gellibrand added a preface with
the application of logarithms to plane and fpherical
trigonometry, the whole being denominated Trigono-
metria Britannica : and befides the arcs in degrees and
hundredth parts, has another table containing the mi¬
nutes and feconds anfwering to the feveral hundredth
parts in the firft column.
The Trigonometria Artificialis of Vlacq contains the
logarithmic lines and tangents to 10 places of figures,
to which is added Briggs’s firft table of logarithms
from 1 to 20,000, befides the index : The whole pre¬
ceded by a defcription of the - tables, and the applica¬
tion of them to plane and fpheri'cal trigonometry, chief¬
ly extradited from Briggs’s Trigonometria Britannica al¬
ready mentioned. In 1635, Mr Gellibrand alfo pub-
fifhed a work, intitled. An Injlitution Trigonometrical,
containing the logarithms of the firft 10,000 numbers,
with the natural fines, tangents, and fecants; and the
logarithmic fines and tangents for degrees and minutes,
all to feven places of figures befides the index; like-
wife other tables proper for navigation, with the ufes
of the whole. Mr Gellibrand died in 1636, in the
40th year of his age.
A number of other people have publifhed books on
logarithms, which we cannot now particularly enume¬
rate. Some of the principal are :
1. A treatife concerning Briggs’s logarithms of
Common numbers from X to 20,000, to 11 places of fi¬
gures, with the logarithmic fines and tangents but only
to eight places. By D. Henrion at Paris, 1626;
2. Briggs’s logarithms, with their differences to io
places of figures, befides the index for all numbers to
100,000; as alfo the logarithmic fines, tangents, and
fecants, for every minute of the quadrant, with the
explanation and ufes in Englifh. By George Miller,
Lond. 1631.
3. Trigonometria, hy Richard Norwood, 1631; con¬
taining Briggs’s logarithms from 1 to 10,000, as well
as for the fines, tangents, and fecants to every minute,
both to feveral places of figures befides the index. The
author complains very much of the unfair pra&ices of
both the former authors.
4. DireBorium Generqle Uranometricum; by Francis
Bonaventure Cavalerius. Bologna, 1632. In this are
Mr Briggs’s tables of logarithmic fines, tangents, fe¬
cants, and verfed fines each to eight placesof figures for
every fecond of the firft 5 minutes, for every 5 fe¬
conds from 5 to xo minutes, for every 20 feconds from
20 to 30 minutes, for every 30 feconds from 30 minutes
to 11- degree, and for every minute in the reft of the
quadrant. It contains alfo" the logarithms of natural
numbers from 1 to 10,000; with the firft table of Verfed
fines that ever was publiihed. The author likewife
gives the firft intimation of the method of finding the
arcs or fpherical furface contained by various arcs de-
feribed on the furface of a fphere.
5. In 1643 appeared the Trigonometria of the fame
author, containing the logarithms of the natural num¬
bers from 1 to 1000, with their differences to eight
places of figures; likewife a table of natural and loga¬
rithmic fines, tangents, and fecants; the former to
feven, the latter to eight, places of figures; viz. to
1 T H M s.
every 10" of the firft 30', to every 30" from 30' to 1
and the fame for their complements, or backwards thro’
the laft degree of the quadrant; the intermediate 88°
being only to every minute.
6. TaluU Logarithmic#; by Mr Nathaniel Rowe, pa
ftor of Benaire in Suffolk : Lond. 1633. In this work
are Contained Briggs’s logarithms of natural numbers
from 1 to 100,000, to eight places of figures; likewife
the logarithmic fines and tangents to every Iooth part
of degrees to ten places*,
7. Clavis Univerfa Trigonometric; Hamburg, 1634.'
containing tables of Briggs’s logarithms from x to 2000;
and of fines, tangents, and fecants, for every minute,
both for feven places.
8-. Trigonometria Britannica, by John Newton, London,
1658. In this*the logarithmic tables of natural num¬
bers were reduced to their moft convenient form ; the
author having availed himfelf of the labours of Win-
gate and Roe, uniting their feveral methods, and difpo-
fing of the whole as in the beft logarithmic tables ufed
at ptefent. It contains likewife the logarithmic fines
and tangents to eight figures befides the index ; for
Cvery hundredth part of a degree, with the differences,
and for thoufandth parts in the firft three degrees.
He cenfures the unfair pradices of fome former pub-
lifters of logarithms; particularly of Vlacq already
mentioned.
9. Mathefis Nova,by JohnCaramual, 1670. This con¬
tained 1000 logarithms, both of the forms of Napier and
Briggs, as well as 1000 of what he calls perfect loga¬
rithms, viz. thofe of Briggs’s firft method of conftruc-
tion ; which differs from the laft only in this, that the
laft increafes, whilft the firft deereafes; the radix or
logarithm of the ratio of 10 to I being the very
fame in both.
10. Sherwin’s Mathematical Tables, publifted in8vo,
form the moft complete collection of any ; containing;
befides the logarithms of all numbers to in,000, the
fines, tangents-, fecants, verfed fines both natural and
logarithmic, to every minute of the quadrant. The
firft edition was printed in i 706 ; but the third, pub-
lifted in 1742 and revifed by Gardiner, is looked upqp
to be fuperior to any other. The fifth and laft edi¬
tion, publifted in 1771; is fo incorrect, that no depen¬
dence can be placed upon it;
10. Tables of logarithms from X to 102,100, and
for the fines and tangents to every 10 feconds of each
degree in the quadrant; as alfo for the fines of the
firft 72 minutes to every fingle feCond, with other ufe-
ful and neceffary tables. By Gardiner, London, 1742.
This work contains a table of logiftical logarithms, and
three fmaller tables to be ufed for finding the logarithms
of numbers to 20 places of figures. Only a fmall num¬
ber of thefe tables was printed; and that by fubferip-
tion; and they are now in the higheft efteem for ac¬
curacy and ufefulnefs. An edition of thefe tables wa:
printed at Avignon in France in 1770, with the ad¬
dition of fines and tangents for every fingle fecond in
the firft four degree , and a fmall table of hyperbolic
logarithms, taken from a treatife Upon fluxions by the
late Mr Thomas Simfon. The tables are to feven
places of figures, but fomewhat lefs correct than thofe
publifted by Gardiner himfelf.
11. An Antilogarithmic Canon for readily finding the
number correfponding to any logarithm, was begun by
the
1 “3
124 L O G A R
Conftruc- the aTgebraifl Mr Harriot, who died in 162-1 ; and
non of compitte<j by Mr Walter Warner, the editor of Har-
. °ga” 111 riot’s work5,, before 1640, but never was publilhed
for want of encouragement to print it. In 1714 a
fmall fpecimen of fuch a canon appeared in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaiftions for that'year by Mr Long of
Oxford; and in 1742 a complete Antilogarithmic Ca¬
non appeared by Mr James Dodfon, in which the num¬
bers correfponding to each logarithm fromi to 100,000
are computed to 11 places of figure".
12. In 1783 were publifhcd M. Callet’s tables at
Paris ; which for the elegance of the workmanfhip are
much fuperior to any thing of the kind that ever ap¬
peared, though their accuracy is not efteemed equal
to that of fome others. The work is a neat volume
fmall 8vo. It contains a treatife on logarithm5, with
their ufes and application to various fciences 4 as tri¬
gonometry, aftronomy, and navigation ; a table of lo¬
garithms from 1 to 102,960, with the differences; a
table of fines and tangents for every fingle fecond of
the firff two degrees, and for every 10 feconds of the
reft of the quadrant; with tables of logiftical and
hyperbolic logarithms, and fome others for determi¬
ning the longitude at fea.
Sect. II. Different methods of conj!ruffing Lo¬
garithms.
J. I. Napier's method.
The logarithms fidl thought of by Lord Napier
were not adapted to the natural feries of arithmetical
numbers x, 2, 3, &c. becaufe he did not then intend to
adapt them to every kind of arithmetical calculation,
but only to that particular operation which had cal¬
led for their immediate conftru&ion, viz. the fhorten-
ing of trigonometrical operations: he explained the
generation of logarithms, therefore, in a geometrical
way. Both logarithms, and the quantities to which
they correfpond, in his way, may be fuppofed to
proceed from the motion of a point; which, if it
moves over equal fpaces in equal times, will produce
a line increafing equally : but if, inftead of moving
over equal fpaces in equal times, the point defcribes
fpaces proportional to its diftances from a certain
term, the line produced by it will then increafe pro-
port'ionably. Again, if the point moves over fuch
fpaces in equal times, as are always in the fame con-
ftant ratio ta the lines from which they arc fubdu&ed,
or to the diftance of that point at the beginning of
the lines, from a given term in that line, the line fo
Plate produced will decreafe proportionably. Thus, let
ac be to ao, cd to co, ef to _/o, and fg to fo. al-
*4 ways in a certain ratio, viz. that of QJl to QJ>,
and let us fuppofe the point P to fet f out from a,
deferibing the diftances ac. cd, dc, &c. in equal fpaces
of time,, then will the line ao decreafe proportion¬
ably-
In like manner,, the line oa, (fig. 12.) increafes
proportionally, if the pointp, in equal times, defcribes
the fpaces ac, cd, de,fg. See. fo that ac is to ao, cd,
to co, dc Xocdo, See. in a conftant ratio. If we now
fuppofe a point P deferibing the line AG (fig. 4.)
with an uniform motion, while the point />. defcribes a
line increafing or decreafing proportionally, the line
I T H M S. Sea. II,
AP, deferibed by P, with this uniform motion. In the Conftruo
fame time that oa, by increafing or decreafing pro- t,on.
portionally, becomes equal to op, is the logarithm of Lo°ar‘t in?
op. Thus AC,. AD, A.E, &c. are the logarithms
of or, od, oc. See. refpeclively: and 0a is the quanti¬
ty whofe logaritlun is fuppofed equal to nothing.
We have “here abftra&ed from numbers, that the
do&rine may he the more general 4 but it is plain,
that if AC, AD, AE, &c. be fuppofed 1, 2, 3, Sec.
in arithmetic progrefiion.; oc, od, oe. Sec. will be in
geometric progreffion; and that the logarithm of oa,
which may he taken for unity, is nothing.
Lord Napier, in his fidl fcherae of logarithms, fup-
pofes, that while op increafes or decreafes proportion¬
ally, the uniform motion, of the point P, by which the
logarithm of op is generated, is equal to the velocity
of p at a; drat is, at the term of time when the loga¬
rithms begin to be generated- Hence logarithms,
formed after this model,, are called Napier's Logarithms,
and fometimes. Natural Logarithms.
When a ratio is given, the point p defcribes the dif¬
ference of the terms of the ratio at the fame time.
When a ratio is duplicate of another ratio, the pointp
defcribes the difference of the terms in a double time.
When a ratio is triplicate of another, it defcribes the
difference of the terms in a triple time; and fo on. Al-
fo, when a ratio is compounded of two of more ratios,
the point p defcribes the difference of the terms of that
ratio in a time equal to the fum of the times in which
it defcribes the differences of the tenns of the fimple
ratios of which it is compounded.. And what is here
faid of the times of the motion of p when op increafes
proportionally, is to be applied to the fpaces deferibed
by P, in thole times, with its uniform motion.
Hence the chief properties of logarithms are dedu¬
ced. They are the meafures of ratios. Tire excefs of
the logarithm of the antecedent above, the logarithm
of the confequent, meafures the ratio of thofe terms.
The meafure of the ratio of a greater quantity to a
Idler is pofitive ; as; this ratio, compounded with any
other ratio, increafes it. The ratio of equality, com¬
pounded with any other ratio, neither increafes nor di-
minilhes it; and its meafure is nothing. The meafure
of the ratio of a Idler quantity to a greater is nega¬
tive ; as this ratio, compounded with any other ratio,
diminilhes it. The ratio of any quantity A to unity,
compounded with the ratio of unity to A, produces
the ratio of A to A, or the ratio of equality; and the
meafures of thofe two ratios deftroy each other when
added, together; fo that when the one is confidered as
pofitive, the other is to be confidered as negative. By
fuppofing the logarithms of quantities greater than oa
(which is fuppofed to reprefent unity) to be pofitive,
and the logarithms of quantities lefs than it to be ne¬
gative, the fame rules ferve for the operations by lo¬
garithms, whether the quantities be greater ox lefs than
ao. When op increafes proportionally, the motion of p
is perpetually accelerated; for the fpaces ac, cd, de. Sec.
that are deferibed by it in any equal times that conti¬
nually fuccced after each other, perpetually increafe in
the fame proportion as the lines oa, oc, od. Sec. When
the point p moves from a towards 0, and op decreafes
proportionally, the motion of p is perpetually retarded 4
for the fpaces deferibed by it in any equal times that
4 con-
II. L O G A R
nftruc- continually fucceed after each other, decreafe in this
Tthn'sCa‘e *n t^ie ^ame proportion as op decreafes.
‘ If the velocity of the point p be always as the di*
ftance op, then will this line iucreafe or decreafe in the
manner fuppofed by Lord Napier; and the velocity of
the point p being the fluxion of the line op, will al¬
ways vary in the fame ratio as this quantity itfelf.
This, we prefume, will give a clear idea of the genefis
or nature of logarithms; but for more of this dodtrine,
fee Maclaurin’s Fluxions.
The conftruCtion of his tables of logarithms was
firft publifhed hi his pofthumous work of I (519. The
conftru&ion of his canon was chiefly effected by gene¬
rating, in an eafy manner, a feries of proportional
numbers, and their arithmeticals or logarithms; and
then finding by proportion the logarithms of the na¬
tural lines from thofe of the neareft numbers among
the original proportionals. Beginning then at the ra¬
dius 10,000,000, he firft conftructs feveral defcending
geometrical feries, of fuch a nature that they are quick¬
ly formed by an eafy addition or fubtraction, or divi-
fion by 2, to, 100, &c. His firft table confifts of
proportionals in the ratio of 10,000,000 to 9,999,999;
the method of doing which may be eafily underftood
from the following example : Suppofe it were requi¬
red to find a feries of defcending proportionals in the
ratio of too to 99 ; it may be done by adding two
cyphers to each of the two firft terms, and continual¬
ly adding 1 to the decimal place fartheft to the right
hand. Thus the firft term will be 100.00, the fecond
99.00, the third 98.01, the fourth 98.03, &c. Na¬
pier’s firft table contained 100 terms of a feries, as we
already mentioned, in the proportion of 10,000,000
to 9,999,999. The firft term of which feries was
10,000,000.0000000 j the fecond 9,999^999.0000000;
the third was 9,999,998.0000001, and fo on till the
tooth term, which.was 9,999,900.0004950. The
fecond table confiftedof 50 numbers nearly in the pro¬
portion of 100,0001099,999 ;. and this was formed by
fubftituting the units 1, 3, &c. in thy third decimal
place inftead of the laft place towards the right hand.
The reafon of conllrufting this table was, that he might
have a feries in the proportion of his firft term of the for¬
mer to the laft term of it,.wz. of 100,0001099,999; and
the laft of the fecond feries was 9995001.222927.
In all thefe feries the method of finding the terms
is exaflly the fame. Thus in. the firft example, where
we begin with too, each term decreafes by the
100th part of the former ; and this loothpart is found
by removing the number two places of figures lower,
and fubftrafting them from the former terms.. Thus
99 is lefs than too by unity, which is the tooth part
of the latter; the next term is lefs than 99 by the tooth
part of 99, and is therefore 98.01. But the divifion
by 100 can be performed, without any trouble, only
fetting the decimal point two places farther forward,
as that by 10 is performed by fetting it one place far¬
ther forward ; thus p-Morr.9,; 99 —100^2.99, Now
by fubtra&ing 99 from too, we have 98.Ox for the third
termoftheferies. Tofindthefourthtermthen,removethe
decimal point two figures farther to the right hand, and
fubtradl it from the former; and we have then 97.0299
for the fourth term of the feries. Thus we fee, that
the number of decimal places muft continually increafe;
but as in this feries we want no more than two decimal
I T H M S. 125
places -inftead of 97,0299, the term is nvule 97.03, Conflrnc-
as the neareft number which has only two decimal places, t‘on.,lf
and differs from the truth only by one thoufandth part j0Sa^‘'
In like manner, in the long firing of ciphers, the fourth
term of the feries diff ers fomewhat, but very little, from
the truth : and this muft: always be the cafe while the
radius is fuppofed to confiit of any finite number o£
parts; though, by going on for a very long time in
this way, the error, by being continually repeated and
augmented at every term, would at laft become percep¬
tible; and therefore none of thefe ferie.s are carried on
t,o.a very great length.
Hb next ftep was to conftruft a third table confift-
ing of 69 columns, and each column of 21 numbers or
terms in the continual proportion of 10000 to 9995 p
that is, nearly as the firft term of the fecond table is to
its laft term. As this proportion is the 2000th of thtt
whole, the method of finding the terms will be by di¬
viding each upper number by 2, and removing the figures
of the quotient three places lower, and then fubtracting
them. In this way, however, it is proper to colledt
only the firft column of 21 numbers, the laft of which-,
will be 9900473.5780: but the firft, fecond, and third,.
&c. numbers in all the other columns are in thecontinuaT
proportion of 100 to 99, ot nearly of the firft to the
laft in the firft column.; whence thefe are to be found
by removing the figures two places lower, and then
fubtrading them, as has already been explained.
By thefe three tables, his lordlhip was furniihed with
about 1600 proportionals, nearly coinciding with all
the natural feries from 90 to 30 degrees. To obtain
the logarithms of thofe proportionals* he demonftrated'
and applied fome of the properties and relations of the
numbers and logarithms; the principal of which are,
1. That the logarithm of any fine is greater than the
difference between that fine and the radius, but lefs
than that difference when increafed in the proportion
of the fine to the radius. 2. That the difference be¬
tween the logarithms of two fines is lefs than the dif¬
ference of the fines increafed in the proportion of the
leffer fine to the radius, but greater than the difference
of the fines xncreafed in the proportion of the greater
fine to the radius.. Thefe properties now ferved him
as theorems for. finding the logarithms themfelves in
an eafy manner. From the firft of them it appeared,
that the radius being io,co: ,ooo, the firft term of the
table, the logarithm of 9,999,999, the fecond term,
muft be greater than the difference betwixt that term
and the radius, which is 1, but lefs than the dif¬
ference when increafed in the proportion of the fine
to the radius;, but this proportion is only one ten mil¬
lionth part, for 9,999,999X1.0000001= 10,000,00c ;
whence the logarithm of the radius or 10,000,000
being o, the logarithm of 9,999,999 the fecond term
will be between 1 and l.coooooi, or very nearly
1.00000005, this being the arithmetical mean betwixt
1 and i.oooocoi. This will alfo be the common dif¬
ference betwixt every two fucceeding terms in the firft
table ; becaufe all the terms there are in the fame pro¬
portion, of 10,000,000. 409,999,999. Hence by the
continual addition of this logarithm we have the loga¬
rithms of the whole feries, and therefore that of the
laft term of the feries viz.. 9999900.0004950 will be
i„o.ocoo5.
The fecoud tabic, as we have already faid, confifts
0«
lag L O G A R
Conftruc- of a ferics of numbers in the continual proportion of
Z o^011' ioooooto9999gwhencethefirfl.term being 10,000,000
^ogam fecon^ vvill be 9,999,900; the difference betwixt
this and the laft term of the former feries is .0004950.
But by the fecond theorem, the difference between
the logarithms of 9,999,900.0004950 and 9,999,900,
the fecond term of the fecond table, vvill be lefs than
.0004950, increafed in the proportion of 99999 to
1 oocoo, but greater than .0004950, increafed in the
proportion of 9,999,900.0004950 ; that is to fay, if
vve augment .0004950 by one hundred thoufandth part,
it will be greater than the difference betwixt the loga¬
rithms of the two terms. The limits, therefore, are
■here fo extremely fmall, that we tnay account the dif¬
ference betwixt the two terms and that of the loga¬
rithms themfelves the fame : adding therefore this dif¬
ference.0004950 to 100.000005, wehave 100-0005000
for the logarithm of the fecond term, and likewife for
the common difference of all the logarithms of the terms
of the fecond table. - Again, by the fame theorem, the
difference between the logarithms of this laft propor¬
tional of the fecond table and the fecond terrfl in the
fir ft column of the third table, will be found to be
1.2235287; which added to the laft logarithm, gives
5001.2485387 for the logarithm of 9,995,000, the
fecond term of the third table : and in a fimilar manner,
by the fame theorem, he finds the logarithms of all the
other terms of the reft of the columns.
Thus our author completed what he calls his radi¬
cal table, from which he found his logarithmic fines
by taking, according to the fecond theorem, the fum
and difference of each tabular fine, and the neareft num¬
ber in the radical table. Annex then feven ciphers
to the difference; divide the number by the fum, and
half the quotient will be the difference between the lo¬
garithms of the tabular fine and radical number ; and
confequently, by adding or fubtracting this difference
to or from the logarithm of the natural number, we
have the logarithmic fine required.
In this manner were completed the logarithmic fines
from radius or fine of 90° to the half of it, or fine of
_30J. To complete the other 30°, he obferves, that
the logarithm of the ratio of 2 to 1, or of one half
the radius, is 6931469.22 ; that of the ratio of 4 to I
is double of it; that of 8 to 1, triple of it, &c. ; ■ arid
thus going on to compute the logarithms of the ratio
between 1 and 40, 80, ioo> &c. to 10,000,000: then
multiplying any given fine for an arc lefs than 30° by
fpme of thefe numbers, he finds the produdl nearly
equal to fome number In the table ; and then finds the
logarithm by the fecond theorem as already direfted.
Another, and much eafier method, however, of per¬
forming the fame thing is founded upon the following
proportion, which he demonftrates, viz. that as half
the radius is to the fine of half an arc, fo is the co*
fine of the half arc to the fine of the whole arc ; or
as one half the radius is to the fine of any arc, fo is
the cofine of that arc to the fine of double the arc.
Hence the logarithmic fine of an arc is found by add¬
ing the logarithms of half the radius and the fine of
double the arc, and then fubtrafting the logarithmic
cofine from the fum. In this way, he obferves that
the fines for full one half of the quadrant may be
found, and the remainder by one cafy divilion, or
1 T H M S. Sea.lt.il
addition and fubtra&ion for each, as already direft- Conftroc. |
. don of |
ea' Logarithms |
§. 2. Kepler's met had of conftrvBion. u—y—w
This was founded upon principles nearly fimilar to
that of Napier. He firft of all eredls a fyftem of pro¬
portions, and the meafures of proportion, founded up¬
on principles purely mathematical; after which he ap¬
plies thefe principles to the conftruflion of his table,
containing only the logarithms of 1000 numbers. The
propofitions on which his method is founded are in fub-
ftance the following.
x. All equal proportions equal among themfelves
are expreffed by the fame quantity, be the terms many
or few ; as the proportion of 2, 4, 8, &c. in geome¬
trical progrefilon is expreffed by 2 ; and of 2, 6, 18,
54, &c. by 3.
2. Hence the proportion of the extremes is com-
pofed of all the proportions of the intermediate terms (
thus the proportion of 2 to 8 its compounded of that
2 to 4, and of 4 to 8.
3. The mean proportional betwixt two terms di¬
vides that proportion into two equal ones. Thus the
proportion between 2 and 32 is divided by the mean
proportional 8 into two equal proportions of 4; for
2 is to 8, as 8 is to 32.
4. In any number of proportionals regularly in-
crCafing, the means divide the proportion of the ex¬
tremes into one more than their own number. Thus, in
the feries 2, 4, 8, 16, the proportion of the extremes
2 and 16 is by the two means 4 and 8, divided into
three proportions, viz. that betwixt 2 and 4, 4 and 8*
8 and 16. In like manner, in the feries 3, 6, 18, 54,
162, 486, the proportion betwixt 3 and 486 is divided
by the four means into the five proportions of 3 to 6;
6 to 18 ; 18 to 54 ; 54 to 162 ; and 162 to 486.
5. The proportion betwixt any two terms is divi-
fible into any number of parts, until thefe become lefs
than any afiignable quantity. Thus the proportion
of 2 to 8 is divifible, by multiplying the two together
and extra&ing the fquare root, into two parts by thef
number 4: by multiplying 2 and 4 together, and ex-
tradling the fquare root, and doing the fame with 4
and 8, the proportion would be divided into four parts,
viz. 2.y'S. 4.v/'32.8 ; or in numbers, 2 : 2.813, &c.
! 4 : 5.655, &c.: 8, _ #
6. By dividing the ratios in this manner, the ele¬
mentary part will become at laft fo fmall, that it may
be denominated by the mere difference of terms of that
element. This is evident from the diminution of the
ratios or proportions already inffanced: for the pro¬
portion between 2 and 2.813 is only 1.406, &c. and
if we were to find a mean proportional betwixt 2 and
2.813, the ratio betwixt that proportional and 2 would
be much lefs. But it muff always he remembered, that
fuch evanefeent quantities, as they are called, cannot
give us any conclufion with abfohxte exaftnefs, how¬
ever they may anfwer every ufeful purpofe to us : for
it is evident that neither mean proportional nor ratio
can ever be found exaftly ; and therefore the error ac¬
cumulated in all the operations muff become very con-
fiderable, if any circumftance lliall happen to make it
appear.
7. In three continued proportionals, the difference
6
lea. II. L O G A R
rConftruc- of the two firft has to the difference between the
.a tl0n- 0u two t^ie ^ame proportion that the firft term has
•jogant t^e jfecontj) or ^he fecond to the third. Thus, in
the three terms, 4, 8, 16, the difference between the
two firft terms 4 and 8, viz. 4, is in proportion to 8 j
and the difference between the two laft, as 4 is to 8,
or 8 to 16.
8. In continued proportionals, the greateft terms
have the greateft differences, and vice verfa. Thus
the difference between 8 and 16 is evidently greater
than between 2 and 4 or 4 and 8.
9. If the difference betwixt the two greateft terms
be made the meafure of the proportion between them,
the difference between any two others will be lefs than
the true meafure of their proportion. Thus in the
feries 4, 2, 1, &c. where the difference 2 betwixt
the two greateft terms expreffes their true proportion,
it is plain, that the difference 1 betwixt 2 and 1 is lefs
than their ratio, as well as between i and &c.
10. In any feries of proportionals, if the difference
betwixt the greateft term and one not immediately
next to it, be taken as the meafure of the proportion,
then the proportion betwixt the greateft term and any
other greater than the term before taken, will be lefs than
the difference of thofe terms; but the proportion which
is between the greateft term and any one lefs than
that firft taken, will be greater than their difference.
As proportionals of this kind do not readily occur,
we (hall, in order to avoid ©bfcurity, ftiow once for
all, that there is a poflibility of finding geometrical
proportionals of fuch a nature, that the ratio may be
equal to the difference betwixt the greateft and third,
or any other term diftant from it. Thus let us be¬
gin with any two numbers we pleafe, fuppofe 9 and
1 o: though thefe are in tlve natural arithmetical pro¬
portion, yet if we make the ratio i-in, they willalfo
be geometrically proportional, and the feries will run
thus:
1 ft 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th
term term term- term term term
10 : 9 : 8.099 t 7.289 : 6.560 : 5.904, &c.
Here the difference betwixt the firft and third terms
is 1.901, which is greater than the ratio; that be¬
twixt the fecond and fourth, viz. 1.711, is ftill greater,
but nearer to it than the former; the difference be¬
tween the third and fifth terms, viz. 1.539, ftill ap¬
proximates, as does that between the fourth and.fixth,
viz. 1.385: and indeed by continuing this feries
tmly for two terms longer, the difference will become
Imaller than the ratio. It is not worth while, howr
ever, to feek for feriefes of this kind, as the prefent
propofition will now befufficiently intelligible, without
any farther illuftration.
11. If. quantities be arranged according to the or¬
der of their magnitudes, and if any two fucceffive pro¬
portions of thefe be equal, the three fucceffive terms
which conftitute them will alfo be equal. Thus, if
the two quantities 12 and 8 conftitute the proportion
V, and each of them be leffened by 6, the half of
*2, we have the proportion 4? which is more than
’double the original proportion ; , for t = 3j and ^ X
T > ~ I = •
12. When quantities are placed in the order of their
magnitudes, if the intermediate magnitudes lying be¬
tween any two terms be not among the mean proportio-
I T H M S.
*27
nals which can be interpofed betwixt thefe two terms, Conftruc-
then thefe intermediates will not divide the proportion
of thofetwotermsintocommenfurableproportions. Thus °ga 1
in the magnitudes 343 : 216 : 125 : 64 : 27 : 8, neither
of the two intermediate terms 125 and 64 are mean pro¬
portionals betwixt 27 and 216, nor do they divide the
proportion betwixt thefe into commenfurable parts.
13. All the proportions taken in order, which are
between expreffible terms that are in arithmetical pro¬
portion, are incommenfurable to one another ; as be¬
tween 8, 13, and 18.
14. When quantities are placed in the order of
their magnitude, if the difference between the two
greateft be made the'meafure of their proportion, the
difference between any two others will be lefs than
the meafure of their proportion ; .and if the difference
between the two leaft terms be made the meafure of
their proportion, the differences of the reft will be"
greater than the meafure of the proportion between
their terms.
15. If the meafure of proportion between the great¬
eft exceed their difference, then the proportion of this -
meafure to the difference will be lefs than that of a
following meafure to the difference of its terms ; be-
caufe proportionals have the faipe ratio.
16. If three equidifferent quantities are taken in
order, the proportion between the extremes is more
than double that betwixt the two greater terms. Hence
it follows, that half the proportion of the extremes
is greater than the proportion between the greateft
terms, but lefs than the proportion of the two leaft.
17. If two quantities conftitute a proportion, and
each be leffened by half the greater, tire remainder will
conftitute a proportion more than double the former.
18. If 1000 numbers follow one another in the na¬
tural order, 1000, 999, 998, &c. and by continual
multiplication and extraction of the fquare root we
find mean proportionals, and thus iifefi, ■ as it is called,
the ratio between the two greateft, fo that the parts
into which the ratio is divided become ultimately
fmaller than the excefs of proportion betwixt the next
two over the former (for 998 bears a greater propor¬
tion to 999 than 999 bears to 1000); the meafure of
this very fmall part or element of the proportion may
be fuppofed to be the difference between 1000 and
that mean proportional which is the other term of the
element. Thus, for the fake of an eafy explanation,
let us fuppofe the numbers to be 10, 9, 8, &c. the
ratio of 9 to 10 is l.il, that of 9 to 8 is 1.125, the
difference between which is .014, which we may call
the elementary part of the ratios. By fix extractions
of the fquare root we have the mean proportional
9,985, &c. differing from 10 by no more than .015,
which is very near the element juft mentioned. The
number of parts into which the ratio is thus divided
is expreffed by the 6th. power of 2 or 64. Dividing-
therefore the ratio between 9 and 10 or 1.11 by 64,
we have .017 for the elementary part thus obtained;
which near coincidence with the real element, and
the difference between 10 and the mean proportional
itfelf, fliows that in large numbers we may take
the difference between the mean proportional and"
greateft term for the elementary part without any fen-
fible error.
Suppofe now, that the proportion between 1000
and.
'nS LOG
Confti-uc- an(l be divided into twice the number of parts
Lwaikhni*^at t^e ^orrner waR> it w‘h be equally plain that the
\ difference betwixt 1000 and the next mean propor¬
tional will be the meafure of that element. Proceed¬
ing in like manner with the other numbers 1000 and
997, 1000 and 996, &c. it is evident, that by divi¬
ding into a proper number of parts, all the elements will
be reduced; to an equal degree of jinenefs, if we may fo
call it, and in calculations may be made ufe of without
any fear of error.
19. The number of elementary parts being thus
known which are contained in any proportion, it will
be eafy to find the ratios between thofe numbers which
are in continued proportion to the firft term of the
feries. Thus, having found the proportion between
1000 and 90O,
we know alfo that of 1000 to 810, and 729 ;
And from 1000 to 800, alfo 1000 to 640, and to 512 ;
And from 1000 to 700, alfo 1000 to 490, and to 343 ;
And from rooo to 600, alfo 1000 to 360, and to 216 $
And from 1000 to 500, alfo 1000 to 250, and to 125.
Carol. Hence arifes the precept for fquaring,
cubing, &c.; as alfo for extracting the fquare root,
cube root, &c. out of the firfi: figures of numbers. For
it will be, As the greateft number of the chiliad as a
denominator, is to the number propofed as a numera¬
tor, fo is this to the fquare of the fra&ion, and fo is
this to the cube.
20. Prop. The proportion of a number to the firft,
or 1000, being known; if there be two other numbers in
the fame proportion to each other, then the proportion
of one of thefe to 1000 being known, there will alfo
be known the proportion of the other to the fame
1000.
Carol. 1. Hence from the 15 proportions mention¬
ed in prop. 18. will be known 120 others below 1000,
to the fame 1000.
For fo many are the proportions, equal to fome one
or other of the faid 15, that are among the other in¬
teger numbers which are -lefs than 1000.
Coro!. 2. Henoe arhfes the method of treating the
Rule-of-Three, when 1000 is one of the given terms.
For this is effefted by adding to, or fubtra&ing
from, each other, the meafures of the two proportions
•of 1000 to each of the other two given numbers, ac¬
cording as 1000 is, or is not, the firft term in the
Rule-of-three.
21. Prop. When four numbers are proportional, the
Sea. II.
firft to the fecond as the third to the fourth, and the Conftruo-
proportions of 1000 to each of the three former are t!°n J
known, there will alfo be known the proportion 0f ^garahmi.
1000 to the fourth number.
Coral, x. By this means other chiliads are added to'
the former.
Corol. 2. Hence arifes the method of performing
the Rule-of-three, when 1000 is not one of the terms.
Namely, from the fum of the meafures of the propor¬
tions of 1000 to the fecond and third, take that of
1000 to the firft, and the remainder is the meafure of.
the proportion of 1000 to the fourth term.
Dejinition. The meafure of the proportion between
IOOO and any lefs number* as before deferibed, and
exprefled by a number, is fet oppofite to that lefs
number in the chiliad, and is called its logarithm, that
is, the number indicating the proportion
(wyov) which 1000 bears to that number, to which the
logarithm is annexed.
22. Prop. If the firft or greateft number be made
the radius of a circle, or Jinus totus; every lefs number
confidered as the cofine of fome arc, has a logarithm
greater than the verfed fine of that arc, but lefs than
the difference between the radius and fecant of the
arc ; except only in the term next after the radius, or
greateft term, the logarithm of which by the hypo-
thefis is made equal to the verfed fine.
That is, if CD be made the loga¬
rithm of AC, or the meafure of the
proportion of AC to AD; then the
meafure of the proportion of AB
to AD, that is, the logarithm of
AB, will be greater than BD, but
lefs than EF. And this is the fame A BCD
as Napier’s firft rule in page 44.
23. Prop. The fame things being fuppofed ; the fum
of the verfed fine and excefs of the fecant over the ra¬
dius, is greater than double the logarithm of the co¬
fine of an arc.
Corol. The logarithm cofine is kfs than the arith¬
metic mean between the verfed fine and the excefs of
the fecant.
Precept 1. Any fine being found in the canon of
fines, and its deleft below radius to the excefs of the
fecant above radius ; then (hall the logarithm of the
fine be lefs than half that fum, but greater than the
faid defeft or coverfed fine.
Let there be the fine 99970.1490 of an arc ;
Its defeft below radius is 29.8510 the covers, and lefs than logarithm fine;
Add the excefs of the fecant 29.8599
A R I T H M S,
Therefore the logarithm is between
Precept 2. The logarithm of the fine being found,
you will alfo find nearly the logarithm of the round or
integer number which is next lefs than your fine with
a fraftion, by adding that (raft ional excefs to the lo¬
garithm of the faid fine.
Thus the logarithm of the fine 99970.149 is found
to be about 29.854 ; if now the logarithm ef the round
N0 184.
29.8510 and
29.8555.
number 99970*000 be required, add 149 the fractional
part of the fine to its logarithm, obferving the point,
thus, 29*854 )'
149 / is the logarithm of the round num-
  C ber 999700.000 nearly.
the fum 30.003 J
24. Prop. Of three equidifferent quantities, the mea¬
fure
Sum 59.7109
Its half or .29.8555 greater than the logarithm,
i
Jea.II.
cConftruc- fUre of the proportion between the two greater terms,
i tion of w;th the meafure of the proportion between the two
jiogant ms |eps terms, will conftitute a proportion which will be
greater than the proportion of the two greater terms,
but lefs than the proportion of the two leaft.
Thus if AB, AC, AD, be three
quantities having the equal differences
BC, CD ; and if the meafure of the * ' —' -*
proportion of AD, AC be cd, and
that of AC, AB, be be ; then the —i
proportion of cd to cb will be great¬
er than the proportion of AC to
AD, but lefs than the proportion of
AB to AC.
25. Prop. The faid proportion between the two
meafures is lefs than half the proportion betwaen the
extreme terms: that is, the proportion between be,
cd, is lefs than half the proportion between AB, AD.
Carol. Since therefore the arithmetical mean divides
the proportion into unequal parts, of which the one is
greater and the other lefs than half the whole ; if it
be enquired what proportion is between thefe propor¬
tions, the anfwer is, that it is a little lefs than the faid
half.
An example of finding nearly the limits, greater and
lefs, to the meafure of any propofed proportion.—It be¬
ing known that the meafure of the proportion be¬
tween 1000 and 900 is 10536.05, required the mea¬
fure of the proportion 900 to 800, where the terms
1000, 900, 800, have equal differences. Therefore as
9 to 10, fo 10536.05 to 11706.72, which is lefs than
11778.30, the meafure of the proportion 9 to 8. Again,
as the mean proportional between 8 and 10 (which is
8.9442719) is to 10, fo 10536.05 to 11779.66, which
is greater than the meafure of the proportion between
9 and 8.
Axiom. Every number denotes an expreflible quan¬
tity.
26. Prop. If the 1000 numbers, differing by 1, fol¬
low one another in the natural order, and there be
taken any two adjacent numbers, as the terms of fome
proportion ; the meafure of this proportion will be to
the meafure of the proportion between the two greateft
terms of the chiliad, in a proportion greater than that
which the greatell term 1000 bears to the greater of
the two terms firll taken, but lefs than the propor¬
tion of 1000 to the lefs of the faid two felefted
terms.
So of the 1000 numbers taking any two fucceffive
terms, as 501 and 500, the logarithm of the former be¬
ing 69114.92, and of the latter 69314.72, the diffe¬
rence of which is 199.80. Wherefore by the defini¬
tion, the meafure of the proportion between 501 and
500 is 199.80. In like manner, becaufe the logarithm
of the greateft term .1000 is o, and of the next 999 is
100.05, t^e difference of thefe logarithms, and the
meafure of the proportion between 1000 and 999, is
ID0.05. Couple now the greateft term 1000 with
each of the felefted terms 501 and 500; couple alfo
the meafure 199.80 with the meafure 100.05 ; fo lhall
, Vol.X. Parti.
!29
the proportion between 199.80 and 100.05 be greater Conftnic-
than the proportion between 1000 and 501, but lefs 1 "ithmt
than the proportion between 1000 and 500. g ^
Carol. 1. Any number below the firft 1000 being
, propofed, as alfo its logarithm; the differences of any
logarithms antecedent to that propofed, towards the
beginning of the chiliad, are to the firft logarithm
(viz. that which is affigned to 999) in a greater pro¬
portion than 1000 to the number propofed ; but of
thofe which follow towards the laft logarithm, they arc
to the fame in a lefs proportion.
Corol. 2. By this means the places of the chiliad
may eafily be filled up, which have not yet had loga¬
rithms adapted to them by the former propofitions.
27. Prop. The difference of two logarithms, adapt¬
ed to two adjacent numbers, is to the difference of thefe
numbers in a proportion greater than lopo bears to
the greater of thofe numbers, but lefs than that of 1000
to the lefs of the two numbers.
This 27th propofition is the fame as Napier’s fecond
rule.
28. Prop. Having given two adjacent numbers of
the 1000 natural numbers, with their logarithmic in¬
dices, or the meafures of the proportions which thofe
abfolute or round numbers conftitute with 1000 the
greateft ; the increments or differences of thefe loga¬
rithms will be to the logarithm of the fmall element
of the proportions, as the fecants of the arcs whofe co¬
fines are the two abfolute numbers is to the greateft
number, or the radius of the circle : fo that, however,
of the faid two fecants, the lefs will have to the radius
a lefs proportion than the propofed difference has to
the firft of all, but the greater will have a greater pro¬
portion, and fo alfo will the mean proportional between
the faid fecants have a greater proportion.
Thus if BC, CD be equal, alfo bd
the logarithm of AB, and cd the lo¬
garithm of AC ; then the proportion
of be to cd will be greater than the
proportion of AG to AD, but lefs
than that of AF to AD, and alfo
lefs than that of the mean proper-A j?
tional between AF and AG to AD. i J~!/
Corol. I. The fame obtains alfo when the two terms
differ, not only by the unit of the fmall element, but by
another unit which may be ten fold, a hundred fold, or
a thoufand fold of that.
Corol. 2. Hence the differences will be obtained fuf-
ficiently exaft, efpecially when the abfolute numbers
are pretty large, by taking the arithmetical mean be¬
tween two fmall fecants, or (if you will be at the la¬
bour) by taking the geometrical mean between two
larger fecants, and then by continually adding the dif¬
ferences, the logarithms will be produced.
Corol. 3. Precept. Divide the radius by each term
of the affigned proportion, and the arithmetical mean
(or ftill nearer the geometrical mean) between the quo¬
tients will be the required increment, which being add¬
ed to the logarithm of the greater term, will give the
logarithm of the lefs term.
LOGARITHMS.
R
Example*
*3©
Conftruc-
tion of
Logarithm*
LOGARITHMS.
Example.
Let there be given the logarithm of 700, viz. 35667.4948, to find the logarithm to 699.
Here radium divided by 700 gives 1428571, &c.
and divided by 699 gives 1430672, &c.
the arithmetic mean is 142.962
which added to 35667.4948
Sea. ir.
gives the logarithm to
Carol. 4. Precept for the logarithms of fine;.
The increment between the logarithms of two fin es
is thus found : find the geometrical mean between the
cofecants, and divide it by the difference of the fines,
the quotient will be the difference of the logarithms.
Example.
o° 1' fine 2909 cofec. 343774682
o 2 fine 5818 cofec. 171887319
dif. 2909 geom. mean 2428 nearly.
The quotient 80000 exceeds the required incre¬
ment of the logarithms, becaufe the fecants are here
fo large.
Appendix. Nearly in the fame manner it may be
fhown, that the fecond differences are in the duplicate
proportion of the firft, and the third in the duplicate
of the fecond. Thus, for inftance, in the beginning of
the logarithms, the firft difference is 100.00000, viz.
equal to the difference of the numbers 100000.00000
and 99900.00000 ; the fecond, or difference of the dif¬
ferences, xoooo; the third 20. Again, after arriving
at the number 50000.00000, the logarithms have for
a difference 20c.00000, which is to the firft difference
as the number 100000.00000 to 50000.00000 ; but
the fecond difference is 40000, in which 10000 is con¬
tained four times; and the third 328, in which 20 is
contained fixteen times. But fince, in treating of new
matters, we labour under the want of proper words,
wherefore, left we fhould become too obfcure, the de-
monftration is omitted untried.
29. Prop. No number expreffes exaftly the meafure
of the proportion between two of the rooo numbers
conftituted by the foregoing method.
30. Prop. If the meafures of all proportions be ex-
preffed by numbers or logarithms ; all proportions will
not have affigned to them their due portion of meafure,
to the utmoft accuracy.
31. Prop. If to the number 1000, the greateft of
the chiliad, be referred others that are greater than it,
and the logarithm of 1000 be made o, the logarithms
belonging to thofe greater numbers will be negative.
This concludes the firft or fcientific part of the
work; the principles of which Kepler applies, in the fe¬
cond part, to the a&ual conftru&ion of the firft 1000
logarithms, which is pretty minutely defcribed. This
part is intitled A very compendious method of conjlruEting
the Chiliad of Logarithms ; and it is not improperly fo
called, the method being very concife and eafy. The
fundamental principles are briefly thefe : That at the
beginning of the logarithms, their increments or diffe¬
rences are equal to thofe of the natural numbers : that
the natural numbers may be confidered as the decreafing
cofines of increafing arcs: and that the fecants of thofe
arcs at the beginning have the fame differences as the
cofihes, and therefore the fame differences as the loga¬
rithms. Then, fince the fecants are the reciprocals of
the cofines, by thefe principles and the third corol. to
the twenty-eighth propofition, he eftablifhes the fol-
5
699 35810.4568
lowing method of conftituting the 100 firft or fmalleft
logarithms to the 100 largeft numbers, 1000, 999,
998, 997, &c. to 900, viz. Divide the radius 1000, in-
creafed with feven ciphers, by each of thefe numbers
feparately, difpofing the quotients in a table, and they
will be the fecants of thofe arcs which have the divifors
for their cofines ; continuing the divifion to the 8th
figure, as it is in that place only that the arithmetical
and geometrical means differ. Then, by adding fuc-
ceffively the arithmetical means between every two fuc-
ceffive fecants, the fums will be the feries of logarithms.
Or, by adding continually every two fecants, the fuc-
ceffive fums will be the feries of the double loga¬
rithms.
Befides thefe 100 logarithms thus conftru&ed, he
conftitutes two others by continual bife&ion or extrac¬
tions of the fquare root, after the manner defcribed in
the fecond poftulate. And firft he finds the logarithm
which meafures the proportion between 100000.00 and
97656.2;, which latter term is the third proportional
to 1024 and 1000, each with two cyphers ; and this is
effected by means of twenty-four continual extractions
of the fquare root, determining the greateft term of
each of twenty-four claffes of mean proportioqals ; then
the difference between the greateft of thefe means and
the firft or whole number 1000, with ciphers, being
as often doubled, there arifes 2371.6526 for the loga¬
rithm fought, which made negative is the logarithm of
1024. Secondly, the like procefs is repeated for the
proportion between the numbers 1000 and 500, from
which arifes 69314.7193 for the logarithm of 500 ^
which he alfo calls the logarithm of duplication, be¬
ing the meafure of the proportion of 2 to 1.
Then from the foregoing he derives all the other
logarithms in the chiliad, beginning with thofe of the
prime numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, See. in the firft too-
And firft, fince 1024, 512, 256, 128,64, 32, 16, 8,
4, 2, 1, are all in the continued proportion of 1000 to
500, therefore the proportion of 1024 to 1 is decuple
of the proportion of 1000 to 500, and confequently
the logarithm of 1 would be decuple of the logarithm
of 500, if o were taken as the logarithm of 1024 ; but
fince the logarithm of 1024 is applied negatively, the
logarithm of I mull be diminiflied by as much : dimi-
niThing therefore ic times the logarithm of 500, which
is 693147.1928, by 2371.6526, the remainder
69077 5.5422 is the logarithm of 1, or of 100,00 what
is fet down in the table.
And becaufe 1, 10, 100, I Nos. Logarithms, j
I coo, are continued proportion-I too 230258.5141
als, therefore the proportion of} 10 46051 7.0282J
1000 to I is triple of the pro- 1 690775.5422!
portion of 1000 to 100, and .1 921034.0563^
confequently-j-of the logarithm ' .01 1151292.5703I
of 1 is to be put for the loga- .001 1381551.0844I
rithmof 100,viz. 230258.5141, |.oooi 161x809.5985}
and this is alfo the logarithm of
decuplication, or of the proportion of 1 o to 1. And
hence
Sea. II.
LOGARITHMS.
*3*
C«nftruc- hence multiplying this logarithm of 100 fuccdfively by bers in all not compofed of the produ&s of any before Confirm;.
Logarithms2’ 3’ 4> 5» 6* »nd 7> there arife the logarithms to the them, and the logarithms of which he dire&s to be de- tion.of
. ° nimiVif>rK in thp Hprnnle nrnnnrtion. ns nnHpiv in rl.io m-!tl.w,~ . 1   ,-r Logarithm*
numbers in the decuple proportion, as under.
Alfo if the logarithm of
69°775-5422
69314-7'93
621460.8229
460517.028
rived in this manner ; namely, by confidering the dif-1.
ferences of the logarithms of the numbers interfperfed
among them ; then by that method by which were
conftituted the differences of the logarithms of the
fmalleft 100 numbers in a continued feries, we are to
proceed here in the difeontinued feries, that is, by
prop. 28th, corol. 3d, and efpecially by the appendix
to it, if it be rightly ufed, from whence thofe diffe¬
rences will be very eafily fupplied.
$ 3. Mr Briggs's Method.
The methods principally made ufe of by this gentle¬
man were publifhed in Napier’s pofthumous work. Ha¬
ving fuppofed o to be the logarithm of 1, and i with
duplication, or of the propor-J^og. of
tion of 2 to r, be taken from of 2 to 1
the logarithm of x, there wilf log. of 2
remain the logarithm of 2 ;jlog. of ic
and from the logarithm of 2j of 5 to 1/160943.7948
taking the logarithm of xo,| j of
there remains the logarithm
ef the proportion of 5 to 1 ; which taken from the lo¬
garithm of 1, there remains the logarithm of 5. See
the margin.
For the logarithms of other prime numbers, he has
recourfe to thofe of fome of the firft or greateft cen- _ o   
tury of numbers, before found, viz. of 999, 998, 997, any number of ciphers annexed, fuppofe 10 to be the
&c. And firft, taking 960, whofe logarithm is logarithm of 10, this number is to be divided ten
4082.2001 ; then by adding to this logarithm the lo- times by 5, which in a logarithmic number is equiva-
garithm of duplication, there will arife the feveral lo- lent to the extraction of the root of the fifth power;
garithms of all thefe numbers, which are in duplicate by which means he obtains the following numbers,
proportion continued from 960, namely 480, 240, 120, viz. 2 with nine ciphers to it; 4 with eight ciphers ;
60, 30, 15. Hence the logarithm of 30 taken from 8 with feven ciphers; 16 with fix ciphers; 32 with
the logarithm of 10, leaves the logarithm of the pro- five ciphers; 64 with four; 128000, 25600, 5120,
portion of 3 to 1 ; which taken from the logarithm of and 1024. Dividing this laft logarithm ten times by
1, leaves the logarithm of 3, viz. 580914.3106. And 2, we have a geometrical feries of ten numbers; the
the double of this diminifhed by the logarithm of I, c“il - L 1 - ’ ’
gives 47 10, 53.0790 for the logarithm of 9.
Next, from the logarithm of 990, or 9 X 10 X 11,
which is X005.0331, he finds the logarithm of 11 ;
namely, fubtraft the fum of the logarithms of 9 and
1 o from the fum of the logarithm of 990, and double
the logarithm of 1, there remains 450986.0106 the
logarithm of Ii.
Again, from the logarithm of 980, or 2 X 10 X 7
X 7, which is 2020.27x1, he finds 496184.5228 for
the logarithm of 7.
And from 5129.3303 the logarithm of 950 or
5 X 10 X 19, he finds 396331.6392 for the logarithm
of 19.
In like manner the logarithm
to 998 or 4 X 13 X 19, gives the logarithm of 13 ;
to 969 or 3 X 17 X 19, gives the logarithm of 17 ;
to 986 or 2 X 17 X 29, gives the logarithm of 29 ;
to 966 or 6 X 7 X 23, gives the logarithm of 23 ;
to 930 or 3 X 10 X 31, gives the logarithm 0131.
And fo on for all the primes below 100, and for
many of the primes in the other centuries up to 900.
After which he direfts to find the logarithms of all
numbers compofed of thefe, by the proper addition and
fubt radii on of their logarithms, namely, in finding the
logarithm of the product of two numbers, from the
fum of the logarithms of the two factors take the lo¬
garithm of 1, the remainder is the logarithm of the
produdt. In this way he (hows, that the logarithms of
all numbers under 500 may be derived, except thofe
of the following 3 6 numbers, namely 127,149,167,173,
179, 211, 223, 251, 257, 263', 269, 271, 277, 281,
283, 293, 337, 347, 349, 353, 359, 367, 373, 379,
383» 389» 397* 4OI» 4°9> 4I9> 42I> 431* 433* 439*
443, 449. Alfo, befides the compofite numbers be¬
tween 500 and 90c, made up of the produdts of fome
numbers whofe logarithms have been before determin¬
ed, there will be 59 primes not compofed of them;
which with the 36 above mentioned make 95 num-
firft of which is 512, and the laft 1. Thus 20 loga¬
rithms are obtained : but the labour of finding the
numbers belonging to them is fo exceffive, that it is fur-
pnfing how it could be undergone by any body. To
obtain thofe correfponding to the firft ten logarithms,
the fifth root mull be ex traded ten times, and the
fquare root as often, to obtain the numbers correfpond¬
ing to the others. The power from which thefe ex-
tra&ionsis made, mull originally be 1, with a number
of ciphers annexed. Other logarithms might be form¬
ed from thefe by adding them, and multiplying their
correfponding numbers ; but as this method, befides
its excelfive labour, would produce only an antilogaritb-
tnic canon like that of Mr Dodfon already mentioned,
other more eafy and proper methods were thought of.
The next was by finding continually geometrical
means, firft between 10 and 1, and then between 10
and that mean, and fo on, taking the arithmetical
means between their correfponding logarithms. The
operation is alfo facilitated by various properties of
numbers and their logarithms, as that the produdls and
quotients of numbers correfpond to the fums and dif¬
ferences of their logarithms; that the powers and
roots of numbers anfwer to the p<-odu6ts and quotients
of the logarithms by the index of the power or root.
Thus having the logarithm of 2, we can have thofe of
4, 16, 256, &c. by multiplying the logarithms by 2,
and fquaring the numbers to as great an extent in that
feries as we pleafe. If we have alfo that of 3, we can
not only have thofe of 9, 81, 8561, &c. but of 6, 18.
2 7, and all poflible produ&s of the powers of 2 and
3 into one another, or into the numbers themfelves.
The following property may alfo be of ufe, viz. that
if the logarithms of any two numbers are given, and
each number be raifed to the power denoted by the
index of the other, the produdts will be equal. Thus,
Log. 01 2 3 4 5 6
Nat. numb. 1 2 4 8 16 32 64
Let the two numbers be 4 and 16 j it is plain, that if
R 2 we
132 L O G A R
Conftrucf- we raife 4 to tlie fourth power and j 6 to the fquare,
tion ^ products will be the fame ; for 16X16 =256, and
Logarithms A>,A=ri(.; , 6X4:= 64 . and 64><4= 256<
Another method mentioned by Mr Briggs depends
upon this property, that the logarithm of any number
in this fcale is 1 lefs than the number of places or fi¬
gures contained in that power of that number whofe
exponent's the logarithm of 10, at lead as to integral
numbers 5 for Mr Briggs has (hown that they really
differ by a fraction. To this Mr Hutton adds the fol¬
lowing ; viz. that of any two numbers, as the greater is
to the lefs, fo is the velocity of the increment or decre¬
ment of the logarithms at the greater ; “ that is (fays
he), in our modern notation, asX. Y : y : x ; where
x and y are the fluxions of X and Y.
In the treatife written upon the conftriuftion of loga¬
rithms by Mr Briggs Iiimfelf, he obferves, that they
may be conftrudted chiefly by the two methods already
mentioned, concerning which he premifes feveral lem¬
mata concerning the powers of numbers and their in¬
dices, and how many places of figures are in the pro-
dufts of numbers. He obferves, that thefe products
will confift of as many figures as there are in both fac¬
tors, unlefs the firft figures in each faftor be exprefled
in one figure only, which fometimes happens, and then
there will commonly be one figure lefs in the produfl
than in the two factors. He obferves alfo, that if in
any feries of geometricals, we take two terms, and raife
one to the power denoted by the index of the other,
or any number raifed to the power denoted by the loga¬
rithm of the other, the product will be equal to this latter
number raifed to the power denominated by the loga¬
rithm of the former. Hence, if one of the numbers be 10,
whofe logarithm is 1 with any number of cyphers, then
any number raifed to the power whofe index is the lo¬
garithm of that number, that is, the logarithm of any
number in this Ccale where 1 is the logarithm of 10,
is the index of tha^ power of 10, which is equal to the
given number. But the index of any integral power
of ! o is one lefs than the number of places of figures
it contains. Thus the fquare of 1 c, or 100, contains
three places of figures, which is more by one, than 2
the index of the power; 1000, the cube of 10 con¬
tains four places, which is one more' than the index, 3,
of the power. Hence as the number of places of the
powers of * o are always exactly one more than the in¬
dices of thofe powers, it follows that the places of fi¬
gures in the powers of any other number which is no
integral power of le, will not always be exactly one
kfs in number than the indices of the powers. From
thefe two properties is deduced the following rule for
finding the logarithms of many prime numbers.
Find the 10th, 100th, 1 oooth, or any other power
of a number, fuppofe 2, with the number of places of
figures in it, then that number of figures ihall always
exceed the logarithm of 2, although the excefs will be
conftantly lefs than 1 ; whence by proceeding to very
high powers we will at laft be able to obtain the loga¬
rithm of the number to great exaftnefs.
Thus, the logarithm of 2, found by other methods,
>3 known to be 30102999.566389, &c. The tenth
power of 2 is 1024 ; which containing four places of
figures, gives 4 for the logarithm of 2, which exceeds
it, though not quite by 1. The 20th power of 2,
eonfifting of the icth power multiplied into itfelf, by
I T H M S. Sea. II
its number of places ought to give the logarithm of 4; Conftruc
and according to the rule already laid down, fliould «on of
contain eight places of figures : but by reafon of theL°8arilhB
cipher which Hands in the fecond place, it is eafy to vl"
fee that it muft contain only feven; which therefore
gives feven for the logarithm of four. The logarithm
of 16 is then expreffed by the number of places of fi¬
gures in the product of the 20th power of 2 into it¬
felf; and is therefore denominated by 13. That of
256 is denoted by the 80th power of 2, containing 25
places of figures. The logarithm of 2, therefore, having
been already exprelfed by the 10th power of 2, will be
again exprefled by the 100th power. Adding, there¬
fore, the number of places contained in the 80th power,
viz. 25 to 7, the number of places containedin the 20th,
we have 32 for the next expreffion of that logarithm.
On account of the cipher which Hands in the feconi
place of one of the faftors, however, we mull deduct
one from the number; and thus we have 3 1 for the
logarithm of 2, which is a confiderable approximation.
Proceeding in this manner, at the 1 oooth power of 2,
we have 302 for the logarithm of 2 ; at the 10,000th
power we have 3011; at the 100,000th power, 30103;
at the x,ooo,oooth, we have 301030 ; and at the
10,000,000th power, we obtain 3010300; which is
as exaft as is commonly exprefled in the tables of. lo¬
garithms ; but by proceeding in the fame manner we
may have it to any degree of exadinefs we pleafe. Thus,
at the r 00,000,000th power, we have 30103000 5 and
at the 1,000,000,oooth, the logarithm is 301029996,
true to eight places of figures.
The only difficulty in this method is to find the
number of places of figures in the different powers
without multiplying them ; but this may be determi¬
ned by only multiplying the firfi five ; or even the firfl
three of the products will be fufficient to determine
this ; and the logarithms may thus be found with
very great facility.
When the logarithms, however, are required to a
very great degree of exattnefs, our author thinks that
the method of mean proportionals is molt eligible.
This cohfifls in finding a great number of mean pro¬
portionals betwixt 1 and the number propofed; that
is, firfl extracting the fquare root of the number it¬
felf, then extracting the root of that root, &c. until
the laft root fliall exceed 1 only by a very fmall de¬
cimal. Finding then the logarithm of this number
by methods hereafter to be deferibed, he multiplies
it by the index of the power of 2, denoted by the
number of extractions of the fquare root; and the re-
fult is the required logarithm of the given number.
In this method, the number of decimal places contain¬
ed in the laft p-oot ought to be double the number of
true places required in the logarithm itfelf, and the
firft half of them ought to be cyphers; the integer be¬
ing 1. To find out the firft fmall number and its lo¬
garithm, our author begins with 1 o and its logarithm
1 ; continually extracting the root of the former, and
bifeCting the latter, till he comes to the 54th root,
and then finds, that at the 53d and 54th roots both
natural numbers and logarithms bear the fame pro¬
portion to each other, viz. that of 2 to 1. Thus,
Numbers.
5311.00000,00000,00000,25565,82986,40064,70
5411.00000,00000,00000,ia;81,91493,20031,35
t LG-
Sea. II. LOG A II
Conftruc- Logarithms,
tion of •5310.00000,00000,00000,11102,25034,61515,65404
Logarithms 5410.00009,00000,00000,05551,11512,31157,^1702
v If now by continual extradlion and bifeftioa we find
any other fmall number, it will then be, as 12781,
See. is to 5551, &c. fo is that other fmall decimal to
the correfpondent fignificant figures of its logarithm.
To avoid, however, the exceffive labour of fuch long
multiplications and divifions, he reduces this ratio to
another, the antecedent of which is 1. Thus, as
12781, &c. is to 5551, &c* fo is 1 with as many ci¬
phers annexed as precede the logarithms above men¬
tioned, viz. 15, with another unit annexed to a 4th
number, which will be the fignificant figures of the loga¬
rithm of the third term. The proportions then will be
12781 A-c. : 5551 &c. :: i .ot*x>o,oocOo,ooooo, i : 434294481903251804;
this laft number, with 17 ciphers prefixed, being the lo¬
garithm of the one immediately preceding it. Having
therefore found by continual extraction any fuch fmall
decimal as the above, multiply it by 4342, &c. and
the product will be the correfponding logarithm of
the laft root.
Still, as the labour of fo many extractions mull be
intolerably tedious, it became neceflary to fall upon
fome contrivances to Ihorten fuch operations ; and of
thefe the following is an example.
Let the number of which we feefe the logarithm
be involved to fuch an • height that the index of the
power may be one, with either one or more ciphers
next to it. Divide this power then by 1 with as many
ciphers annexed as the power has fignificant figures
after the firft; or, fuppofing all the figures after the
firft to be decimals, the roots are extracted continually
from this power, till the decimal becomes fufficiently
fmall, as when the firft 15 places are ciphers; then,
multiplying the decimal by 43429, &c. we have the
logarithm of this laft root; which logarithm, multiplied
by the like power of the number 2, gives the loga¬
rithm of the firft number of which the extraction was
begun. To this logarithm if we prefix 1, 2, 3, &c.
according as this number was found by dividing the
power by 10, 100, 1000, &c. and laftly, dividing the
refult by the index of that power, the quotient will
be the required logarithm of the given prime num¬
ber.
Thus to find by this method the logarithm of 2.
Raife it firft to the 10th power, which is 1024; then
cutting off for decimals the laft three figures, we con¬
tinually extraCt the fquare root from 1,024 forty-feven
times, which gives
1.00000,00000,00000,16851,60570,53949,77 ; the
decimal part of which multiplied by 43429, &c. gives
0.00000,00000,00000,07318,55936,90623,9368 for
its logarithm, which being continually doubled 47
times, or multiplied at once by the 47th power of 2,
viz. 140737488355328, gives for the logarithm of the
number 10240.01029,99566,39811,95265,27744,^6
to 17 or 18 places of decimals: then prefixing to this
. I T H M S.
number 3, becaufe the divifion was made by 1000 (for .Conftnic-
cutting off the three places of decimals is the fame as L tl0"itc|inw
dividing by 1000), we have for the logarithm of 1024, oga^‘
3.010299566, &c. as above. Laftly,. dividing by 10,
becaufe 1024 is the icth power of 2, wc have the lo*
garithm of 2 itfelf; viz. 0.30102, &c.
The involving of any number to a very high power
is by no means a matter of fuch difficulty as might
at firft fight be imagined. A number multiplied by
itfelf produces the /guare ; the fquare multiplied by it¬
felf produces the biquadrate ; the biquadrate multiplied
by itfelf gives the eighth power, and the eighth
power multiplied by the fquare produces the tenth.
The tenth power multiplied by itfelf gives the 20th,
and the 20th. multiplied by itfelf the 40th. The
eighth power divided by the original number gives
the feventh ; and the 40th power multiplied by the
feventh gives the 47th power required.
The differential method of conftruCting logarithms
was likewife invented by our author, and greatly
fhortens the labour of finding the mean proportionals.
Mr Briggs, in the courfe of his calculations, had ob-
ferved, that thefe proportionals, found by continual
extraction of roots, gradually approach nearer and
nearer to the halves of the preceding root; and that
as many fignificant figures as there are cyphers before
them, agree exaClly in this proportion. Subtracting
therefore each of thefe decimal parts, which he called
A, or the fiift differences, from half the next preced¬
ing one, and by comparing together the remainders
or fecond differences, called B, he found that the fuc-
ceeding were always nearly equal to £ of the next pre¬
ceding ones ; then taking the difference between each
fecond difference and ^ of the preceding one, he found
that thefe third differences, called C, were nearly in the
continual ratio'of 8 to 1 ; again taking the difference
between each C and ^ of the next preceding, he found
that thefe fourth differences, called D, were nearly in.
the continual ratio of 16 to 1 ; and fo on, the 5th (E),
6th (F), &c. differences, being nearly in the conti¬
nual ratio of 32 to I, of 64 to 1, &c. : thefe plain
obfervations being made, they ‘ very naturally and
clearly fuggefted to him the notion and method of con-
ftruCting all the remaining numbers from the diffe¬
rences of a few of the firft, found by extracting the
roots in the ufual way. This will evidently appear
from the annexed fpecimen of a few of the firft num¬
bers in the laft example for finding the logarithm of 6 ;
where after the 9th number the reft are fuppofed to
be conftrufted. from the preceding differences of each,
as here Ihown in the 10th and nth. And it is evi¬
dent that, in proceeding, the trouble will become al¬
ways, lefs and lefs ; the differences gradually vaniftiing,
till at laft only the firft differences remain. And that
generally each lefs difference is ftiorter than the next
greater, by as many places as there are cyphers at Lhc
beginning of the decimal in the number to be genera¬
ted from the differences.
LOGARITHMS.
1,00776,96
1,00387,72833,36962,45663,84655,1
1,00193,67661,36946,61675,87022,9
1,00096,79146,39099,917 28,89072,0
1,00048,38402,68846,62985,49253,5
1,00024,18908,78824,68563,80872,7
24,19201,34423,31492,74626,7
292,55598,62928,93754,0
I 1,00012,09381,26397,13459,43919,4
12,09454,39412,34281,90436,3
73>I3OI5»2o822,465i6,9
| 73*i3899»6573^23438,5
884,44909,76921,5
7 I 1,00006,04672,35055,30968,01600,5
6,04690,63198,56729,71959,7
18.28143.25761.70359.2
18.28253.80205.61629.2
110,54443,9! 270,o
IIO>556I3>72II5,2
1169,80845,2
1,00003,02331,60505,65775,96479,4
3*02336,17527,65484,00800,2
4,57021,99708,04320,8
4»57035>8i44°»42589»8
13,81732,38269,0
13,81805,48908,5
73.10639.7
73.11302.8
 663,1
A
iA
B
A
tA
B
A
iA
B
iB
C
iC
D
A
tA
B
iB
C
iC
D
tVD
E
1,00001,51164765999,0 5^7 '
1,51165,802 52,82887,98239,7
I>I4253»772I5»03I9°»9
Hitherto the 1,14255,49927,01080,2
fmaller differences 1,72711,97889,3
are foundry fab- 1,72716,54783,6
trailing the larger from 4,56894,3
the parts of the like pre- 4,56915,0
ceding ones. 20,7
20,7
Here the greater differences 65
remain after fubtrailing 28555,89
the fmaller from the parts 28555,24
of the difference of 21588,99736,16
the next preceding 21588,71180,92
number. 28563,44303,75797,72
28563,22715,04616,80
75582»32999»52836»47524»4°
1,00000,75582,04436,30121,42907,60
1784,70
1784,68
2698,58897,62
2698,57112,94
7140,80678,76154,20
7140,77980,19041,26
37791,02218,15060,71453,80
1,00000,37790,95077,37080,52412,54
Sea. Ill
Conftruc- :Si
I of ifl-
- ja I non 01
Logarithm#
B
iB
C
iC
D
E
ttE
He then concludes this chapter with an ingeni¬
ous, but not obvious, method of finding the diffe-
rences B, C, D, E, &e. belonging to any number, as
fuppofe the 9th, from that numbef itfelf, independent
of any of the preceding 8th, 7th, 6th, 5th, &c.;
and it is this: Raife the decimal A to the 2d, 3d,
4th, 5th, &c. powers ; then will the 2d (B), 3d
(C), 4th (D), &c. differences be as here below.
C =
D =
E =
F =
G =
H =
1 =
K =
rA3 -j--J-A4,
ffA4-J-^Ar-fV^A^-f- -s-A1 -f- tVA*,
2*as+ J^66+ 12^aI+
• I3Ts-As-j- 814A7-}- 296|4A8-{-
• 122^’ +1510AVA3 +
*937 ~
li^aA5-!- yrT^A’0,
834t4iVA9-j- I953fT4:A, °, &c,
-r * i475rV-8-A9-l- 68372-v^^A1 °, &c.
rA8 +47151 ttVa9 + 7o68454t44A10, &c.
549°2A^-A9 4- °,8cc.
. 28o5527A,°, &c.
Thus in the 9th number of the foregoing example,
omitting the ciphers at the beginning of the decimals,
we have
A = 1,51164,65999,05672,95048,8
A1 = - 2,28507,54430,06381,6726
A3 = - - - 3,45422,65239,48546,2
A4 = - - - - 5,22156,97802,288
A3 — - • - - - 7,89316,8205
A6    11,93168,1
&c.
Confequently
A4-* = i>i4253»772I5>03i90>83^3 = B
4A3 - 1,72711,32619,74273
4A4 - 65269,62225
4A3-HA4 1,72711,97889,36498 = C
tA4 4.56S87,35577
4AS - - 6,90652
tVA5 - " - ' - 5
iA4+4As+T«A5 4^^894,26234 = D
24A! -. 20,71957
7A* - - - 83
2{As+7As - - - 20,72040 = E
which agree with the like differences in the foregoing
fpecimen. •
§ 4. Of Curves related to Logarithms.
Several other ingenious methods and improve¬
ments are laid down by our author in his treatife upon
this fubjcft; but as all thefe were attended with
great labour, mathematicians ftill continued their efforts
to facilitate the work ; and it was foon perceived that
fome curves had properties analogous to logarithms.
Edmund Gunter, it has been faid, firft gave the idea
of a curve, whofe abfciffes are in arithmetical progref-
fion, while the correfponding ordinates are in geo¬
metrical progreffion, or whofe abfciffes are the loga¬
rithms of their ordinates ; but it is not noticed in any
part of his writings. The fame curve was afterwards
confidered
Sea. II. LOGARITHMS. *3$
- Conftmc- confidered by others, and named the logarithmic or /o-
ti°n of gijlic curve by Huygens in his DiJJertatio de Caufa Gra-
• ■ °garit“ms vitality where he enumerates all the principal properties
of this curve, fhowing its analogy to logarithms. Many
other learned men have alfo treated of its properties ;
particularly Le Seur and Jacquier in their comment
on Newton’s Principia ; Dr John Kiell in the elegant
little traft on logarithms fubjoined to his edition of
Euclid’s Elements; and Francis Maferes, Efq; curfi-
tor baron of the exchequer, in his ingenious treatife
on Trigonometry; in which books the doftrine of lo¬
garithms is copioufly and learnedly treated, and their
analogy to the logarithmic curve, &c. fully difplayed.
It is indeed rather extraordinary that this curve was
not fooner announced to the public; fince it refults
immediately from Baron Napier’s manner of concei¬
ving the generation of logarithms, by only fuppoiing
the lines which reprefent the natural numbers to be
placed at right angles to that upon which the loga¬
rithms are taken. This curve greatly facilitates the
conception of logarithms to the imagination, and af¬
fords an almoft intuitive proof of the very important
property of their fluxions, or very fmall increments,
uiz. that the fluxion of the number is to the fluxion of
the logarithm, as the number is to the fubtangent; as
alfo of this property, that, if three numbers be taken
very nearly equal, fo that their ratios to each other may
differ but a little from a ratio of equality; as for example,
the 3 numbers 10,000,000, 10,000,001, 10,000,002,
their differences will be very nearly proportional to the
logarithms of the ratios of thofe numbers to each other:
all which follows from the logarithmic arcs being very
little different from their chords, when they are taken
very fmall. And the conftant fubtangent of this curve
is what was afterwards by Cotes called the modulus of
the fyftem of logarithms : and fince, by the former of
the two properties above mentioned, this fubtangent is
a fourth proportional to the fluxion of the number, the
fluxion of the logarithm, and the number, this pro¬
perty afforded occafion to Mr Baron Maferes to give
the following definition of the modulus, which is the
fame in effedf as Cotes’s, but more clearly expreffed ;
* namely, that it is the limit of the magnitude of a fourth
proportional to thefe three quantities, i-iz. the diffe¬
rence of any two natural numbers that are very nearly
equal to each other, either of the faid numbers and
the logarithm or meafure of the ratio they have to
each other. Or we may define the modulus to be the
natural number at that part of the fyftem of logarithms,
where the fluxion of the number is equal to the fluxion
of the logarithm, or where the numbers and logarithms
have equal differences. And hence it follows, that
the logarithms of equal numbers or of equal ratios, in
different fyftems, are to one another as the moduli of
thofe fyftems. Moreover, the ratio wbofe meafure or
logarithm is equal to the modulus, and thence by Cotes
called the ratio modularis, is by calculation found to be
the ratio of 2*718281828459, &c. to 1, or of 1 to
*367879441171, &c.*. the calculation of which num¬
ber may be feen at full length in Mr Baron Maferes’s
treatife cm the Principles of Life-annuities, p. 274 and
275.
The hyperbolic curve alfo afforded another fource
for developing and illuftrating the properties and con-
.ftruction of logarithms. For the hyperbolic areas ly¬
ing between the curve and one afymptote, when they Conftmc-
are bounded by ordinates parallel to the other afymp- t101?
tote, are analogous to the logarithms of their abfciffes ‘
or parts of the afymptote. And fo alfo are the hy¬
perbolic feftors; any feftor bounded by an arc of the
hyperbola and two radii being equal to the quadrilate¬
ral fpace bounded by the fame arc, the two ordinates
to either afymptote from the extremities of the arc and
the part of the afymptote intercepted between them-
And although Napier’s logarithms are commonly faid
to be the fame as hyperbolic logarithms, it is not to
be underftood that hyperbolas exhibit Napier’s loga¬
rithms only, but indeed all other poffible fyftems of lo¬
garithms whatever. For, like as the right-angled hy¬
perbola, the fide of whofe fquare infcribed at .the ver¬
tex is 1, gives us Napier’s logarithms;- fo any other
fyftem of logarithms is expreffed by the hyperbola
whofe afymptotes form a certain oblique angle, the-
fide of the rhombus infcribed at the vertex of the hy¬
perbola in this cafe alfo being ftill 1, the fame as the-
fide of the fquare in thfe right-angled hyperbola. But
the areas of the fquare and rhombus, and confequent-
ly the logarithms of any one and the fame number or
ratio, will differ according to the fine of the angle of
the afymptotes. And the area of the fquare or rhom¬
bus, or any infcribed parallelogram, is alfo the fame
thing as what was by Cotes called the modulus of the
fxftem of logarithms; which modulus will therefore be
expreffed by the numerical meafure of the fine of the
angle formed by the afymptotes, to the radius 1 ; as
that is the fame with the number expreffmg the area
of the faid fquare or rhombus, the fide being 1: which,
is another definition of the modulus to be added to
thofe we before remarked above in treating of the lo¬
garithmic curve. And the evident reafon of this is,,
that in the beginning of the generation of thefe areas,
from the vertex of the hyperbola, the nafcent incre¬
ment of the abfciffe drawn, into the altitude 1, is to
the increment of the area, as radius is to the fine of
the angle of the ordinate and abfciffe,. or of the afymp¬
totes ; and at the beginnyag of the logarithms, the
nafcent increment of the natural numbers is to the in¬
crement of the logarithms as 1 is to the modulus of
the fyftem. Hence we eafily dffcover, that the angle
formed by the afymptotes of the hyperbola, exhibiting^
Briggs’s Syftem of Logarithms, will be 25 44' 25 f ;.
this being the angle whofe fine is 0*4342944819, &c.,
the modulus of this fyftem.
Or indeed any one hyperbola, as has been remarked’
by Mr Baron Maferes, will exprefs all polfible fyfttms
of logarithms whatever; namely, if the fquare or
rhombus infcribed at tire vertex,, or, which, is the fame
thing, any parallelogram infcribed between the afymp¬
totes and the curve at any other point, be expounded
by the modulus of the fyftera ; or, which is the fame,,
by expounding the area, intercepted between two or¬
dinates which are to each other in the ratio of ro tor
1, by the logarithm of that ratio in the propofed fy¬
ftem.
As. to the firft remarks on the analogy between lo¬
garithms and the hyperbolic fpaces ; it having been,
ftiown by Gregory St Vincent, in his Ifuadratura Cir~
cuR et SeSionum Coni, publilhed at Antwerp in 1647,.
that if one afymptote be divided into parts in geome¬
trical progreffion, and from the points of divifion or*-
dinates-
*36 L O G A R
■Gonftruc- ditiates be drawn parallel to the other afymptote, they
tion of w|j] divide the fpace between the afymptote and curve
. og‘^' ms into equal portions; from hence it was fliown by Mer-
fennus, that, by taking the continual fums of thofe
parts, there would be obtained areas in arithmetical
progrefiion, adapted to abfciffes in geometrical pro-
greffion, and which therefore were analogous to a fy-
item of logarithms. And the fame -analogy was re¬
marked and illuftrated foon after by Huygens and
many others, who fhow how to fquare the hyperbolic
fpaces by means of the logarithms. There are like-
wife many other geometrical figures which have pro¬
perties analogous to logarithms ; fuch as the equi¬
angular fpiral, the figures of the tangents and fecants,
&c.
$ 5. Mercator's Method.
This is purely arithmetical, and is founded upon
the idea of logarithms already mentioned; w*. that
they are the meafures of ratios, and exprefs the num¬
ber of ratiuncula contained in any ratio into which it
may be divided. Having ihown then that thefe lo-
* garithms, or numbers of fraall ratios, or meafures of
ratios, may be all properly reprefented "by numbers;
and that of 1, or the ratio of equality, the logarithm
or meafure being always o, the logarithm of 10, or
themeafure of the ratio of 10 to 1, is molt conveni¬
ently reprefented by 1 with any number of ciphers;
he then proceeds to fliow how the meafures of all other
ratios may be found from this laft fuppofition. And
he explains the principles by the two following ex¬
amples.
Firft, to find the logarithm of 100*5, or t0
how many rattuncuJa are contained in the ratio of 1005
to 1, the number of ratiuncuhe in the decuple ratio, or
ratio of to to 1, being 10,000,000.
The given ratio 100*5 to 1 he hrft divides into its
parts; namely, 100*5 to IOO> 100 to IO> an{^ Io to li
the lafl: two of which being decuples, it follows that
the charafteriftic will be.2, and it only remains to find
how many parts of the next decuple belong to the
firft ratio of 100*5 to 100. Now if each term of this
ratio be multiplied by itfelf, the produ&s will be in the
duplicate ratio of the firft terms, or this laft ratio will
contain a double number of parts ; and if thefe be multi¬
plied by the firft terms again, the ratio of the laft
produ&s will contain three times the number of parts,
and fo on ; the number of times of the firft parts con¬
tained in the ratio of any like powers of the firft terms,
being always denoted by the exponent of the power.
If therefore the firft terms 100*5 anc^ 100 conti¬
nually multiplied till the fame powers of tliem have to
each other a ratio whofe meafure is known; as fuppofe
the decuple ratio 10 to 1, whofe meafure is 10,000,000:
then the exponent of that power (hows what multiple
this meafure 10,000,000 of the decuple ratio is of the
required meafure of the firft ratio 100*5 to 100 ; and
confequently dividing 10,000,000 by that exponent,
the quotient is the meafure of the ratio 100*5 to 100
fought. The operation for finding this he fets down
as here follows ; where the feveral multiplications are
all performed in the contra&ed way by inverting the
figures of the multiplier, and retaining only the firft
number of decimals in each produft.
N° 184.
I T H M S.
100*5000
5001
x005000
5025
1010025
5200101
1010025"
IOIOO
Sea. II
 x
1020150
0510201
1020150
20403
102
 _.XL
1040706
6070401
1083068
8603801
”73037
53°37”
1376011
1106731
18934^6“
6043981
3584985
5894853
12852116
8
16
16
3 2
3 2
64
64
128
128
256
256
512
This power being greater than the decuple of the
like power of 100, which mult always be 1 with ci¬
phers, refume therefore the 256th power, and multiply
it not by itfelf but by the next before it, viz. by the
128th, thus. Power*
3584985
604398*
6787831
1106731
256
128
384
64
448
32
480 *
934OI3°
53037”
10956299
This power again exceeding the fame power of ioo
more than 10 times,he therefore draws the fame 448th
not into the 32ft but the next preceding, thus,
Power.
934OI3O - - - 448
8603801 - 16
10X15994 - - - 464
This being again too much, inftead of the 16th
draw it into the 8th or next preceding, thus,
Power.
9340130 - - - 448
6070401
9720329
05102OX
9916193
5206101
XOOI5603
456
4
460
2
462
Which
Power.
460
- Sea. II. L O G A R
Cenftruc- Which power again exceeds the limit: therefore
i Ojarithms ^raw t^e 460th into the I ft, thus,
 '* 9916x93
5001 - - - 1
9965774' - - - 46.1
Since therefore the 462ft power of ioc^ is greater,
’Sud the 461ft power is lefs, than the decuple of the
Tame power of 100; he finds that the^ratio of ioo-5 to
'too is contained in the decuple more than 461 times,
Imt lefs than 462 times. Again,
r,- C4.60.) C 0016102 ■) and the differences
Ih“ 546.PT' ) 9965774? 4958. ( nerfy
C ( 462 v ( 10015603 > 49829 ^ equal;
therefore the proportional part which the exadi power,
or 10000000, exceeds the next lefs 9965774, will be
eafily and accurately found by the Golden Rule, thus:
The juft power - - iooooooc^
and the next lefs - - 9965774
the difference - - 34226; then,
As 49829 the dift between the next lefs and greater.
To 34226 the dif. between the next lefs and juft,
:: So is 10000:'to 6868, the decimal parts; and there¬
fore the ratio of 100*5 to 100, is 461*6868 times con¬
tained in the decuple or ratio of 10 to 1. Dividing
how 1,0000000, the meafure of the decuple ratio, by
461.6868, the quotient 00216597 is the meafure of
the ratio of 100*5 t0 IOO> which being added to 2,
the mcafure of 100 to 1, the fum 2,00216597 is the
j * iheafure of the ratio of 100*5 to I, that is, the log. of
100*5 Is 2,00216597.
In the fame manner he next inveftigates the log. of.
99*5, and finds It to be 1,99782307.
A few obfervations are then added, calculated to
■generalize the confidei-ation of ratios, their magnitude
and affeftions. It is here remarked, that he confiders
the magnitude of the ratio between two quantities as
the fame, whether the antecedent be the greater or
the lefs of the two terms ; fo the. magnitude of the ra¬
tio of 8 to 5 is the fame as of 5 to 8 ; that is, by the
magnitude of the ratio of either to the other is meant
the number of ratiuncuLt between them, which will evi¬
dently be the fame whether the greater or lefs term be
the antecedent. And he farther remarks, that of dif¬
ferent ratios, when we divide the greater term of each
ratio by the left, that ratio is of the greater maft or
“magnitude which produces the greater quotient, et vice
verfa; although thofe quotients are not proportional
fo the maffes or magnitudes of the ratios. But when
he confiders the ratio of a greater term to a lefs, or of
a lefs to a greater, that is to fay, the ratio of greater
or lefs inequality, as abftra&ed from the magnitude of
the ratio, he diftinguilhes it by the word ciffeBion, as
much as to fay greater or lefs affedlion, fomething in
the manner of pofitive and negative quantities, or fuch '
as are affe&ed with the figns + and — The
remainder of this work he delivers in feveral propoil-
tions, as follows:
Prop. 1. In fubtraction from each other two quan¬
tities of the fame affeclion, to wit, both pofitive, or
-both negative; if the remainder.be of the fame affec¬
tion with the two given, then is the quantity Subtrac¬
ted the lefs of the two, or expreffed by the left num¬
ber ; but if the contrary, it is the greater.
Prop. 2. In afty continued ratios, as —^
a-\-b «4-2i5
Vol. X. Part I.
I T H M S. 137
a+ib . Conftruc-
^ w> &c. (by which is meant the ratios of a to
a-\-l to a-’t-zb, a^rzl to a-^-^b. See.) of equidif-
ferent terms, the antecedent of each ratio being equal
to the confequent of the next preceding one, and pro¬
ceeding from lefs terms to greater; the meafure of
each ratio will be expreffed by a greater quantity than
that of the next following; and the fame through all
their orders of differences, namely, the ift, 2d, 3d,
&c. differences ; but the contrary, when the terms of
the ratios decreafe from greater to lefs.
Prop. 3. In any continued ratios of equidifferent
terms, if the ift or leaft be a, the difference between
the ift and 2d b, and c, dt e. Sec. the refpeftive
firft term of their 2d, 3d, 4th, Sec. differences ; thert
ftiall the feveral quantities themfelves be as in the an¬
nexed fcheme ; where each term is compofed of the
firft term together with as many of the differences as
it is diftant from the firft term, and to thofe differences
joining, for coefficients, the numbers in the floping or
oblique lines contained in the annexed table of figu-
rate numbers ; in the fame manner, he obferves, as the
fame figurate numbers complete the powers railed from
a binomial root, as had long before been taught by
others. He alfo remarks, that this rule not only gives
any one term, but alfo the fum of any number of fuc-
ceffive terms from the beginning, making the 2d coef¬
ficient the ift, the 3d the 2d; and fo on ; thus, the
fum of the firft 5 terms is 52 + I OiJ + I or + yi + f.
ift term - a
2d - - a+ b
3d - - a zb c
4th - - a + $b + v d
5th - - a + 4b + 6c + <^d -{• e
Sec. &c.
Logari- hmi
In the 4th prop, it is fhown, that if the terms de¬
creafe, proceeding from the greater to the lefs, the
fame theorems hold good, by only changing the figa
o'f every other term, as below,
ift term - - a
2d - - - a — b
.ftd - - - a — zb c
4th - a — 3^+3^ — d
5th - - - a — 43 •-{- 6r —- 46/ 4*
&c. &e.
Prop. 6th and 7th, treat of the approximate multi¬
plication and divifion of ratios, or, which is the fame
thing, the finding nearly any powers or any roots of a
given fradtion, in an eafy manner. The theorem for
S railing
138 L O G A R
Confixuc- raifiag any power, when reduced to a Ampler form, is
jtiQganihnris this, the m power of -j-’ or —J is = Isi~rn ^ near-
ly, where j iscra and d — a,co b, the fum and
difference of the two numbers, and the upper or under
figns take place according as-^- is a proper or an im¬
proper fraction, that is, according as a is lefs or great¬
er than L And the theorem for extracting the mth
.a . m a "a" |"^7 _ ms r+z d , . ,
root ofj- ™ vT °rT| - nearly; which
latter rule is alfo the fame as the former, as will be
evident by fubftituting — inllead of m in the firft theo-
So that univerfally -fJ is =
7 b'" nsz+zmd
arly.
I T H M S. Sea. If.
to the xft quotient, to the fum add the 2d quotient, Conftruo
and fo on, adding always the next quotient to the lait don of
fum, the feveral fums will be the refpe&ive logarithms Logarithm*
of the numbers in this feries, 101, 102, 103, 104, &c. v
The next, or prop. 1 oth, (hows that, of two pair of
continued ratios, whofe terms iHive equal differences, the
difference of the meafures of the firft two ratios is to
the difference of the meafures of the other two, as the
fquare of the common term in the two latter is to
that in the former, nearly. Thus, in the four ratios
«, a-\-b a+qb a+4^, . aa+zab
a+b a+2b fl+yi a + b?
(the difference of the firft two, or the quotient of the
two fraftiohs) : the meafure of ——
: ; a-\~$D2 : n+^2> nearly.
prop. 11. the author Ihows that fimilar proper¬
ties take place among two fets of ratios, confifting each
of 3 or 4, &c. continued numbers.
Prop. 12. fhows, that of the powers of numbers in
arithmetical progreflion, the orders of differences which
Thefe theorems, however, are nearly true only in fome
certain cafes, namely, when -y and do not differ
greatly from unity. And in the yth prop, the author become equal, are the fecond differences in the fquares,
Ihows how to find nearly the error o ' the theorems. the 3d differences in the cubes, the 4th differences in
In the 8th prop, it is fhown, that the meafures of the 4th powers, &c. And from hence it is fliown,
how to conftru& all thofe powers by the continual ad¬
dition of their differences : As had been long before
more fully explained by Briggs.
In the next, or 13th prop, our author explains his
compendious method of raifing the tables of loga¬
rithms, fhowing how to conftruA the logarithms by
addition only, from the properties contained in the.
to find the meafure of any ratio lefs than V^o-V, which 8th, 9th, and 12th propofitions. For this purpofe he
has an equal difference (1) of terms. In the two ex - . a ,
amples mentioned near the beginning, our author found makes ufe of the quantity ^^ which by divinon he
the logarithm or meafure of the ratio, of , to be
21769^, and that of to be 21659^ ; there¬
fore the fum 43429 is the logarithm of t^Vt* or
Toe X , Iri-rr 5 or tke logarithm of T95%-J5 is nearer
43430, as found by other more accurate computations.
—Now, to find the logarithm of having the fame
difference of terms (1) with the former; it wiU be, by 9999rj, &c. the cormfponding means between the
prop 8. as 100.5 mean between ioi and 100) : ^ the rat;os MM*. UMl. See. it
ratios of equidifferent terms, are nearly recipro¬
cally as the arithmetical means between the terms
©f each ratio. So of the ratios {-£, 4|, -f?» the mean
between the terms of the firft ratio is 17, of the 2d 34,
of the 3d 51, and the meafures of the ratios are nearly
as yt* tt-
From this property he proceeds, in the 9th prop.
ico (the mean between gg’j and loo’y) : : 43430
3,43213 the logarithm of or the difference be¬
tween the logarithms of 100 and 101. But the loga¬
rithm of 100 is 2 ; therefore the logarithm of 101 is
2,0043213. Again, to find the logarithm of 102,
we muft firft find the logarithm of » the mean be¬
tween its terms being 101*5, therefore as 101*5 : 100
i : 43430 : 42788 the logarithm of t§t> or the dif¬
ference of the logarithms of ioi and 102. But the
logarithm of 101 was found above to be 2,0043213 ;
therefore the logarithm of 102 is 2,0086001.—So
that dividing continually 868596 (the double of
refolverinto this infinite feries ‘5' + ^ + yi + fA*
&c. (in infin.) Putting then d— 100 the arithmetical
mean between the terms of the ratio 100000,
c fucceflively equal to 0*5, 1*5, 2*5, &c. that fo
b—c may be refpectively equal to 99999'5> 99998*5,
:fponding means between the
rfvvh fw$T> &c* it
divided by the ift in the proportions mentioned in
the 8th and 9th propofitions; and when each of thefc
quotients are found, it remains then only to multiply
them by the conftant 3d term 43429, or rather
43429*8, of the proportion, to produce the logarithms
of the ratios £§g $•*> T'f'f ^-c* till
then adding thefe continually to 4 the logarithm of
10000 the leaft number, or fubtra£ting them from 5
the logarithm of the higheft term 100000, there will
uiviuiiig v_uiiixiiuany OUOyiJU t LUC UOUU1C OX - , t . , rit i » r l . L r
434298 the logarithm of or iW by each num- refult the logarithms of all the abfolute numbers from
fees of the feries 201. 202. snr. ,0^ .V,, then , IOOOO to IOOOOO. Now when c is = 0.5, then.
feer of the feries 201, 203, 205, 207, &c. then add 2
a ac acx ac 1
zz .ooi, =*000000005,-p =*000000000000025, —pi =*000000000000000000125,
&c. ; therefore -a — a + fi + —, &c. is =*001000005000025000125,
b—c b bb b1
In like manner, if c = 1.5, then will be =*001000015000225003375 ;
«md if c =2*5, then —— wilLbe =*001000025000625015625 j
b—£
MSect. II.
Conftruc-
lion of 1
i!j Logarithm* _
L O G A R
of &C. But inftead of conflrufting all the values of
in the ufual way of raifing the powers, he direfts them
to be found by addition only, as in the
laft propofitioii. Having thus found all
the values of -
the author then
(how?, that they may be drawn into the
conftant logarithm 43429 by addition
only, by the help of the annexed table
of the firlt 9 products of it.
The author then diftinguifties which
of the logarithms it may be proper to
find in this way, and which from their
component parts. Gf thefe the logarithms of all even
numbers-need not be thus computed, being compofed
from the number 2 ; which cuts off one half of the
numbers: neither pre thofe numbers to be computed
which end in 5, becaufe 5 is on-4 of their faftors ; thefe
laft are ^ of the numbers; and the two together
t+tV make j- of the whole : and of the other f, the
I T H M S. 139
4 of them, or of the whole, are compofed of 3 ; Conftruc-
and hence f -f-Tt> or.Tr °f the numbers, are made upT
of fuch as are compofed of 2, 3, and if. As to the og*’ m.
other numbers which uaay be compofed of 7, of 11*
&c.; he recommends to find their logarithms in the
general way, the fame as if they were incompofites, as
it is not worth while to feparate them in fo eafy a
mode of calculation. So that of the 90 chiliads of
numbers from 10000 to 100000, only 24 chiliads are
to be computed. Neither indeed are all of thefe to
i—c
be calculated from the foregoing feries for
only a few of them in that way, and the reft by the
proportion in the 8th propofition. Thus, having com¬
puted the logarithms of 10003 and 10013, omitting
10023 as being divifible by 3, eftimate the logarithm*
of 10033 and 10043, which are the 30th numbers
from 10003 an(l Iooi3 ; and again, omitting-10053,
a multiple of 3, find the logarithms of 10063 and
10073. Then by prop. 8.
As 10048, the arithmetical mean between 10033 and 10063,
to 10018, the arithmetical mean between 10003 an<* IO°33>
fo 13006, the difference between the logarithms of 10003 and 10033,
to 12967, the difference between the logarithms of 10033 an<i 10063 *
0048!
10018 :
That is, ift As 10078 [-
C10x08 j
C 10058I
Again, As •< 10088 V
t 10118J
!xoo681
10098 >• t 10038 :
&c. J
And with this our author concludes his compendium
for conftrufting the tables of logarithms.
13006 :
)12967
) See.
10028 : : 12992
),2953
) &c.
. Si:1940
• 9 See.
$ 6. Gregory's Method.
12979
might have been found by computing, by meads of
the feries, only a few logarithms of fmall ratios, in
which the terms of the feries would have decreafed
by the powers of 10 or feme greater number, the mj*
This is founded upon an analogy between a fcale of merators of all the terms being unity, and their deno-
logarithmic tangents and Wright’s protra&ion of the
nautical meridian line confifting of the fums of the fe-
cants. It is not known by whom this difeovery was
made ; but, about 1645, it was publifhed by Mr Henry
Bond, who mentions this property in Norwood’s Epi¬
tome of Navigation. The mathematical demonftration
of it was firft inveftigated by Mercator ; who, with a
view to make fome advantage of his difeovery, offered,
in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for June 4th 1666,
to lay a wager with any one concerning it; but this
propofal not being accepted, the demonftration was not
publifhed. Other mathematicians, however, foon found
out the. myflery; and in two years after, Eh- Gre¬
gory publifhed a demonftration, and from this and
ether fimilar properties he fhowed a method of com-
minators the powers of 10 or fome greater number, and"
then employing thefe few logarithms, fo computed,
to the finding of the logarithms of other and greater
ratios by the eafy operations of mere addition and fub-
traCtion. This might have been done for the logs,
of the ratios of the firft ten numbers, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8,
9,- 10, and 11, to 1, in the following manner, commu¬
nicated by Mr Baron Maferes.—In the firft place the
logarithm of the ratio of 10 to 9, orof 1 to l%, or of X
to 1—v0-, is equal to the feries-j^+;
2XI00 ~3Xicoo
+ ' In like manner areeafily
4X10000 5X100000 7
found the logarithms of the ratios of 1 x to 10; and
. _   then by the fame feries th'ofe of 121 to 120, and of 81
puting the logarithmic fines and tangents by means to 80, and of 2401 to 2400 ; in all which cafes the
of an infinite feries. Several of thefe were invented feries would converge ftill falter than in the two firft
by him, and the method of applying them laid down cafes. We may then proceed by mere addition and
by himfelf and others ; but Mr Hutton tliinks that a fubtraftion of logarithms, as follows.
Ihorter and better method than any they propofed
L. Vo°==L. 4,
L. £ =2L.|,
L. V° — L. ’-j? -f-L.
l. ;4-=2L. £,
Log- V=L. 44 +L.-Ljf,
L. V41 =2L. JpS
L- VV — L. V-f L. |<y,
JL. L.-rlrr*
L. T7r_L. 14—L.
L. -f—L. 4-£,
L. 4- = L. -ijs,
s 2 T ~
Having
Ho LOGARITHMS. Se&.'ir.
Gonftruc- Having thus got the logarithm of the ratio of 2 to from thofe of the odd numbers which are their coef- Confirm:-
Logarithms1’ or’ common language, the logarithm of 2, the ficients with 2 or its powers. We may then proceed tion of ||
t—. logarithms of all forts of even numbers may be derived as follows. l.opamhnianti
L. iooz=2L. 10, L. 24.oir=L. 44°^4-L. 24.00,
L. 8 = 3L. 2,
L. 24=L.8d-L. 3,
L. 249o=L.ioo+L.24.
L. 4=2L. 2,
L. io=L. -hr+L. 4,
L, 9 = L. |+L-4>
L. 3-i L.9.
Thus we have got the logarithms of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10, and xi. And this is upon the whole, per¬
haps, the beft method of computing logarithms that can
be taken. —This method of computing logarithms is
very nearly the fame with that of Sir Ifaac Newton
in his fecond letter to Mr Oldenburg, dated October
1676.
§ 7. ConJiruBlon of Logarithms hy Fluxions.
From the definition and defcription of logarithms
given by Napier, and of which we have already taken
notice, it appears that the fluxion of his, or the hy¬
perbolic logarithm of any number, is a fourth propor¬
tional to that number, its logarithm and unity ; or,
which is the fame, that it is equal to the fluxion of the
number divided by the number: For the defcription
fhows that zi : za or 1 ; : zi the fluxion of zi : zkz,
L. 24oir=L. 2400,
L. 7=iL. 240;,
L. ii = L.^fL. 9.
L. 6=1.. 24-L. 3.
authors fince Napier's time. And the fame or a inni-
lar property is evidently true in all the fyitems of loga¬
rithms whatever, namely, that the modulus of the iy-
ftem is to any number as the fluxion of its logarithm
is to the fluxion of the number.
Now from this property, by means of the do&rine
of fluxions, are derived other ways for making loga¬
rithms, which have been illuftraced by many writers
on this branch; as Craig, Jo. Bernoulli, and almoll
all the writers on fluxions. And this method chiefly
confitts in expanding the reciprocal of the given quan¬
tity in an infinite feries, then multiplying each term
by the fluxion of the faid quantity, and laftly taking
the fluents of the terms; by which there arii'es an in¬
finite feries of terms for the logarithm fought. So,
to find the logarithm of any number N, put any com¬
pound quantity for N, as fuppofe -
l then the flux.
which therefore is :
; but za is alfo equal to the
fluxion of the logarithm A, &c. by the defcription ;
therefore the fluxion of the logarithm is equal to
of the log. or being JL. ~~—
—, the fluxion of the quantity divided by the quan¬
tity itfelf. The fame thing appears again at art. 2. of
of that little piece in the appendix to his ConJlruRio
Logarithmorum, intitled Habitudines Logarithmorum
fuorum naturalium numerorum invicem'; where he obferves,
that as any greater quantity is to a lefs, fo is the ve-
locity of the increment or decrement of the logarithms
at the place of the lefs quantity to that at the greater.
Now this velocity of the increment or decrement of the
logarithms being the fame thing as their fluxions, that
proportion is this x : a : : flux. log. a ; flux. log. x :
hence if a be=i, as at the beginning of the table of
numbers, where the fluxion of the logs, is the index or
charafteriftic c, which is alfo one in Napier’s or the
hyperbolic logarithms, and 43429, &c. in Briggs’s, the
fame proportion becomes x : 1 : : c: flux. log. .v ; but
the conftant fluxion of the numbers is alfo I, and there-
the fluents give log. of N or log. of^rt —=—— — -j-
*3 n n in1
—7——,» dec. And writing —x for x gives log,
- = o- log.
nr±zx n ’ 0 nztzx
have log. —-+-^r ——, &e. and log,
n+x n 2n 3«3 4/i4
fore that proportion is alfo this*: — the
fluxion of the logarithm of x : and in the hyperbolic lo¬
garithms, where r is = r, it becomes — =the fluxion
of Napier’s or the hyperbolic logarithm of x.
+-^-4- ~ &c.
n—x n 3«» 4B4
And by adding and fubtradling any of thefe feries
to or from one another, and multiplying or dividing
their correfponding numbers, various other feries for
logarithms may be found, converging much quicker
than thefe do.
In like manner, by afluming quantities otherwife
compounded for the value ofN, various other forms of
logarithmic feries may be found by the fame means.
$ 8. Mr Long’s Method.
This method was publilhed in the 339th number
This
fame property has alfo been noticed by many other garithms, as follows.
of the Philofophical TranfaAions; and is performed by
means of a fmall table, containing eight clafles of lo-
ILcsL
Sea. it.
■ I logarithms-
|
Lo. | Nat. Numb. || Log.
7,94328-2347
6,3°II573445
5,011872336
3,981071706
3,162277660
2,511886432
1,995262315
1,584893193
1,25892^412
1,23026877:
1,202264435
1,174897555
1,148153621
,122018454
,096478196
1,071519305
,047128548
1,023292992
,0009
8
7
6
O G A R
Nat. Numb. I Log.
1,020939484
1,018591388
1,016248694
1,013911386
1,011579454
1,009252886
1,006931669
1,004615794
1,002305238
1,002074475
1,001843766
1,001613109
,001382506
,001151956
1,000921459
1,000691015
1,000460623
1,000230285
,00009
8
7
6
S'
4
3
I T H
j Nat. Numb.
1,000207254
1,000184224
1,000161194
1,000138165
1,000115136
1,000092106
1,000069080
1,000046053
1,000023026
,000009 1,000020724
8 11,000018421
711,000016118
6 1,000013816
5! 1,000011513
4 1,000009210
3 11,000006908
2! 1,000004605
1, 1,000002302
M S.
Log.
Here, becaufe the logarithms in each clafs are the
continual multiples 1, 2, 3, &c. of the loweft, it is
evident that the natural numbers are fo many feales of
geometrical proportionals, the loweft being the com¬
mon ratio, or the afeending numbers are the 1, 2, 3,
&c. powers of the loweft, as expreffed by the figures
1, 2, 3, &c. of their correfponding logarithms. Alfo
the lait number in the firft, fecond, third, &c. clafs, is
the loth, 1 ooth, 1 oooth, &c. root of 10; and any,
number in any clafs is the 10th power of the corre¬
fponding number in the next following clafs.
To find the logarithm of any number, asfuppofe of
2.000, by this table : Look- in the firil clafs for the
number next lefs than the firft figure 2^ and it is
1,995262315, againft which is 3 for the firft figure of
the logarithm fought. Again, dividing 2, the number
propofed, by 1,995262315, the number found in the
table, the quotient is 1,002374467; which being look¬
ed for in the fecond clafs of the table, and. finding nei¬
ther its equal nor a lefs, o is therefore to be taken for
the fecond figure of the logarithm; and the fame quo¬
tient 1,002374467 being looked for in the third clafs,
the next lefs is there found to be 1,002305238,.againft
which is 1 for the third figure of the logarithm; and
dividing the quotient 1,002374467 by the faid next lefs
number 1,002305238,^6 newquotient is 1,000069070;
which being fought in the fourth clafs gives o, but
fought in the fifth clafs gives 3, which are the fourth
and fifth figures of the logarithm fought; again, di¬
viding the laft quotient by 1,000046053, the next
lefs number in the table, the quotient is 1,000023015,
which gives g in the 6th clafs for the 6th figure of the
logarithm fought: and again dividing the laft quotient
by 1,000020724,, the next lefs number, the quotient is
1^300002291, the next lefs than which in the 7th
clafs gives 9. for the 7th figure of the logarithm: and.
dividing the laft, quotient by 1,000002072,. the quo¬
tient is 1,000000219, which gives 9-, in the 8th clafs
for the 8th figure of the Idgarithm: and again
the laft quotient 1,000000219 being divided by
, 1,000000207 the next lefs, the quotient 1,000000012
gives 5 in the fame 8th clafs, when one figure is cut
off* for the 9th figure of the logarithm fought. All
Nat. Numb.
1,000002072
1,00000x842
2,00000x611
1,000001381
1,006001151
1,000000921
1,000000690
1,000000460
1,000000230
66000009 1,000000207
8 j 1,000000184
711,000000161
6 j 1,000000138
5 1,0000001151
4:1,000000092-
3 1,000000069
2J 1,000000046
,000000023
which figures collefted together give 3,301029995 for
Briggs’s logarithm of 2000, the index 3 being fun-
plied ; which logarithm is true in the laft figure.
To find the number anfwering to j ~
any given logarithm, as fuppofe to I 3 I»9952^2315
3,3010300: omitting the charaifter-{ °|0
1,002305238
,000069080
iftic, againft the other figures 3, o,
1, 6, 3, o, 0, as in the firft column
in the margin, are the federal num¬
bers as in the fecond column, found
from-their refpeftive ill, 2d, 3d, &c.
clafles ; the effective numbers of which multiplied co,,-
tinually together, the laft prodmft is 2,000000019966,
which, becaufe the charafteriftic is three, "gives
2000,000019966 or 2000 only for the required num¬
ber anfw.ering to the given logarithm.
$ 9. Mr Hutton'i Practical Rule for the ConjlruFtion of
Logarithms,
The methods laid down in the above fe&ions are
abundantly fufficient to Ihow the various principles
upon which logarithms may be conftru&ed; though
there are ft ill a variety of others which our limits, will
not admit of our inferting: The following rule is added
from Mr Hutton’s Treatife on the fubjeft, for the fake
of thofe who do not choofe to enter deeply into thele
inveftigations.
Call 2; the fum of any number whofe logarithm
is fought, and the number next lefs by unity; divide
•8685889638, &c. (or 2~ 2.3025, &c.) by k, and
referve the quotient; divide.the referved quotient by
the fquare of z, and referve this quotient; divide this
laft quotient alfo by the fquare of z, and again re-
ferve this q«otient; and' thus proceed continually,
dividing the laft quotient by the fquare of z as lono-
as divifion can be made. Then write thefe quotients
orderly under one another, the firft uppermoft, and di¬
vide them refpeftively by the uneven numbers 1, 3, 5,
7> 9> ll> &c. as long as divifion can be made; that is,
divide the xft referved quotient by 1, the 2d by 3, the.
3d by 5, the 4th by 7, &c. Add all thefe laft quo¬
tients together, and the fum will be the logarithm of
b-i-a; and therefore to this logarithm add alfo the lo-
garithstt.:
I4'2
L O G A R
Con ft me- garxthm of a the next lefs number, and the fum will be
tion of t|ie reqU;red logarithm of b the number probofed.
y.o^aathms ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ of 2<_Here the next Ief3
number is i, and 2-j-i=5::::2'» whofe fquare is 9.
Then,
3)-868588964 i)-289^29654(-28952963‘4
3) 32i69962( 10723321
9)
I T H M S.
Ex. 7. Becaufe -\a=5, therefore
from L. 10 - 1‘ooooooooo
take L. 2 * ‘3010299954
Sea. II.
Conftruc*
leaves L. 5
•6989700044
9).289529654
9) 32l699^2
9) 3574+40
397160
44129
9!
9)
9)
9)
9)
49°3,
545
61
714888
56737
4903
446
42
4
•301029995
OOOOQOOOO
27.V. 8 Becaufe 12=3X4, therefore
toL.3 * - ‘477121255
add L. 4 - ‘602059991
gives L. 12 -
1.079181246
Log. of 2 - ‘301029995
Ex- 2. To jivd the hg. of 3.—Here the next lefs
Slumber is 2, and 2-}-3 = 5 = z, whofe fquare is 25, to
divide by which always multiply by ‘04. Then
5 )‘868588964
25)‘I737I7793
25) 6948712
25) 277948
25) mi"
25) 445
I)‘I737I7793(*I737I7793
3) 69487x2( 2316237
5) ,277948(
L. 4 - -
L. 2 add
55590
1588
50
•176091260
.301029995
L. 3 * - ‘477121255
Then becaufe the fum of the logarithms of numbers
gives the logarithm of their produft, and the difference
of the logarithms gives the logarithm of the quo ient of
the numbers, from the above two logarithms, and the
logarithm of 10, which is 1, we may raife a great many
logarithms, thus:
Ex. 3. Becaufe 2X2=4, therefore
to L. 2 - - ‘3<oio29995x
addL. 2 . - - ‘3010299954
fum is L. 4
•6020599914
Ex. 4. Becaufe 2X3 = 6, therefore
to L.2 - - ‘301029995
addL. 3 - - ‘477121255
fum is L. 6
•778151250
Ex. 5. BecauT<| 23=8, therefore
L. 2. - - .3010299954
mult, by - - 3
gives L. 8
•903089987
Ex. 6. Becaufe therefore
L* 3 ,
mult, by
gives L. 9
•477121254^.
'^4242509
And thus by computing, by the general rule, the
logarithms of the other prime numbers 7, 11, 13, 17,
19, 23, &c.: and then ufing compofition and divifion,
we may eafily find as many logarithms as we pleafe,
or may fpeedily examine any logarithm in the table.
§ 1 o. Mr Thomas Allinfon of BalUJhannon's Method.
Ik any feries of numbers in a geometrical progref»
fion, beginning from unity, as in the
margin, the feries is compofed of a ° 1 2 8
fet of continued proportionals, of 1 IO 1-90 100
which the member flanding neareft to unity is the
common ratio or rate of the proportion. If over or
under thefe another feries is placed, as in the example,
of mimbers in an arithmetical progreffion, beginning
with nought, and whofe common difference is unity,
the members of this feries are called indexes ; for they
ferve to ihow how many fucceffive multiplications have
been made with the common rate to produce that mem¬
ber of the geometrical progreffion over which each of
thefe indexes does feyerally Hand.
This theory may be confidered in another light:
If the fquare root of 10 (that is, of the common rate)
is found, it is a mean proportional between 1 and 10,
and .becomes a new common rate for a new fet of con¬
tinued proportionals, as in
the margin. And if the 0 ‘5 1 1‘5 2 25
half of unity, which in 1 ^ 10 3*‘6 316.
the former cafe was the additional difference of tie
arithmetical progreffion, is made the additional diffe¬
rence of this new feries, and noted as in the example,
a new combination is formed of two feriefes agreeing
with the firft in thefe remarkable properties, viz. If
any two members of the geometrical progreffion are
multiplied together, the fum of their correfponding
indexes will become the index of their product; and
ednverfely, if any of them is divided by any otl^r,
the difference of their indexes will be found to be the
index of the quotient. This theory is indefinite; and
repeated extractions may be made with any propofed
number of decimals, and bifection made of the corre¬
fponding indexes, until one has no more number to
work with ; and each of the mean proportionals thus
found between 1 and 10, will be found a member of
every new geometrical progreffion formed by every
fmaller root; and confequently all the roots thus found,
together with their correfponding indexes, have, in
cafes of multiplication or divifion, the fame connexion
as has been juft deferibed.
Let thofe fucceffive roots be found, and noted in the
form of a table, and, in another column, let the cor-
refponding indexes found by thefe directions be regu-
3 larly
Sea.II. LOGARITHMS. 143
13CCI. j.1* . -1-1 r Conftruc-
Conftrnc- larly noted, each oppafite to its own roots. Ihek _i_= [.,246. With this quotient let the tabic be ap- tion of
tion ef indexes are dommonly known by the denomination ot I.7-7 1 Log-uithnu
^Logarithmsi0ffaritj3ms . the roots themfelves may be called natural plied to as before, and 1.1246, &c. will be found to -—V'”"*'
- * numbers. be between 1.154, &c._ &c. and 1.074, &c. Sic. and
Thefe roots are compofed of natural numbers fel- divifion to be made as in the example. In this man-
dom or never wanted; but from them the logarithms ner one is to proceed with each fucceflive quotient.
1.124
:.62, &c. &c.
till at length he has one in which the number of the.
initial decimal noughts is equal at leaft, if not greater
than that of the fignificant figures. Here the work
of 4fvifion may be difeontinued ; and as it will rarely
happen, that one will not have an additional initial
nought for every divifion, the number cannot be great
in calculations of a moderate extent. Having at laifc
found a quotient fuch as was deferibed, and fuppofmg-
the number of decimals to be 10, one may readily find
fmalleft. quotient, and let the tj,e l0gm. of that quotient thus Suppofe the quotient
circumftances of the calcula- 1.0000057968 ; he is to look into the table of roots-
tion be noted, as in the mar- for t^0fe notcd with 5 initial decimal noughts, and
: of thefe and its correfponding login.
of fuch as are of general ufc may be thus found.
Suppofe 2 the propofed number, ope muft examine
the table of roots; there he will find 3.16, &c. &c. the
neareft to 2 of thofe which are greater; and 1.778,
&c. &c. alfo nearell to it of thofe which are lefs. He
3 16
may make a divifion at his pleafure, either or
r-A ; yet let the choice fall on what will yield the
1.77
=. Kt 246,&C. &c.
1.77
gin, for future direftion. Here fr0m any <
flate thus:
.0000087837, . *. 0000038147 its logm . •. •. .0000057968 of the quotient.
.0000025175, its logm.
Thus knowing that 0.0000025175, or fuch like, is
the logm. of the laft quotient, one may have that of 2,
if he will but call to mind the following circum¬
ftances.
In every cafe of divifion, if he has logarithms of
quotient and divifor, he has alfo that of the dividend,
by adding the two firft together: if he has the lo¬
garithm of the dividend, and that of either the divifor
or quotient, he may find that of the other ; for he has
only to fubtraCt what he knows from the logarithm of
the dividend, the remainder is what he wants: and
laftly, that in every divifion he made, he took one
number from the table, of roots wfiofe logarithm is
known, being noted in the table, and which he made
ufe of as his diredlion either as a dividend or a divi¬
for : From thefe circumftances, one may, by the
help of the logarithm juft found, difeover tlie loga¬
rithm of that number of the laft divifion, whether it
be dividend or divifor, which was the quotient of the
preceding divifion; and thus, tracing his own work
backwards by his notes from quotient to quotient, be
they ever fo few or ever fo many, he will come at
laft by addition and fubtradtion to the logarithm of
the propofed number.
By this method, the logarithm of any number wkh-
ifl the compafs of the table of roots may be found : if
a greater is propofed, fuppofe 9495, it muft be made
9.495, and its logarithm found} then it muft be re-
ftored to the propofed form, and have a proper in¬
dex noted before the decimals juft found. How to do
this is too well known to have oceafion to mention it
here.
The reafon for finding the logarithm of the laft quo¬
tient by the common proportion is this : He who has
made a table of roots, will find, by infpedtion only,
that as initial noughts come into the decimal parts-
of the roots, the fignificant figures juft Immediately-
following them do a flume the form of a geometri¬
cal progreffion, defeending, whofe common fate
or divifor is 2, as is juft the cafe with the whole of
the decimals of the correlponding logarithms ; and
that the nulnber of the fignificant figures endued with
this property is generally equal to that of the initial
noughts : fo far as this, and no farther, the common
proportion will hold between the fignificant figures of
the decimals in the roots and the fame number of pla¬
ces in the logarithms ; and for this reafon it was need¬
ful to continue the fiiQceffive divifions till a quotient
was found fo circumftanced, that its logarithm could
be found by the proportion.
The fame gentleman hath alfo favoured us with the
following new method
Of extruding Roots of Fradions ij Logarithms.
The eafieft way to explain this, is firft to give an
exaniple of involving fuch numbers.
—3.301029995664 the logarithm of the fra&ion given.
7 the power to which it is to be raifed.
—19.107209969648 the logaritlira of the anfwer..
This differs from the like work in whole numbers
enly in this, that, in multiplying the decimals, one has
at laft 2 to be carried from them to the whole numbers;
this is to be confidered as + 2, then—-3X7=—21,
and — 21+ i—— r 9 to be noted the index of the
anfwen Extraction of the roots is only the con-
werfe of this. Suppofe —19.107209969648 given,
to find that root whofe exponent number is 7.
As 7 is the exponent number here, one may in hr.
mind multiply it by 2 for a trial, as in common divi¬
fion ; but the produft 314 being lefs than 19, muft be
rejeaed ; then he may try it
with 3, this yields 21 for a pro- ^ \.
duft. This 3 muft be noted with 3*3 9995 4
a negative fign for the index of the new logarithm.
Then, on comparing 19 with 21, the difference is
*44 L O G A R I T H M S. Sed. ITT,
E>pl:iva- 2. This 2 muft be carried as 20 to the decimals, and cimals with 7 for a divlfor, as is ufually done in other Explana-
tlTab ethC one mu^ ^rom that carry on the divifion of the de- cafes. tiou ofthe
Another Example.
Suppofe —T.4771212545 given, to extraft the root of its 5th power.
—1.8954252109 the logarithm of the root.
Table.
Tor 5, the exponent of the root Xt is greater than
the index of the given logarithm, and 4 is the remain¬
der. Then —1 becomes the index of the logarithm
of the root; and 4= the overplus, is to be carried as
40to the decimals;.and from that, divifionisto be made
with 5 as a divifor for the reft of the work.
Stcr. III. Explanation andUfe of the Table,
•with a general Account of the various Sciences to
ruhich Logarithms may be applied. /
§ l. To fnd by the table the Logarithm of any number.
If the number be under too, it is eafily found In
the firft divifion at the head of the firft page ; if it be
betwixt 100 and 1000, over againft the number in
the firft column of the following pages, in the next
column under o will be found the logarithm required.
.If the number be betwixt 1000 and 10000, the firft
three figures of the number are to be found in the co¬
lumn marked N° and the fourth figure at the top, and
in the column under it, lineally againft the firft three
figures, will be found the logarithm required, changing
the index 2 into 3. The column marked Diff. and
Showing the common difference by which each of thefe
columns increafes, Terves to find the logarithms of
numbers beyond 10000. Thus,
To fnd the logarithm for a number greater than any in
the common canon, but lefs than lOOOOOOO.—Cut off four
figures on the left of the given ilumber, and feek the
logarithm in the table 5 add as many unites to the in¬
dex as there are figures remaining on the right; fub-
traft the logarithm found from the next following it
in the table ; then, as the difference of numbers in
the canon is to the tabular diftance of the logarithms
ahfwering to them, fo are the remaining figures of
the given number to the logarithmic difference; which,
if it be added to the logarithm before found, the fum
will be the logarithm required. Suppofe v. gr. the
logarithm of the number 92375 required. Cut off
nhe four figures 9237, and to the chara fieri flic of the
logarithm correfponding to them, add an unit; then,
From the logarith. of the numb. 9238 = 3.965578
Subtract logarith. numb.   9237 = 3*96553i
Remains tabular difference 47
Then 10 : 47 : : 5 : 23
Nov? to the logarithm ———4.965531
Add the difference found  23
The fum is the logarithm required.—4*965554
Or more briefly ; find the logarithm of the firft four
•figures as before; then multiply the common diffe¬
rence which ftands againft it hy the remaining figures
of the given number; from the produft, cut off as
many figures at the right hand as you multiplied-by,
and add the remainder to the logarithm before found,
fitting it with a proper index. 'Thus 47X5 = 235 ;
cut off 5 and add 23.
To fnd the logarithm of a fradior.— Subtraft the lo¬
garithm of the numerator from that of the denomi-
jsator, and to the remainder prefix the fign of fub-
traction. Thus fuppofe it required to find the loga¬
rithm of the fraftion
Logarithm of 7 = 0.845098
Logarithm of 3 = 0.47 7121
Logarithm of \ =—^•367977
The reafon of the rule is, that a fradtion being the
quotient of the numerator divided by the denominator,
its logarithm muft be the difference of the logarithms
of thofe two ; fo that the numerator being fubtracted
from the denominator, the difference becomes ne¬
gative. Stifelius obferved, that the logarithms of a
proper fra'ftion muft always be negative, if that of
unity be o ; which is evident, a fra&ion being left
than one.
Or, the logarithm of the denominator, though
greater than that of the numerator, as in the cafe of
a proper fraflion, may be fubtrafled from it, regard
being had to the fign of the index, which alone iii
that cafe is negative. Thus,
Log. of 3 = 0.477121
Log. of 7 = 0.845098
Log. of 4 = 1.632023 which produces the
fame effeft in any operation as that before found, viz.
—0.367977, this being to be fubtrafted, and the.
other to be added.
Or again, the fraftion may be redneed to a ded-
tnal, and its logarithm found ; which differs from that
of a whole number only in the index,, which is to be
negative.
For an improper fraction v. gr. f, its numerator be-
ing greater than its denominator, its logarithm is had
by fubtra&ing the logarithm of the latter from that
of the former.
The logarithm of 9 = 0.9542425
Logarithm of5 = 6.0989700
Logarithm f= 0.2552725
In the fame manner may a logarithm of a mixt
number, as 3 4) be found, it being firft reduced into
an improper fraftion f.
Or, this improper fraftion may be reduced to a mixed
number, whofe logarithm muft be found as if it were
wholly integral, and its index taken according to the
integral part. We {hall here obferve, that the loga¬
rithms of whole numbers are added, fubtra&ed, &c.
according to the rules of thefe operations in decimal
arithmetic 5 but with regard to the martagement of
logarithms with negative indices, the fame rules are
to be obferved as thofe given in algebra for like and
unlike -figns.
In addition, all the figures except the index, are
reckoned pofitive, and therefore the figure to be car¬
ried to the index from the other part of the logarithm
takes away fo much from the negative index. Thus
1.86833264-3.698972= 1.562298. In fubtraftion,
if either one or both of the logarithms have negative
indices, you muft change the fign of the index of the
La. III. L O G A R
ixExplana- fubtfaliend, after you have carried to it what may arife
iFaWe^&c6 fr°m ^ec*ma^ Part> and then add the indices: thus
I,- ’ 1.562298—1.863326=3.698972. In multiplication,
what is carried from the product of the other parts of
the logarithms mull be fubtra&ed. from the product
of the indices: thus 2.477121X5 = 8.385605. In di-
viiion, if the divifor will exa<flly meafure the index,
proceed as in common arithmetic; e. g. 4.924782
—■2 = 2.462391. But if the divifor will not exaftly
meafure the index, add units to the index, till you
can exaftly divide it, and carry thefe units to the next
number: e.g. 8.385605-7-5 = 2.477121.
To Jirul the number correfpondlng to any given logarithm.
—If the logarithm be within the limits of the table,
i. e. if its index does not exceed 3, then neglecting the
index, look down in the column of logarithms under
o, for the two or three firft figures of your given lo¬
garithm ; and if you exaCtly find all'the figures of the
given logarithm in that column, you have the number
correfponding at tire left hand : But if you do not find
your logarithm exaftly in the column under o, you mull
run through the other columns till you find it exaCtly,
or till you obtain the next leaft logarithm; and in the co¬
lumn of numbers lineally againft it, you have the firft
3 figures of the number fought, to which join the
figure over the column, where your logarithm or its
next leaft was found, and you have the correfponding
number, e. gr. the number anfwering to the loga¬
rithm 3.544812 is 3506.
If the index of this logarithm had been i, then the
two laft figures of the number would have been deci¬
mal ; with the index o, its correfponding number would
have been 3.506; with 7, .3506; with 2, .03506, &c.
If the logarithm cannot be found exaClly, take the
next leaft, and make the difference between the given
logarithm and the next leaft the numerator of a fradtion
whofe denominator ihall be the common difference,
and add the fraAion to the number found in the
table.
To find the number correfponding to a logarithm greater
than any in the table.—Firil, from the given logarithm;
fubtraft the logarithm of 10, or 100, or 1000,-or 10,000,
till you have a logarithm that will come within the
compafs of the table ; find the number correfoonding
,to this, and multiply it by 10, or 100, or 1000, or
10,000, the produft is the number required.
Suppofe, for inftance, the number correfponding to
the logarithm 7.7589982 be required: fubtraCt the
logarithm of the number 10,000, which is 4.0000000,
from 7.589982 ; the remainder is 3.7589982, the num¬
ber correfponding to which is 5741 tVV : this multi¬
plied by 10,000, the produCt is 57411100, the number,
required,
Otherwife feek the decimalmember of the logarithm
in the table, and if you can find it exaCtly, you have
the four firft figures of the number in the table, to
which affix as many ciphers as the given index exceeds
3, and it is the number required. But if you cannot
find the logarithm exaCtly, take the next leaft, and
find the four firft figures of the correfponding number;
then take the difference betwixt the given logarithm
and the next leaft, and annex to It as many ciphers as
ttfie index exceeds 3 ; then divide by the common dif-
Vql.X. Part I.
I, T H M S.
ference, and affix the quotient to the four firft figures, Explana-
and you have the number required. ^on t^ie
To fnd the number correfponding to a negative logarithm.1 able>
To the given negative logarithm add the laft logarithm "
of the table, or that of the number icooo ; i. e. fub¬
traCt the firft from the ffccond, and find the number
correfponding to the remainder ; this will b,e the nume¬
rator of the fraction, whofe denominator will be 10000 ;
v. gr. fuppofe it to be required to find the fraction
correfponding to the negative logarithm
°.3679767, fubtraCl this from
4.0000000
The remainder is   3.6320233,, the number corre¬
fponding .to which is 4285^0, the fraCtion fought
therefore is r^ssr^sn- The reafon of the rule is, that
as a fraCtion is the quotient, arifing on the divifion-
of the numerator by the denominator, unity will be to-
the fraCtion as the denominator to the numerator; but
as unity is to the fraCtion correfponding to the given
negative logarithm, fo is 10000 to the number corre- •
fponding to the remainder: therefore, if 10090 be ta¬
ken for the denominator,, the number will be the nu¬
merator of the fraCtion required.
The negative logarithm —0.367977 is equal to the
logarithm 1.632023, and the number anfwering to-
it, found in the manner already directed,, will be
•4285Tinr.
The fines, tangents, &c. of any arch areeafily founds
by feeking the degree at the top, if the arch be lefs
than 450,. and the minutes at the fide, beginning from
the top, and by feeking the degree, See. at the bottom,,
if the arch is greater than 450. If a given logarith¬
mic fine or tangent falls between thofe in the tables,,
then the correfponding degrees and minutes may be
reckoned j, or f, See. minutesmorethanthofebelong-
ing to the neareft lefs logarithm in the. tables, accord¬
ing as its difference from the given one is or f, or
f, &c, of the difference between the logarithm next
greater and next lefs than the given log.
§ 2. Of the various Sciences to which Logarithms may
be applied.
As thefe artificial numbers conftitute a new fpecie-s
of arithmetic capable of performing every thing which
can be done in the old way, it is plain that its ufe muft
be equally extenfive, and that in everyfcience in which
common arithmetic can be ufeful, the logarithmic^!
arithmetic muft be much more fo, byv reafon of its be¬
ing more eafily performed. Though the general prin¬
ciples of logarithmical arithmetic have been already
laid down, we fhallhere, in order to render the fubjeCt
(till more plain, fubjoin the following practical rules.
I. Multiplication by Logarithms.
Add together the logarithms of all the faCtors, and
the fum is a logarithm, the natural number correfpond-*
ing to which will be the produCl required.
Obferving to add, to the fum of the affirmative indi¬
ces, what is carried from the fum of the decimal parts
of the logarithms. *
And that the difference betwixt the affirmative and
negative indices is to bo taken for the index to the lo?
garithm of the produCt.
T Kt.
146 L O G A
Divifi<in by £x. T. ^Fo multiply 23’i4 by 5*062.
23.14 its log. is 1*3643634
5*062 its log. is 0*704322 1
It I T H M S.
Sea. in.
Logarithms
Here 1 carried from the decimals to the 3 makes it 3l,le °f.
— — Th ee ty
become 2, which taken from the other 2, leaves ore-Logamhmi
Product 117*1347 - 2*0686855
Ex. 2. To mult. 2*581926 by 3*457291.
2.581926 its log. is 0*4119438
3*457291 - - 0.5387359
Prod. 8.92647 - 0.9506797
Ex. 3. To mult. 3'*902, and 597*16, and *0314728
all together.
3*902 its log. is 0*5912873
597*16 - - 2*7760907
•0314728 - a‘4979353
Prod. 73*33533 - f8653f33 r t ,
The 2 cancels the 2, and the 1 to carry from the de¬
cimals is fet down.
Ex. 4. To mult. 35-86, and 2*1046,
and 0*8372, and 0*0294 all together.
3*586 its log. is 0*5546103
2*1046 - - 0*3231696
0*8372 - - 1-9228292
0*0294 - - 7-4683473
Quot. 5*290782 - 0*7235199
- Ex. 2. To divide 37*149 by 523*76.
Divid. 37-149 its log. 1*5699471
Divif. 523.76 - - 2*7191323
Quot. *07092752 - 2*8508148
Ex. 3. To divide *06314 by *007241.
Divid. *06314 its log* 2*8003046
Divif. *007241 - - 3‘859798J
Ex. 4. To divide •*7438 by 12*9476.
Divid. *7438 its log. 1*8714562
Divif. 12*9476 - 1.1121893
Quot.'*05744694 - 2*7592669
Here the 1 taken from the 1 makes it become 2 ta
fet down.
Prod. *1857618 - - 1-2689564
Here the 2 to carry cancels the 2, and there re¬
main the 1 to fet down.
II. Divijfton iy Logarithms.
From the logarithm of the dividend fubtraft the lo¬
garithm of the divifor, the remainder is a logarithm
whofe eorrefponding number will be the quotient re¬
quired.
But firft obferve to change the fign of the index of
the logarithm of the divifor, viz. from negative to af¬
firmative, or from affirmative to negative ; then take
the fum of the indices if they be of the fame kind, or
their difference when of different figns, with the fign
of the greater, for the index to the logarithm of the
quotient.
And when 1 is borrowed in the left-hand place of
the decimal part of the logarithm, add it to the index
of the logarithm of the divifor when that index is af¬
firmative, but fubtraft it when negative ; then let the
index thus found be changed, and worked with as be-
ibre.
Ex. 1. To divide 24163 by 4567-
Divide 24163 its log. 4-3831509
Divif. 4567 - - 3*6596310
III. The Rule of Three, or Proportion.
Add the logarithms of the 2d and 3d terms toge¬
ther, and frbm their fum fubtraft the logarithm of the
iff-by the foregoing rules ; the remainder will be the
logarithm of the 4th term required.
Or in any compound proportion whatever, add to¬
gether the logarithms of all the terms that are to be
multiplied, and from that fum take the fum of the b-
thers; the remainder will be the logarithm of the term
fought.
But inftead of fubtra&ing any logarithm, we may
add its complement, and the refult will be the fame.
By the complement is meant the logarithm of the re¬
ciprocal of the given number, or the remainder by ta¬
king the given logarithm from o, or from 10, changing
the radix from o to 10 ; the eafieft method of doing
which, is to begin at the left hand, and fubtraft each
figure from 9, except the laft fignificant figure on the
right-hand, which muff be fubtrafted from 10. But
when the index is negative, add it to 9, and fubtradt
the reft as before. And for every complement that is
added, fu.btradt 10 from the laft fum of the indices.
Ex. 1. To find 34th proportional to 72*34, and 2*5x9,
and 357.4862.
As 72*34 - comp. log. 8*1406215
To 2*519 - 0*4012282
So 357-4862 - - 2’5532592
To 12*44827 - - 1*0951089
Ex. 2. To find a 3d proportional to 1^*796 and
3*24718.
As 12*796 - - comp. log. 8*8929258
To 3*24718 - - 0*5x15064
So 3*24718 - - 0*5115064
To *8240216 - - 1*9159386
Ex. 3. To find 'a number in proportion to *379145 as
•85132 is to *0649.
As *0649 - comp. log. 11^1877553
To *85132 - - 1.9300928
So -379x45 - - i-5788oJ4
To 4-973401 - - 0*6966535
Ex. 4. If the intereft of 1001. for a year or 365 days
be 4*5!. what will be the intereft of 279*25!. for
274 days ?
As’^ comp. log.
To ’
I274
So 4-5
C8*,
Z 7"-
8*0000000
•4377071
2’4459932
2-4377506
0*6532125
Quot. 8719792
0*9405061
To 9-433296
<-*9746634
IV.
. Sea. JII.
LOGARITHM S.
IV. Involution, or raifing of Powers.
Multiply the logarithm' of the number given by the
* propofed index of the power, and the produft will be
the logarithm of the power fought.
Note. In multiplying a logarithm with a negative
index by any affirmative number, the product will be
negative.—But what is to be carried from the decimal
part of the logarithm will be affirmative Therefore
the difference will be the index of the produft; and is
to be accounted of the fame kind with the greater.
Ex. i. To find the ad power of z'S'jyi.
Root 2‘579i its log. - o'4114682
index - - 2
*47
Power 6*651756
0*8229364,
Ex. 2. To find the cube of 3.07146-
Root 3*07146 its log. - 0*4873449.
index. - - - 3
Power 28*97'575 - - 1*4620347'
Ex. 3. To find the 4th power 01*09163.
Root *09163 its log. - 2.9620377
index. - - 4
Power *0000704938 - 5*848«5o8
Here 4 times the negative index being and 3 to
carry, the difference 5 is the index of the produdt.
Ex. 4. To find the 365th power of r*0045.
Root 1*0045 its log - 0*0019499
index * » 365
97495“
x 16994
58497
©.7117135
Power 5*148888
V. Evolution, or ExtraElion of Roots.
Divide the logarithm of the power or given number
by its index, and the quotient will be the' logarithm
qf the root required.
Note. When the index of the logarithm is nega¬
tive, and the divifor is not exactly contained in it with¬
out a remainder^ increafc it by fuch a number as will
make it exactly divifible ; and carry the units borrowed, Evolution
as fo many tens, to the left-hand place of the decimal
part of the logarithm ; then divide the refults by the n ,
index of the root.
Ex. 1. To find the fquare root of 365.
Power 365 - - 2)2*5622929
Root 19*10498 - - 1*2811465
Ex. 2. To find the cube root of 12345.
Power 12345 ' ‘ 3).4‘°9,4911
Root 23*11162 - - 1*3638304
Ex. 3. To find the xoth root of 2.
Power 2 - - 10)0*3010300
Root 1*071773 - - 0*0301030
Ex. 4. To find the 365th root of 1*045.
Power 1*045 ‘ * 365)0.0191163
Root x‘000121 - - 0*0000524
Ex. 5. To find the fquarc root of *093.
Power *093 - 2)2*9684829
Root, £04959 - - i *4842415_
Here the mvifor 2 is contained exa&ly once in 2 the
negative index; therefore the index of the quotient
is 1.
Ex. 6. To find the cube root of *00048.
Power - - - 3)4*6812412
Root *07829735 - 2*8937471 _
Here the divifor 3 not being exactly contained in 4^
augment it by 2, to make it become 6> in which the
divifor is contained juft 2 times ; and the 2 borrowed
being carried to the other figures 6, &c. makes
2*6812412, which divided by 3 gives *8937471.
In trigonometry, the ufe of logarithmical fines, tan--
gents, &c. are ufed as well as the common arithmetical
logarithms ; and by ufing fliem according to the rules
above laid down, the operations are ftiortened to a de¬
gree altogether incredible to perfons unacquainted with
this invention. With equal facility are the problems
in aftronomy and navigation folved by their means, as
well as thofe of the higher geometry, fluxions, and in
ffiort every thing which requires deep and laborious
calculation. For the particular application of them
to the different fciences, fee the articles Navigation^ .
TrigonometrVj, &c.
T 3
248
L O G A II I T H M S.
Table.
A Table of Logarithms from 1 to 10,000.
Logat.
Logar.
N° Lcgar. 'N°'| Log;
0.000000
0.301030
0.477121
0.602060
0.698970
0.778151
0.845098
0.903090
0.954242
1.000000
1-041393
1.079181
I-113943
1.146128
1.176091
1.204120
1.230449
1.255272
1.278754
1.3 01030
1.322219
^342423
23^.361728
2411.380211
I*39794°
1.414973
^A31364
1.447158
1.462398
1.477121
1.491362
t-S0SlS°
I-33I479
1.544068
1.556302
r.56820:
1.57978,
1.591065
1.602060
1.612784
1.622240
1.633468
1 *^43 453
Logar.
1.653212!
1.662758
1.672098
’1.681241
1.690196
1.698970
1.707570
1.716003
1.724276
I-732394
7403^3
Logar.
1.748188
1*755875
1.763428
1.770852
1.778151
*•785330
1.792392
I*79934°
1.806180
1.812913
1-819544
Logar.
1.826075
1.832508!
i.838849!
1.845098
1.851258
I-857332
1.863323
1.869232
1.875061
1.880814
1.88649
Logar.
1.892095
1.897627
.903090
.908485
1.913814
1.919078
1.924279
I,9294i9
1.934498
•9395*9
Logar.
1.949390
1.954242
I-959°4I
1.963788
1.968483
.973128
.977724
1.982271
1.986772
1.991226
•995635
N"
2.000000
2.004321
2.008600
2.012837
2.017033
2.021189
2.025306
2.029384
2.033424
2,037426
2.041393
2*045323
2.049218
2.053O78
2.056905
2.060698
2.0644 58
2.068x86
2.071882
2-075547
2.07918
2.082785
2.086360
2.089905
2.093422
2.096910
2.100371
2.103804
2.107210
2.110590
2.113943
2.11727
2.120574
2.123852
2.127105
2-I3°334
2-133539
2.136721
2.139879
2-143015
2.000434
2.004751
2.009026
2.013259
2-017451
2.000868
2.005180
2.009451
2.ofi368o
2.017868 :
2.001301
2.005609
2.009876
2.0141'QO
2.018284
2.021603
2.025715
2.029789
2.033826
2.037825
2.022016
2.026124
2.030195
2.034227
2.038223
2.022438
2.026533
2.030600
2.034628
2.038620
2.041787
2.045714
2.049606
2-053463
2.057286
2.042182
2.046105
2.049993
2.053846
2.057666
2.042575
2.046495
2.05038<
2-054*3°
2.058046
2.061075
2.064832
2.068557
2.072250
2.07591?
2.061452
2.065206
2.068928
2.072617
2.076276
2-079543
2.083144
2.086716
2.090258
2.093772
2.079904
2-083503
2.087071
2.090611
2.094122
2.097257
2.100715
2.104145
2.107549
2.110926
2.097604
2.101059
2.104487
07888
2.111262
2.114277
2.117603
2.120003
2.124178
2.127429
146:
2.117934
2.12123
2.124504
7752
2-i3o65..
2-!33858
2.*37°37
2.140194
2-1433 27
2.130977
2.134177
2-137354
2.140508
2-i43639
2.042969
2.046885
2.050766
2.054613
2.058426
2.061829
2.065580
2.069298
2.072985
2.076640
2.080266
2.083S6:
2.087426
2.090963
2.094471
2.09795:
2.1.0140:
2.104828
2.108227
2.111598
,944
2.118265
2.121560
2.124830
2.128076
2.131298
2.134496
2.137670
2.140822
2-143951
2.O01734
2.006038
2.010300
2.014520
2.018700
2.022841
2.026942
2.031004
2.035029
2.039017
2.062206
2-o65953
2.069668
2-°73352
2.077004
2.080626
2.084219
2.087781
2.°9i3i5
2.094820
2,098297
2.101747
2.105169
2.108565
2-HI934
2.115278
2.118595
2.121888
2.125156
2.128399
2.131619:
2.124814
2.137987
2.141136
2.144263
2.602166
2.OO6466
2,010724
2.014940
2.O19116
2.023242
2.027350
2.031408
2-03543°
2.039414
2.043362
2.047275
2.051152
2.054996
2.058805
2.062582
2.066326
,2.070038
2.073718
1.077368
2.080987'
2.084576
2.088136
2-091667
.095169
2.098644
02090 2.
2-105510
2.108903
2.112270
1561
2.118926
2.122216
25481
2.128722
31939
2-135133
2.138303
2.141450
2-144574
2.002598
2.006894
2.611147
2.015360
2.019532
2.003029
2.007321
2.011570
2.015779
2.019947
2.023664
2.027757
2.031812
2.035830
2.039811
2.024075
2.028164
2.032216
2.036229
2.040207
2‘°43755
2.047664
2*°5i538
2-°55378
2.059185
2.044148
2.048053
2.051924
2.055760
2-0595^3
2.062958
2.066698
2.070407
2.074085
2.07773'
.081347
2.084934
2.08849,
2.092018
2.095518
2.09899c
102434
2.ioc8c:
0924:
2.112605
5943
9256
2.122543
2.125806
2.129045
2.132260;
2*i3545
2.138618
2.141763
44885
2.044540
2.048442
2.052309
2.056142
2.059942
2*063333
2.067071
2.070766
2.074451
2.078094
2.081707
2.085291
2.088845
2.09237c
2.095866
2*°99335
2.102777
,106191
2.109578
12940
2.116276
2.119586
2.1228711
2.126131
29368
2.003460 2.003891
2.007748
2.011993
2.016197
2.020361
2.024486
2.028571
2.032619
2.036629
2.040602
2.04493
2.048830
2,052694
2.056524
2,06332c
2.063 709
2.067443
2-071145
2.074816
2-°78457
2.082067
2.085647
2.089198
2.092721
2.096215
2.099681
2.103119
0653
2.109916
2-113275
2.116608
19915
2.123198
2.126456
2,12969c
2,008174
2.012415
2,016615
2.020775
2.024896
2.028978
2.033021
2.037028
2.040998
2.064083
2.067814
2.071514
2.075182
2.078819
2.082426
2.08600:
2.089552
2.09307
2.096562
2.100026
2.10546:
2.106870
2.110253
2.113609
2.11694c
2,12024c
2.123525;
2.126781
2.130012
2.132580 2.132900
2.13 5768 2.136086
2.13893412.139249
2.142076(2.142389
2.133219
2.136403
2.139564
2.142702
2,145196;2.i45507 2.145818
393
389
386
382
379
36c
357
3i>
35i.
349
Table.
logarithms; 149
l5o
LOGARITHMS
2.290035
2.292256
2.294466
2.296665
2.298853
2.290257
2.292478
2.29468.7
2.296884
2.299071
2.301030
2.303196
2-3°i?3-5I
2.307496
2.309630
2.290480
2.292699
2.294907
2.297104
2.299289
12.301247
2.303412
2.305566
2.307710
2.309843
2.301464
2.303628
2-3°578
2.3°7924
2.310056
.290702
.292920
•295I27
•297323
.299507
.301681
•303844
•305996
.308137
.310268
I
,291369
•293583
•295787
•297979
2.29972512.299943! 2.300160
2.290925 2.291147 2.2
2.293I4l|2.293362[2.2
2-295347i?-295567 2.2
2-297542]2.29776o 2.2
2.301898,2.302114
2.304059
2.306210
2.308351
2.310481
‘ 2.304275
2.306425
2.308564
2.310693
-30233
'•304490
,.306639
,308778
,310906
2.291.591
2.293804
2.296007
2.298198
2.300378
2-302547
2.304706
2.306854
2.308991
2.311118
2.291813
2.29402 5
2.296226
2.298416
2-300595
1.302764
2.304921
2.307068
2.309204
2-3II33°
2.292034
2.294246
2.296446
2.29863 c
2-30o8i3
2.30298c
2-3°5i36
2.307282
2.3 09417
2.3H542
2-3”754
2.3i3867
2-315970
2.318063
2.320146
2.311966
2-3i4°78
2.316180
2.318272
2-320354
2.312177
2.314289
2.316390
2.318481
2.320562
:.3X 2389
2.314499
■3^599
2.318689
2.320769
2.312600
2"3147I
2.316809
2"3I "
2.320977
2.312812
2.31492,0
2.317018
2.319106
2.321184
2.343P23
2*315I30
2.317227
2‘319314
2.32139!
2.313324
2-315340
2.317436
2.3I9523
2.321,598
2"313 445
2-315550
2.317645
2-31973°
2.321805
2.3i3656
2-3i576o
;:2-327854
2.319938
2.322012
2.^22219
2.324282
2.326336
2.328380
2.330414
2.322426
2.324488
2.326541
2.328583
2.330617
2.322633
2.324694
2.326745
2.328787
2.330819
.322839
2.324899
2.326950
.328991
2.331022
2.323946
2.325105
2-327I54
2"329I94
2-331225
•323252
2.325310
2.327359
2.329398
2-33i427
2-323458
2'3255i6
2-327563
2.329601
2.331629
'2.323664
2.325721
2.327767
2.329804
2.33183 2
2.323871
.325926
2"327972
2.330008
■33 2°34
2.324077
2.326131
2.328176
2.33021!
2.332236
2.332438
2-334454
2.336460
2-338456
2.340444
2.332640
2-334655
2.336660
2,338656
2.340642
2.332842
2-334856
2.336860
2-338855
2.340840
2.333044
2-335056
2.337060
2.339054
2.341039
2.333264
2.335257
2.337260
2-339^53
2-341235
2.333447
2.335458
2.337459
2.33945
2.34143 4
2.333649
2.335658
2-3376S9
2-339650
2-34i632
2-333850
2-335859
2-337858
2-339849
2.341830
•334051
■336059
.338058
2.340047
2.342028
■334253
■336259
2.338257
2.340246
2.342225
2.342423
2.344392
2-346353
2.348305
2.350248
2.342620
2-344589
2.34654c
2.348500
2,350442
2.3428172.343014
2-344785
2.346744
2.348694
■350636
2.344981
2.346939
2.348889
2.350829
2.352182
2.354108
2.356026
2-357935
2-359835
2.352375
2.354301
2.356217
2.358125
2.360025
2.352568
2-354493
2.356408
2-358316
2.360215
,361728
2.363612
2.365488
.367356
2.369216
2.36i9i7
2.363800
2-365675
2.367542
•36940
2.362105
2.363988
2.365862
2.367728
2.*3695§7 2.
2.343212
2-345178
2-347135
2.349083
2.351023
2.343409
2-345374
2-347330
2.349277
2.351216
2-343605
2.345570
2.347525
2.349472
2’3515°o
2.343802
2.345766
2.347720
2.349660
2.351603
■343999
.34596
2-3479I5
2.349860
2-352796
.344196
2-346157
2.348110
•2.350054
•35r989
2.352761
2.354684
2-356599
2.358506
2.360404
2-352954
2.354876
2.356790
2.358696
2-360593
2-353 M6
2.355068
2.356981
2.358886
2.360783
2-353339
2.355260
2.357172
2.359076
2.360972
2.353532
2-355451
2-357363
2.359266
2.361161
2.353724
2.355643
2.357554
2.359456
••361350
2-353926
2.355834
3)357744
2.359646
2.361539
.362294
.364176
.366049
•3679I5
.369772
2.362482
2-364363
2.366236
2.368101
.369958
2.36267:
2.364551
2.366423
2.368287
2-370I43
,362859
•364739
,366700
.368473
,370328
2.363048
2.364926
2.366796
2.2686 CQ
2-3705I3
2.363236
2-365ii3
2.366083
2.368844
2.370698
2.363424
2-3653°i
2.367169
2.369030
70883
2.371068
2.372912
2.374748
2.376577
-378398
2-371253
2.373096
2-374931
2-376759
2.37858c
2.37I4372.
2.3732802.
2.375II5|2'
2.3769422,
2.378761 2,
2.380211
2.382017
2.383815
2.38 5606
2.387390
2.380392
2.382197
2.383995
2-385785
2.387568
2-380573
2.382377
2^384175
2.385964
2.387746
2.389166
2.390935
2.392697
2.394452
2-396199
2-389343
2.391112
2.392873
2.394627
•396374
2.389520
2.391288
2.393048
2.394802
2.396548
.3716^2
'373464
•375298
,377124
•378943
2.371806
2-373647
2.37548i
2.377306
2.379124
2.37199
2-373831
2-375664
2.377488
2.379305
-372175
-374015
-375846
-377670
-379487
2.372360
2.374198
2.376029
2-377852
2.379668
2-372544
2.374382
2.376212
.378034
•379849
■37272%
2-374565
2-376394
2.378216
2.380030
-380754
-382557
-384353
:.386i42
-387923
1.380934
1-382737
1.384533
1.386321
1.388:
1.381115
1.382917
1.384712
1.386499
1.388279
.381296
-383097
.384891
.386677
.388456
2.381476
2.382277
2.385070
2.386855
2.388634
2.381656
2.383456
2.385249
•387034
1.38183'
,383636
•385427
•387212
.388989
181]
I8°!
I79f.
178
178!
-389697
-391464
,393224
.394977
•3967
.389874
•39i64i
.393400
•395 252
.396869
.390051
.391817
•393575
•395326
•^7,07;
.390228
•39 2 993
•393752
•395501
•397245
2.3904052.390582
2.392x69,2,392345
2.3939262.394201
2.395676j2.395850
2.3974282.397592
.390758
•3925 21
.394276
.396025
•397766
277 „
276}
,2 76[
2 75?'
Table*
Table.
LOGARITHMS.
2-39794°'2-398ii4
2-3996742-399847
2.401400 2.401573
2.40-312oj 2.403 292
254 2.40483412.405005
2.406540 2.400710
2.408240 2.408409
2-4°9933
2.411620
2-4I330°
!<4I4973 2i4I5I4°
2.416640 2.416807
2.418301
2-4I995^
2.421604
2.423246
2.424882
2.426511
2-428i35
2-429752
2.431364
2.432965
2-434569
2.436163
2.437751
2.3982872.
2.400020
.401745
2.40346.
2-4°5I75
2.410102
2.4x1788
2.413467
2.40688
2-4o8579
2.410271
2.41x956
2-4i3635
2.4x8467
2.420121
2.421768
2.423410
2.425045
2.426674
2.428297
2.4299x4
2-4315 25
2.433129
2.434728
2.436322
2.437909
2-439333
2.440909
2.442480
2.444045
2.445604
2.447158
2.448706
2.450259
2.451786
2-4533l8
2-454845
2.456366
2.45788:
2-459392
2.460898
2.462398
2.463893
2.46 5383
2.466868
2.468347
2.439491
2.441066
2.442636
2.444201
2.445760
I
24153°7
2.416973
2.418633
2.420286
2.421933
2.415474
2.417139
2.418798
2.420451
2.422097
2-423573
2.425208
.426836
2.428459
2.430075
2.423737
2.425371
2.426999
2.428621
2.430236
2.431685
2.433290
2.434888
243648
2.438067
2.431846
243345°
2.435048
2.436640
2.438226
2.439648
2.441224
2.442793
2-444357
24459I5
24473 J3
2.448861
2450403
2.451940
2453471
2.447468
2449015
2450557
2.452093
2.453624
2-454997
2.4565x8
2458033
2459643
2.461048
2.462548
2.464042
2465532
2.467010
2468495
2.469822 2.
471292!:
2.47275^2.
24742162. _ _
247567*1247581612475962
2.469969
247x438
2.472903
2.474362
2455149
2.456670
2.458184
2459694
2.461198
2.462697
2464191
2.465680
2.467164
2.468643
24701
2471585
2.473049
2.474508
300 2.47712112.477266^.477411 2.477555
301 2.4785662.4787112.4788552.478999
302 2.480007 2.480151 2.480294 2.480438
303 2.48x443 2.481586 24817292.481872
30412482874.2.4830x6 2483i59l2.4833Q2
.398461
406192
401917
403635
405346
40705
.408749
.410440
.412124
.41380:
2.415641
2.417306
2418964
2.420616
2.422261
2.423001
2425534
2427161
2.428782
2.430398
2.439806
2441381
2442950
244451.
2.446071
2447623
2.449170
2.450711
2452247
2453777
2455302
2.456821
2458336
2.459845
2.461348
I 5 i
■3986342.;
400365.2.
.402089 2.
403807 2.
4055172.
407221
.408918
.410608
4x2292
.4x3970
2.415808
2417472
2.419129
2.420781
2.4I2426
2.424064
2424697
2.427324
2.428844
2430559
2.432007
2.433610
2.435207
2.436798
2.438384
2439964
2441538
2.443106
2.444669
2.446226
2447778
2.449324
2.450865
2452400
245393°
2455454
2456973
2458487
2-459995
2.461498
2.462847 2.462997
2.464340
2.465829
2467312
2.468790
2.464489
2.465977
2.467460 2.467608
2.468938 2.469085
2.470263
2.471732
2.473195
2474653
2.47610;
.398808 2.;
400538 2..
402261 2.
4°3978|2.
405688:2.
40071
402433
404149
405858
2.399154
2.400883
2.402605
2.404320
2.406029
407391
.409087
.410777
.412460
4i4i37
2415974 .
2.417638 2.417804
2419295
2.420945 2421x10
2.422590 2.422750
2.424228
2.425860
2.427486
2.429106
2.430720
2432167
2433770
2435366
2436957
2.438542
2.440122
2441695
2443263
2.444825
2446382
2-447933
2.449478
2451018
245?553
2.454082
2.455606
2457125
2.458638
2.460146
2.461649
40756
409257
410946
4x2628
■414305
I 9 biTj
•399327
401056
•402777
.404492
406199
2.40773
2.409426
2.4x1114
2.412796
2.414472
2.416141
2.424391
2.426023
2.427648
2.429268
2.430881
2.432328
2.433930
2-435526
2.437116
2.438705
2.432488
2.434090
2-435685
2.437275
2.438859
2.440279
2.441852
2.443419
2.444891
2.446537
.440439
2.442009
2-443576
2-445137
2.446692
2.448088
2.449633
2.451172
2.452706
2-454235
2-455758
2.457276
2.458789
2.460296
2.461799
2.463146 2.463295
2.464638 2.464787
2.466125
.47041
.471878
.473341
•474799
.476252
.477700
.479143
.480582
.482016
•483445
2.466274
2.467756
2-469233
2-470557
2.472024
2.473487
2.474944
2.476396
2.477844
2.479287
2.480725
2.48215^
2.483587
>42.
2.47070^
2.472171
2.473633
2.47 co8o:
2.476542
2.416308
2.417970
2.419625
2.421275
2.422918
2.424555
2.426186
2.42781
2.429429
2.43x042
2.432649
2.434249
2.435844
2.437433
2.4390x0
2.448242
2.449787
2.4 ex 326
2.452859
2.454387
2.455910
2.457428
2.458940
2.460447
2.461948
2-463445
2.464936
2.466423
2.467904
2.469380
.47085:
2-47 231'
473779
2.475235
2.476687
.407900
•409595
■411283
.412964
•414639
.408070 170
2.409764 169
,41145
2.413132
2.414806
2.416474
2.418135
2.419791
2.421439
2.423082
2.424718
2.426349
■427973
2.429591
2.431203
2.432809
2.434409
2.436003
.2.437592
2.439175
2.440594
2.442166
2.443732
2.445293
2.446848
2,448397
2.449941
2.451479
2.453012
2.454540
2.456062
2.457579
2.459091
2.460597
2.462098
2.463594
2.465085
2.466571
2.468052
2.469527
2.470998
2.472464
2.473925
|2*47538
2.47683:
2.477989 2.478133 2.478278
2.479431
_ 2.480869
;9 2.482302
2.483720
2.479575 2.479719
2.481012 2.481156
2.482445 2.482588
2.483872l2.484Gi5!2.484i5'
3995o:
.401228
402949
:.43466^
406370
2.440752
2.442323
2.443888
2.445448
2.447003
2.448552
•450095
2.451633
2.453165
2.454692
2,456214
2.457730
2.459242
2.460747
2.462248
2.463744
2.465234
2.466719
2.468199
2.469675
2.471145
2.472610
2.474070
2.475526
2.476976
2.47842:
2.479863
2.481299
2.48273
,5I
*52
W
LOGARITHMS.
Table.
3°5 2484300
306^.485721
307,2.487138
30812.488551
309 2.489958
2.484442
2.485863
2.487280
2.488692
2.490099
3IO|2-49I3^2
31112.492760
3122.494155
'3I3i2-595544
3142.496930
2.484584'2.484727 2.484869
2.486oo5'2.486i47 2.486289
2.48742i;2.487563!2.487704
2.488833I2.488973 2.489! 14
2.490239;2.49028o'2.49Q52o
2.491502
2.492900
2.494294
2.495683
2.497068
1.491642 2.
:.49304o'2.
:-494433
1.495822
1.497206
.491782,2.4
■493I79 2-4
■4945722.4
.491922
•493319
. 494711
.495960 2.496099
■497344 2.497432
I
2.485011 2.485153I2.485295 2.485437 2.485579
2.486430 2.486572 2.486714 2.486855 2.486997
2.487845l2.487986.2,488i27l2.488269 2.488409
2.489255I2.489396 2.439537I2.489677 2.489818
2.490661 2.490801 2.490941 2.491081 2.491222
.492062! 2.
•493458j2.
.494850
.496237
.497621
.492201
•493597
.494989
.496376
■497759
2.492341
2-493737
2.495128
2.496514
2.497897
2.492481
2.493876
2.495267
2.496653
2.498035
2.492621
2.494015
2.495406 139
2.496791
2.498173
'511:
2.49831
2.499687
2.501059
2.502427
2.503791
2.498448:2.
2.499824 2.
2.50119612.
2.502564 2.
2.503927 2.
.498586
.499962
•501333
.502700
,504063
,.498724
.500099
.501470
.502837
.504199
1.498862
1.500236
,.5.01607
1.502973
-504335
.498999
•500374
.501744
.503109
.504471
•499I37
,.500511
,.501880
.563246
.504607
2.499275
2.500684
2.502017
2-503382
2-504743
2.499412
2.50078 c
2.502154
2.503518
2.504878
499549
2.500922
2.502290
2-503654
2.505014
^38
l37
137
136
2.COCI to
2.506505
2.507856
2.509202
2-510545
2.505286
2.506640
2.50799!
2-509337
2.510679
2.505421
2.506775
2.508125
2.509471
2.51081
2.505557
2.506911
2.508260
2.509606
2.510947
2.505692
2.507046
2.508395
2.509740
2.511081
2.505828
2.507x81
2.508510
2.509874
2.51x215
2-505963
2.507316
2.508664 :
2.510008
2.5x1348
2.506099
2-50745I
2.508799
2.510143
2.511482
2.506234
2.507586
;-5o8933
2.51M77
2.511616
2.506369
2.507721
2.509068
2.510411
2.5x1749
136
I35
135
!34
*34
2.511883
2.513218
2.514548
2.5i5874
2.517196
2.512017
2.5133#
2.514680
2.516006
2.5x7328
2.512150
2-513484
2.5x4813
2.5x6139
2.517460
2.512284
2.513617
2.5x4946
2.5x627
2.517592
2.512417
2.513750
2-515079
2.516403
2.517724
2-512551
2-513883
2.5152x1
2.5i6535
2.517855
2.512684
2.514016
2-5I5344
2.516668
2.517987
2.512818:
2.514149
2.515476
2.516799
2.518119
2.51295
2.514282
2.5x5609
2.516932
2.5x8251
2.513084
2-5I44I5
•5i574i
2.517064
2.5x8382
2.518514
2.5x9828
2.521138
2.522444
2.523746
2.51864c
2.519959
2.52x269
2.522575
2.523876
2.518777
2.520090
2.521400
2,522705
2.524006
2.518909
2.520221
2.521530
2.522835
2.524136
2.519040
2.520352
2.521661
2.522966
2.524266
2.519171
2.520483
2.521792
2.523096
2.524396
2.519303
2.520614
2.521922
2.523226
2.524526
2-5i9434
2.520745
2.52*053
2.523356
2.524656
2.519565
2.520876
2.522183
2.523486
•524785
2.519697
2.521007
2.522314
2.523616
2.5249x5
2.525045
2.526339
2.527630
2.528917
,539200
2.525m'
2.526468
2.527759
2.529045
2.530328
2.525304
2.526598
2.527888
2.529x74
2.530416
2.525433
2.526727
2.528016
2.529302
2.530584
2-525563
2.526856
2.528145
2.529430
2-5307
2.525692
2.526985
2.528274
2.529559
2.530839
2.525822
2.527x14
2.528402
2.529687
2.530968
2-52595*
2-527243
2.528531
2.529815
2.53I095
2.526081
2.527372
1.528660
2-5 29943
2.53x223
2.526210
2.527501
2.528788
2.530072
2-53X35i
2.53I479
2.532754
2.534026
2-535294
2-536558
2.531607
2.532882
2.534153
2.535421
2.536685
2.531734
2.533009
2.534280
2-535547
.536811
2.531862
2-533136
2.534407
2.535674
2-536937
2.53x989
2.533263
2-534534
2.535800
2.537063
2.532117
2-53339
2.534661
2.535927
2.537x89
2-532245
2.5335x8
2.534787
2-536053
2-5373X5
2.532372
2-533645
2.5349X4
2.536179
2.532499
2-533772
2.535041
2.536306
2.537441 2.537567
2.532627
2.533899
2.535167
2.536432
2.537693
2.5378192.537945
2-539076 2.539202
2.540329 2.540455
2.541579,2.541704
2.542825-2.542950
2.53807:
2.539327
2.540580
2.541829
2.543074
2.538197
2-539452
2.540705
2-54X953
2.543199
2.538322
2.539578
2.540830
2.542078
2.543323
2.538448
2.539704
2.540955
2.C42203
2.543447
2.53857*
2.539828
2.541080
2.542327
2-543571
2.538699 2.538825 2.538951
2-539954 2-540079
2.5412052.541330
2.542452 2.542576
2.543696 2.543820
2.540204
2.541454
2.542701
2-543044
2.544068 2.544192
2.545307 2.54543I
2-5465432.546666
2-547775|2.547898
2.549003 2.549x26
2.5443x6
2.545554
2.546789
2.548021
2.549249
2.544440
2.545678
2.546913
2.548144
2-54937
2.544564
2.545802
2.547036
2.548266
2-549494
2.544688
2.545925
2.547159
2.548389
2.549616
2.544812
2.546049
2.547282
2.548512
2-549739
2.544936
2.546172
2.547405
2.548635
2.549861
2.545060
2.546296
2.547529
2.548758
2.549984
2.545183
2.546419
2.547652
2.548881
2.550106
355 2.550228 2.550351
3562.5514502.551572
2.55266812.552790
2-553883!2.554oo4
2-555°94 2.55521 ^
2.550473
2.55I694
2.552911
2.554x26
■555336
2.550595
2.551816
2.553033
2.554247
•555457
2.550717
2.55I938
2.553X54
2.554368
2.55084O
2.552059
2.553276
2.554489
555699
2.550962
2.552181
2-553397
2.554610
2.555820
2.551084
2.5523°3
2-5535X9
2-55473X
2.551206
2.552425
2.553640
2.554852
2.555940 2-55606:
2.551328
2.552546
2.553762
2-554973
2.556182
**>184,
Table.
LOGARITHMS.
3
8
2.556302
2-S57S°7
2.558709
2.559907
2.56x101
2.556423
2.557627
2.558828
2.560026
2.561221
2.556544:
2.557748
2.558948
2.560146
2.56x340
::2.556664
2.557868
2.559068
2.560265
2.561450
2.556785
2.557988
2.559188
2.560385
2.561578
2.556905
2.558108
2.559308
2.560504
2.561697
2.557026
2.558228
2.559428
2.560624
2.561847
2-557146
2.558348
2.559548
2.560743
2.561936
2.557266
2.558469
2.559667
2.560863
2.562055
2-557387
2-558589
2-559787
2.560982
.562174
2.562293
2.563481
2.564666
2.5/55848
2.567026
2.562412
2.563600
2.564784
2.c6cq66
2.567144
2.562531
2.563718
2.564903
2.566084
2.567262
2.562650
2-563837
2.565021
2.566202
2.567379
2.562768
2-563955
2-565139
2.566320
2.567497
2.562887
2.564074
2-565257
2.566437
2.567614
2.563006 2.563125
2.564192
2.565375
2-566555
2.567732
2.56431
2.565494
2.566673
2.567849
2.563237
2.564429
2.56561:
2.56679
2.567967
2-563363
2.564548
2-565730
2.566909
:.568o84
2.568202
2.569374
2.570543
2.571709
2.572872
2.568319
2.569491
2.570660
2.571825
2.572988
2.568436
2.569608
2.570776
2.571942
2.573I04
2.568554
2.569725
2.570893
2.572058
2.573220
2.56867
569842
2.571010
2.572174
2.573336
2.568788
2-569959
2.571126
2.572291
2.573452
2.568905
2.570076
2.571243
2.572407
2.573568
2.569023
2.570193
2.57I359
2.572523
2.573684
2.569140
2.570309
2.571476
2.572639
2.573800
2.569257
.570426
2.57x592
2"572755
2-5739I5
2-574031
2*575i:
2-576341
2.577492
2.578639
2.574147
2.575303
2.576456
2.577607
2-578754
2.574263
■575419
2-576572
2.577721
2.578868
2-574379
2-575534
2.576687
2.577836
2-578983
2-574494
2.575650
2.576802
2-57795I
2.579097
2.57461c
2.575765
2.57691^
2.578066
2.579212
2.574726
2.575880
2.577032 :
2.57818
2.579326
2.57484
2.575996
2.577I47
2.578295
2-579441
2.574957
2.576111
2.577262
.5784x0
2-579555
.575072
.576226
•577377 -
•578525 115
.579669 114
2.579784
2.580925
2.582063
2.583199
2.58433I
2.579898
2.581039
2.582177
2.58331 2
2.584444
2.580012
2.58II53
2.582291
2.583425
2.584557
2.580126
2.581267
2.582404
2.583539
2.58467
2.580240
2.581381
2.582518
2.583652
2.584785
2-580355
2.581495;
2.582631
2.583765
2.584896
2.580469
2.581608
2.582745
2.583879
2.585009
2.580583
2.581722
2.582858
2.583992
2.585122
2.580697
2.581836
2.582972
2.584105
■585235
.580811
.581950
.583085
.584218
■585348
2.585461
2.586587
2.58771X
2.588832
,58995,
2.585573
2.5867QO
2.587823
2.588944
2.59006
2.585686
2.586812
2.587935
2.589055
2.59OI73
2.585799
2.586925
2.588047
2.589x67
2.590284
2.585912
2-587037
2.588160
2.589279
2.590396
2.586024
2.587149
2.58827"
!-58939:
■•590507
2.586137
2.587262
2.588384
2.589503
2.5906x9
2.58625c
2.5873/'4
2.588496
2.589614
2.59073P
.586362
2.587486
2.588608
2.589726
2.590842
2.58647;
2-58759S
2.58872-:
2.58983S
2-S9°9S3
2-S9°9S3
2.592177
2.593286
2.594392
2.595496
2.591176
2.592288
2.593397
2-594503
2.595606
2.591827
2.592399
2.593508
2.594613
2"5957I7
2.59x398
2.5925i°
2.592618
2.594724
2-595827
2.591510
2.592621
2-593729
-594834
2-595937
2.59162
2.592932
2.593840
2-594945
2.596047
2.591732
,592843
2-593950
2-595055
-596157
2.591843
2.592954
2.594061
2.595165
2.596267
2,59r955
2.593064
2.594171
•595276
•596377
.592066
z-593175
2.594282
■595386
.596487
2-596597
2-597695
2.598790
2.599883
2.600973
2.602060
2.663144
2.604226
2.605305
2.606381
2.596707
2.597805
2.598900
2.599992
2.601082
2.596817
2.597914
2.599009
2.60010:
2.601190
2.596927
2.598024
2.599119
2.600210
2.601299
2.597037
2.598134
2.599228
2.600319
2.601408
2.597x46
2-598243
2-599337
2.600428
2.60x517
.597256
.598353
.599446
.600537
.601625
2.597366
2.598462
2.599556
.606646
•601734
2.597476
2-598572
■599665
.600755
2.601843
2-597585
2.59868
2-599774
2.600864
.60105
2.602168
2.603253
2-604334
2.605413
2.606489
2.602277
2.603361
2.604442
2.605520
.6o'6596
2.602386
2.603469
2.604 5 5°
2.605628
2.606704
2.602494
2.603577
2.604658
2.605736
2.6068 xx
2.602602
.603685
2.604766
2.605843
2.606918
.6027:
.603794
.604874
•605951
.607026
2.602819
2.603902
2.604982
2.606059
2.607133
..SozyzS
2.604010
2.605089
2.606166
2.607240
2.603036
2.604118
2.605197
2.606274
.607348
2.607455
2.608526
2.609594
2.610660
2.611723
2.607562
2.608633
2.609701
2.610767
2.611829
2.607669
2.608740
2.609808
2.610873
2.611936
2.607777
2.608847
2.6099x4
2.610979
2.6x2042
2.607884
2.608954
2.6X0021
2.611086
2.612148
2,60799:
2.609060
2.610128
2.611192
2.612254
2.608098
2.609167
2.610234
2.6x1298
2.612360
2.^08205
2.609274
2.61034
2.6x1405
2.612466
.6083
2.609381
2.610447
2.611511
2.612572
2.608419
2.609488
2.610554
2.611617
.612678
2.612784
2.613842
2.614897
2.615950
2.612890
2.613947
2.615003
2.616055
2.6x7000 2.617105
Vol. X. Part I.
2.612996
2*6i4°53
2.615108
2.616160
161J210
2.6x3102
2.614159
2.615213
2.616265
2-617315
2.613207
2.614264
2.615319
2.616370
2.617420
2.613313
2.614370
2.615424
2.616475
2.617524
.613419
2.614475
2.615529
2,616580
2.617629
2.613525
2.614581
2.615634
2.616685
2-6I7734
2.613630
2.614686
2.615740
2.616790
2.6.17839
.613736
.614792
-615845
2.616895
2.617943
u
153
*54
LOGARITHMS.
Tabic.
3
TSIE
2.6x8048
2.619093
2.620136
2.621176
2.622214
2.618x53
2.619198
2.620240
2.621280
2.622318
2.618257
2.619302
2.620244
2.621384
2.62242:
2.618362
2.619406
2.620448
2.621488
2.622525
2.618466
2.619511
2.620552
2.621592
2.622628
2.61857
2.619615
2.620656
2.621695
2.622732
.618675
.619719
.620760
.621799
1.622835
2.618780
2.6x9823
2.620864
2.621903
2.622939
2.618884
2.619928
2.620968
2.622007
2.623042
2,6x8989
2.620032
2.621072
4.622110
2.623146
2.623249
2.624282
2.625312
2.626340
2.627366
2-623353
2.624385
2.625415
2.626443
2.627468
2.623456
2.624488
2.625518
2.626546
2.62757
2-623559
2.624591
2.625621
2.626648
2.627673
2.623663
2.624694
2.625724
2.626751
2.627775
2.623766
2.624798
2.625827
2.626853
2.627878
.623869
:.62490i
.625929
1.626956
1.627980
2.623972
2.625004
2.626032
2.627058
2.628082
2.624076
2.625107
z.626135
2.627161
2.628184
2.624179
2.625209
2.626238
2.627263
2.628287
2.628389
2.629410
2.630428
2.631444
-2.632457
2.62849:
2.629511
2.630529
2-631545
2.632558
2.628593
2.629613
2.630631
'2.631647
2.632660
2.628695
2.629715
2.630733
2.631748
2.632761
2.628797
2.629817
2.620834
2.631849
2.632862
.2.628901
2.629919
2.630936
2.631951
.632963
2.629002
2.630021
2.631038
2.632052
2.633064
2.629104
2.630123
2.631139
2.632153
2.633x65
2.629206
2.630224
.631241
•632255
2.633266
2.629308
2.630326
2.631342
2-632356
2-633367
,633468
2.634477
2.635484
2.636488
2.637490
2.633569
2.634578
2-635584
2.636588
2.637590
2.633670
2.634679
2-635685
2.636688
2.637690
2.63377I
2.634779
2-635785
2.636789
2.637790
2.633872
2.635886
2.636889
2.637890
2.633973
2.634981
2.635986
2.636989
2.637990
2.634074
2.635081
2.636086
2.637089
2.638090
2-634175
2.635182
2.636187
2.637189
2.638190
2.634276
2.625282
2.636287
2.637289
2.638289
2-634376
2-635383
2.636388
2.63739°
.638389
100
roo :
2.638489
2.639486
2.640481
2.641474
2.642464
2.638589
2.639586
2.640581
2.641573
2.642563
2.638689
2.639686
2.640680
2.641672
2.642662
2.638789
2.639785
2.640779
2.641771
2.642761
2.639885
2.640879
2.641870
2.642860
2.639984
2.640978
2.641970
2.642959
2.639088
2.640084
.641077
2.642069
2.643058
2.639188
2.640183
2.641176
2.642168
2.643156
2.639287
2.640283
2.641276
2.642267
2-643255
•639387
.640382
•64x375
.642366
•643354
2-643453
2.644439
2.645422
2.646404
2-647383
2.64355X
2-644537
2.645520
2.646502
2.64748:
2.643650
2.644635
2.645619
2.646600
2.647578
2.643749
2.644734
2.6457x7
2.646698
2.647676
2.643847
2.644832
2.645815
2.646796
2.647774
2.643946
2-644931
2-6459x3
2.646894
2.647872
2.644044
2.645029
2.646011
2.646991
2.647969
2.644143
2.645127
2.646109
2.647089
2.648067
2.644242
2.645226
2.646208
2.647187
2.648165
•64434'
•645324
.646206
.647285
.648262
2.648360
2.649335
2.650307
2.651278
2.652246
2.648458
2.649432
2.650405
2-651375
2-652343
2.648555
2.649530
2.650502
2.651472
2.652440
2.648653
2.649627
2.650599
2.651569
2.652536
2.648750 2.
2.649724
2.650696
2.651666
2.652633
1.648848
2.649821
2.650793
2.651762
2.652730
2.648945
2.649919
2.650890
2.651859
2.652826
2.649043
2.650016
2.650987
2.651956
.652923
2.649140
2.650113
2.651084
2.652053
2.653019
2.649237
2.650210
2.651181
2.652150
2.653116
2.653212
2.6 C4176
2.655138
2.656098
2.657056
2-653309
2.654273
2-655234
2.656194
2.657151
2.653405
2.654369
2.655331
2.656290
2.657247
2.653502
2.654465
2.655427
2,656386
2-657343
2-653,598
2.654562
2-655523
2.65648
2.657438
2-653695
2.654658
2.6cc6io
2-656577
2.657534
2.653791
2.654574
2-655714
2.656673
2.657629
2.653888,
2.654850
2.655810
2.656769
2-657725
2.653984
2.654946
2.655906
2.656864
2.657820
2.654080
2.655042
2.656002
2.656960
2.657916
2.658011
2.658965
2.659916
2.660865
2.661813
2.658107
2.659060
2.660011
.660960
2.661907
2.658202
2-659x55
2.660106
2.661055
2.662002
2.658298
2.659250
2.660201
2.661150
2.662096
2.658393
2.659346
2.660296
2.661245
2.662191
2.658488
2.659441
2.660391
2.661229
2.662285
2.658584
2.659536
2.660486
2.661434
2.662380
2.658679
2.659621
2.660581
2.661529
2.662474
2.658774
2.659726
2.660676
2.661623
2.662569
2.658870
2.659821
2.660771
2.661718
2.662663
2.6627 58
2.663701
2.664642
2.66558
2.666518
2.662852
2.663795
2.664736
2.665675
2.666612
2.662947
2.663889
2.664830
2.665768
2.666705
2.663041
2.663983
2.664924
2.665862
2.66215 c
2.664078
2.665018
2.665956
2.666799 2.666892
2.663230
2.664172
2.66 5112
2.666050
2.666986
2.^63324
2.664266
2.665206
2.666143
2.667079
2.663418
2.664360
2.665299
2.666237
2.667173
2.663512
2.664454
2-665393
2.666331
2.667266
.663607
.664548
•665487
.666424
•667359
94
2.667453
2.668386
2.669317
2.670246
2.67 x 173
2,667546
2.668479
2.669410
2.667640
2.668572
2.669503
2.6703392.670431
2.671265 2.671358
2.667733 2.667826
2.668665 2.668758
2.669596,2.669689
'2.67o524]2.67o6i7
2.67i45i!2.67i543
2.667920
2.668852
2.669782
2.670710
2.671636
2.668013
2.668945
2.669874
2.670802
2.671728
2.668106 2.668199
2.669038 2.669131
2.669967I2.670060
2.670895-2.670988
2.671821^.671913
.668293
.669224
.670153
.671080
.672005
1 Table.
LOGARITHMS.
8
T5nr
2.672098
2.673021
2.673942
2.674861
2.675778
2.672190
2.6731x3
2.674034
*-674953
2.675S70
2.672283
2.673205
2.674126 2.
2.675045
2.675961
2.672375
2.673297
2.674218
2.675x36
2.676053
2.672467
2.673390
2-6743i5
2.675228
2.676145
2.672560
2.673482
2.674402
2.675320
2.676236
2.672652
2-673574
2.674494
2.6754x2
2.6763 28
2.672744
2.673666
2.674586
2.675503
2.676419
2.672836
2-673738
2.674677
2.675595
2.67651
2.672929
2.673850
2.674769
2.675687
2.676602
2.676694
2.677607
2.678518
2.679428
2.680335
2.676785
2.677698
2.678609
2-679519
2.680426
2.676876
2.677789
2.678700
2.679610
2.680517
2.676968
2.677881
2.678791
2.679700
2.680607
2.677059
2.677972
2.678882
2.679791
2.680698
2.677150
2.678063
2-678973
2.679882
2.680789
2.677242
2.678154
2.679064
2.679973
2.680879
2-677333
2.678245
2.679155
2.680063
2.680970
2.677424 :
2.678336
2.679246
2.680154
2.68x060
2.677516
2.678427
2-679337
2.680245
2.681x51
2.681241
2.682145
2.683047
2.683947
2.684845
2.681332
2.682235
2.683137
2.684037
2.684935
2.681422
2.682326
2.683227
2.684127
2.685025
2.681513
2.682416
2.6833x7
2.684217
2.685114
2.681603
2.682506
2.683407
2.684307
2.685204
2.681693
2.682596
2.683497
2.684396
2.685294
2.681784
2.682686
2.683587
2.684486
2.685383
2.68x874
2.682777
2.683677
2.684576
2.68547
2.681964
2.682867
2.683767
2.684666 2.
2-685563
2.682055
2.682957
2.683857
2.684756
2.685652
2.68 5742
2.686636
2.687529
2.688420
2.689309
2.685831
2.686726
2.687618
2.688509
2.689398
2.685921
2.686815
2.687707
2.688598
2.689486
2.686010
2.686904
2.687796
2.688687
2.689575
2.686100
2.686994
2.687885
2.688776
2.689664
2.686189
2.687083
2.687975
.688865
•689753
2.686279
2.687172
2.688064
2.688953
2.689841
2.686368
2.687261
2.688153
2.689042
2.689930
2.686457
2.687351
2.688242
2.689131
2.690019
2.686547
2.687440
2.688331
2.689220
2.690107
2.690196
2.691081
2.691965
2.692847
2.693727
2.690285
2.691170
2.692053
2.692935
2-6938x5
2-69°373
2.691258
2.692142
2.693023
2.693903
2.690462
2.69x34'
2.692230
2.693111
2.693991
.690550
2.691435
2.692318
2.693199
2.694078
2.690639
2.691523
2.692406
2.693287
2.694166
2.690727
2.691612
2.692494
2-693375
2.694254
2.690816
2.691700
2.692583
■693463
2.694342
2.690905
2.691788
2.692671
2-69355i
2.694430
2.690993
2.691877
2.692759
2.693639
2.694517
2.694605
2.695482
2.696356
2.697229
2.698100
2.694693
2-695569
2.696444
2.697316
2.698188
2.694781
2-695657
2.696531
2.697404
2.698275
.694868
2.695744
2.696618
2.697491
2.698362
.694956
2.695832
2.696706
2.697578
2.698448
2.695044
2.695919
2.606702
2.697665
•698535
2.69513
2.696007
2.696880
2.697752
2.698622
2.695219
2.696094
2.696968
2.697839
2.698709
2.695306
2.696182
2.697055
2.697926
2-698736
2-695394
2.696269
2.697142
2.698013
2.698883
2.698970
2.699838
2.700704
2.701568
2.702430
2.699057
2.699924
2.700790
2.701654
2.702517
.699144
.700011
.700877
-7OI74I
.702603
.699230
.700098
.700963
.701827
.702689
2-69931.
2.7001842,
2.701050
2.701913
2.702775
.699404
.700271
.701136
.701999
.702861
.699491
•700357
.701222
.702086
.702947
2699578
2.700444
?.7oi3°9
2.702172
2.703033
2.699664
2.70053
2-7oi395
2.702258
2.703119
2.699751
2.700617
2.701482
2.702344
2.703205
2.703291 2.703377
2.70415012.704236
2.705008 2.705094
2.705864:2.705949
2.706718:2.706803
-703463
.704322
.705179
.706035
.706888
•703549
.70440S
.705265
.706120
.706974
2.703635
2.704494
2-705350
2.706205
2.707059
.703721
•704579
.705436
.706291
.707144
-703807
.704665
.705522
.706376
.707^29
2-703893
2.704751
2.705607
2.706462
2.707315
2.703979
2.704837
2.705693
2.706547
2.707400
2.704065
2.704922
2.705778
2.706632
2.707485
2.707570
2708421
2.709270
2.710117
2.710963
2707655
2.708506
2-709355
2.710202
2.711048
707740
708591
.709440
710287
7II132
2.707826
2708676
2.709524
2.710371
2.711216
2.707911
2.708761
2.709609
2-710455
2.711301
2707996
2.708846
2.709694
2.710540
•7“385
2.708081
2.708931
2709779:
2710625
2.711470
2.708166
2709015
70986?
2710710
2-7II554
2.708251
2.709100
2.709948
2710794
2.711638
,708336
2709185
2.7x0033
2.710879
2711723
2.711807
2712650
2.713490
2714330
2.715167
2.711891
2712734
2-713574
2.714414
2.715251
520
52:
-522
323
-i-2,4 2.7
716003
2716838
2.7x7670
2718502
933
.711976
712818
.713658
•7X4497
;-7I5335
2.712060
2712902
2.713742
2.714581
2715418
2.712144
2.712986
2713836
2.714665
2715502
2712229
7i3°7<
27i39X°
2714749
2715586
2.712313
2-713i54
2.713994
2.714832
2.715669
2.712397
2713238
2714078
2714916
2-715753
2712481
2713322
2.714162
2.715000
2715836
2.71256 c
2.713406
2.714246
2.715084
2.715920
2.716087
2.716921
2-7I7754
2.718585
2.7194142.
.716170
717004
,717837
718668
•7I9497
2716254
2.717088
2.717920
2718571
2719580
2.716337
2.717171
2.718003
2.718834
.716421
2.717254
2718086
2.718917
2.719663271974;
2.716504
2.717338
.2.718169
2719000
2719828
2.716588
2717421
2718253
2.719083
27; 99
2.716671 2.7x6754
2717504 2.717587
27i8336 2.718419
27i9i65,27i9248
2.719994 2720077
U a
*55
i56
LOGARITHMS.
m-.
2.720159
2.720986
2.721811
2.722634
2.723456
2.720242
2.721068
2.721893
2,722716
2-723538
,2.720325
2.721151
2-1*1975
2.722798
2.723620
2.720407 2.720490
2.721233 2.72131'
2.722058 2.722140
2.722881 2.722963
2.7237022.723784
2.720573
2.721398
2.722222
2.723045
2.723866
2.7206 cc
2.721481
2.722305
2.723127
2.723948
2.720738
2.72!563
2.722387
2.723209
2.724030
2.72082,1
2.721646
2.722469
2.722291
2.724112
2.720903
2.72x728
2.722552
2-7 23374
2.724x94
2.724276
•2.725094
2.725912
2.726727
2.727541
••724358
2.725176
2-7*5993
2.726809
2.727623
2.724440
2.725258
2.726075
2.726890
2.727704
.724522
2.72534°
2.726156
2.726972
2.727785
2.724603
2.72542:
1.726238
2.727053
2.727866
2.724685
2-7255°3
2.726320
2.727134
2.727948
2.724767
2-7255%5
2.726401
2.727216
2.728029
2.724849
2.725667
2.726483
2.727297
2.728110
2.724931
2.725748
2.726564
2.727379
2.728191
2.725013
2-7 2583°
2.726646
2.727420
2.728273
2.728354
2.729165
2.729974
2.730782
2-73158’9
2.728435
2,729246
2-730055
2.730863
2.731669
2.728516
2.729327
2.730136,
2.730944
2-731750
2.728597
2.729408
2.730217
2-73I024
2.731830
2.728678
2.729489
2.730298
2.731105
2<73I911
,728759
2.729570
2'*73°378
2.731186
2.731991
2.72884:
2.729651
2-73°459
2.731266
2.732072
2.728922
2.729732
2.730540
2-73I347
2.732152
2,729003
2.729813
2.730621
2.731428
2-73 2233
2.729084
2.729893
2.730702
2.73x508
2-732313
2-732394
2-733797
2-733999
2.734800
2-735599
2.732474
2-733277
2.734079
2.734880
•2-735979
2-732555
2-73335*
2-734I59
2.734960
2-73575*
2-732635
2-733438
2.734240
2-73504°:
2-735838
2-73271
2-73351
2.734320
2.735120
2-73591*
2.732796
2-73359*
2.73440°
2.735200
73599*
.732876
2-733679
2.73448°
2-735279
2.736078
2.732956
2-733759
2.734560
2-735359
2.736157
2-733037
2-733839
2.734640
2-735439
2.736237
2-733177
2-733919
2.734720
2-735519
2-736317
2.736396
2-737193
2-7379*1
2.73878
2-739572
2.736476
2.737272
2.738067
2.738860
2.739651
2-736556
737352
2.738x46
2-73*339
2-73973°
2-73663,
2-737431
2.738225
2.739018
2.739810
2-736715
2-73 7511
2-73*305
2.739097
2.739889
•736795
•73759°
•738384
•739177
.739968
736874
2.737670
2.738463
2.739256
2.740047
2.736954
2-737749
2-738543
2-739335
2.740126
2.737034
2.737829
2.738622
2.739414
2.740205
2-737113
2.737908
2.738701
2-739493
2.740284
2.740363
2.74x152
2-74I939
2.742725
2-743540
,740442
2.741230
2.742018
2.742804
2.743588
2.740521
2.741309
2.742096
2.742882
2.743666
2-740599
2.741388
2.742175
2.742961
2-743745
2.740678
2.741467
2.742254
2-743039
2.743823
•740757
.741546
•742332
.743x18
.743902
2.740836
2.74x624
2.742411
2.743x96
2.743980
2.740915
2.741703
2.742489
2-743275
2.744058
2-740994
2.741782
2.742568
2-743353
2.744136
2.741073
2.741860
2.742647
2-743431
2.744215
2.744293
2-745075
2-745855
2.746634
2.747412
2-744372
2-74-5 2 53
2-745933
2.7467x2
2.744449
2-745232
;.746oii
2.746790
2.747489 2.747567
2.744528
2-745309
2.746089
2.746868
2.747645
2.744606
2-745387
2.746167
2.746945
2.747722
2.744684
2.745465
2.746245
2.747023
2.747800
2.744762
2-745543
746323
2.747101
2.747878
2.744840
2.745621
2.74640:
2.747179
2-747955
2.744919
2.745699
2-747479
2.747256
2-748033
2.744997
2.745777
2.746556
2-747334
2.748110
2.748188
2.748963
2.7497362.
2.750508
2.751279
2.748266
2.749040
;-7498i4
2.750586
•751356
2-748343
2.749118
2.749891
2-.7C0663
2-7S1433
2.748421 2.748498
2.749195 2.749272
,749968
2.750740
2-7515I°
2.750045
2.750817
2.751587
2.748576
2-749350
2.750123
2.750894
2.751664
2-748653
2.749427
2.750200
2.750971
2.751741
2.748731
2-749504
2.750277
2.75x048
2.751818
2.748808
2,749582
2-750354
2.75x125
2.751895
2.748885
2.749659
2-750431
2.751202
2.751972
2.752048
2.752816
2.753583
2.754348
2.755112
2.752125 2.752202
2.752893 2.752970
2.7536602.753736
2-7544252-754501
2.7551892.755265
2.752279
2-753047
2-753813
2-754578
2.755341
•752356
2-753123
2-753**9
2-754654
2-7554I7
2.752433
2.753200
2.753966
2.754730
2-755494
2.752509
2-753277
2.754042
754807
2.755570
2.752586 2.752663
2-753354 2.75343°
2.754ii9 2.754195
2.754883 2.754960
2-755646 2.755722
2.752740
2.753506
2.754272
2-755035
2.755799
2-755875
••756636
2-757396
2'758i55
2.7589 f2
2.7559512.756027
2.756712 2.756788
2.7574722.757548
2.758230 2.75-8306
•758988 2.759063
2.756103
2.756878
•-757624
-758382
-759139
2.756180
2.756940
2.7577oo
2-758458
2.759214
.756256
.757016
■757773
•758539
.759290
2-756332
2.757092
2-757851
2.758609
2.759366
2.756408
2.757168
2.757927
2.758685
2.759441
2.756484
2.757244
2.758003
2.75876:
2.759517
2.756560
2.757320
2.758079
2.758836
2.75959:
575 2.759668
576 2.760422
577;2.76ii76
578 2.761928
5792-762679
•759743 2.7598 r9
,760498 2.760573
2.761251 2.761326
2.762003 2.762078
2.762754 2.762829
2.759894
2.760649
2.761402
2.762153
2-75997o
2.760724
2.761477
2.762228
2.762904 2.762978
.760045
,760799
.761552
,762303
•763053
2.760121
2.760875
2.761627
2.762378
•763128
2.760196
2.760950
2.761702
2.762453
.763203
2.760272
2.76x025
2.761778
2.762529
760347
2.761101
2.76x853
2.762604
2.7632782.763353
Tabic.
Table.
LOGARITHMS.
2.^67156
2.767878
2.768638
2.769377
2.770115
2.770852
2.771587
2.772322
2-773°55
2.773786
2-7745I7
.77524c
2-775974
2.776701
2.777427
2-778i5:
2.778874
2.779596
2-78o3:
620
621
622
623
624^2.
2.763428
2.764176
2.764923
2.765669
2.766413
2.763503
2.764251
2.764998
2-765743
2.766487
2.767230
2.767972
2.7687 IX
2.76945
2.770189
2.767304
2.768046
2.768786
2.769525
2.770263
2.770926
2.771661
2-772395
2.773128
2.773860
2.770999
'771734
2.772468
2.773201
?-773933
2.774590
2-7753I9
2.776047
2.776774
2.777499
-774663
2-775392
2.776120
2.776846
2-777572
2.778224
2.778947
2.779669
.780389
2.781O37 2.78UO9
2.J8I1H
2.782473
2.783189
2.783964
2.784617
2.781827
2.782544
2.783260
2-783975
2.784689
2--78533<
2.786041
,78675
2.787460
2.788168
2.785401
2.786112
2.786822
2.787531
2.788239
2.788875
2.789581
2.790285
2.790988
2.79169:
2.792392
2.793092
2.793790
2.794488
4.795185
2.795880
2.796574
2.797268
2.797960
,2.79865
63°t2-79934I
631 2.800029
632 2.800717
633:2.801404
634'
-'2.80208c
2.778296
9019
2.779741
2.780461
2.781181
2.788946
2.78965
2.790356
2.791059
2.791,761
2.792462
2.793162
2.793860
2-794558
2-795254
2.795949
2.796644
2-79733'
2.798029
,798720
2.799409
,.800098
.800789
2.801472
2.802158
2.763578
2.764326
2.765072
2.765818
2.766562
2.767379
2.768120
2.768860
•769599
2.770336
2.771073
2.771808
2.772542
2-773274
2.774006
.774736
•775465
2.776193
2.776919
2.777644
2.778368
2.779091
2.779813
2-780533
2.781253
2.781899
2.782616
2-783332
2.784046
2.784760
•785472
.786183
.786893
.787602
.788310
.789016
.789722
.790426
.791129
•79i83
2.792532
2.793231
•79393°
2.794627
2-795324
796019
2.796713
2.797406
2.798098
2.790789
2.799478
2.80016'
2.800854
2.801541
2.802226
•763653
2.764400
2.765147
2.765892
2.766636
2.767453
2.768194
2.768934
2.76967,
2.77041c
2.771146
.771881
2.772615
2.773348
,774079
2.774809
2-775538
2.776265
2.776992
2.77771
2.778441
2-779163
2.779885
2.780605
2.781324
2.781971
2.782688
2.783403
2.7~84ii8
2.78483
•785543
.786254
.786964
•787673
.78838
.78908^/:
.789792
.790496
.79 ! 199
.791901
2.792602
2-7933°i
.794000
2.794697
2-795393
2.796088
2.796782
2.797475
2.798167
2.798858
2-799547
2.800336
2.800923
2.801609
2.802295
2.763727
2.764475
2.765221
2.765966
2.76671
2.771220
2-77I955
2.772688
2.773421
2.774152
2.774882
2.775610
2.776338
2.777064
2.777789
2.778513
2.779236
2-779957 2.
2.780677
2.781396
2.782042
2.782759
2-783475
2.784189
2.784902
2.78561 c
2.786325
2.787°35
2.787744
2.788451
2.789152
2.789863
2.790567
2.791269
2-79I971
2.792672
2-79337
2.794070
2.794767
2.795463
2.796158
2,796852
2-797545
2.798236
2.798927
2.799616
2.800305
2.800992
2.801678
,802363
2.763802 2.763877
2.764550
2.765296
2.766041
2.766785
2.767525
2.768268
2.769008
2.769746
2.770484
2.767601
2.768343
2.769082
2,769820
2-77°557
2.771293
2.772028
2.772762
2-773494
2.774225
2-774955
2-775683
2.776411
2.777237
2.777862
2-778585,
2.779308
1.780029
2.780749
2.781468
2.782114
2.78283:
2.783546
2.784261
1.784974
2.785686
2.786396
2.787106
2.787815
2.788522
2.789228
2-789933
2.790637
2-79I34°
2.792041
2.792742
2-793441
2-794139
2-794836
2.795532
2.796227
.2.796921
2-797614
2-7983°5
2.798996
2.799685
2.8003732.
2.801060
2.801747
2.802432
2.764624
2.7*537°
2.7661
2.766859
2.771367
2.772102
2.772835
2-773567
2.774298
2.7750128
,2-775756
2.776483
2.777269
2-7.77934
2.778658
2.779380
2.780101
2.780821
2.78154b
2.782186
2.782902
2.783618
2.784332
2-785045
2.785757
2.786467
2.787177
2.787885
2.788593
2.789299
2.790003
2.790707
2.791410
2.792111
2.7928x2
2-7935
2,794209
2.794906
2.795602
2.796297
2.796990
2.797683'
2.798374
2.799065
2-799754
-2.800442
2.801129
2.801815
,802500
2.763952
2.764699
2-765445
2,766190
25766933
2.767675
2.768416
2.769156
2.769894
2.77063
2.771440
2.772175
2.772908
2.773640
2-774371
2.775100
2.775829
2-776556
2.777282
2.778006
2.778730
2.779452
2.780173
2.780893
2.781612
2.782258
2.782974
2.783689
2.784403
2.785116
2.785828
2.786538
2.787248
2.787956
2.788663
2.789369
2,790074
2.790778
2.791480
2.79218
2.792882
2-79358-
2-794279
2.794970
2.795671
2.796366
2.797060
2.797752
2.798443
,2.7991
342.
,2.799823
2.800511
2.801 r ~
2.801884
2.802568
98 2.
2.764027
2.764774
2.765520
2.766264
2.767007
2.767749 :
2.768490
2.769230
2.769968
2.770705
2.771514
2.772248
2.772;
2-7737I3
2-774444
2-7 75173
2.775902
2.776629
2-777354
2.778079
2.778802
2.779524
2.780245
2.780965
2.781684
2.782329
2.783046
2.783761
2.784475
2.785187
785899
2.786609
2-7873i9
2.788027
2.788734
2.789440
2-79OI44
2.790848
2-79155°
2.792252
,79295:
2.79365:
2-794349
2-795045
2-79574:
2.796436
2.797129
2.797821
2.798512
,799203
2.799802!
2.800580
2.801267
2.801952
2.802637
2.764101
2.764848
2.76 s-594
2.766338
2.767082
2.767823
2.768564
2.769303
2.770042
2.770778
2.782401
2.783117
2.783832
2.784546
2.7.85259
2.785970
2.786680
2.787390
2.788098
2.788804
2.789510
2.79021 c
2.790918
2.7 91620
2.792322
2.793022
2.793721
2.794418
2-795II5
2-7958i'
2.796505
2.797198
2-797890
.2.798582
2.799272
2.79996c
2.800648
2.801335
2 802021
2.802705I 68
157
Table.
*58
LOGARITHMS.
Table.
lS9
L O G A R I T H M S.
Yxir
w
3
8
2.838849
2.839478
2.840106
2-840733
2.841359
.838912
2-83954I
2.840169
2.840796
2.841422
2-838975
2.839604
2.840232
2.840859
2.841485
2.839038
2.839667
2.840294
2.840921
2.841547
21839101
2.839729
2.840357
2.840984
2.841610
2.839164
2.839792
2.840420
2.841046
2.841672
2.839227
2-839855
2.840482
2.841109
2.841735
2.839289
2.839918
2.840545
2.841172
2.841797
2-839352
2.839981
2.840608
2.841234
2.84186c
2.839415
2.840043
2.840671
2.841297
2.841922
2.841985
2.842609
2-843233
2-843855
2.844477
2.842047
2.84267
2.843295
2.843918
2.844539
.842110
2.842734
2-843357
2.843980
2.84460:
2.842172
2.842796
2.843420
2.84404-2
2.844663
2.84223«
2.842859
2.843482
2.844104
2.844726
2.842297
2.842921
2*843544
2.844166
2.844788
2.842360
2.842983
2.843606
2.844229
2.84485
2.842422
2.843046
2.843669
2.844291
2.844912
2.842484
2.843108
2-843731
2-844353
2.844974
2-842543
2.843170
2-843793
2.844415
2.845036
2.845098
2.845718
2-846337
2.846955
2-847573
2.845160
2.845780
2.846399
2.847017
2.847634
1.845222
2.845842
2.846461
2.847079
2.847696
2.845284
2.845902
2.846523
2.847x41
2.847758
2.845346
2.845966
2.846584
2.847202
2.847819
2.845408
2.846028
2.846646
2.847264
2.847881
:2.84547c
2.846090
2.846708
2.847326
2.847943
2.845532
2.846151
2.846770
2.847388
2.848004
2-845594
2-846213
2.846832
2.847449
2.848066
.845656
2.846275
2.846893
2.847511
2.848127
2.848189
2.848805
2.849419
2.850033
2.850646
2.848251
2.848866
2.849481
2.850095
2.850707
2.848312
2.848928
2.849542
2.850156
2.850769
2.848374
2.848989
2.849604
2.850217
2.850830
2.848435
2.849051
2.849665
2.850279
,.850891
.848497
2.849112
2.849726
2.850340
2.850952
2.848559
2.849174
2.849788
2.850401
2.851014
2.848620
2.849235
2.849849
2.850462
2.851075
1.849296
2.849911
1.850524
!.S5ii36
2.848743
2.849358
2.849972
2.850585
2.851197
2.851258
2.85i87<
2.852480
2.853089
2.853698
2.85x319
2.85193:
2.85254:
2-85315°
2.853759
2.85138
2.851992
2.852602
2.8532x1
2.853820
2.851442
2.852053
2.852663
2.853272
2.853881
2.851503
2.852114
2.852724
2-853333
2.853941
2.851564
2.852175
2.852785
2-853394
2.854002
2.851625
2.852236
2.852846 :
2-853455
2.854063
2.851686
.852297
2.852907
2-853516
2.854124
2.851747
2.852358
2.852968
2.853576
.854184
2.851808
2.852419
2.853029
2-853637
2.854245
2.854306
2.854913
2.855519
2.856124
2.856729
-854367
1.854974
2-855580
2.856185
2.856789
2.854427
; 2-855°34
2.855640
2.856245
2.856850
2.854488
6.85509
2.85570:
2.856306
2.85691c
2-854549
2.855156
2.855761
2.856466
2.856970
2.85461c
2.855216
2.855822
2.85642'
-85763
2.854670
2.855277
2.855882
2.856487
2.857091
2.854731
2-855337
2-855943
2.856548
2.857x5
2.854792
2-85539^
2.856003
2.856608
2.857212
2.854852
2-855459
2.856064
2.856668
2.857272
2-857332
2-857935
2-858537
2.859138
2-859'739
2-857393
2-857995
2-858597
2.859198
2.859798
2-857453
2.858056
2.858657
2.859258
2.859858
2-8575 „
2.8 58116
2.858718
2.859318
2.859918
2-857574
2.858176
2.858778
2-859378
2.859978
2.860338
2.860937
2.861534
2.862131
2.862727
2.860398
2.860996
2.861594
2.86219
2.86278'
2.860458
2.861056
2.861654
2.86225:
2.862847
2.857634
2.858236
2.858838
2.859438
2.860038
2.857694
2.858296
2.858898
2.859499
2.860098
2-857754
2-858357
2.858958
2-85955!
2.860158
2.857815
2.85841
2.859018
2.859619
2.860218
2-857875
.2.858477
2.859078
2.859679
2.860278
2.860518
2.861116
2.861714
2.86231c
2.862906
2.860578
2.861176
2.861773
2.862370
2.862966
2.860637
2.861236
2.861833
2.86243c
2.863025
2.860697
2.861295
2.861893
2.862489
2.863085
2.860757
2-861355
2.861952
2.862549
2.863144
2.860817
2.861415
1.86201
2.862608
2.863204
2.860877
2.861475
2.862072
2.862668
2.863263
2.863323
2-863917
2.864511
2.865104
2.865696
2.863382
2.863977
2.864570
2.865163
2.865755
2.863442
2.864036
2.864630
2.865222
2.863501
2.864096
2.864689
2.865282
2.865814 2.865873
2.863561
2.864155
2.864748
2.865341
2-865933
'2.86362c
2.864214
2.864808
2.865406
2.865992
2.863681
1.864274
2.864867
2.865459
2.86605
2.863739
2-864333
2.864926
2.865518
.866:
2.863798 2.863858
2.864392 2.864452
2.864985 2.865045
2.865578 2.865637
2.866x69 2.866228
2.866287
2.866878
2.867467
2.868056
7392.868644
2.866346
2.866937
2.867526
2.868115
2.868703
.866405
2.866996
2.867585
2.868174
2.868762
2.866465
2.867055
2.867644
2.868233
2.868821
2.866524 2.866583
2.867114 2.867173
2.867703
2.868292
2.868879
.86776:
2.868350
2.8689' '
7402.869232
741 2.869818
742 2.870404
743 2.870989
744 2.87157,
2.869290
2.869877
2.870462
2.871047
2.86934-9
2.869935
2.870521
2.871106
2.871690
2.869408
2.869994
2.870579
2.871164
2.871748
2.869466
,2.870053
1.870638
2.871223
2.871806
1.866642
2.867232
2.867821
2.868409
2.868997
2.86670
■2.867291
2.86788
2.868468
2.869056
2.866760
2^8673.50
2.867030
2.868527
2.869114
2.866819
2.867409
2.867997
2,868586
-869173
2.869525 2.869584
2.870m 2.870170
2.870696 2.870755
2.871281 2.871339
869642
2.870228
2.87081.3
2.871398
86976
,870287
2.870872
2.871456
2.8 71865 2.871903!871981.2.-87 ?Q4'?
2.869760
2.870345
2.870930
2.871515
2,872098
i6o
LOGARITHMS.
8
"DuT.',
745 2.872x56,2.872215
746 2.8727392.872797
747 2.87332:
748 2.873902
74912.874482
7'5°|2'
75112-
752;2.
753|2-
7542.
.875061
.875640
.876218
.876795
■877374
2.873379
2.873960
2.874540
2.872273
2.872855
2.873437
2.874018
2.874598
2-87233
2.872913
2.873495
2.874076
2.874656
2.872389 2.872448
2.872972 2.873030
2.8735532.873611
2.8741342.874192
2.874714:2.874772
2.872506:2.872564
2.873088 2.873146
2.87366912.873727
2.874250 2.874308
2.874830 2.874887
2.875119
2.875698
2.876276
2.876853
2.877429
2.875177
2-875756
2-876333
2.876910
2.877486
2.875235
2.875813
2.876391
2.876968
2.877544
2-875293
2.875871
2.876449
2.877026
2.877603
2.875351
2.875929
2.876506
2.877083
2.877659
2.875409
2.874987
2.876564
2.87714
2.877717
2.872622!
2.873204
2.873785
2.874366
2.874945
2.875466
2.876044
2.876622
2.877198
2.877774
2.875524
2.876102
2.876680
2.877256
2.877832
2.87268
.873262
2*873843'
2.874424
2.875003
.875582
.876160
.876737
.877314
.877889
755!2-
75^ :
757|2-
758 2'
759 2'
■877943
.878522
.879096
.879669
,880242
2.878004
2.878579
2.8 79153
2.879726
2.880299
2.878062
2.878637
2.879211
2.879784
2.880356
2.878119
2.878694
2.879268
2.879841
2.880413
2.878177
2.878751
2.879325
2.079898
2.880471
2.878234
2.S78809
2.879383
2.879956
2.880528
2.878292
2.878866
2.879440
2.880010
2.880585
.878349
2.878922
2.879497
2.880070
2.880642
2.87840*
2.87898:
2>879555
2.880127
2.880699
.878464
.879038
.879612
.880185
.880756
760:2.
76
762
763
764
.880814
.881385
.881955
,882524
,883093
2.880871
2.881442
2.882012
2.88258:
2.&83150
2.880928
2.881499
2.882069
2.882638
2.883207
.880985
.881556
2.882126
2.882695
2.883264
2.881042
" 613
2.882183
2.882752
2.883321
2.881099
2.881670
2.682240
2.882809
2.883377
2.881156
2.881727
2.882297
2.882866
2.883434
2.88121^
2.881784
.882354
.882923
2.883491
!.881270
:.881841
:.88241
2.882980
.883548
.881328
.881898
.882408
.883036
.883605
2.883661
2.884229
2.884795
2.885361
2.885926
2.883718
2.884285
2.884852
2.88541 ^
2.885983
2.883775
2.884342
2.884909
2.885474
2.886039
2.883832
2.884399
2.884965
2-885531
2.886096
.883889
2.884455
2.885022
2.885587
2.886152
2.883945
2.884514
2.885078
2.885644
2.886209
2.884002
.884569
2,885155 :
2.885700
2.886265
2.884059
2.884625
2.885191
2-885757
.884115
2.884682
:.88 5248
2.885813
2.886321 2.886378
2.884172
.884739
2-885305
2.885C70
2.886434
.886490
2.887054
2.887617
2.888179
2.888741
2.886547
2.887111
2.887675
2.888236
2.888797
2.886603
2.887167
2.887730
2.888292
2.888853
2.886660
2.887223
2.887786
2.888909
2.886716
2.887280
2.887842
2.888404
2.88,8965
'•886773
2.887336
2.887898
2.888460
2.88902
2.886829
2.887392
2.887955
2.888516
2.889077
2.886885
2.887448
2.88801
.888573
2.889133
.88694:
2.887505
.888067
.888629
.889x90
;.886998
2.887561
:.888123
2.888685
889246
2.889302
2.889862
2.890421
2.890980
2.891537
2.889358
2.889918
2.890477
2.89105 5
•89i593
2.889414
2.889974
2-890533
2.891091
2.891649
2.889470
2.890030
2.890589
2.891147
2.891705
2.889526
2.890086
2.890644
11203
2.891760
2.89014:
2.890700
2.891259
.891816
2.889638
2.890197
2-890755
2.891314
2.891872
,889694
2.890253
.890812
2-89i37°
2.891927
889750
2.890309
2.890868
2.891426
891983
889806
890365
2.890924
.89148
.892039
2.892095
2.892651
2.893207
2.893762
2.894316
2.892150
2.892707
2.893262
2.893717
2.894371
2.892206
2.892762
2.893318
2893873
2.894427
VS92262
2.892818
2-893373
2.893928
2.894482
2.892317
2.892873
2.893429
2.893984
2.894538
•892373
2.892929
2.893484
2.894039
2.894593
2.892428
.892985
■89354o
2.894094
:.894648
.892484
.895040
2-893595
2.894150
2.894704
2.89254.0
2.893096
2.89365
2.894205
2.894759
2.892595
2.893i5i
2.893706
2.894261
2.894814
2.894870
2.895422
2.895975
2.896526
2.897077
2.894925
2.895478
2.896030
2.896581
2.897132
2.894980
2-895533
2.896085
2.896636
2.897187
2.895036
2.895588
2.896140
2.896691
2.897242
2.895091
2.895643
2.896195
2.896747
2.897297
2.895146
2.895699
.896251
2.896802
2-897352
2.895201
2-895754
2.896306
2,896857
2.897407
2.895257
2.893809
2.896361
2.896912
2.897462
2-895312
2.895864
2.896416
2.896967
2.897517
2.895367
2.895919
2.896471
2.897022
2.897572
2.897627
2.898176
2.898725
2.899273
2.899820
2.897682
2.898231
2.898780
2.899328
2.899875
2.897737 2.S97792
2.898286 2.898341
2.89883512.898890
2-899383 2-899437
2.899930 2.899985
2.897847
2.898396
.898944
2.899492
.900039
2.897902
2.898451
2.898999
2.899547
2.900094
2.897957 2.898012
2.898506^.898561
2.899054*2.899109
2.8996o2i2.899656
2.900149 2.900203
2.898067
.898615
2.899164
2.899711
2.900258
.*98
.898670
.899218
.899766
.900312
795 2.900367 2.900422
796 2.900913 2.900968
797 2.901458:2.901513
798.2.902003 2.902057
799t2.9J2547 2.902601;
2.900476|2.900531 2.900586
2.901022 2.901077 2.90x131
2.90156712.901622 2.96x676 2.
2.902112 2.902166 2.902220
2.902655 2.90271012.902764
2.900640
:.9oii86
.901731
.902275
2.902818
2.900695
2.901240
2.901785
2.902329
x.900749
,.901295
3.901840
2.902384
.902873 2.902927
2.900804
.2901349
2.901894
,902438
,90298:
.900858
.901404
.901948
.902492
■903036
N° 184.
Table
Table.
LOGARITHMS,
I
2.903090
2.903632
2.904174
2.904715
2.905256
2.903144
2.903687
2.904228
2.904770
2.90531 o
2.903x08 2.9032 n
2.90374! 2.903795
2.904283 2.904337
2.9048242.904878
2.905364J2.905418
2.9o33°7
2.903849
2.904391
2.904932
2.905472
2.903361
2.9o39°3
2.904445
2.904986
2.905526
2.9034x6
2-9°3958
2.904499
2.905040
2.905580
.903470
2.904012
2.904553
,905094
2.905634
2.903524
2.904066
2.904607
2,9°3578
2.904120
2.904661
t.905148 2.905202
1.905688^.905742
2.905796
2-9o6335
2.006873
2.907411
2.907948
2.905850
2.906389
2.906927
2.907465
2.908002
2.9059042.905958
2.906443
.90698
2.907519
2.908056
2.906497
2.907035
2-9°7573
2.908109
2.906012
2-9°6550
2.907089
2.907626
2.908163
2.906065
2.906604
2.907142
2.907680
2.908217
1.906119
2.906658
.907196
2.907734
1.908271
2.906173
2.9067x2
2.907250
2.907787
2.908324
2.906227
2.906766
2.9°7304
2.907841
2.908378
2.906281
2.906820
2>9°7358
2.907895
2.90843
2.908485
2.909021
2.909556
2.910090
2.910624
2.908539
2.909074
.909609
2.910144
2.910678
2.908592
2.909128
2.909663
2.910197
2.9 x 0731
2.908646
2.90918
2.909716
2.91025
2.910784
2.908699
2.909235
2.909770
2.910304
2.910838
2.908753
2.909288
2.900823
2.910358
2.91089X
.908807
2.909342
2.909877
2.9xo4ir
2.910944
2.908860
2*9°9395
2-90993°
2.910464
2.910998
2.908914
2-9°9449
2.909984
2.910518
2.911051
2.908967
2.909502
2.910037
2-9io57i
2.911104
2.911158
2.911690
.912222
2-9I2753
2.913284
2.911211
2.9XX743
2.912275
2.912806
2-9I3337
2.911264
2.9 xx 797
2.912328
.912859
■9I3390
2-9II3I7
2.911850
2.91238
2.9x2912
2,9I3443
2-9II37I
2.911903
2.912435
2.912966
2.9x3496
2.911424
2.911956
2.912488
2.913019
2-9I3549
.911477
2.912009
2-9i254i
2.913072
2.913602
2.91153c
2.912063
2.912594
2.9x3x25
2.9X3655
2-911584
2.9x2
2.912647
2.913178
.913708
2.911637
.9x2169
2.912700
2.913 231
2.9x3761
.913814
•914343
2.914872
2.915400
2.915927
2.9x3867
2.9x4396
2.914925
2-9I5453
,915980
2.91392a:
2.914449
2.9x4977
2.915505
2.9x6033
2.9I3973
2.914502
2.9i5o3°
2-915558
1^916085
2.914026
2"9I4555
2.915083
2.915611
2.916138
2.914079
2.914608
2.915x36
2.915664
2.91619:
2.914x31
2.914660
2.9x51:-
2.915716
2.9x6243
2.914184
2"9I47I3
2.915241
2.9x5769
2.916296
2.914237
2.914766
2.915294
2.915822
2.916349
2.914290
2.914819
2.9i5347
2.915874
2.916401
2.916454;
2.916980
2.917505
2.918030
2.9x8554
.916507
2.9x7033
2-917558
2.918083
2.918607
2.916559
2.917085
2.9176 id
2.9x8135
2.918659
2.9166
2.917138
2.917663
2.918188
2.918712
2.916664
2.917190
2.917715
2.918240
.918764
2.916717
2.917243
2.917768
2.918292
2.918816
2.916770
2.9x7295
2.917820
•9i8345
2.918869
1.9168
2.917348
2.9x7873
2.918397
2.918921
2.916875
2.917400
.917925
2.918450
2.9x8973
2.916927
2.9I745.
2.9x797]
2.918502
2.919026
2.919078
2.919601
2.920123
2.920645
2.921166
2.919130
2.9x9653
2.920175
2.920697
2.921218
2.919183
2.919705
2.920228
2.920749
2.921270:
.919235
.919758
.920280
.920801
.921322
.919287
.919810
.920332
.920853
.92x374
.919340
.919862
.920384
.920906
.921426
.919392
.919914
.920436
.920958
.921478
2.9x9444
2.919967
2.920489
2.921010
2.921530
2.919496
2.920019
2.920545
2.921062
.921582
2.9x9549
2.920071
2.920593
2.921114
2.921634
.921686
2.922206
2.922725
2.923244
2.923762
2.921738
2.922258
2.922777
2.923296
2.923814
2.921790
2.922310
.922829
2.923348
2.923865
.921842
.922362
.922881
.923399
.923917
.921894
.922414 2.
.922933
•92345I
.923969
.921946
.922466
.922985
•923503
.924021
.921998
.922518
•923037
.923555
.924072
2.9220502.922102
2.9225702.922622
2.923088
2.923607
2.924124
2.923x40
2.923658
2.924176
2.922154
2.922674
2.923192
2.9237x0
2.924228
2.924279
,924796
2.925312
2.925828
.926342
2.92433
2.924848
2.925364
2.925879
2.926394
2.924383
2.924899
2.925415
2.9259302.
2.926445
2.924434
2.924951
2.925467
•925982
2.926497
2.924486
2.925002
2.925518
2.926034
2.926548
2.924538
2.925054
2.925570
2.926085
2.926600
2.924589
.925106
2.925621
2.926x37
2.926951
2.924641
2.925x57
2.925673
2.926188
2.926702
2.924693
2.925209
2.925724
2.926230
2.926754
2.924744
2.925260
2.925776
2.926291
2.926805
2.926857
2.927370
2.927883
2.928396
2.928908
2.926908
2.927422
2.927935
2.928447
2.928959
2.926959
2-927473
2.927986
2.928498
2.929010
.92701
.927524
.928037
.928549
.92906:
2.927062
2.927576
2.928088
2.928601
2.929112
2.927114
2.927627
2.928140
2.92865:
2.929163
.927165
2.927678
2.928191
•928703
2.929214
2.927216
2.92773°
2.928242
2.928754
2.929266
2.927268
2.927781
2.928293
2.928805
2.929317
2.927319
2.927832
2.928345
2.9288 56
2.929368
2.929419
2.929930
3.930440
2.930949
2.929470
2.929981
2.930491
2.931000
2-93 t458'2-93I5oq
Vox,. X. Part L
2.929521
2.930032
2.930540
2.9310C1
•932560
.929572
.930083
•93°592
.931102
2.929623
2.930134
2.930643
2-93II53
2.931661
2.929674
2.930x85
2.930694
2.931205
2-93x7:12
2.929725
2.930236
2.930745
■931254
■93 2763
2.929776
2.930287
2.930796
2-9313°5
2.93x814
2.929827
2.930338
1.930847
2.931356
2.931864
2.929878
2.930389
2.930898
2.931407
2.93 x915
i6E
X
162
LOGARITHMS.
Table.
2.931966
2.932474
2.932981
2-933487
2-93399.
2.934498
2.935003
2-93SS°7
2.936011
2-936514
2.937016
2-9375i8
2.938019
2.938520
2.939020
2-9395I9
2.940018
2.940516
2.941014
2-94I5
2.932017
2.932524
2-933033
2-933538
2.934044
2-934549
2-935054
2.935558
2.936061
2.936564
2.937066
2.937568
2.938069
2-93857o
2.939070
2-939569
2.940068
2.940566
2.94x064
2-94I56
2.942008
2.942504
2.943000
2.943494
2.943989
2.942058
2-942554
2.943049
2-943544
2.944038
2.944483
2.944976
2.945469
2.945961
2.946452
2.946943
2-947434
2.947924
2.948413
2.948902
2.949390
2.949078
2-950365
2.950859
2-95I337
2.95x823
2.952328
2.952792
„ 2.953276
899 2-95376o
2.954242
2.954725
2.955206
2.955688
2.956168
2.956649
2.957128
2.957607
2.958086
2-958564
2.932068
2-932575
2.933082
2.933588
2.934094
2-934599
2.935104
2.935608
2.936111
2.936614
2.937x16
2.937618
2.938119
2.938620
.939x20
2.939619
2.940118
2.940616
2.941114
2.941611
2-944532
2.945025
2.9455x8
2.946010
2.94650:
2.946992
2.947483
2-947973
2.948462
2.948951
2.949439
2.949926
2.950413
2.950900
2.951386
2.951872
2-952356
2.952841
2-953325
2-953808,
2.932118
2.932626
2-933x33
2-933639
2.934x45
2.934650
2-935x54
2-935658
2.936162
2.936664
2.937167
2.937668
2-938169
2.938670
2.939x70
.939669
2.940168
2.940666
2.941163
2.941660
2.942107
2.942603
2.943099
2-943593
2.944088
2.942157
2.942653
2.943148
2-943643
2.944137
2.944581
2.945074
2-945567
2.946059
.946550
2.947041
2-947532
2.94802:
2.948 511
2.948999
2.949488
2-949975
2.950462
2.950946
2.95x435
2.951920
2.952405
2.952889
2-953373
2-953856
2.954291 2.954339
2-954773,2-954811
2-9552552-955303
2-9557362.955784
2.956216 2.956264
2.9566972.956744
2.957x762.957224
2-957655,2-957707
2.958134 2.958181
2.958612 2.958659
3
2.932x69
2.932677
2-933183
2.933690
2-93 4195
2.934700
2-935205
2-935709
2.936212
2,936715
2.937217
2.937718
2.938219
2.938720
2.939220
2.939719
2.940218
2.940716
2.941213
2.941710
2.942206
2.942702
2.943198
2.943692
2.944186
2.944631
2.945124
2.945616
2.946108
2.946600
2.947090
2.947581
2.948070
2.94856c
2.949048
2-949539
2.950023
2.95051
2.950997
2-95x483
2.951969
2-952453
2.952938
2.95342:
2-953905
2-954387
2.954869
2-955351
2-955832
2.956312
2.956792
2.957272
2-95775x
2.958229
2-958?1
2.932220
2.932727
2-933234
2-933740
2.934246
2-934751
2-935255
2-935759
2.936262
2.936765
2.937267
2.937769
2.93,8269
2.938770
2.939270
2.939769
2.940267
2.940765
2.941263
2.941760
2.942256
2.942752
2.943247
2-943742
2.944236
2.944690
2.945x73
2.945665
2.946157
2.946649
2.947139
2.947630
2.948119
2.948608
2.949097
2.949585
2-95O073
2.950560
2.951047
2-95x532
2.952017
2.952502
2.952986:
2-95347-0
2-953953
2-954435
2.954918
2-955399
2.955880
2.956360
2.956840
2.957320
2-957799
2.958277
958755
12.93227:
2.932778
2-933285
2-933791
2.934296
2.934801
2-935306
2.935809
2.936313
2.936815
2-93 73x 7
2.937819
2.938319
2.938820
2-9393 x9
2.939819
2.9403x7
2.940815
2-94I3I3
2.941809
2.942300
2.942801
2.942397
2-943791
2.944285
2.944729
2.945222
2-945715
12.946207
2.946698
2-947 _
2.947679
2.948168
2.948657
2.949146
2-949633
2.950121
2.950608
2.951095
2.95x580
2.952066
2-952550
2-953034
2-9535i8
2.954001
2.954484
2.954966
2-95544'
2.955928
2.956409
2.957368
2.957847
2.958325
2.958803
2.932321
2.932829
2-933335
2-933841
2-934347
2.934852
2-935356
2.935860
2.936363
2.936865
2-937367
2.937869
2.938370
2.938870
2.939369
2.939868
2.940366
2.940865
2.941362
2.941859
2-942355
2.942851
2.943346
2.94384:
2-944335
2.944779
2.945272
2.945764
2.946256
2.946747
2.947238
2.947728
2.948217
2.948700
2.949195
2.949683
2.950170
2.950657
2-95x *43
2.951629
2.952114
2.952699
2.953083
2.953566
2.954049
2-954532
2.955014
2-955495
2-955976
2-956457
2.956936
2.957416
2.957894
2-9J8373
2.958850
2.932372
2.932879
2.933386
2.933892
2-934397
2.934902
2.935406
2.935910
2.936413
2.936916
2.937418
2-937919
2.938420
2.938920
2.939419
2.939918
2.940417
2.940915
2.941412
2.941909
2.942405
2.942900
2-943397
2.943890
2.944384
2.944828
2.945321
2-945813
2.946305
2.946796
2.947287
2.947777
2.948266
2-948755
2.949244
2.949731
2.950219
2.950705
2.951192
2.951677
2.952163
2.952647
2-953 *3
2.953615
2.954098
2.954580
2.955062
2-955543
2.9 56024
2.956505
2.956984
2.957462
2.957942
2.958420
2.958898I
8
2.932423
2.932930
2-933437
2-933943
2.934448
2-934953
2-935457
2.935960
2-936463
2.936969
2.937468
2.937969
2.938470
■938970
-939469
2.939968
2.940467
2.940964
2.941462
2.941958
2.944877
2-94537°
2.945863
2.946354
2.946845
2-947336
2.947826
2-9483i5
2.948804
2.949292
2.949780
2.950267
2-950754
2.951240
2.951726
2.952211
2.952696
2.953180
2-953663
2.954246
2.954628
2.Q C C I 10
2-955591
2.956072
2-9S6S53
2-957032
2-9575x
2.957990
2.958468
2-958946
Diff.
•942454
.942950
•944445
•943939
•944433
2.944927
t.945419
t.945911
>.946403
>.946894
2-947385
2.647875
2.948364
2.948853
2.949341
2.949829
2.950316
2.650803
2.951289
2.95x774
2.952259
2.952744
2.953228
2.953.711
2.954194
2.954677
2-955i85
2.955640
2.956120
2.95660
2.957080
2-957559
2.01:8038
2.958516
2-958994
Table.
LOGA RITHMS.
2.968483
2.968950
2.969416
2.969882
2.970347
2.959041
2.959518
2-959995
2.9604,7
2.960946
2.959089
2.959566
2.960042
2.960518
2.960994
2.961421
2.961895
2.962369
2.962843
2-963315
2.963788
2.964260
2.96473
2.965202
2.965672
2.966142
2.966611
2.967080
2.967548
2.968016
2.966189
2.966658
2.967127
2.967595
2.968062
2.970812
2.971276
2.971740
2.972203
2.972666
2.973128
2-973590
2-975°51
2-9745
2.974972
2-975432
2,97589c
2.97635c
2.976808
2.977266
2.977724
2.978180
2.978637
2.979093
2.979548
2.980003
2.980458
2.980912
2.981365
2.981819
2-961468
2.961943
2.962417
2.962890
2.963363
2.961516
2.961990
2.962464
2.962927
2.963410
2-963835
2.964307
2.964778
2.965249
2.965719
2.963882
2-964354
2.964825
2.965296
2.965766
2.966236
2.966705
2.967173
2.967642
2.968107
2.968530
2.968996
.969462
.969928
2-97°393
2.968576
2.969042
2.969509
2.969975
2-970440
2.970858
2.971322
2.971786
2.972249
■9727
2.973174
2.973636
2.974097
2-974558
2-975018
1*975478
-975937
1.976396
'•976854
-977312
.977769
.978226
.978683
•979I38
•979594
.980049
.980503
.980957
.981411
,981864
2.982271 :
2.982723 2.
2-983I75 2.,
2.983626 2,1
2.984077 2.
.982316
.982769
.983220
.983671
•984122
2.959237
2.959614
2.960090
2.960566
2.96104
2.966283
2.966752
2.967220
2.967688
2.968156
2.968623
2.969090
2.969556
2.970031
2.970486
,970904
2.97i369
2.971832
2.972295
2.972758
2-973220
2.973682
2-974343
2.974604
2-975064
2-975524
2-975983
2.976442
2.976900
2-977358
2.977815
2.978272
2.978728
2.979184
2-979639
2.980094
2.980549
2.981003
2.981456
2.981909
2.982362
2.982814
2.983265
2.983716
2.984167
2.959184
2.959661
2.960138
2.960613
2.961089
2.96156;
2.96203!
2.96251:
2.962985
2-963457
2.963929
2.964401
2.964872
2-965343
2.965813
2.97095
2.971415
2.971879
2.972342
2.972804
2.973260
2.973728
2.974189
2.97465c
2.975110
2-97557°
2.976029
2,976487
2.976940
2.977403
2.977861
2.978317
2.978774
2.979230
2.97968
2^80140
2.980594
2.981048
2.981501
.981954
.982407
2.982859
2.983310
2.983762
2.95923
2.959709
2.960185
2.960661
2.961136
2.96161
2.962085
2.962559
2.963032
2.963504
2.963977
2.964448
2.964919
2.965390
2.965860
2.966329
2.966798
2.967267
2-967735
2.968203
2.96867;
2.969136
2.969602
2.970068
2-970533
2.970997
2.971461
2.971925
2.972388
2.97285
2-9733I3
2-973774
2-974235
2.974696
2-975I56
2.975616
2.976075
2-97653^
2.97699
2.977449
2.976906
2.978363
2.978819
2.979275
2-97973°
2.980185 2.98023
2.980640
2.981003
2.981547
2.982000
2.982452
2.982904
2-983356
2.983807
2.984212 2.984257
I
2.959280
2.959757
2.960233
2.960708
2.961184
2.961658
2.962132
2.962606
2.963079
2.96S552
2.964024
2.964495
2.964966
2.965437
2.965907
2.966376
2.966845
2.967314
2.967782
2.968249
2.968716
2.969183
2.969649
2.970114
2.970579
2.968763
2.969229
2.969695
2.970161
2.970626
2.971044
2.971508
2.971971
•972434
2.972897
2-973359
2.97382c
2.97428
2.974742
2.975202
2-975661
976121
2.976579
2-97 7°3 7
■977495
2.977952
2.978409
2.978865
2.979321
2.979776
2.980685
2.981139
2.98x592
2.982045
2.982497
2.982949
2.983401
2.983852
98431
2.959328
2.959804
2.960280
2.960756
2.961231
2.961706
2.962180
2.962653
2.963126
2.963599
2.964071
2.964542
2.965013
2.965484
2.965954
2.966423
2.966892
2-967361
2.967829
2.968 296
.971090
2.971554
2.972018
2.972480
2-972945
2-9734°5
.973866
■974327
2.974788
2.975248
■975707
2.976166
2.976625
2.977083
2-977541
2.977998
2.978454
2.97891
2.979366
2.979821
2.980276
2.980730
2.981184
2.981637
2.982090
2.982543
2.982994
2.983446
.983897
2-9593 75
2.959852
2.960328
2.960804
2.961279
2.961753
2.962227
2.962701
2-959423
2.959900
2.960376
2.960851
2.961326
2.961801
2.962275
2.962748
2.963174 2.963221
2.963646 2.963693
2.964118
2.964590
2.965060
2-965532
2.966001
2.966470
2.966930
2.967408
2.967875
2.968343
2.969276
.969742
2.970207
2.970672
2.971137
2.971600
2.972064
2.972527
2.972989
2-97345
2-9739I3
2-974373
-974834
2.975294
2-975753
2.976212
2.97667
2.977129
2.977586
2.978043
2.97850c
2.978956:
2-979412
2.979867
2.980372
2.980776
.981229
.981683
2.982135
2.982588
2.983040
2.98349!
.983942
2.964165
2.964637
2.965108
2-965578
2.966048
2.96651
2.966986
2.967454
2.967922
2.968389
2.968856
2.969323
2.969788
2.970254
2.970719
2.971183
2-971647
2.9721 ic
2-972573
2-973°35
2-973497
2-973959
2.974420
2.974880
2-97534°
2-975799
2.976258
976717
2-977I75
2.977632
2.^78089
2.978546
2.979002
2-979457
2.979912
2.980367
2.980821
2.981275
2.981728
2.98218
2-95947
2-959947
2.960423
2,960899
2.961374
2.961848
2.962322
2.962795
2.963268
2.96374
2.9642*12
2.964684
2-965255
2.965625
2.966095
2.966564
2.967033
2.967501
2.967969
2.968436
2.968903
2.969369
2-969835
2.970300
2.970765
2.971224
2.971693
2.972156
2.972619
2.973082
■973543
2.974005
2.974466
2.974926
2-975386
2.975845;
2-976304
2.976762
2.977220
2.977678
2^978135
2.978591
2-979°47
2-9795P3
2.979958
2.982633
2.983085
2.983536
2.983987
2-984347 2-9843922-984437
2.980412
2.980867
2.981320
2.981773
2.982226
2.982678
2.983130
2.983581
2.984032
2.984482
X 2
16.3
364
LOGARITHMS.
3
_L
2.984527
2.984977
2.985426
2.985875
2.986324
2.984572
2.985022
2.9% S411
2.985920
2.986369
2.984617
2.985067
2.985516
2.985965
2.986413
2.984662
2.985x12
2.985561
2.986010
2.986458
2.984707
2-985I57
2.985606
2.986055
2.986503
2.984752
2.985202
2.985651
2.986x00
2.986548
2.984797
2.985247
2.985696
2.986144
2.986593
2.986772
2.987219
2.987666
2.988113
2.988559
2.986816
2.987264
2.987711
2.988157
2.988603
2.986861
2.987309
2.987756
2.988202
2.988648
2.986906
2-987353
2.987800
2.988247
2.988693
2.986951
2.987398
2.987845
2.988291
2.988737
2.986995
2.987443
2.987890
2.988336
2.988782
2.987040
2.987487
2.987934
2.988381
2.988826
2.987085
2.987532
2.987979
2.988425
2.988871
2.989005
2.989450
2.989895
2.990339
2.990783
2.989049
2.989494
2.989939
2.990383
2.990827
2.989094
2-989539
2-989983
2.990428
2.99087
2.989138
2.989583
2.990028
2.990472
2.990916
2.989183
2.989628
2.990072
2.990516
2.990960
2.989227
2.989672
2.990117
2.990561
2.991004
2.989272
2-9897i7
2.990x61
2.990605
2.991049
2.989316
2.989761
2.990206
2.990650
2.991093
2.991226
2.991669
2.992111
2-992553
2-992995
2.99^270
2.99X7I3
2.992156
2-992598
2-993°39
2-99I757
2.992200
2.992642
2-993o83
2-99I359
2.991802
2.992244
2.992686
2.993127
2.991403
2.991846
2.992288
2-99.273°
2-9931?2
2.991448
2.991890
2-992333
2.992774
2:993216
2.991492
2.991934
2-992377
2.992818
2.993260
2.9848422.984887
2.9852922.985337
2.985741
2.986189
2.986637
2-987i3°
2-987577
2.988024
2.988470
2.988915
2.98936
2.989806
2.990250
2.990694
2.99x137
2.991536
2.991979
2.992421
2.992863
2-9933°4
2.985786
2.986234
2.986682
2.984932
2.985382
2.98583c
2.986279
2.986727
2.987174
2.987622
2.988068
2.988514
2.988961
2.989405
2.98985c
2.990294
2.990738
2.991182
2.991580
2.992023
2.992465
2.992907
2.993348
2.991625
2.992067
2.992509
2.992951
2.993392
2.993436
2.993877
2.994317
2-994757
2.995196
2.993480
2.993921
2.994361
2.994801
2.995240
2-993524
2-993965
2.994405
2.994845
2.995284
2.993568
2.994009
2.994449
2.994889
2.995328
2.993613
2-994°53
2.994493
2-994933
2-995372
2.993657
2.994097
2-994537
2.994977
2.995416
2-993 7°1
2.994141
2.994581
2.995021
2.995460
2-993745
2.994185
2.994625
2.995064
2-9955°4
2.993789
2.994229
2.994669
2.995108
2-995547
2-993835
2-994273
2.994713
2-995I52
2-995591
2.995635
2.996074
2.996512
2.996949
2.997386
2.995679
2.996117
2-996555
2.996993
2.997430
2-995723
2.996161
2.996599 2.
2.997037
2.997474
2.995767
2.996205
1.996643
2.997080
2-9975I7
2.995811
2.996249
2.996687
2.997124
2.997561
2-995854
2.996293
2.006720
2.997168
2.997605
2.995898
2.996336
2.996774:
2.997212:
2.997648
2.995942
2.996380:
2.996818
2.997255
2.997692
2.995986
2.996424
2.996862
2.997299
2-997736
2.996030
2.996468
2.996905
2-997343
2.997779
995 2.997823
996 2.998259
997 2-998695
998.2.999130
999 2-999565
2.997867
2.998303
2.998736
2.999174
■999609
2.997910
2.998346
2.998782
2.999218
999652
2-997954
2.998390
2.998826
2.999261
2.999696
2.997998
2.998434
2.998869
2.999305
2.998041
2.998477
2.998913
2.999348
.99973912.999783
2.99808 5
2.998521
2.998956
2.999392
2.999826
2.998x28
2.998564
2.999000
2-999435
2.999870
2.998172
2.998608
2.999043
2.999478
2-999913
2.998216
2.998652
2.999087
2.999522
2-999957_
A
Table,
A Logarithmic Canon, or Table of Artificial Sines and Tangents ; the Radius 10,000,000.
29 ?•
6.4637261
6.7647561
6.9408473
7.0657860
7.1626960
7.667S445
7-694I733
7.7189966
7-7424775
7-7647537
7.7859427
7.8061458
7.8254507
7-8439338
7.8616623
Sine | Sine Comp.
o Degree
0.0000000110.0000000
7.2418771
7.3088239
7.3668157
7.4179681
7-4637255
7.5051181
7.5429065
7.5776684
7.6098530
7.6398160
7.8786953
7.8960854
7.9108793
.9261190
7.9408419
7.9550819
7.9688698
7.9822334
7.9951980
8.0077867
8.0200207
8.0319195
8.0435009
8.0547814
8.0657763
8.0764997
8.0869646
8.0971832
8.1071669
8.1169262
8.1264710
8.1358104
8-I449532
8-i539°75
8.1626808
8.1712804
8.1797129
8.1879848
8.1961020
8.2040703
8.2118949
8.2195811
8-2271335
8.2345568
8-2418553
9-9999999
9.9999999
9.9999998
9.9999997
9-9999995
9.9999993
9.999999
9.9999988
9.9999985
9.9999982
9.9999978
9.9999974
9.9999969
9.9999964
9-9999959
9-9999953
9.9999947
9-999994°
9-9999934
9.9999927
9.9999919
9-999991
9.9999903
9.9999894
9.9999885
9.9999876
9.9999866
9.9999856
9.9999845
9-9999835
9.9999823
9-9999812
9.9999800
9.9999788
9-9999775
9.9999762
9.9999748
9-9999735
9.9999721
9.9999706
9.9999691
9.9999676
9.9999660
9.9999644
9.9999628
9.9999611
9.9999594
9-9999577
9-9999559
9.9999541
9.9999522
9-99995°3
9.9999484
9.9999464
9.9999444
9.9999424
9.9999403
9.9999382
9.9999360
9-9999338
Sine Comp. I Sine
1 Tang. Cor
6.4637261
6.7647562
6.9408475
7.0657863
7.1626964
7.2418778
7.3088248
7.3668169
7.4179696
7-4637173
7-505I2°3
7.5429091
7-57767I5
7.6098566
7.6398201
7.6678492
7.6941786
7.7190026
7.7424841
7-76476i'
7.7859508
7.8061547
7.8254604
7.8439444
7.8616738
.00000001
Infinite
i3-5362739
3-2352438
12.9342137
12-8373~°36
12.7581222
12.6911752
12.6331831
12.5820304
1^5362727
2.4948797
2-45709°9
12.4223284
I2-39OI434
12.3601799
I2-332I5°8
12.3058214
2.2709974
2-2575I59
I2-235239°
12.2140492
I2-r93^453
I2-I745396
12.1560556
12.1383262
7.8787077
7.8950988
7.9108938
7.9261344
.9408584
12.1212923
12.1049012
12.0891062 3
2.0738656
12.0591416
7.9550996
7.9688886
7-9822534
7.9952192
8.0078092
8.0200445
8.0319446
8-°435274
8.0548094
8.0658057
8.0765306
8.0869970
8.0972172
8.1072025
8.1169634
8.1265099
8.1358510
8.1449956
8-15395I6
8.1627267
8.1713282
8.1797626
8.1880364
8.1961556
8.2041259
8.2119526
8.2196408
8.2271953
8.2346208
8.2419215
12.0449004
12.0311114
12.0177466
12.0047808
.9911908
“•9799555
1.9680554
11.9564726
.9451906
II-934I943
1.9234694
1.9130630
1.9027828
1.8927975
1.8830366
i-87349°i
11.8641490
11.8550044
11.8460484
ii-8372733
11.8286718
11.8202374
11.8119636
1.8038444
i-795874:
1.7880474
11.7803592
11.7728047
“•7653792
“.7580785
89 Decree
I Sine Comp
i Degree^
^|8.2418553 9.9999338
8-2490332
8.2560943
8.2630424
48.2698810
8.2766136
8.2832434
8-2897734
8.2962067
8.3025460
8-3°8794
8-3i49536
8.3210269
8.3270163
8-3329243
8-3387529
9-99993i6
9.9999294
9.9999271
9.9999247
9.99992 54
9.9999200
9-9999I75
9.999915°
9.9999125
9.9999100
8.3445043
8-35oi8o5
8-3557835
8.3613150
8.3667769
9.9999074
9.9999047
9.999902
9.9998994
9.9998966
8.3721710
8-3774988
8.3827620
8.3879622
8.3931008
^3981793
8-403199°
8.4081614
8.4130676
8.4179190
9.9998939
9.9998911
9.9998882
9-9998853
9.9998824
9.9998794
9.9998764
9-9998734
9-99987°3
9.9998672
8.4227168
8.4274621
8.4321561
8-43 67999
84413944
8-44594°9
8.4504402
8-4548934
8-4593013
8.4636649
8.4679850
8.4722626
43 8-47 64984 9.
8.4806932 9.
8.48484799.
8.4889632
8-493°398
48 8.4970784
8.5010798
8.5050447
8.5089736
8-5128673
8.5167264
8-52°55I4
8-5243430
8.5281017
8.5318281
58i8-5355228
598-539i863
60 8.5428192
Sine Comp\
9.999864
9.9998609
9-9998577
9.9998544
9.9998512
9-9998478
9.9998445
9.9998411
9.9998376
9.9998342
9.9998306
9-9998271
9.9998235
9,9998199
9.9998162
9.9998125
9.9998088
.9998050
9.9998012
9997974
9-9997935
9.9997896
9.9997856
9.9997817
9-9997776
9-9997736
9-9997695
9.9997653
9.9997612
9-999757°
9-9997527
9.9997484
9.9997441
9-9997398
9-9997354
8.2419215
3150462
321122
327“43
333°249
3388563
37229I5
3776223
3828886
3880918
3932336
2491015
2561649
2631153
2699563
2766912
2833234
2898559
2962917
3°26335
3088842
3446105
3502895
3-558953
3614297
3668945
3383152
4°3338*
4083037
4I32I32
4180679
4228690
4276176
4323*5°
4369622
4415603
4461103
4506131
4550699
4594814
4638486
468172 5
4724538
4766933
4808920
4850505
4891696
4932502
4972928
5012982
505267
5092001
5I3°978
5169610
5207902
524586o
5283490
5320797
5357787
5394466
5430838
Tang. Com
j Degrees.
Tan. Compi
I I.75807S t
II.750898C
“•7438351
11.7368847
“.7300437
•7233088
11.7166766
II.7101441
II.7037083
“•6973665
11.6911158
,6849538
II.6788779
11.6728857
11.6669751
“•6611437
“•6553895
II.6497105
“•6441047
II.6385703
“•633*055
,6277085
II.6223777
11.6171114
I I.6l19082
1.606766435
x 1.6016848
1.5966619
*•59*6963
1.5867868
1.5819321
“.5771310
1.5723824
1.5676850
*■5630378
**•5584397
**•5538897
1.5493869
*•544930*
1.5405x86
“•536*5*4
*-53i8275
“•5275462
1.5233067
1.5191080
■5*49495
.5108304
11.5067498
1.5027072
1.4987018
*•4947329
l65
i65
LOGARITHMIC Table of
018.5423192
118.5464218
2 8-5499948
3 8-5535386
48.5570536
5 8.^605404
8-5639994
8.5674310
8-5708357
98.5742139
8.5775660
8-5971517
8.6903317
8.6034886
19 8.6066226
8.6097341
8.5808923
8.5841933
8.5874694
8.5907209
8.5939483
8.6i 28235
8.6158910
8.6189369
8.6219616
8.62496i?3
8.6279484
8.630911
8-6338537
8.6367764
8-6396796
8.6425634
8.6454282
8.6482742
8.6511016
8.6539107
8.6567017
8.6594748
8.6622303
8.6649684
8.6676893
8.6703932
8.6730804
3.6757510
8.6784052
8.6810433
.6 8.6836654
3.6862718
8.6888625
8.6914379
8.6939985
8.6965431 ,
8.6990734 9.
8.7015889 9.
8.7040899
8.7065766
8.7163829
9-99973 ^
9.9997309
9.9997265
9-999722!
9.9997174
9-9997128
9.9997082
9.9997036
9.9996989
9.9996942
9.9996894
9.9996846
9.9996798
9.9996749
9.9996700
9.9996650
9.9996601
9-999655°
9.9996500
9.9996449
9.9996398
9.9996346
9.9996294
9.9996242
9.9996189
9.9996136
9.9996082
9.9996028
9-9995974
9-99959I9
9.9995865
9.9995809
9-9995753
9-9995697
9.9995641
9-9995584
9-9995527
9.9995469
9.9995411
9-9995353
9-9995297
9-9995236
9.9995176
9.9995116
9-9995°56
9-9994996
9-9994935
9.9994874
9.99948
9-999475°
9.9994688
9.9994625
1.9994562
.9994498
9-9994435
9-999437°
8.7090490 9.9994306
8-7115°75 9-9994241
8-7I3952o9-9994i76
9.9994110
60 8.7188002 9.9994044
I T.in"
8-5430838
[ 1'ane. Comp
.4369162 60
5466909
5502683
5538166
5573362
5608276
5642912
5677275
5711368
5745197
5778766
5812077
5845136
5877945
5910509
5942832
.4187923
.4154864
I.4122055
II.4089491
11.4057168
5974917
6006767
6038386
6069777
6100943
31889
6162616
6193127
6223427
6233518
6283402
6313083
6342563
6371845
6400931
6429825
6458528
6487044
6515375
6543522
6.571490
6599279
662689
665433
6681598
6708697
6735628
6762393
6788996
A8LL437
8.68417
'".6867844
6893813
6919629
6945292
6970806
699617
7021390
7046465
7071395
7096185
7120384
7145345
169719
193958
Tang. Comp.
I1-4533091
1I-4497317
H4461834
II.4426638
4391724
1435708854
I.4322725
I.4288632
II.4254803
14221234
H.4025083
I-3993233
1.3961614
1.3930223
.3899057
[.3868
[-3837384
[.3806873
'•3776573
11.3746482
•3716598
n.3686917
114657437
11.3628155
3599059
1 i-357oi75
11.3541472
1.3512946
1.3484625
•3456478
1.342851
1.3400721
1-3373109
1-3345669
11.3318402
11.3291303
1*3264372
1.3237607
[1.3211004
11.3184563
11.315828
11-313215-
[.310618
[.308037
11.3054708
11.3029194
11.3003828
11.2978610
11-2953535
1.2928605
11.2903815
11.2879166
11.2854655
11.2830281
1.2806042
87 Degrees
Tang.
8.7188002 9.9994044
8.7212040 9.9993978
8-7235946 9-9993911
8.7259721
8.7283366
8.7306882
Sine ISineC'i.
3~Degrees.
8.7330272
8-7353535
8.7376675
8.7399698
8.7422586
9.9993844
9-9993776
9.9993708
8.744536o
8.7468015
8-7490553
8-7512973
8-7535278
8-7557469
8-7579546
8.7601512
8.7623366
8.764511
9.9993640
9-9993572
9-9993503
9-9993433
9-9993364
9-9993293
9.9993223
9-9993I52
9.999308
9.9993009
8.7666747
8.7688275
8.7709697
8.7731014
8.7752226
8-7773334
8-779434°
8.7815244
8.7836048
8-7856753
9.9992572
9.9992498
9.9992424
9-9992349
9.9992274
8-7877359
S.7897867
8.7918278
8-7938594
8.7958814
8.7978941
8.7998974
8.8018915
8.8038764
408.8058523
8.8078192
8.8097.772
8.8i 17264
8.8136668
8-815598,
8.8175217
8.8194363
8.8213425
8.8232404
8.8251299 9.
8.8270112
8.82888449.
8.8307495
8.8326066
8-8344557
8.8362969
8.8381304
8.8399561
8.8417741
8-8435845
VLi 1
9.9992938
9.9992865
9-9992793
9.9992720
9.9992646
9.9992198
9.9992122
9.9992046
9.9991969
9.9991892
9.9991815
9.9991737
9.9991659
9.9991580
9-999150*
9.9991422
9.999134:
9.9991262
9.9991182
9.9991101
9.999102;
9.9990938
9.9990856
9.9990774
9.999069:
.9990608
.9990525
•9990441
•9990357
•999°273
.9990188
.9990103
.9990017
•998993
•9989845
.9989758
.9989671
.9989584
.9989496
.9989408
8-7193958
7218063
7242035
7265877
7289589
73.11.174
733663
7359964
7383i72
7406258
7429222
11.2806042! 10
11.278193759
11.2757965
11.2734123
11.2710411
11.2686826
7452067
7474792
7497400
7519892
7542269
7564531
758668
7608719
7630647
7652465
7674175
7695777
7717274
7738665
7759952
7781136
7802218
7823199
7844079
7864861
7885544
7906130
7926620
7947014
796731,
79875
800763
8027653
8047583
8067422
8087172
8106834
8126407
8145894
5165294
518460b
5203838
8222984
8242046
8261026
11.2663369
11.2640036
11.2616828
n.2593742
11.2570778
11*2547933
11.2525208
11.2502600
11.2480108
n-245773
11.2435469
11-2413319
ii.239128
11*2369353
n-2347533.
11.232582.
21.2304223
11.2282726
262335
11.2240048
11.2218864
.2197782
.2176801
11.215592
1*2135139
1.21x4456
1.2093870
1.207338;
11.2052986
11.203 2687,
1.201248
1.1992368
1.1972347
11.195241
i*i9325755
11.1912^8
1.1893166
i*i873593
1.1854106
11.1834706
815392
11.1796162
11.1777016
11.1757954
738974
1.1720076
1.1701259
1.1682522
1.1663866
1.1645288
11.1626789
.1608367
.1590023
•I57I755
ii*i553563
86 Degrees
SINES AND TANGENTS.
Sine  |Sj
4 Degrees.
08.8435845 9.9989408
1 8.84538749.9989319
2 8.8471827 9.9989230
3 8.8489707
48.8507512
58.8525245
6 8.8542905
7 8.8560493
8 8.8578010
9 8.8595457
0 8.8612833
11 8.86301399.9988414
8.8647376
8.86641:45
8.8681646
£5 8.8698680
13
188.8749381
19 8.8766150
208.8782854
„ 8.8832581,
4 8.8849031 9
58.88654189
■6 8.8881743
■7 8.8898007
'8 8.8914209
'98-8930351
08,8946433
11 8.8962455
12 8.8978418
13 8.8994322
14 8.9010168
15 8.902595
16 3.5704168 5
!7 8.9057358
i° 8.9072975
;9 8.9088535
•Q 8,9104039
1 8.9119487
•28.9134881
3 8.9150219
48.9165504
j 8.9180734
8.919591 _
8.9211034
8.9226-105
[ 8.9241123
8.9256089
8.9271003
8.9285866
8.9300678
548.9315439
>5 8.9330140
;6 8.934481 _
' 8.9359422
. ; 8.9373983.
598.93884969.
18.9402960
53
57
Sine Comp. Sine. ~
| I'ang. Couij .
9.9989141
9.9989052
9.9988962
9.9988871
9.998878c
9.9988689
9.9988598
9.9988506
8.8446437 11.155356360 _o 8.9402960
" ^153544659 18.94173^6
I'I5I74°3 58 28.943x743
I-I499435 57 :3 8-9446o63
i.!48i539 56 48.9460335
55 J 8.9474561
9.9988321
9.9988228
9.9988135
9.9988041
16I8.8715646 9.9987947
I7j8.8732546 9.9987853
9.9987758
9.9987663
9.9987567
21 8.87994939.9987471
516069 9*998737 5
"19.9987278
1 9.9987181
8 9.9987084
1.1445966
11.1428287
11.1410679
II,I393I4I
ri-I375^73
II*I35«275
11.1340945
11.13-23683
11.1306489
11.1289362
11.1272301
ci.1255306
11.1238377
11.1221513
[1.1204714
9.9986986
9.9986888
9.9986790
9.9986691
9.9986591
9.9986492
89.9986392
9.9986292
9.9986191
9.9986090
9.9985988
9.9985886
9.9985784
9.9985682
9.9985579
9-9985473
9-9985372
9.9985268.
9.9985163
9.9985058
9.9984955
9.9984848
9-9984742
9-9984636
9-9984520
9.99844^2
9.998.4315
9.9984207:
9.9984099
9.9983990
>9983881
9-9983772
9.9983663
>9983553
9-9983442
8894757
.8911119
3.8927420
S.8943660
3.8959842
8975963
.8992026
.9008030
9023977
9039866
-,1187978
1.117x30638
1,1154697
1.1x38150^-
1.1121666 35
,1105243
,1088881 _
11.107258032
11.1656340 31
11.1040158
11.1024037
ex.1007974
[1.0991970
c 1.0976023
11.0960134
n.0944303
I ^0928-5 28
1.09128.10
1.0897147
11.0881540
85 Degrees.
8.9055697
8.9071472
8,9087x90
8.9102853
8.9118460
8.91340^
8.9i495°9
8.9164952
8.9180340
8-9195675
8.9210957
8.9226186
'8.9241363
8.9256487
8.9271560
8.9286581
^•93 0155 2
8-931647
"‘933134°
1.9346160
8.936o9'2^
8-937565.0
8.9390321
8.9404944
8.9419518
Tang Comp Tang.
II.C865988
II.0850491
II.0835048
H. 0819660
II.0805325
789043
H.0773814
!.O758637
IJ’°743Sil3
.072.8440
11.0713419
.0698448
0683529
^0668660
.0653840
.0639071
.0624350
11^609679
I. 0595056
1.0580482
5 Degrees
9^98344:
148.9600517
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7 8.9641697 9.9981510
8 8-9655337 9:998i393
9 8.9668934 9.9981275
08.9682487 9.9981158
1 8.9828829 9-9979838
2 8.98418899-9979716
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4 8.9867891 9-997947°
5 8.9880834 9-9979347
368.98937379.9979223
7 8.9906602 9-9979°99
8 8.99194299-9978975
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3 8.9722895 9.9980802
4 8.9736280 9.9980683
5 8.9749624 9.9980563
6 8.9762926 9-9980443
7 8.9776188 9-9980323
8 8.9789408 9.9980202
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( Sine Con.p. |
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9419518 II.0580482
411.0565956
3 11.0551477
4 11.0537046
5 11.0522662
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7 11-0494033
1 11.0479789
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10.9982625
10.9969934
°-9937279
0.9944660
0.9932076
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10.9907016
84 Degrees.
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10.9882097
10.9869690
10-9857318
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10.9832.6751 4
10.9820406 3
10.9808169 2
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Tang.
167
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LOGARITHMIC Table OF
11 9.O322567
12 9.0334212
13 9-°345825
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15 9.03689^8
76 9.0380477
17 9.0391966
189.0403424
99.0414852
20,9.0426249
2i;9.°4376i7
22;9.0448954
23'9.046o26i
249.0471538
25,9.0482786
26^9.0494005
27!9'05°5i94
2819.0516354
299.052748;
30,9.0538588
P I S:ne ISine Comp.
019.0192346 9.9976143
6 Degrees
TanT-
I 9.0204348 9.9976011
29.02163x8
39.0228254
49.0240157
5 9.0252027
6 9.0263865
79.0275669
89.0287442
99.0299182
10 9.03108901
9-9973971
9-9973833
9-9973693
9-9973554
9-9973414
3119.054966
3219.0560706
33 9*°57I723
349.0582711
3519-059367T
36 9.0604604
9.0615509
9.0626386
9.0637235
9.0648057
9.0658852
9.0669619
9.0680360
44 9.0691074
45 9.070? 76:
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9.0807189
9.9973273
9.9973132
9-997299I
9-9972850
9.9972708
9.9972566
9.9972423
9.9972280
9.9972137
9.9971992
0.9968278
9.9968125
0.9967971
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9.0848643 9.9967662
9.9967507
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9.0228338
9.0240441
9.0252510
9.0264548
9.0276552
9.0406506
9.0418134
9.0429731
9.0441290
9.0452836
9-0464343
9.647582:
9.0487270
9.0498689
9.05x0078
Tane Com.
1^X9783798
IO.9771662
0-9759559
IO-974749°
0-9735452
0.9723448
9.0742779
9-0753563
9.0764321
9-0775053
9.0785760
9.0796441
9.0807096
9.0817726
9.0828331
9.08389:
9.0849466
9.0859996
9.0870501
9.0880981
9.0891438
Tang. Com.-
O.9711476
IO.9699536
IO.9687627
IO.9675751
IO.9663907
IO.9652094
IO.9640312
IO.9628561
IO.9616841
10.9605152
1 o-9593 494
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10.9570269
10.9558701
10.9547x64
IO-9535657
10 9524179
10.9^12730
10.9501311
ro.9489922
83 Degrees
9.0858945
9.0869221
9.0879473
9.0889700
9.0899903
9.0910082
9.0920237
9.0930367
9.0940474
9-0950556
9,0960615
9.097065
9.0980662
9.0990651
9.1000616
9.10x0558
9.1020477
9-1030373
6.1040246
9.1050096 9.9964493
9-I°59924 9.99643 3 o
9.1069729
9.1079512
9.108927
9.109901
9.110872
Sine j Sine Cor
7 Degrees
9.9967507
9-9967352
9.9967196
9.9967040
9.9966884
9.9966727
9.9966570
9.9966412
9.9966254
9.9966096
9-9965937
9.9965778
9.9965619
9-9965459
9.9965299
9.9965138
9.9964977
9.9964816
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9.1118420
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9.XI37742
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9.9964167
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9.1166562
9.1176125
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9-I4l7537
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9-9963348
9.9963183
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9.9962686
9.99591 11
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9.1004872
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9-10353i7
9.1045410
9.1055500
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9.1085604
9-io95594
9.1105562
9.1115508
9-1 i2543i
9-1 i35333
9-^45213
Tang. | Tang. Com. |
9.0953667
9-0963955
9.0974219
9.0984460
9.0994678
9.1155072
9.1164909
9.1174724
9.1x84518
9 i194291
9.1204043
9-1213773
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9-I233i7
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9.1252486
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9.14x340c
9.1422689
9-I431959
9.1441210
9.1450442
9.1459655
9.1468850
9.1478025
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10.910856260
IO.9O9813
IO.9087723
IO.9077340
IO.9066980
IO.9056645
IO.9046333
IO.9036045
x 0.90257 81
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10.8586600
10.857731
10.856804
0.8558790
10.8549588
0.8540345
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10.8521975
Tang.
85 Degrees
SINES AND TANGENTS.
8 Degre
Sine Comp. j Tang. | Tang. Comp, j
° 9-1435553 9-9957528 9.1478025 10.8521975,6c
19.14445329.9957350 9.148718210.851281859
2 9-1453493 9-9957r72 9.1496321 10.8503679 58
9.1565441 10.849455957
9-I5I4543 10.848545756
9.1523627 10.8476373 55
9.1462435
9.1471358
9.1480262
9.1489148
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9.1506864
9-i 515694
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9.1611639 9.9953902
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9.2107597
9.2115263
9.2122914
9.2130552
9*2138176
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9-2i533849'
9.2160967
9.2168536
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9.2280481
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9.2346249 9.
9-2353494
9.2360721
9-2367946
9*2375153
9.2382349
9-2389532
9-2396702
Degrees
9.9941914
9.9941706
9.9941498
9.9941289
9.9941079
9.9940870
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9.9940449
9.9940238
9.9940027
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9-2343451
9.2351026
9.2358589
9.2366139
9.2373678
9.2381203
9-2388717
8g> Degrees
10.8002875 60
59
58
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10.7994706
10.7986551
10.7978412
10.7970286
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0.7717605
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0.7686976
10.76793 50
10.7671738
10.7664137
10.7656549
10.7648974
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10.763386:
10.7626322
10.7618797
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10.7596292
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io.787389
io*7865949 43
10.785802042
10.785010641
10.7842205
Vol. X. Tart I.
.2 7°
LOGARITHMIC Table of
io Degrees
° 9-23967°2 9-9933515 9-2i63l 88 .io-75368:
119.2403861.9.9933292
29.2411007 9.9933068
39.24181419.9932845
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7|9'244^558 9.9931946
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99.2460695:9.993x494
10I9.2467746 9.993x268
1119.2.4747849.9931041
129.2481811:9.9930814
13 9.2488827 9.9930587 9
14 9.2495830 9.9930559 9
14 9.25028229.9930131
;x 9.2613141 9
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13 9.2626729 9
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9.2713997
9.2720635
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9.2733880
9.2740487
9.2747083
9.2753669
9-2760245
j4 9.27668
9.2773366
69.27799
7 9.2786445
89.2792970
599.2799484
60 9.2805988
5°
53
9.9922866
9.9922626
9.9922385
9.9922144
9^921902
9.9921660
9.0921418
9.9921175
9.9920932
9.9920689
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9.9920201
9.9919956
9.99197
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0.7208869
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0.7126986
0.712022;
0.7113477
79 Degrees
9.280598819.9919466
9.28x2483 9.9919220
9.2818967 9.9918974
9.2825441
9.2831905
9-2838359
Jj
11 Degrees
-I |
9.9918727
9.9918480
9.9618233
9.2908704
9.29X 5040
9.2921367
9.2927685
9-2933993
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9.9916741
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9.99x5990
9-9915739
9.294029:
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9.2952859
9.2959129
9.296539°
9.2971641
9.2977883
9.2984116
9.2990339
9-299(0553
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9.3008953
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9.3021317
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9.991295:
9.99x2696
9.9912440
9.99x2184
9.9911927
46
47
48
49
5^
.. 9-3124951
52 9.3130968
9.3136976
9-314 297 5
9.3148965
9-3°94737
9.3100798
9.3106849
9-3112892
9.3118926
9-3154947
9.3160921
9.3166885
599.3172842
609.3178789
I Sine Comp.
9.9915488
9.9915236
9.9914984
9-991473
9-99 H47«
9.991422;
9.991391
9.99137*.
9-9913462
9.9913^207
9.991167c
9.9911412
9-99Ilr54
9.9910896
9.9910637
9.9910378
9.9910119
9.9909859
9-9909598
9-99093 3 §
9.9909077
9.9968815
9.9908553
9.9908291
9.9908029
9.9907766
9.9907502
9.9907239
9.9906974
9.9906710
9-9906445
9.9906180
9.9905914
9.9905648
9.9905382
9-99°5I *5
9.9904848
9.990458°
9.9904312
9.9904044
9.2886523
9.2893263
9.2899993
9.2906713
9.2913424
9.2920126
9.29268x7
9.2933500
9.2940172
9.2946836
9-29534^9
07113477
60
59
58
57
5(>
i?|
10.707318354
10.706650053
10.7059828 52
10 7053164151
10.70465:
10.7106737
10.7100007
10.7093287
10.7086576
10.7079874
9.2960134
9.2966769
9-2973395
9.2980011
9.2986618
9.2993216
9.2999804
9-3°°6383
9.3012954
9.3019514
9.3026066 10.697393439
9.3032609
9-3Q39143
9-3045667
9-3°52i83
9.2058689
9.3065187
9-3°7lt7S
9-3°78l55
9.3084626
9.309108&
9-3°9754I
9.3x03983
9.3110421
9.3116848
9.3123266
9.3x29675
9.3136076
9.3x42468
(>314885
9.3155226
9-3161592
9-3i6795c
9.3174290
9.318064:
9.3 x 8697:
9-3193 295
9-3 1996 H
9-32°59l8
32x2:
9.3218506
9.3224788
9.3231061
9-3237327
9.3243584
9.3249832
9.3256073
9.3262305
9-3268529
9-3274745
Tang. Com.
xo.7039866j49
,10.703323148
10.702660547
io.7oi9989'46
7°13382!45
xo.7oo6784i44
10.7000196I43
10.6993617142
10.698704641
0.6980486I40
10.696739
10.6960857
IO-6954333
xo.69478
10.6941311
0.6934813
10.6928325
10.6921845
10.6915374
0.690891
0.6902459
0.6896015
0.6889579
0.68831f2
10.6876734
10.6870325
10.6^63924
10-685753 1
10.685114
0.684477.
0.6838408
0.6832050
10.682570
10.681936.
0.6813028
0.6806705
10.6800389
r 0.679408 2
0.678778.
10.6781494
10.6775212
0.6768939
10.6762673
10,6759416
10.6750x68
10.6734927
0.6737695
10.6731471
10.6725255
78 Degre
Tang.
SINES AND TANGENTS.
12 Degrees
9-9904°44
9.3184728 9.9903775
29.31906599.9903506
39.3196581 9.9903237
4|9.3202495'9.9902967
9.3208400 9.9902697
9.3214297
9.3220186
9.3226066
9-323I938
9:323 7802
9-3 243657
9.3249505
9-3255344
9.3261174
9.3266997
9.327.2811
9.3278617
9.3284416
9.3290206
9-3 295988
9.3301761
9-33°7527
9-33I3285
9-33I9335
9-3324777
9.9902426
9.9902155
9.9901883
9.990161
9^901330
9.9901067
9.9900794
9.990052
9.9900247
9.989997
9.989969!
9.9899423
9.9899148
9.9898873
9.9898597
9.989832c
9.9898043
9.9897766
9.9897489
9.98972
9-33305
o 9-3336237
28 9-334I955
9-3347665
9-3353368
9-3 3 59°62
9-3364749
9.3370428
9-338i762
9-3387418
9-3393065
9.3398706
9-3404338
9.3409963
9-34I558
9.3421190
9.3426792
9-3432386
9-3437973
46 9-3443552
9.3449124
9.3454688
'9.3460245
39I9-3465794 9.9890137
3119-3471336
52I9.3476870 9.988956c
339-3482397
349-34879I7
33|9-349342Q
9.9896932
9.9896654
9.9896374
9.9896095
9.9895811
9-9895535
9-9895254
  . 9-9894973
9.3376099 9.9894692
9.9894410
9.9894128
9.9893845
9-9893562
9.9893279
9.9892995
9.98927
9.9892427
9.9892142
9.9891856
9-989157
9.9891285
9.9890998
9.9890711
9.9890424
9.98S9849
9.988927
9.9888982
9.988869
9-3498934'9-9888403
9-35°443 219.9888113
9.35099229.9887822
9-35i5405!9-988753i
9-3 52o8 80; 9.9887 239
9-33731I3
9*3379i94
9-3385267
9-339I333
9-3397391
9-340344I
9.3409484
9*34i55i9
9.3421546
9.3427566
9-3433578
9-3439583
9-344558<
9-345i57o
9-3457552
•3 10.6719047
■340.6712847
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:8/10.670047 2
>4! 10.6694996
0.6688128 5
10.6626887 4
10.6620806 4
10.6614733 4
10.6608667 4
0.6602609 4
10.659655939
10.6590516 3°
10.6584481 3
1.6578454 3
10.65724343
0.65664223
10.6560417 3
10.65544203
0.654843c 3
0.6542448 3
9-3463527
9.3469494
9-3475454
9.3481407
9-3487352
9-3493290
9.3499220
9-35°5i43
9-35I1059
9.3516968
9.3522869
9-3528763
9-3534650
9-3540530
9.3546402
9-3552267
9-3558i26
9-3563977
9.3569821
9-3575658
9.3581487
9-35873io
9.3593-126
9.-3598935
9-3604736
10.6657409 4
10.6651189 4
10.6645177 4
10.6639073 4
10.6632976 4
10.6536473 2
10.6530506 2
10.6524546 2
10.6518593 2
10.6512648 2
10.6506710 2
10.6500780 2
10.6494857 2
10.6488941 2
10.6483032 2
10.6477131
10.6471237
10.6465350 1
10.645947c 1
10-6453 ^98 £
0-6447733 1
10.6441874 1
0.6436023 1
9-6430179 1
10.6424342 1
9.3610531
9-3616319'
9.3622100!
9.3627874'
9-3633641
10.6418513
10.6412690
0.6406874
0.6401065
10.6395264 _
10.6389469
10.6383681
10.6377900
10.6372126
10.6366359 _
77 Degrees
13 Degrees
| Tang. Cotnt'. ;l
10.672525560 I o 9.352o88o'9.9887239' 9.3633641 10.63663
59
169-3607515
179-3612870
189.3618217
19 9-3623558
9.3628892
9-35263499.8886947,
29-35318109.9886655!
39-353726419.9886363
49.354271019.9886070I
i 9-3548i 1:019.9885776!
69-3553582
7 9-3559007
8.9.3564426
99-3569836
io|9-357524Q
11 9.3586637
29.3586027
^9-359I409 9-98834x5 ;9
49-3596785
15i9.3602i 54
9*3634219
9*3639539
9.3644852
9.3650158
9v3655458
9.3660750
9.3666036
9*3671315
9.3676587
9.3681853
9.3687m
9.369236^
9.3697608
9.3702847
9^37080799.
9-3713304
9-3718523
9-3723735,
9.3728940 9.
9-3734139
9-3739331
9-37445I7
9.3749696
9.3754868
9.3760034
9.3765194
9-3770347
9-3775493
9.3780633
9-3785767
9.3796894
9-3796oi5
6.3801129
9.3806237
9-38ii339
9.3816434
9-3821523
9.3826605
9.3831682
9-38367 ^
Sine Com|i
1.9881029
1.9880729
1.9880429
1.9880128
1.9874827
•987952„
.9879223
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■9878315
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9876794
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■9869041
t 10.6360599!
5 10.6354845
1 10.6349099
1 IC-6343359
4.10.6337626
0 10.6331900
p 10.6326181
2 10.6320468
3 10.6314762
7 10.6309063
9-3
p 10.630337
5 10.6297685
4 10.6292006
0.6286333
10.6280667
9.3864376
9.3869869
9-387535^
9.3880837
923886312
9-3891781
9.3897244!
9.3902700
9.3908151
J-391359
9-39i9°34
9-392446<
P.392'9893
9-3935313
0.3940727
p.3946136
9-395I538
9-5956935!
6275008 ^
10.6269355 ^
10.6263709 ^
0.6258070 ^
0.6252437 i.
9 55
:0.6218775 54
7 53
10.6213187
0.6207606 S2
10.6202031
10.6196463
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°-6i853452
I0.6I7Q7QC 2
.10.6174252 2
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IO.61631842
IO.6157660 2
10.6152142 2
O.614663O 2
10.614112^ "
>.6135624 I
IO.613OI31 1
O.6124664 I
IO.6H9163 I
>■6115688 £
IO.6108219 I
IO.6102756 I
IO.609730O I
IO.6091849 I
0.6086405 I
0.6080966
i°-6375534
10.6070107
10.6064687
10.6059273
76 Degrees
>0.6053864
>0.6048462
10.6045065
3962326,,io.6o37674
396771110.603 2289
'ang. Com. 1 ,
Y 2
*7*
LOGARITHMIC Table of
i4Degre
9-3836752
9.3867040
9.3872067
9.3877087
9.3882101
9.3887109
9.38921 x
9.3897106
9.3902096 9,9864913
9.9864593
9.9864273
9.3907079
9-39I2°57
9.3917028
9-392I993 9-986363°
9.3926952
9-39319°5
9.3936852
9-394^794
9.3946729
9-3951%89-986l693l
9-395^581
9.3961499
9.3966410
9-397I3l5
9.39762
9.39811099.9859742
9^9859969^9859416
i9-384i8i5
9-384'6873
9-385i924
9.38569699.9867778
9.3862008
9.9867144
9.9866827
9.9866509
9.9866191
9.9865872
9-6865553
19.9365233
9.9863308
9.98629861
9.9862663!
9.9862340!
9.9862017!
9.9861369
9.9861045I
9.9860720
9.9860394
9.9860069
9.3990878
9-3995754
9.4000625
9.4010348
9.4015201
9.4020048
9.4024889
9.4029734
9-4034554
9-4Q39378
9.4044196
9.4049009
9.4058617
9.4003413
9.406820;
9.4082539
,4987306
9.4101575
9.41063 2(
9.4X20522
94I2524.
9.412996:
9.9869041
9.9868726:
9.9868410!
9.9868094
9.986746:
9.9863952
9.9859089
9.9858762
9.9858434
9.4005489 9.9 858106
9-9857777
9,9857449
9-9857II9
9.9856790
9.9856460
9.9856129
9-9855798
9.9855467
  9-9855i'35
9.40538x69.9854803
9.9854471
9.9854138
9-98538o5
9.407.2987 9.985347
9.40777669.9853138
94)852803
9.9852468
9,40920689.9852133
9.4096824 9.9851798
9.985x462
9.985 n 25
9.41x1059 9.9850789
9-4II5793 9-985°452
9.9850114
9.9849776
>-9849438
39677J
4026558
4031873
4037x82
4042486
4047785
4053076
4058363
4063644
4068919
4074189
4079453
4084712
4089965
40952:
41004^4
4I57752
.4162928
9,4168099
.4x73265
4i78425
4x83580
4188729
4x93874
4199013
4204146
4209275
4214398
4219515
4224628
4229735
Tang. Comp.
IO.6032289 60
IO.60269II 59
IQ.6021537 58
IO.6016170 57
IO.6010809 56
10.60054 93 55
IO.600OIO454
1 o-599476015^
10.5989422I52
10.598409051
io.5978763!50
49
48
47
IO-5973442
10.5968127
10.5962818
IO-59575I4 46
IO-59522i6 45
10.5946924
10.5941637
IO-5936356
10.5931081
10,5925811
10.5920547
10.59x5288
*0,5910035
10.5904788
10.5899546
10.589431034
10.588907933
10.5883854
10.5878634
IO-58734I9
10.586821
10.5863007
10.585780927
10.5852617
io-584743<
10.5842248
IO-5837072
10.5831901
10.5826735
10.5821575
6.5816420
10.5811271,
10.5806126
10.5800987
IO-5795854
10.5790725
10.5785602
10.5780485
I0.5775372
0.5770265
10.57651.62
10.5760065
0-5754974
xo.5749887
10.5744806
°-5739729
10.5734658
Io*5729592
x o.572453
IO-57I9475
75 Degrees
Tang-
9.4134674
9-4I39381
9.4144082
9.4148778
94^5346 8
9*4i58i52
9.4162832
9.4165506
9.4x72x74
9.4176837
15 Degrees
9.4129962
9.4181495
9.4186148
9-4I90795
9-4I95436
9.4200073
9.4204704
9.4209330
9-42I395°
9.4218566
9-4223176
9-98474c
9.9847059
9.98467x7
9-984^375
9.9846033
9.9845690
9-9845347
9.9845004
9.9844660
9.9844316
9-427354x
9.4278089
9.428263
9.4287169
9,-429I7°I
9.4296228
9.4300750
9.4305267
9-43Q9779
9.43x4286
9-43i8788
9-43 23 285
9-43 27777
9.4332264
9.4336746
9.9849438
9.9849099
9.9848760
9.9848420
9.984808
9-9847740
9-9838755
9.9838404
9-9838°52
9-9837701
9-9837348
9.9836996
9.9836643
9.9836290
9-9835936
9-9835582
9-434I223
9-4345694
9.4350161
9-4354623 
9-43 59o8° 9-983 2019
9.4363532
9-436798'
9.4372422
9.4376859^1
9.438129219.983022,
9-4385719|9-9829862
9.439Q142 9.9829501
9-439456o 9.9829140
9-4398973 9-9828778
9.4403381 9.9828416
ic Com)-,
9-43358o5
9.4340800
9-434579I
9.4350776
9-4355757
9-4360733
9-4365704
9.4370670
9-437563
9.-438Q587
9-4385538
9-439°485
9-4395426
9,4400363
9.440529;
I'ang. Tang Comp.
9.4280525I10.5719475I60
9-4285575
9.4290621
9.4295661
9.4300697
9-4305727
9-43io753
9-43I5773
9.4320789
9-432579j
9-43 3081
'99 10.5674201 51
: 10.5669196
9.44102:22
9.44x5145
9.4420062
9-4424975
9.4429883
9-4434786
9.443968,
9-4444579
9.4449468
9,-4454352
9-4459232
9.4464107
9.4468978
9-4473843
94478704
9-448356x
9.4488413
94493,26o
9.4498102
94502940
94507774
9.4512602
94517427
9.4522246
9-4527o6i
10.571442559
IO-57c9379 58
I0-570433957
10.5699303
10-5694273
10.5689247
10.5684127
10.56792:
10.5664195149
itO.5659200 48
IO.56542O947
rO.564922445
IO.56 44243I45
IO-5639 267)44
10.563429643
10.562933042
10.562436941
10.56194:
10.55'1446 2
10.5609515
10.5604574
io-559963
10-5594705
IO-5589778
io-5584855
1 °-55 7993 8
10.5575025
10-557°
10.55652x4
10.5560315
IO-555542x
IO-555°532
xo.5545648
10.5540768
°-5535893
10.5531022
o-5526i57
10.5 5 21,296
9-453 i87 2
9.4536678
9-454r479
9.4546276
9.455x069
9-4555857
9.456064
9.4565420
9.4570x94
94574964
o-5516439
10.551x587
10.5506740
10.5501898
10.5497060
10.5492220
10-5487398
io;5482573
IO-5477754
10-5472939 10
10.5468128! 9
10.54635 22j 8
10.5458521! 7
IO-5453724j 6
IO-j448931 \-A
I°-5444I44| 4-
IO-5439359 • 8
1 °-5 4345 80
10.5429806
10.5425036
~74
rang.
gj
*73
SINES AND TANGENTS.
16 Degrees j 'g| "7~~De^a
0j9-44°338i 9
19.44077849
2 9.441,2182 9
9.4537.68:
9-454I939
9.4546192
9.455044:
9.4554686
9.4558926
9.4563
9-4567392
9.4571618
;9 9.9822569
16 9.9822201
>9 9.9821831
.79.9821462
o 9.982109:
99.9820721
39.9820351
29.9819979
7 9.9819608
7 9-98i9236
29.9818863
3 9.981849c
99.9818117
1 9-98i7744
8 9-981737°
9.9816995
9.9816620
9.9816245
9.9815870
9,9815494
9-S
9-S
iJ12?
. 14740
9.9814363
. ... 9-9813986
9.45758409.9813608
9.9813229
9.4580058
9-4584271
9-4'58848o
9.9812850
9,9812471
44 9.4592684 9.9812091
9.4596884
4619.4601079
9-9811721
..9-98ii33
9.46052709.9810950
9.4609456 9.9810569
9.4613638 9.9810187
9.4617816 9.9809805
9.462198919.9809423
9.4626158 9.9809040
9.4630323I9.9808657
9.4634483!9-98o8273
946386399.9807889
9.46427909.9807505
9.4676938 9.9807120
9.4651081I9.9806735
9-46552i9l9-98o6349
9-4659353i9-98o5963
g Comp |
Tang. Comp. |
9.4574964 10.5425036 60I
9.4603492 1
9.4608232 i
9.4612967 1
9.4617697 I
9.4622423 1
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0.5214828
9.4812566
9.4817118
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9.4826210
9.4830750
9.4835286
9.4839818
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10.5164714
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094659353,9-9805963
9.4663483
9.4667609
9.4671730
9.4675848
94679960
9.4684069
9.4688173
94692273
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9.9801690
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4857907
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LOGARITHMIC Table of
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1:9.4903710:9.9781653
2!9-4907J93'9-978x24i
3 9.4911471 9.9780830
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109.4938513I9.9777938
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9.5014764
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9.496i5459.9775444
9.4965370 9.9775026
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9.49844429.9772934
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10.483Q425
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10.4826647
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9.9769x43
9.9768720
9.9768296
9.9767872
9.9767447
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10.4725492 23
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19 Degrees.
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5610659
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IO.4524595
XO.452057C
10.4516548
IO.4512529
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10.4420875
10.4416923
IO.4412975
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0.4405086
IO.44OH46
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SINES AND TANG E N T S.
9-5446630
9.5450005
9-5453-376
9-5456745
9.54601
6.5463472
p.5466832
9-547°i89
9-5473542
9.5476893
9.5480240
9-5483585
9.548692'
9.5490266
9.5493602
9-5496935
9.5500265
9-55°3592
9.5506916
9 55-io237
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9.55168
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9-5523494
9.5526801
9-553OI°5
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20 Degrees.  
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9.5610659 xo.438934i'6o
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9.5626360
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9-5543292 9-97Q15I7
9-5582579
„ 9-5585835
49.5589088
9-5592338
21 Degrees
9.5566259 9.9698
9.55695299.9697624
9-5572796|9-9697i36
9.5576060; 9.9696047
9-55793^9^9696158
9-5595585
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579-5726362:9.9673i88
58 9-5729495 9-967 2679
59 9-5732626 9.9672169
60 9-5735754 9-967X6591
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Tang.
9-5841774
9.5883163
9.5886912
9.5890657
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9-5909351
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9.5976162
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9.5983540
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9.6034927
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9.6042233
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9.6049529
9.6053174
9.6056817
9.6060457
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I'ang. Comp.
IO.4158226
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58
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LOGARITHMIC Table of
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139.5776183
M 9*5779275
15 9-5782.^4
16 9-578545°
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9.5742003
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9.5748240
9-575*356
9.9671659
9-5754468
9-5757578
9.5760685
9-5763790
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9.9671148
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9.9669614
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51 9.5891897
529.5894893
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549.5900880
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9.9668588
9.9668075
9.9667562
9.9667048
9.9666533
0.9666018
9.9665503
9.9664986
9.9664471
9-9663954
9-9663437
9.9662929
9.9662402
9.5800845 9,9660846
9.5803917 9.9660326
23 9.5806986 9.9659806
24 9.5810052 9.9659285
25 9.5813116 9.9658764
^69.58161779.9658243
27 9.5819236
28 9.5822292
29 9-5825345
30 9.5828397
31 9-583I445
32 9-583449
33 9-5837535
349.5840576
35 9-58436*5
36 9.5846651
37 9-5849685
38 9-585271^
39 9-5855745
40 9.585877
41 9.5861795
42 9.5864816
43 9-5867835
449.5870851
45 9i5873865
46 9.5876876
47 9-5879885
48 9.5882892
■ 49 9.5885896
~ ^09.5888897
56 9.59068 56;
57 9-59°984i
589.5912823
59 9-59i58°3
6019.5918780
otpp
9-965037
9.9649843
9.9649314
9.9648785
9.9648256
9.9647726
9.9647195
9.9646665
9.9646133
).96456o
7 9.9645069
9-9644537
9.9644004
9-9643470
9.9642937
9.6074997
9.6078627
9.6082254
9.608588
9.6089503
9.6093124
9.6096742
9.6100359
9.6103973
9.6107586
9.6111196
9.6114804
9.6118409
9.6122013
9.6125615
9.6129214
9.6132812
9.6136407
9.6140000
9-6i4359
9.6147180
9.6150766
9-6i5435i
Tanp. I Tang-. Comp.
9.6064096
1.6067732 IO.3932268 59
.6071366 IO.3928634 58
[0-3925003 57
IO-392I373 56
io-39i7746
10.3914120
10.3910497
10.3906876
i°-3903258
10.3899641
10.3896027
i°-38924i4 48
10.3888804
10.3885196
°-388i59i
.0.3877987
io-3874385
10.3870786
10.3867188
)-3863593
9-61.5.793 4
9.6161514
9.6165093
9.6168669
9.6172243
10.3860000
10.3856409
10.3852820
10.3849234
10.3845649
9.6175815
9^i79385
9.6182953
9.6186519
9.6190085
9-619364.
9.6197205
9.620076
9.6204318
9.6207872
9IS211423
9.6214974:
9.62i852<
9.6222066
9^225609
9.622915
9.623269c
9.6236227
9.6239763
9.6243296
9.624682'
9.625035:
9.6253884
9.625740.
9.626093:
9.6264454
9.6267973
9.627149
9.6275006,
•n.Coi
67 Degrees
°-393 5904 6c
0.3842066
10.3838486
IO-38349°7
10.3831331
10.3827757
10.3824185
10.3820615
10.3817047:
10.3813481
10.3809917
10.3806355
10.3802795
i°-3799238
10.3795682
10.3792128
■°-3788577
io-3785°26
10.3781480 17
io-3777934 1
io.377439i i
10.3770830 1
'0.3767310 1
[o.3763773
10.3760237
10-3756704
*o.3753i73 ,
10.3749644 8
:0,3746m
0.374259
10.3739068
' o-3 735546
10.3732027
10.3728509
I  i°-3724994
9.6278519 10.372148
Tang.
23 Degrees
0(9.5918780:9.9640261
9^639724
9.9639187
9.9638650
9.9638112
9-9637574
| Sine Comp. | j Tang. [ Tang. Comp.
9-59365949-9637036
9-9636496
   „ 9-9635957
9.59454699.9635417
9-9634877
9-9634336
9-9633795
9-9633253
9.9632711
9.9632168
9.9631625
9.9631082
9.9630538
9.9629994
9.9629449
9.5980754
9.5983679
9.5986602
9-598952;
9.599244
9.9628904
9.9628358
9.9627812
9.9627266
9.9626719
9-5995357
9.599827
9.6001181
9.600409c
9.6006997
9.6009901
9.6012803
_ 9-6015703
349.601860c
9.6021495
9.6024388
9.6027278
9.6030166
399-6033052
40 9.6035936
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
9.6038817
9.6041696
'9.6044573
9.6047448
9-60503
9-605319'
9.605605
9.6058923
9.6061786
9.6064647
9.6067506
9.6070362
9.6073216
9.6076068
5 <i 9-607^918
56I9.6081765
57 9.6084611
589-60874549.
599.60902949.
60:9.6093133 o.
9.9626172
9.9625624
9.9625076
9.9624527
9.9623978
9.962342:
9.9622878
9.9622328
9.902177
9.9621226
9.9620674
9.9620112
9.9619569
9.9619016
9.9618463
9.9617909
9-96I7355
9.9616800
9.9616245
9.9615689
9-96I5133
9.9614576
9.9614020
9.9613463
9,9612904
9.9612346
9.9611787
9.9611228
9.9610668
9.96x0108
9.9609548
9.9608987
1.9608426
'.9607864
9.960.7302
9-62785^9 ro-372I48
9.6282031'10.3717969
. 6285540110.3714460
9.6289048^ 0.371095 2
.6292553 10.3707447
6296057 10.3703943
6299558
6303058
6306556
6310052
6313545
6317037
6320527
6324015
6327501
633°985
635i85'
635532
6358790
6362257
636572
6334468
6.337948
6341426
6344903
6348378
6369185
6372646
6376106
6379563
63831
6386473
6389925
6393375
6309823
6400269
644805;
644148
6444903
6448324
6451743
6455160
6458575
6461988
6465400
6468810
6472217
6475624
6479028
6482431
648583
66 Degrees
10.3700442
10.3696942
io-3693444
10.3689948
3686455
10.3682963
10.3679473
°-3675985
0.367249946
10.366901545
44
43
42
4
40
10.3665532
10.3662052
10.3658574
10.3655097
10.365162
0.3648150
10.3644679
10.364121;
10-363774;.
10.3634278
10.3630815
10.3627354 _
10.362389432
10.3620437
10.3616981
io-3(H3527
10.3610075
10.3606625
10.3603177
iQ-359973
o-356i943
io-35585i9
10.5550597
0.3551676
10-3548257
10-3544840
io-354i425
10.353801
10.3534600
Q-353119°
35277»3
io.3524376
10.3520972
>-3517569
io.35i4I69
Tang
>77
SINES and TANGENTS.
24 Degrees
9.609313 ^ 9-9607302 9.6485831 10.3514169 60
t 9.6095969
l 9.6098803
39.6101635
49.6104465
59.6107293
5 9.6110118
7 9.6112941
i 9.6115762
j 9.6118580
39.6121397
[ 9.61242:
2 9.6127023
39.6129833
49.6132641
59.6135446
9.96o39i9
9.9603354
9.9602788
9.9602222
9.960165
9.9601088
9.9600520
9-9S999S2
9-9599384
9-95988i5
16 9.6138250 9.9598246
79.614105
^ 9.6143850
79.6146647
39.614944:
9.9597676
9.9597106
9-9596535
9.959^964
1 9.618004s
2 9.6182809
39.6185576
4 9.6188341
59.6191103
[ 9.6235016
19.6237743
3 9.6240467
49.6243190
; 9-62459
609.6
9.9606739
9.9606176
9.9605612
9.9605048
9.9604484
1938649.9586767
196622 9.9586188
I99378 9,9585609
*202132 9-9585030
204884 9.9584450
9.9583869
9.9583288
9.9582707
9.9582125
9-958i54
9.958096
9.9580378
9-9579794
9.9579210
9.9578626
9^57804:
9-9577456
9.9576870
9.9576284
9-9575697
Tang.
9.6489230
9.6492628
9.6496023
9.6499417
9.6502809
9.6506199
9.6509587
9.6512974
9-6516359
9.6519742
9.6523123
9.6526503
9.6529881
9-6j33257
9-653663
9.6540004
9-6543375
9.6546744
9.6550112
9-65S3477
9.655684:
9.6560204
9.6563564
9.6566923
9.6570280
10.34768774
IO-3473497 4
10.34701194
10.3466743 4
10.3463369 4
IO-3459996 44
10.3456625
I,2-3453256
10.3449888
10.3446523
9-6573636
9.6576989
9.6580341
9.6483692
9.6587041
IO-3443I59 3
IO-34397963
io-3436436 3
IG-3433°77 3
10.3429720 3
9-659G387
9-6593733
9.6597076
9.6600418
9.6603758
9.6607097
9.6610434
9.6613769
9.6617103
9.6620434
9.6623765
9.6627093
9.6630420
9-6633745
9.6637069
9.6640391
9.6643711
9.6647030
9.6650346
9.6653662
9.6656975
9.6660288
9.6663598
9.6666907
9.6^70214
9.6673519
9.6676823
9.6680126
9.6683426
9.6686725
r 
io.35io77° j
IO-35°7372 i
io-3503977 i
10.3500583 1
10.3497191 j
1o-34938oi J
io.349o4i3 <
10.3487026 i
10-3483641 j
.3480258 j
10.3426364
10.342301 j
0.341965932
10.3416308
10.3412960
10.3409613 2
10.3406267 2
0.34029242
0-3399582 2
10.3396242 2
Io-33929°3 2
IO-3389566 2
10.3386231 2
10.3382897 2
o-3379566 2
io-3376235
10.3372907 s
°-336958o ’
10.3366255 ]
10.3362931
10.5359609 1
10.33562891
I0-3352970 1
10.3349654 ]
10^346338 :
10.3343025
o-33397i2
10.3336402
10.3333093
o-3329786
10.3326481
IO-3323I77
10.3319874
io-33i6574
103313275
65 Degrees
9.6302568
. 9-6305243
189.6307917
99.63x05899.
09.6313258
Vat. X. Part I.
>•62594831;
^ o -a t n t <
e Comp. I
25 Degrees
~i 9.6262191
219.6264897
39.6267601
4:9.6270303
5:9^6273003
9-9572757
9.9572168
9-957I578
9.9570988
9-9570397
9.9569806
69.6275701
9.6278397
9.6281090
99.6283782
9.6286472
9.6289160 9.
9.6291845
9.6294529 9.
9.6297211
9.6299890
9-63I5926
9.63x8591
9-632i255
9.6425016
9.6326576
69.63292,33
179.633x889
9-6334542
9-6337I94
29. , .
30 9-6339844
9-95692i5
9.9568623
9.9568030
9-9567437
9.9566844
.9566250
9-9565656
9.956506
9.9564466
9.9563870
9.9563274
9.9562678
9.956208
9.9561483
9.9560886
9.9560287
9-9559689
9.9559089
9.9558490
9-9557890
9.634249:
9-6345i37
9.6347780
9.6350422
9-6353°62
9.9557289
9.9556688
9.9556087
9-9555485
9.9554882
9-6355699
9-6358335
9.6360969
9.6363601
9.6366231
9.6368859
9.6371484
9.6374108
9.6376731
9-637935
9.6381969
9.6384585
9.6387199
9.6389812
9.6392422
9.63950309.
9.6397637
9.6400241
9.6402844
9.6405445
9.9554280
9-9553676
9-9553°73
9.9552469
9-955i864
9-9551259
9-955o653
9.9550047
9-954944
9-9548834
9.9548227
9.9547619
9.9547011
9.9546402
9-9545793
9-9545 ^4
9-9544574
9-9543963
9-9543352
9.9542741
>•9542129
9-954I5I7
9.9540904
9-954029X
9-9539677
9.6706486
9.6709774
9.6713060
9.6716345
9.67x9628
9.6722910
9.6726190
9.6729468
9-6732745
9.6736020
Tang | Tang. Com)
9.6686725
9.6690023
9.6693319
9.66966x3
9.6699906
9.6703197
xo.3293514
10.3290226
10.3286940
10.3283655
[^3280372
IO-3277G90 49
i°-32738io48
X0-3270532 47
10.3267255 46
1.326398045
10.3260706 44
IO-3257434 43
0.325416442
:o-325o895 41
10.3247628 4°
9.6771944
9.6775201
9.6778456
9.678x709
9.6784961
9.6788211
9.6791460
9.6794708
9-6797953
9.6801188
10.324436239
10.324109738
IO-3237835 37
IO-3234574 36
10.323131435
9.6804440
9.6807682
9.681092:
9.6814160
9.6817396
9.6820632
9.6823865
9.6827098
9.6830328
9-6833557
9.6836785
9.6840011
9.6843236
9.6846459
9.684968
9.685290
9.6856120
9-6859338
9.6862553
9.6865768
9.686898
9.6872192
9.6875402
9.6878611
9.6881818
Tang. Com.
IO-33I3275
IO-33°9977
10.3306681
IO-33°3387
10.3300094
10.3296803 55
54
53
52
5i
50
10.322805634
10.322479933
10.322154432
10.3218291 31
10.321503930
10.321178929
10.3208540
10.3205292 27
10.3202047 26
,3198802 25
IO-3I9556o24
10.3192318 23
10.3189079
10.3185840
[ 0.318 2604
1°-3179368 *9
IG-3x76i35l8
10.3172902
10.3169672
103166443 15
10-3163215 x4
1°-31599^9 *3
10.3156764 12
IO-3I5354I 1
^31503191
10.3147099
10.3143880
10.3140662
IO-3I37447
10.3134232
I0.2I3I0IQ
IO.3127808
10.2124598
IO.312I389
IO.3I18182
64 Degree*
Tang.
*78
LOGARITHMIC Table OF
26 Degrees
|Sine Comp. ^ ran^. | Pang. Comp.
o 9.6418420 9.9536602 9.688x818 10-3118x8260
1:9.6421009
2^9-6423596
3 9.6426182
49.6428765
5 9^4313 47
6,9.6433926,
7 9-6436504 9.
89.6439080
99.6441654
109.6444226
9-9535985
9-9535369
9-9534751
9-9534I34
9-9533515
9.9532897
'.9532278
9-953i658
9-953io38
9-953°4i8
1 9-6472395
2 9-6474945
3 9-6477492
49.6480038
5 9.6482582
69.6485124
7 9.6487665
8 9.6490203
99.6492740
09.6495274
9.9523562
9.9522936
9.9522310
9.9521683
9.9521055
9.9520428
9.9519799
9-95I9I7
9-95i854i
9-95i7912
9.9517282
9.9516651
9.9516020
9-9515389
9-95147 57
1 9.9507775
,, 4 9-9507I38
8 9.6540586 9.9506500
" "6 9.9505861
49.9505223
I 9.9504583
5 9-9503944
89.9503303
54 9-6555559 9-9502663
9.6558048 9.9502022
69.6560536.9
7 9-6563021 9
8 9-6565505 9
9 9-6567987 9
09.65704689
9.6885023
9.6888227
9.6891430
9.6894631
9.6897831
9.6901030
9.6904226
9.6907422
9.6910616
9.6913809
9.6917000
9.6920189
9.6923378
9.6926565
9.6929750
9.6932934
9.6936117
9.6939298
9.6942478
9.6945656
9.6948833
9.6952099
,9.6955183
9-6958355
9.6961527
10.3114977
10.3111773
10.3108570
10.3105369
10.3102169
1^309897054
IO-3095774 53
10.3092578
10.3089384
10.3086101
9.6964697
9.6967865
9.6971032
9.6974198
9-6977363
10.3083000
10.3079811
10.3076622
IO-3o73435 4-6
10.307025045
'.3067066^
10.3063883^
10.3060702 4
10-3057522^
10.30 54344 4
10.3051167 :
IO.3047991
10.3044817 3
10.30416453
103038473c
10-3035303
10.3032135
10.3028968
10.302580231
10.3022637
9.70x2080
9.7015227
9.70x8374
9.7021 519
9.7024663
9.7027805
9.7030946
9.7034086
9.7037225
9.7040362
9-7043497
9.7046632:
9.7049765
9.7052897
610.3019474:
7 IO.3O16313 2
7 10.3013153 2
5 10.3009994 2
4 10.3006836 2
2 10.3003680 2
4 10.3000526 2
8 10.2997372 2
0 10.2994220 2
010.2991070 2
.2987920 x
10.2984773 1
10.2981636 x
0.2978481 x
£02975337 x
0.2972195 x
0.2969054 X
10.2965914 1
10.2962775 ]
10.29 49638 X
10.2956503
10.2953368
10.2950235
10.2947103
63 Degrees
9.705602710.2943973 5
9.7059156,10.2940844
9.7062284] 10.2937716
9.706541010.2934590
9-7°68535,io.293i465
9.7071659 10.2928341
Tang.Comj. Tang.
9.6570468 9.9498809
9.65739469.
9-6575423
9.6577898
9.6580371,
9.65828429.
49.
9.6585312,
9.65877809.
89.6590246 9.
9.65927101
9-6595473
9-65976349.
9.6600093
9.6602550
9.6605005
9.6607459
9.660991
9.6612361
9.66148x0
9.66x7257
9.6619702
9.6622145
9.6624586 9.
9.6627026
9.6629464
9.6631900
569.
609.
| Si ,e C imp.
27 Degrees
.9498165
9-9497521
9.9496876
9.9496230
9495585
9.9494938
.9494292
'•9493645
9.9492997
9.9492349
.9491700
9.949105
9.9490402
9.9489752
9.9489x01
9.9488450
9.9487799
9.9487147
9.9486495
9.9485842
9-6634335
9.6636768
9.6639199
9.6641628
9.6644056
9.9485189
9-9484535
9.9483881
9.9483227
9.9482572
9.664648
9.6648906
9.6651329
9.6653749
9.6656168
9.6658586
9.6661001
9.6663415
9.6665828
9.6668238
9.6670647
9.6673054
9.6675459
9.6677863
9.668026 5
9.6682665
9.6685064
9.6687461
9.6689856
9.6692250
9.6694642
9.6697032
9.6699420 9.
9.6701807
9.6704x92
,1.67065769.
9.67089 58
9.67x1338
9.6713716
■67x6093
Sine Comp.
9.9481916
9.9481260
9.9480604
9.9479947
9.9479289
9.9478631
9-9477973
9-9477314
9.9476655
9-9475995
9-9475335
9.9474674
9.9474013
9-9473352
9.9472689
9.9472027
9.9471364
9.9470700
9.9470036
9.946937
9.9468707
9.9468042
9.9467376
9.9466710
9.9466043
9.9465376
9.9464708
9.9464040
9.9463371
9.9462702
,1.9462032
9.9461362
9.9460692'
69.9460021
9.9469349
9.7071659
9.7074781
9.707790a
9.7081022
9.7084141
9.7087258
9.7090374
9.7093488
9.7096601
9.7099713
9.7102824
9-7105933
9.7109041
9.7112148
9.7115254
9.712146
9.7124562
9.7x27662
9.7x30761
9-7*33859
9.7136956
9.714005
9-7 *73 *45
9.7146237
9-7 *49339
Tang.
IO.2928341 60
IO.2925219 59
io.2922098'58
10.29x8978157
10.291585956
xo.29i2752|55
10.2909626154
10.2906512I53
*0.2903399152
10.2900287151
>.2897176150
10.2894067149
10.2890959I48
10.2887852147
10.2884746I46
10.2881642I45
9.71524*9
9-7*55508
9-7I58595
9.7161682
9.7164767
9.716785
9.7170933
9.7174014
9.7177094
9.7180173
9.7x83 251
9.7x86327
9.7189402
9.7x92476
9-7*95549
9.7198620
9.7201690
9.7204759
9.7207827
9.7210893
9.7213958
9.7217022
9.7220085
9.7223147
9.7226207
9.7229266
9.72323241'
9-723538
9.7238436
9.724x490
9.7244543
9-7247595
9.7250646
9-7 253695
9.7256744
62
Degre
Tang. Comp.
10.2878539:44
IO.287543843
xo.2872338l42
10.2869239I41
10.2866141I40
10.2863044 39
0.2859949 38
10.285685537
•2853763 36
10.2850671 35
34
10.2847581
10.2844492
10.2841405
10.2838318 31
10.283523330
10.2832149
10.2829067,
10.2825986
10.2822906
10.2819827
0.2816749
10.2813673
10.2810598
10.2807524
10.2804451
0.2801380
10.2798310
10.279524
10.2792173
10.2789107
10.2786042
0.2782978
*0-27799*5
10.2776853
10.2773793
10.2770734
10.2767676
10.2754619
10.276x564
10.2758510
10.275545'
10.2752405
0.2749354
10.2746305
10.2743256
Tang.
SINES AND TANGENTS.
28 Degrees
e Comp. Tan
^9^7i6o93'5M3459349 9^725674410.2743256 60
1 9.67x84689.
29.6720841
39.6723213
49.6725583
59.6727952
13
69.67303x9
9.6732684
9.6735047
9.6737409
9.6739769
9.674212!
9.6744485 _
9.67468409.
1.9458677
9.9458005
9-9457S32
9.9456659
9-9455985
9-9455310
9.9454636
9-945396°
9.9453285
9.9452609
89.9
,9451932
9.9451255
. . . 9450577
149.67491949.9449899
9.6751546 9.944922°
r7
16 9-6753896 9-944854i
1.9447862
9.9447182
9.9446501
9.9445821
9.6756245 9.9
9.67585929
199.67609379
9-6763281
3 9-9445139
3 9-9444457
2 9-9443775
09.9443092
 5 9-9442409
26 9.67773099.9441725
79.67796429.9441041
8 9.67819729.9440356
29 9.678430:
30 9.6786629
9.9439671
9.9438985
9.682365
9.6825952
9.6828250
499.68305489.
9.6832843
9-6835137
9.6837430
9.6839720
54I9.6842010
5519.6844297
5619.6846583
579.6848868 9.
589.685115
599.685443:
6ol9-68557
48
53
19.
n
Sine Con p. Sine
9.7275008
9.7278048
9.7281087
9.7284124
9^28716_
9.7290196
9.7293230
9.7296263
9.7299295
9-7302325
9-7305354
9-7308383
9.7311410
9.7314436
9.7317460
19.67889559.9438299
w2 9.67912799.9437612
33 9-6793602 9.9436925
34 9-6795923 9-9436238
35 9-6798243 9-9435549
6 9.68005609.9434801
79.68028779.9434172
8 9.6805191 9.9433482
„9 9-6807504 9.9432792
40 9.68098x619.94321
1 9.68121269.9431411
29.68144349.9430720
43 9.6816741 9.9430028
44 9.68190469.9429335
45 9.6821349 9.9428643
9.9427949
9-9427255
>!9.942656i
1.9425866
,9.9425171
9.9424476
9.9423779
9.9423083
9.9422386
9.9421688
9.9420990
.9420291
.9419592
29.9418893
10.274020959
o-2737 ^3 58
10.273411957
10.2731075:56
0.27 2803 3'55
10.272499254
101272195253
10.2718913I52
10.2715876151
10.2712839150
  747
10.2700705 46
10.2697675 45
10.269464644
10.269161743
10.268859042
10.268556441
10.268254040
10.267951639
10.267649438
10.2673473
10.2670453
10.266743435
9.7365699
9.7368705
9.7371709
9-7374712
9-73777*4
9-73^07 *5
9-73837*4
9.7386713
9.7389710
9.7392707
9.7395702
9.7398696
9.7401689
9.7404681
9-740767
9.7410662
9.7413650
9-7416638
9.7419624
9.7422609
2 9.94x8193
9.7425594
9-7428577
9-743*559
9*743454°
9-7437520
10.2634301 2
10.2631295 2
10.2628291 2
10:2625288 2
10.2622286 2
10.2619285 11
0.2616286 xi
'10.2613287 1
10.261029011
0.2607293 1
0.2604298 1.
0.26013041
10.25983111
0.25953191
0.2592328 10
10.2589338
10.2586350
ro.2 C83362
10.2580376
*0-257739*
Tang.Comp J
0.2574406
O.2571423
0.2568441
IO.2565460
IO.2562480
*3
*4
*5
169.6891978
9.6894232
9.6896484
9.6898734
9.6900983
6x Degrees
9.6855712 9.9418193
9.6857991
9.6860267
y.6862542
4 9.6864816
9.6867088
9.686935^
9.6871628
9.6873895
9.6876161
9.6878425
9.6880688
9.6882949 9.
9.6885209
9.6887467
9.6889723
9.690323
9.6905476
9.6907721
9.6909964 9.
9.6912205
Sine Sine Comp.
29 Degrees
9.9417492
9.9416791,
9.9416090
9.9415388
9-94*4685
9.9413982
9.9413279
9-94*2575
9.9411871
9.9411166
9.9410461
_ -9409755
9.9409048
9.9408342
9.9407634
9.9406927
9.9406219
9.9405510
9.9404801
9.9404091
269.6914445
9.6916683
9.6918919
9.69 2 ii 5 5
9-6923388
9.6925620
9.6927851
9.6930080
9.6032308
9-6934534
9.6936758
9.6938981
9.6941203
9.6943423
9.6945642
9.6947859
9.6950074
9.6952288
9-69545o:
9.6956712
9.6958922
9.6961130
9.6963336
9.6965541
9.6967745
9.9403381
9.9402670
9.9401959
1.9401248
9-9400535
9-9399823
9-9399*
9-9398396
9.939768
9.9396968
9.9396253
9-9395537
9.9394821
9-9394*05
9-9393388
9.9392671
9-939*953
9-939*234
9-93905*5
9.9389796
9.6969947 9.9381851
9.6972148 9.9381x26
9-6974347
9-6976545
9.6978741
9.9380400
9-9379674
9-9378947
9.6980936
9.9378220
9.69831299.9377492
9.6985321 9.9376764
9.69875119.9376035
9.6989700^.9375306
Tang. Tang Comp.
7437520
7440499
7443476
7446453
7449428
7452403
7455376
7458349
7461320
7464290
7467259
10.2562480 60I
10.2559501^
10.255652458
*0-2553547 57
10.2550572
10.2547597
10.2544624
10.254x651
10.253868052
10.2535710
10.253274*
5*
£2
10.252977349
io.252680648
10.252384047
10.252087546
10.251791X
10.2514948
10.2511987
10.2509026 42
10.250606641
10.2503108 40
10.250015039
10.2497194
10.2494238
10.249128436
10.248833135
34
7558783
7561718
7564653
7567587
7570520
7573452
7576383
75793*3
7582242
7385*70
7 588096
759x022
7593947
7596871
7599794
7602716
7605637
7608557
7611476
7614394I
10.2485378
10.2482427
10.2479477
10.2476526
10.2473580 3<
10.2441217
10.2438282
*0.2435347
24324*3
10.2429480
10.2426548
10.2423617
10.2420687
10.2417758
10.24x4830
10.2411904
10.2408978
10.2406053
10.2403x29
10.2400206
10.2397284
10.2364363
0.2391443
10.2388524
10.2385606
60
Tang. Comp 1 Tang.
Degrees
*79
I So
LOGARITHMIC Table oe
5’ Sine j Sine Convp. Tanjr. | t ang. Comp.
~o 9.6989700 9.9375306 9.761439410.2385606 60
9.69918879.9374577
9.6994073 9.937384:
9.6996258,9.93761k
9.6998441 G.937 2385
9.70oo622!9.937i6 53
69.7002802
9.7004981
9.7007158
9-7009334
9.7011508
9.7013681
9-7OI58$2
9.7018022
9.7020190
9-70223^7
69.
7024523
9.7026687
9.70288499.
19.703101
9-7Q33I7o
9-7035329
9.7037486
9.7039641
9.7041795
9-7043947
56 9'
30 Degrees.
9-9363574
9.9362836
9.9362298
9.9361360
9.9360621
9.7046099
9.7048248
9-7050397
9-7052543
9.7054689
9-935988
9-9359I4I
9.9358401
9.9357660
9.9356918
9-7056833
9-7058975
9.7061116
9.7063256
9-7065394
9-9356i77
9-9355434
9.9354691
9-9353948
9-9353204
9-706753
9.7069667
9.7071801
9-7673933.
9.7076064;
9.7078194
9.7080323
9.7082450
9.7084575
9.7086699
9.7088822
9.7090943
9.7093063
9.70951&2
9.7097299
9.7099415
9.7101529
9.7103642
9-7105753
9.710' ^ ^
^7^09972
9.7 n
9.71141869.
9-711 .
9-7118393
Sme Comp.
9-9352459
9-935I715
69.9350969
9.9350223
9-9349477
9*934873'
9-9347983
9-9347235
3 ^9346486
9-9345738
9.9344988
9.9344238
9-9343488
9-9342737
9-9341986
9-9341234
9.9340482
9-9339729
9-9338976
9.9338222
9-9337467
>9-93367i3
9-9335957
9.9335201
-933444,
9-9333688
•933293
>•9332173
,■9331415
9.9330656
Sine.
9.7761947 I
9.7764816 I
9.7767685 I
9.7770552 I
9’77734i8 i
9.7776284 1
9.7779149 1
9.7782012 1
9.7784875 1
9 7787737
0-2324552 i
0.2321656 j
0.23187605
0.23158653
0.2312971;
0.2310078 34
0.2307186
0.2304295
0.2301404
0.2298515
D.2281199:
5.22783162
3-2275434-
5.2272553 :
5.2269673:
5.2266794 J
5.22639] 6 1
5.2261039 1
5.2258162 1
5.2255287 1
5.225241
5.2249538 1
5.2246666 1
5.22437941
5.22409231
.2238053
.2235184
.2232315
.2229448
!. 2226582 _
.2223716
.2220851
.2217988
.2215125
.22122631^0
59 Degre
Tang Comp. Tang.
9-711839^
9.7120495
9.71225969.9329137
9.7124695
9.7126792
9.71288899.9326854
3
4
5
69.7130983
9.7133077
9.7135169
9.7137260
9-7139349
9-7141437
9.7143524
9.7145609
9.7147693
9-7179776
9.715185
9-7153937
9.7156015
9.7158092
9.-165168
9.7162243
9.71643169.9313835
31 Degrees
9.93306561
9.9329897
9.9328376
9.9327616
9.9318447
9.9317679
9.9316911
9-93i6i43
9-9315374
9.9314605
9.7166387
9.7168458
9.71705261
9.9313065
9.9312294
9-93H522
9.7172594
9.7174660
9.7176725
9.7178789
9.7180851
9.7182912
9.7184971
9.7187030
9.7189086
9.7191142
9.7193196
9.7195249
9.7197300
9-7I99350
9.7201399
9.7203447
9-7205493
3
32
33
34
33
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
52 9.7225881
53j9-72279'i3
549-7229943
559.7231972
9.72075389.929755:
9.7209581
9.7211623
9.7215704
9.7217742
9-7 2.197 79
9.72218
9.9310750
9.9309978
9.9309205
9.9308432
9.9307658
9.9306883
9.9306109
9-9305333
9-9304557
9-93°378
9.9303004
19.9302226
9.9301448
9.9300670
9-929989
9.9299112
9.9298332
9.9296770
9.9295989
9.7 213664 9.9295207
9.9294424
9.9293641
9.9292857
9-9292073
9.72238489.9291289
9.9290504
9.9289718,
9.9288932
9.9288145
56i9-7234°oo
579.7236026
589.723805
599.7240075
609.7242097
jSine Corn
9-9287358
9.9286571
9.9285783
9.9284994
9.9284205
9-7787737
9.7790599
9-7793459
9.7796318
9.7799177
9.7802034
9.7804891
9.7807747
9.7810602
9.7813456
9.7816309
9.7847638
9.7850481
9-7853323
9.7856164
9.7859004
Tang.
10.2212263
IO.22094OI
IO.220654I
10.2203682
10.2200823
IO.2197966
9.7819162
9.7822013
9.7824864
9.7827713
9-783056:
9-7833410
9.7836258
9.8839104
9.7841949
9.7844794
.2195109
IO.2192253
IO.2189398
O.2186544 51
9.2183691 50
9.7861844
9.7864682
9.7867520
9-7870357
9-7873193
Tang. Comp.
2152362:39
IO.214951938
IO.2146677137
IO.2143836
10.2140996
9.7876028
9.7878863
9.7881696
9.7884529
9.7887361
9.7890192
9.7893023
9.7895852
9.7898681
9.7901508
IO.2138156
IO.2135318
IO.2132480
IO.2129643
10.2126807
IO.2123972
IO. 2121137
IO.2H8304
10.21I5471
IO.2112639
0.2109808
O.2106977
O.2IO4I48
IO.2IOI319
IO.2098492
O.2095665
IO.2092839
O.209OOI3
IO.2087189
10.208436^
IO.208.l542
IO..2078720
10.2075899
IO.2073079
IO.2070259
IO.2067440
IO.2064622
IO.2061805
IO.2058989
IO.2056173
IO.2053I59
IO.2050545
10.2047732
IO.2044919
10.2042108
1'ang.
58 Degrees.
SINES AND TANGENTS.
32 Degrees
9.7244118
9.7246138
3 9.7248156
9.7250174
9-7252I,r
9.7254204
9.7256217 _ .
9.72582299.9277873
9.7260240
9.7262249
9.7264257
9.7266264
9.7268269
9.7270273
9.7272276
9.7274278
9.7276278
9.7278277
9.7280275
9.7282271
9.7284267
9.7286260
9.7288253
9,7290244
9.7292234
9.7294223
9.7296211
9.7298x97
9.7300182
9.7302165
9.7242097
9.927549°
9.9274695
9.9273899
9.9273103
9.9272306
9.7304x48
9.7306129
9.7308109
9-73ioo87
9-73i2o64
3 6 9*7314040
9.7316015
9.73x7989
9.73x996
9-73 219.3
9'73239°
9-732587c
43 9-7327837
9.7329803 9.
9-733!76fe
9-7333731 9-
9-733569. ,
9-7337654 9-
49 9-73396i4 9-
50 9-734I572
51
9-7343529 9-
9-7345485
53 9-7347440
9-7349393
9-735I345
569.73532969.
9-7355246
9-7357I95
59 9-7359142
9.7361088
^ C.-n.p,
Co'nip'
9.9284205
9.9283415
9.9282625
9.9281834
9.9281043
9.928025I
9^9279459
9.9278666
9.9277079
O.9276285
9.9263507
9.9262704
9.92619OI
9.9261096
9.9260292
9.9259487
9.925868
9-9257875
9.9257069
9.9246261
9-9255454
9.9254646
9-9253837
9.9253028
9.9252218
9.9251408
9-9250597
9.9249786
4.9248974
9.9248161
. '9247349
9.9246535
•924572
.9244907
9.9244092
.9243277
9.9242461
9.9241644
9.9240827
9.9240010
,9239x9
9-9238373
9-9237554
9-9236734
9-92359M
8002769
8065567
$008365
801ii6j
8013957
$016752
$019546
$022340
8025133
8027925
7957892
I Tang. Comp
7960703
79635*3
7966322
796913°
7971938
7974745
7977551
7980356
7983162
7985964
7988767
7991569
799437°
7997170
7999970
»0307i6
8033506
$036296
8039085
804*873
$04466:
8047447
80C023Q
8053019
$055803
$058587
1061370
1064152
8066933
8069714
8072494
8075273
8078052
080829
083606
086383
089158
09*933
094707
097480
100253
103025
*05796
108566
336
1*4*05
116873
119641
122408
*25*74
57 Degrees
'Tang.Comp.
10.2042108 60!
IO.2039297
10.2036487
IO.2033678
10.2030870
xo. 2028062
10.2025255
10.2022449
10.2019644
10.2016840
10.2014036
10.2011233
IO.2O0843
IO.2OO563O
IO.2OO283O
IO.2OOOO3O
0.199723
IO.I994433
99*635
IO.I988839
IO.I986043
IO.I983248
O.I980454
IO.I977660
IO.I974867
I0.I972075
O.I969284
IO.I96649433
IO.1963704
IO.I96O915
IO.I958127
*°-*955339
*o-*952553
10.1949767
0.1946981
10.1944197
0.19414x3
10.1938630
10.1935848
10.1933067
10.1930286
;o.i927 506 19
xo.1924727 18
10.192x948 17
xo.i9i9i7i|i6
10.1916394*5
0.19136x7114
10.1910842 13
10.1908667
10.1905293
£902520
o.*899747
0.1896975
0.1894204
0.1.891434
10.1888664
10.1885895
10^1883127
10.1880359
10.1877592
10.1874826
Tang.
269.
33 -Defa
M S.ne. | S.ne Comp.
O 9.736x0889.9235914
9.73824x2
9-7384343
9-7386273
9.7388201
9.7390129
9-7392055
9-7393980
9-7395904
9.7397827
9.7399748
9.7401668
9-7403587
9-7405505
9.7407,
9-7409337
9.73630329.9235093
9.73649769.9234272
9.7366918
9.7368859
9.7370799
9-7372737
9-7374675
9.737661
9-7378546
9.7380479
9-9233450
9.9232628
9.9231805
9.9230982
9.9230158
9.9229334
9.9228509
9.9227684
9.9226858
9.9226032
9.9225205
9.92243
9.9223549
9.922272
9.922189
9.9221062
9.9220232
9.921940
741*251
9.7413164
. 7415075
9.7416986
9.7418895
9.7420803
9.7422710
9.7424616
9.7426520
9.7428423
9.7434126
9.7436024
9-743792*
9.74398x7
9.744x712
9.7443606
9-7445498
9.9218570
9.9217738
9.9216906
9.9216073
9.9215240
.9214406
•9213572
.9212737
.9211902
.9211066
.9210229
•9209393
•9208555
.9207717
.9206878
9.7430325 9.9206039
9.74322269.9205200
9.9204360
9.9203519
9.9202678
9.9201836
9.9200994
9.9200151
9.9199308
9.7447390 9.9198464
9.7449280 9-91976*9
9,745 *16919.9.* 96775
9-7453°56 9-9*95929
9-7454943 9-9*95°83
9.74568289.919423
9.7458712
9.7460595
9.7462477
9.7464358
9.7466237
1.7468115
9.7469992
9.7471868
_ 9-7473743
609.7475617
e Comp.
9.8X25I74 I0.1874826|6C
8X83O98
8X85849
$188599
8I9I348
8X94096
8l 27939 *0.l87206l
8l30704JI0.l869296
8133468 10.1866532
8l3623ljlO.X863769
8138993! 10.1861007
8i4*755|*o-*858245. .
8144516110.185548453
8147277110.1852723
8150036 10.1849964
8i52795ixo.i847205
8*55554
81583*1
8161068
8163824
8166580
8*69335
$172089
8174842
8*77595
8*80347
$196844
8199592
$202338
$205084
8207829
8210574
8213317
8216060
8218803
8221545
8224286
8227026
8229766
8232505
1135.244
8237981
8240719
824345.
8246191
8248926
1.1844446
10.1841689
10.1838932
10.1836176
833420
10.1830665
10.1827911
10.1825158
0.1822405
0.18x9653
10.1816902
10.1814x51
10.1811401
10.1808652
10.1805904
io.1803156
10.1800408
10.-797662
10.1794916
io.x792X7i
'.1789426
10.1786683
*o.i 783940
10.1781197
>•*778455
10.1775714
*0.1772974
10.1770234
*0-1767495
0.1764756
10.1762019
10.1759281
10.1756545
10.1753809
o-*75*°74
10.1748340
10.1745606
*0.1742873
xo.1740140
x 0.1737408
0.1734677
10.173*947
0.1729217
0.1726487
10.1723759
10.1721031
’.0.17.1-8304
10-17*5577
10.1712851
10.1710126
Tang.
182
LOGARITHMIC Table op
34 Degrees
019-7470[7 9-9i85742
i|9-7477489 .
2 9-747936o 9-
39.7481230
49.7483099
59.7484967
169.7505434
9.7507287
18 9.7509x40
9-75I°99I
9.7512842
9.7496148 9.91763 36
1.7498007 9.9175478
,7499866
,7501723
9-7523579
9.751469
9.75x6538
9.75x8385
9.752023
9.7522075
9.75239x9
9-752576
9.7527602
9.7529442
9-7431 '
9.9184890
1,9184037
9.9x83183
9.9182329
9.9181475
9.9180620
9.9x79764
9.9178908
9.9178051
9-9I77I94
9.9x74619
9.9x73760
9.9172900
9.9172040
9-9I7II79
9.9x703x7
9.9169455
9.9168593
9.9167730
9.9166866
9.9x66002
9-9165i37
q.qi 64272
2809.
9-75331^
9-7534954
... 9-7536790
349.7538624
9-7540457
9.7542288
9-7544ii9
9-7545949
9-754777
9.7549604
9.9x547x5
9.9153846
9-9I52974
9.9152101
9^151228
9-7551431
9-7553256
9.7555080
9.7556902
9-7558724
9.7560544
9.7562364
9.7564182
•99-7565999
9-75678x5
9-9I3°354
9.9149749
9.9148604
9.9147729
9.9146852
9.7569630
9-757r444
9-7573256
549.7575068
9.7576878
9.7578687
9.7580495
9.7582302
9.7584108
9-75859I3
Sine Comp,
j ranij. C .inp
9.8 289874IX 0.1710126 6
9.8292599 x<
9.82953231
9.8298047 X
9.83007691
9.8303492 10.16965:08 5
3 iQ.1693787 5
410.1691066 5
410.16883465
4 xo.x685626 5
310.1682907 5
i 10.1680189 49
9 10.1677471 48
610.167475447
310.16720374'
9 10.166932
9.9163406
9.9162539
9.9161673
9.9160805
•9159937
9.834696
9.8349673 10.:
9.8352384
9-8355094
9.8357804
0.16666064
□ 10.1662801 4
10.1661177 4
10.1658464 4
9 10-1655751 4
9.9159069
9.9158200
9-9I5733°
9.9156460
9-9T5 '1589
9-8360513 1
9.8363221 1
9.8365929 i
9.8368636 x
9-837I343 1
9.8374049 1
9-8376755
9.8379460 i'
9.8382164 i
9.8384867 X_
653°39 3
16503273
16476163
1644906 3
6421963
).x6394B7 3
>.16367793
>.1634071 3
5-16313643
>.1628657 q
9.838757
9.8390273
9.8392975
9.8395676
9-8398377
012429 2
609727 2
10.1607025 2
1604324 2
10.1601623 2
9.9x45976
9-9145099
9.914422]
9-9I43342
9.9142464
9,9141584
9.9140704
9.9x39824
9-9I38943
9.9138061
9.840x077
9.8403776
9.8406475
9.8409174
9.841x871
9.8414569
9.8417265
9.8419961
9.8422657
9-842535
9.8428046
9-843°739
9-8433432
9.8436125
9.8438817
10.1598923 1
0.1596224 1
°-i593525 1
10.1590826 1
xo.x588x29 I
757^874377
10.15827351
10.1580039 I
10-1577343 1
10.15746491
9-9I37I79
9.9136296
9-913541,
9-9134530
9-9133645
Sine 1
9.8441508
9.8444199
9.8446889
9.8449579
9.8452268
°-l57I954
0.1569261
10.1 $66568
IO.I563875
0-156ll83
O.I558492
IO.I55580I
XO.I553III
10.1550421
IQ-1547732
55 Degre
Tang.
I
111
  35 Degrees  
Sine | Slue Comp. | I Tang. j Tang. Comp
9-7585913 9-9133645
1 9-758771? 9-9^2760
2 9-75895199-9131875
3 9-759i32i 9-9i30989
4 9-7593i2i 9.9I30J02
5 91594920 9^129215
9.75967189.9128328
9-7598515 9-9i2744o
9.7600311 9.9126551
9.7602x06 9.9125662
9.76038999.9124772
9.7605692 9.9123882
9.76074839.912299
9.76092749.9122099
9.761x063 9.9121207
9.7612851 9.9120315
9.7614638 9.9119422
9.7616424 9.9118528
9.76x8208 9.9117634
9.76199929.9116739
9.7621775 9.9115844
9-7623556 9.9114948
9-76253379-911405
9.76271169.9113155
9.7628894 9.9112257
9.7630671 9-9111359
9.7632447
9.7634222
9.7635996
9.7637769
9.9110460
9.910956
9.910866
9.910776.
9.7639540 9.910686:
9.7641311
9.76430809.9105057
9.7644849
9.76466x6
9.7648382
9-9io5959
9.7650147
9.76519x1
9.7653674
9-7655436
9.7657197
9-9A04i55
9-9io325
9.9102348
9-7658957
9.7660715
9.7662473
9.7664229
9.7665985
9.7667739
9.7669492
, 9-7671244
49 9-7672996
9.7674746
9.7676494
9.7678242
9.7679989
9.7681735
9.7683480
9.7685223
9.7686966
9.7688707
9.7690448
9-7692187
Sine Comp.
9-9IOI444
9.9100539
9.9099634
9.9098728
9-909782
9.9096915
9.909600'
9.9095090
9-909419°
9-9°9328
9.9092371
9.909146:
9.9090550
9.9089639
9.9088727
9.9087814
9.908690.
9.908 5988
9.9085073
9.9084159
9.845 2268[ IQ. X 5477 j2|6ol
0.153x61054
10.153892553
I0.152624052
IO-I523556 51
jo. 152087350
10.1518190 49
10.1515508 48
10.151282647
10.1510x45 46
10.150746445
□.150478444
10.1502x0443
xo.1499425 42
0.149674741
0.149406940
8535352 1
8538023 1
8540694 1
8543365 1
85460341
8548704 1
8551372 1
8554041 1
8556708
8559376
io-1437958i
T4352921
10.1432626 17
0.1429961 16
J427296 15
0.1424632 1
10.1421969 I
10.14x9306 1
0.1416643 1
xo.i4i398i
10.1411320
10.1408659
10.1405998
10.1403339
10.1400679
10.1398020
'0.1395362
10.1392704
10.1390046
10.1387390
54 Degrees
Tang. Comp Tang.
SINES AND TANGENTS.
9.769218*’ 9.9079576
36 Degrees
9-7693925
9.7695662
9.7697398
9.7699134
9.7700868
9.7702601
9-77°4332
9.7706063
9.7707793
9.7709522
9.7711249
9.7712976
9-77I4702 ,
9.77164269.
9.7718150 9.(
9.7719872
9-772I593
9-77233I4
9-7725°33
9.7726751
21 9.7728468
|9-773o: "
9.7731900
9-77336i4
9-77353n9-
9-7737039
9-7738749
9-7740459
, 9-7742i68
3£ 9-7743876
31
. 9-7745583
329.7747288
33
34
35
9-7748993
9.7750697
9-7752399
5292
9.7754101
9-77558oi
9-77575o:
9-7759I99
9.7760897
9-7762593.
9.77642899.
9.7765983
9.7767676
9.7769369
9.7771060
9.7772750
9-7774439
19.7776128
'•7777815
9-7779501
9.7781186
82870
f9-7784553
9.7786235
.9078658
.9077740
.9076820
.9075901
-9074980
•9074059
.9072216
.9071293
-9070370
.9069446
.9068522
.9067597
.9066671
■9065745
.9064819
.9063892
.9062964
.9062036
.9061107
.9060177
.9059247
•9058317
.9057386
■9056454
.9055522
.9054589
•9053656
.9052722
-9051787
.9050852
.9049916
.9048980
.9048043
.9047106
.9046168
■904523°
.9044291
■9°4335
.904241
9041470
.9040529
•9039587
.9038644
■903770:
9-903675?
9-90358 J..
9.9034868
9.9033923
9-9°32977
9.9032031
9.9031084
9.9030136
9.9029188
9.9028239
9.7787916
9.7789596
9.7791275
9-7792953,, ...
9.7794630 9.9023486
9.9027289
9.9026339
9.9025389
9.9024438
9.8612610
$615267
8617923
$620578
8623233
8625887
$62854:
8631195
8633848
$636500
8639152
$641803
8644454
8647105
8649755
8652404
8655053
865770^
$660350
8662997
$665644
$668291
8670937
8673583
8676228
$678873
8681517
868416c
Tang.
T,ng. Cnmrv 1
O-1387390 60I
0.1384733,59
0.138207758
0.137942257
0.137676756
°-I37411 $j <;
°-I37I459 54
0.1368805 53
0.1366152 5 2
0.1363500 51
0.1360848 50
0.1358197
O.I355546
°-i352895
0.1350245 _
°-i347596 4^
$689446
8692089
869473
869737
8700013
8702653
8705293
8707933
8710572
8713210
8715848
8718486
8721123
8723760
8726396
8729032
8731668
873430:
8736937
8739571
8742204
8744838
8747470
8750102
8752734
8755365
8757996
8760627
8763257
8765886
8768515
877*i44
0.1344947
0.1342298
0.1339650
°-* 33 7003
o-*334356
0.1331709
0.1329063
0.1326417
0.1323772
0.1321137
Taag-Comp
. 53 Degrees
0.1318483
0.131584033
0.1313196
0.13*0554
*3079*
0.1305269
0.1302628
0.1299987
o-* 297347
0-1294707
0.1292067
0.1289428
0.1286790
0.1284152
0.1281514
0.1278877
0.1276240
0.1273604
0.1270968
0.1268332
0.1265698
0.1263063
0.1260429
0.1257796
0.1255162
0.1252530
0.1249898
0.1247266
0.1244635
0.1242004
°-*239373
0.1236743
0.1234114
o.* 23 * 485
10.1228856
Jang.
9.7813OIO
9.7814675
*3 9-7816339
1419.7818002
59.7819664 9.
9.7821324
9.7822984
9.7824643
19 9.7826301
9.7827958
9.7829614
9.7831268
9.7832922
24 9-7834575
9.7836227
iin'eC mip. [~
9-7794630 9-9Q23 486
9.7796306
9-779798
9-7799655
9.7801328
9.7003000 9.
9.780467
9.780634:
9.7808010
9.7809677
9.7811344
9.9022534
9.902158:
9.9020628
9.9019674
>.9018719
9.9017764
9.9016808
9.9015852
9-9014895
9-90*3938
9.7837878
, 9-7839528
28 9.7841177
9.7842824
9-784447
, .846117
9.7847762
9.7849406
9.7851049
9.785269
9.9012980
9.9012021
9.9011062
9.9010102
■9009142
9.9008x81
9.9007219
9.9006257
9.9005294
9.9004331
9.9003367
9.9002403
9.9001438
9.9000472
9.8999506
9-7854332
9-7855972
9.7857611
9-7859249
40 9.7860886
9.7862522
9.7864157
9.7865791
9.7867424
9.7869056
9.7870687
9.7872317
9.7873946
9-7875574
9.7877202
9.787882:8
9.7880453
9.7882077
549.7883701
9-78853
56
5'.
58
9.7886944
9.7888565
9.7890184
9.7891"
9.7893420
Sine Comp.
37 Degrees
9-8998539
9.8997572
9.8996604
9.8995636
9.8994667
9.8993697
9.8992727
9.8991756
9.8990784
9.8989812
9.8988840
9.8987867
9.8986893
9.8985919
9.8984944
9.8969265
9.8968280
9.8967294
<2.8966308
9.8965321
9-877* *44
9.8800031
9.8802654
9.8805277
9.8807900
9.8810522
9.8813144
9.8815765:
9.8818386
9.8821007
9.8823627
9.8826246
9.8828866
9.8831484
9.8834103
9^836721
I f ang. C imp, |
0.1,19996949
IO.II97346
IO.II94723
0.II92100
0.118685644
10.1184235 ,
10.1181614.
10.1178993
10.* 176373
9.8839338
9.8841956
9.8844572
9.8847189
9.884980
0-1*7375439
10.117113438
10.116851637
16589736
10.116327935
9.885242c
9*8855°35
9.8857650
9.8860264
9.8862878
9.8865492
9.8868105
9.8870718
9-887333°
9.8875942
9.8878554
9.8881165
98883773
9.8886386
9.8888997$
9.889160;
9.8894214
9.8896823
9-8899432
9.8902040
9.8904647
9.8907254
9.8909861
9.8912468:
9.8915074
9.8917679
9.8920285
9.8922890
9-8925494
9.8928098
0.122885660
4^
0.118947845
10.116066234
10.115804433
10.115542832
10.1152811
10.1150195
147580
10.1144965
10.1142350
IO-**39736
10.1137122
134508
10.1131895
10.1129282
10.1126670
124058
0.1121446:
0.1118835
0.1116225
10.111361416
10.111100415
0.1108395
0.1105786
•10.1103177
10.1x00568
0.1097960
*0-*°95353
10.1092746
IQ. IO9OI39
IO.I087532
IO.I084926
Tang.Comp.
IO.I08232X
IO.IQ79715
10.1077110
O.IO74506
IO.IO71902
52 Degrees
.81
LOGARITHMI
38 Degrees.
9-7935135.9-^93943^
9-79367 27i9-^93°45o
9-79383i7'9-8937452
9-79399°7|9-8936448
9.79414969-8935444
9-7943o83j9-
9-794467°i9-
9.7946256;9-
9-794784i'9-
9-7949425|9:
8934439
'•8933433
1.8932426
1.8931419
1.89304
9.8982700
9.8985296
9.8987892
9.8990487
9.8993082
[ I'aii-v.
:• Com
9.892809810.1071902 6:
9.8930702
9-89333°6
9-8935909
9.8938511
9.8941114
9-89437I5
9.8946317
9.8948918
9-89515^
9.8954119
9.8956719
9-8959319
9.8961918
9.8964517
9-8967
9.8969714
9.8972312
9.8974910
9.8977507
9.8980104
9.8995677
9.8998271
9.9000865
9.9003459
9.9006052
7 3 00
10.1014704
10.1012108
10.1009513
006918
9-9°34555
9.9037144
9-9039733
9.9042321
9.9044910
9.9047497
9.9050085
9.9052672
9-9055259
9.9057845
9.906042
9.9063017
9.9065603
9.9068188]
9 9070773'
10.1069298
10.1066694
10.1064091
10.1061489
10.1058886
0.105628 5
0.1053683
2.1051082
0.104848
0.104588
0.1043281
0.1040681
0.1038082
3-io35483|46
■ 103288445
10.1030286 44
10.1027688
10.1025090
10.1022493
10.1019896 40
10.1004323
10.1001729
10.0999135
10.0996541
10.0993948
10.0991355
10.0988763
10.0986170
10.0983578
10.0980987
10.0978396 24
10.0975805C3
10.0973214
10.0970624
10.0968034
10.0965445
1.0962856
10.0960267
>.0957679
10.0955090115
10.09C2C02 14
IO.O9499I5
O.O947328
IO.O94474I
•0942X55
I0-0939569
0.0936983
10-0934397
10.0931812
10.0929227
9-9073357,
9.9075941
9.9078525!
9.9081109;
9.90836921
51 Degre
Tang.Comp-
..0926643
IO.0924C59
IO.O921475
10.0918891
IO.0916308
—
09.7988718^.8905026 9.9083692 io.09t63o8i6o)
9.7990278
9.7991836
9-7993394
9-799495
9-7996507
9.799806
9.7999616
9.80011699.
9.8002721
9.8054272
Table of
39 Degrees.'
Comp. •' I ,T«mg- J 1'
9.8904003
9.8902979
9.8901954
9.8900929
9.8899903
9.8005823
9.8007372
9.8008921
9.8010468
9.8012015
9.8013561
9.80151069.
9.8016649
9.8018192
9.801973;
9.80212769.8
9.80228169.8
9-8024355 9.8
9.80258949.8
9.8027431
9.8028968 9-8
9.8030504 9.8
9.8032038 9.8
9.80335729.8
9-8o35io5 9 "
41 9.8051908
429.8053430
43 9-8054951
44 9-8056472
45 9-8o5799r
9.8873019
9.8871977
9.8870934
9.8869890
9.8868846
9X867801
9.8866756
9.8865710
9.8864663
9.8863616
69.80595--
r7 9.8061027
^8 9.8062544
.9 9.8064060
o 9.8065575
1 9.8067089
2 9.8068602
9.8070114
9.8071626
9.8073136
9.8074646
9.8862568
9.8861519
9.8860470
9.8859420
9.8858370
9.8076*54
9.8077662
9.8079169
9.8080675
Sine Comp.
9-88573I9
9.8856267
9.8855215
9.8854162
9.8853109
9.8852055
9.885IOOO
9.8849945
9.8848889
9.8847832
9.8846775
9.8845717
9.8844659
9.8843599
9.8842540
9.8898877
9.8897850
9.8896822
9.8895794
9.8894765
9.8893736
9.8892706
9.8891675
9.8890644
9.8889612
9X888^80
9.8887547
9.8886513
6.8885479
9.8884444
9.912498
9-9I27559
9-9I3OI37
99132714
99x3529*
9.9137868
9.9x40444
9.9143020
9.9145596
9.9148171
9.9086275
9.9088858
9.9091440
9.9094022
9.9096603
10.0913725
10.0911142
10.0908560
10.0905978
10.0903397
10.0900815
10.0898234
10.0895653
10.0893073
10.0890493
10.0887913
10.0885334
10.0882755
10.0880176
10.0877597
9.9150747
9-9I53322
9.9155896
9.915847
9.9161045
9.9163618
9.9166192
9.9168765
9-9I7I338
9-9X739
9.9176483
9-9X79055
9.9181627
9.9184198
9.9186769
9-9189340
9.9191911
9.9194481
9-9I97°5I
9.9199621
9.92o'2i9i
9.9204760
9.9207329
9.9309898
9.9212466
9.9215034
9.9217602
9.9220170
9.9222737
9.9225304
9.9227871
9-9230437
9.9233004
9-923557°
9-9238x35
Tang Comp.
.087 5019
10.0872441
IO.0869863
IO.0867286
IO.0864709
IO.086213239
10.0859556
IO.0856980
IO.0854404
10.0851829
IO.0849253
IO.0846678
IO.0844104
0.0841529
10.0838955
0.0836382
IO.0833808
0.0831235
0.0828662
0.0826089
0.0823517
IO.0820945
IO.0818373
>.0815802
10.08)3231
10.0810660
IO.0808089
10.0805519
0.0802949
10.0800379
IO.0797809
IO.0795240
IO.0792671
.0790102
10.0787534
>.0784966
10.0782398
IO.0779830
10.0777263
,.0774696
O.0772129
O.0769563
IO.0766996
O.0764430
0.0761865
50 Degrees
Tang.
table, LOGARITHMIC SINES and TANGE NTS.
40 Degrees
11-
jSme Comp. | [ Tang.
9.8o8o675 9.8842540
9.80821809.8841479
9.8083684
9.8085188
9.8086690
9.8088192
9.8089692
9.8091192
9.8092691
9.8094189 9.8832974
9.8095686 9.8831908
9.883084:
9.8829774
9.8828706
9.8827638
9.8103159 9.8826568
169.81046509.8825499
9.810614]
9.810763 j
9.8109121
9.9110609 9.8821213
9.8112096
9.8113583
9.8115069
9.811655I
9.8118038
9.8824428
9-8823357
9.8822285
9.8820140
9.8819067
9.8817992
9.8816918
9.8815842
9-8i34303
9-8i35777
9.8137250
9.8138721
9.8140192
9.814166;
9-%I43I3
9.8144600
9:8146067
9-8i47534
.6r9.8i48999
9.8150464
9.8151928
9-8J53391
9.8154854
9.81563159.
9.8157776
9-8i59235.
9.8160694 9.
9.8162152
9.8165066
9.8166521
9.8167975
~3 9-8809376
9.8808296
9.8807215
1.8806134
>■8805052
9.8803970
9.8802887
9.8801803
9.8800719
9.8799634
9.8798548
9.8797462
9-8796375
9.8795287
9.8794199
9-8793110
9.8792021
89.8790930
9.8789840
9.8788748
j. 8 7876.56
9.8786563
9.878547°
9.8784376
9.8783281
9.8163609 9.8782186
9.8781090
9.8779994
9.8778896
9.816942919.8777799
9.9238135 10.0761805
9.9240701
9.9243266
9,9245831
9.9248396
9-6250960
9-9253524
9.9256088
9.9258652
9.9261215
9.9263778
9.926634:
9.9268904
9.9271466
9.9274028
9.9276590
10.0759299
10.0756734
IO.0754169
10.0751604
10.0749040
9-9317547
9.9320105
9.9322662
9.9325220
9-9327777
9-9330334
9-933389o
9-9335446
9.9338003
9-9340559
9-9343 “4
9.9345670
9.9348225
9.9350780
9-9353335
9-9355889
9-9358444
9.9360998
9-9363552
9.9366105
9^368659
9.9371212
9-9373765
9-9376318
9.937887
rang. Comp. |
.0746476
.°7439i2
,0741348
-0738785
.0736222
5-0733659 4'
5.0731096 4!
5.0728534 4:
5.0725972
5.0723410
5.0720848
5.0718287
5.0715720
5.0713165
5.0710604
5.0708044
5.0705484
5.0702924
5.0700364
5.0697805
5.0695245
5.0692686
3.0690128
3.0687569
3.06850:
9-9381423,
$•9383975 IO-
9.9386527110.
9.938 9079I10.
9.9391631; 10.
.0618577
.0616025
.0613473
.0610921
■0608369
Degrees
o 9.8169429 9.
119.8170882
2j9-8172334
39.8173785
4i9-8i7.5235
5:9.8176685
69-8178133
79.8179581
8 9.8181028
99.8182474
to 9.8183919
9.8185364
9.8186807
9.8188250
9.8189692
9.8191133
9-8i92573
9.8194012
9.8195450
9.8196888
9.8198325
9.8199761
9.8<20ii96 9-
9.8202630
9,8204063
9.8205496
9.8206927
9.8208358
9.8209788
9.8211217
9.8212646
9.8760145
9.8759036
9.8757927
9.8756816
9.8755706
9.8754594
.8753482
9.8752369
9.8751256
9.875014
9.8214073
9.8215500
9.8216926
9.8218351
9-8219775
9.82211^
9.8222621
9.8224042
9.8225463
9.8226883
9.8228302
9.8229721
9.8231138
9-8232555
9-8233971
9.8235386
9.8236800
9.8238213
9.8239626
9.8241037
9.8242448
9.8243858
9.8245267
9.8246676
9.8248083
9.8249490
9.8250896
9.8252301
9-8253705
9.8255109
41 Degrees
9.8749027
9.8747912
9.8746795
9.8745679
9-874456
9-8743443
9.8742325
9-874I205
9.8740085
9-8738965
9.8737844
9.8736722
9-8735599
9.8734476
9-8733352
9.8732227
9.8731102
9.8729976
9.8728849
9.8727722
9.8726594
9.8725466
9-8724337
9.8723207
9.8722076
9.8720945
9.8719813
9.8718681
9.8717548
9.8716414
9.8715279
9.8714144
9.8713000
9.8711872
9-87I0735
| Tang. | Tan^. Comp. |
9.939163]
9.9394182
9-9396733
9.9399284
9.9401835
9 940438
9.9406936
9.9409486
9.9412036
9.9414585
9-94I7I35
.941968:
•9422233
9,942478
9-9427331
9.9429879
9.9432428
9-9434976
9.9437524
9.9440072
9-9442619
9.9445166
9.94477T4
9.945026:
9.945280;
9-945535;
9.9521503
9x9524045
9-9526587
9.9529128
9-953i67o
9.9534211
9-9536752
9-9539293
9-954I834
9-9544374
Tang Comp.
48 Degree
10.0608369 60
59
58
10.0605818
10.0603267
10.0600716
1 a.0598165
10.0,-956
10.0593064
10.0590514
10.0587964
10.0585415
10.05828^
10.0580316
10.0577767
10.0575218
10.0572669
10.0570121
10.0567572
10.0565024
10.0562476
10.0559928
io-°55738i
10.0554834
10.0552286
10.0549739
10.0547193
10.054464635
34
10,0542
Io-°539553
10.0537007
10.053 44 6
10.0531916
10.052937c
10.0526825
10.052428c
10.0521735
100519190
10.0516645
10.0514x01
10.0511557
10.0509013
10.0506469
10.0503925
10.0501381
10.0498838
10.0496295
10.0493752
10.0491209 14
10.0488666 I3
10,04861241
i 0.04835 81
10.0478497 9
: 0*04759 55 8
10.047.3413
10.0470872
10.0468330 5
.0465789
xp.0463248
10.0460707
10.0458166
10.0455626
Ji
S85
VouX. Parti.
286
LOGARITHMIC SI
2
89 9-8309209
Sine (.Sine Comp
42 Degrees
9.8255109
9.82565
9.825791^
9.82593149.
9.82607x5
9.8262114
9.826351:
9.82649K
9.8 26630^
9.8267703
9.6269098
9.8270493
9.8271887
9.82732799.
149.827467:
9.8276063
169.8277453
-9.8278843
9.8280231
199.8281619
9.8283006
9.8284393
22 9.8285778
23 9.8287163
24 9.8288547
25 9.8289930
9.8686700
9.8685548
9.8684396
9.8683242
9.8682088
9.8291312
9.8292694
9.8294075
299.8295454
9.8296833
9.8310580
9.8298212
9.8299589
9.8300966
9.8302342
9-83°5°9
9.8306464
9.8307837
. 9-83I195°
42
9.8314688
9.8316056
9.8317423
9.8318789
9.8320155
. 9-8321519
49 9-8322883
9.8324246
519.8325609
„ : 9-8326970
53 9-8328331
54 9-8329691
55 9-8331050
9-87I0735
9.8698182
9.8697037
9.8695^91
9.8694744
9.8693597
9.8692449
9.8691301
9.8690152
9.8689002
9.868785
9.868093.
9.8679779
9.8678623
9.8677466
9.8676309
9.8675151
9.8673992
9.8672833
9.8671673
.8670512
866935:
8668189
>8667026
9.8665863
.8664699
'•8663534
.8662369
.866x203
.8660036
.8658868
9.8657700
1.8656531
'•8655362
.8654192
.865302
9.8651849
9.8650677
9.8649504
9.8648331
9.8647146
56 9.8332408
579-8333766
58 9-8335i22
599-8336478
60(9-8337833
9.8645981
9.8644806
9.8643629
9.8642452
9.8641275
Tiing- | T,)ng: Cornp.j
9-9544374 10.0455626 60
9.9546915
9-9549455
9-955I995
9-9554535
9-9557075
9.9559615
9.9562154
9.9564964
9-9567233
9.9569772
9-9S723ii
9.9574850
9-9577389
9-9579927
9.9582465
10.0453085
10.0450545
10.0448005
10.0445465
10.0442925
9.9585004
9-95 8754’
9.9590080
9.95926x8
9-9595I55
9.962306
9.9625597
9.9628133
9.9630669
9.9633204
9-9597693
9.9600230
9.9602767
9.9665305
9.9607842
9.9610378
9.9612915
9,9615452
9.9617988
9.9620525
9-9635740
9.9638275
9.9640811
9-9643346
9.964588:
9.9653486
9.9656020
9-9658555
10.0440385
10.0437846
I0-04353°6 52
10.0432767
100430228
10.042768949
10.0425150
10.0422611
10.0420073
x0.04x7535
10.0414996 44
10.041245843
10.0409920
10.0407382
10.0404845
0.0402307
10.0399770
10.0397233
10.0394695
36
10.039215835
10.0389622
10.0387085
10.0384548
10.0382012
IO-°379475
x°-0376939
10.0374403
10.0371867
x 0.03 693 31
10.0366796
10.0364260
10.0361725
10.0359189
10.0356654
10.0354119
9.9648416 xo.o35I584 19
9-965095* 10.0349049 *8
40
9.9661089
9.9663623
9.9666157
9.9668692
9.9671225
9-9673759
9.9676293
9.9678827
9.9681360
9.9683893
9.9686427
9.9688960
9.9691493
10.0346514
,0-o34398°
10.0341445
10.033891 x
10.0336377
xo.0333843
10.0331308
10.0328775
10.0326241
10.0323707
10.0321173
x 0.0318640
10.0316107
IO*°3I3573
10.03 j 1040
10.0308507
9.9694026 10.0305974
9.9696559(10.0303441
'l'a»g.Cump:l Tang.
47 Degrees
N E S TANGENTS. Table,
sr:—  
9-8337833
9.8339188
9.8340541
9.8341894
9.8343246
9-834459?
9.8345948
9.8347297
9.8348646
9.8349994
9.835x341
9.8640096
9.8638917
9-8637737
9.8636557
9.8635376
9.8352688
9-8354033
.9-8355378
49-8356722
5 9.8358066
43 Degrees'
Sine Comp, J ~
9.8641275
9.8634194
9.86330x1
9.8631828
9.8630644
9.862946c
9-8359408
9.8360750
9.8362091
*9 9-836343*
9.836477:
269.8372791
9.8374125
28 9-8375458
299.8376790
3£ 9.8378122
319.8379453
329.8380783
339.8382112
349.8383441 9.8600821
35 9-8384769 9-8599619
9.8366109
9.8367447
23 9.8368784
24 9.8370121
25 9-837*456
9.8622338
9.8621148
9.8619958
9.86x8767
9.86x7576
9.8628274
9.8627088
9.8625902
9.8624714
9.8623526
9.8616383
9.8615190
9-8613997
9.8612803
9.8611608
9.8610412
9.8609215
9.8608018
9.8606821
9.8605622
369.83860969-8598416
37 9-8387422 9-85972*3
38 9.8388747 9.8596009
39 9-8390072 9.8594804
4£ 9-839*396 9-8593599
4* 9.8392719 9-8592393
42 9.8394041 9.8591186
43 9-8395363 9-8589978
44 9.83966849-8588770
45,9-8398004 9-858756
46 9.8399323 9.8586351
47 9.84006429-858514*
48 9.8401959 9.8583929
49 9.8403276 9.85827x8
50 9.8404593 9.8581505
5* 9.8405908 9.8580292
52 9.8407223 9.8579078
53 9-8408537 9-8577863
54 9.8409850 9.8576648
55 9.8411162 9-857543
569.84124749.8574215
57 9-84*3785 9-8572998
9.8604423
9.8603223
9.8602022
9.8415095 9.8571779
9.84164049.8570561
9-84*77*3 9-857934:
tang.'
9-9696559
9.9699091
9.9701624
9.9704157
9.9706689
9.9709221
9-97**754
9.97x4286
9.97168x8
9-97*9350
9.9721882
9.9724413
9.9726945
9.9729477
9.9732008
9-9734539
9-973707*
9.9739602
9-9742I33
9.9744664
9-9747*95
9.9749726
9-9752257
9-9754787
9-97573*8
9-9759849
9.9762379
9.9764909
9.9767440
9-9769970
9.9772500
9-9775030
9.977756o
9.9780090
9.9782620
9.9785149
9.9787679
9.9790209
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■9797797
Tang. Comp. 1
10.03 03 441 |6o
x 0.0300909 59
10.029837658
10.029584357
10.0293311 56
10.02907 79(55
0.028824654
10.028571453
10.0283182 5 ji
10.028065051
xo.0278118 50
o-°275587 49
10.027305548
10.027052347
10.026799246
10.0265461 45
10.026292944
10.0260398 43
10.0257867 42
10.02553364:
10.0252805
.10.0250274:3;
.0247743
10.0245213 31
10.024268236
10.024015x 35
40
0.0237621
10.0235091
10.0232560 3:
10.0230030
10.0227500
10.0224970
10.0222440
10.0219910
10.0217380 26
10.021485
9.9S12972
9.9815501
9.9818030
9.9820559
9.9823087
9.9800326
9.9802856
9.9805385
9.9807914
9.9810443
10.0187028
10.0184499
10.0181970
10.0179441
10.0176913
9.9825616
9.9828145
9.9830673
9.9833202
9-983573°
9.9838259
9.9840787
9-98433*5
9-9845844
9.9848372
46 Degrees
Tang.Comp.
IO.0212321
io.o20979x
,10.0207262
10.0204732
10.0202203
10.0199674
10.0197144
10.0194615
10.0192086
*0.0189557
27
10.0174384] 9
10.01718551
10.0169327
10.0x66798
10.0164270
10.0161741I
10.0159213 3
10.0156685
10.0154156
10.01.51628I o
Jang-
'able, LOGARITHMIC SINES and TANGENTS,
*B7
9.8417713
9.8419021
9.8420328
9.8421634
9.8422939
3
4, .   .  
3 9.84242449.8563232
9.8425548
9.8426851
9.8428154
9.8429456
9.8430797
9.8432057
9-8433856
9-8434655!
9-8435953
44 Degrees
9.8569349
Sine Comp.
9.856812X
9.85669OO
9.8565678
9.8564455
9.8562008
9.8560784
9-8559558
9-8558332
9.8557106
9.8555878
9.8554650
9-855342I
9.8552192
9.84372509.8550961
9.845x470
9.8452758
9.8454045
9-8455332
9-8438547
9.8439842
9.844x137
9.8442423
9-84437 251 ;
9.8445018:
9.8446310
9.844760
9.844889:
9.8450181
9-8537381
9.8536142
9.8534902
9.8533662
9.845661819.8532421
Tang.
9.9848372
9.98 509OO
9.9853428
9-9855956
9.9858484
9.9861012
9-9863540
9.9866068
9.9868596
9.9871123
9-987365I
9.9876179
9.9878706
9.9881234
9.9883761
9.9886289
IO.OI3646054
IO.O13393253
IO.OI3140452
IO.O128877I51
IO.O126349I50
9.9888816
9.9891344
9.9893871
9.9896399
9,9898926
9.9901453
9.9903981
9.9906508
9.9909035
9.9911562
9.9914089
9.9916616
9.9919143
9.9921670
9.9924197
IO.OI49IOO59
io.oi46752!58
xo.oi44044l57
10.0x4151656
io.oi38g88l55
10.012382X
IO.0I2I294
10.0118766
0.01x6239
0.0113711
0.0111184
0.0108656
0.0106129
10.010360
10.0101074
0.0098547
10.0096019
10.0093492
10.0090965
10.0088438
10.00815911
10.0083384
10.00808 57
10.0078320
10.0075803
45 Degrees
3
32
33
34
35
36 9-
9.8457903
9.8459188
9.8460471
9.8461754
9.8463036
,.8464318
9-8465599
9.8466879
9.8468158
9.8469436
469.
49 9-
I Sine Comp
9.8456618
9-853242I
9.8470714
9.8471991
9.8473267
. '-8474543
9-84758I7
1.847709:
,1.8478365
9.8479637
9.8480909
9.8482180
9.8483450
9.8484720
9.8485989
9.8487257
9.8488524
9.8518721
9.85x7471
9.8516220
9.8514969
9.8513717
9.8512465
9.85H211
9-85°9957
9.8508702
9.8507446
9.8506190
9-8504933
9-8503675
9.8502417
9.8501157
9.848979:
9.8491057
9.8492322
9.8493586
1.8494850
9.8499897
9.8498637
9-8497375
9.8496113
9.8494850
Sine Comp.
Degrees
an%-
9.9924197
9.9926724
9.9929251
9.9931778
9-9934305
9.9936832
9-9939359
9.9941886
9-99444I3
9.9946940
9-9949466
9-9951993
9.9954520
9-9957047
9-9959573
9.9962100
9.9964627
9.9967154
9.9969681
9.9972207
9-9974734
9.9977260
9.9979787
99982314
9.9984840
9-998736-
9.9989893
9.9992420
9.9994947
9-9997473
10.0000000
Tang. Comp, j
io.oo758o3|3«
10.0073276
1O.0070749
10.0068222
10.0065695
10.0063168
10.0060641
10.0058114
10.0055587
10.0053060 2
10.0050534
10.0048007
10.0045480
10.0042953
10.0040427
10.0037900
10.0035373
10.0032846
: 0.0030320
:o.oo25793
0.0022266
r'0.0022740 9
10.0020213 ^
10.0017686 7
10.0015160 6
10.0012633
10.0010107
.0007580
10.0005053
10.0002527
0.0000000
45 Degrees
* allK- I c
  1
LOG
LOG
cjtcLXxin,
M,ogarith> LOGARITHMIC CURVE. If on the line AN
o|ic curve wayS Jnd'finitely extended, be taken A C, C E,
E G, G I, I L, on the right hand ; and aifo Ag,g P,
&c, on the left, all equal to one another : and if at the
points P^, A, C, E, G, I, L, be erected to the right
line A N, the perpendiculars PS, ^<7, A B, C D, E F,
G H, 1 K, L M, which let be continually propor¬
tional, and reprefent numbers, viz. AB, 1 ; CD, 10;
EF, 100, &c. then (hall we have two progreffions of
lines, arithmetical * and geometrical: for the lines
AC, AE, AG, £cc. are in arithmetical progreffion,
or as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. and fo reprefent the logarithms
to which the geometrical lines A B, CD, E F, &c.
do correfpond. For fince AG is triple of thefirftline
AC, the number GH {hall be in the third place from
unity, if C D be in the firit: fo likewife {hall L M be
in the fifth place, fince ALcry AC. If the extremi¬
ties of the proportionals S, d, B, D, F, &c. be joined
by right lines, the figures S B M L will become a po-
lygon, confifting of more or lefs fides, according as
there are more or lefs terms in the progreffion.
If the parts A C, C E, EG, &c. be bifedted in the
points c, e, g, i, /, and there be again raifed the per¬
pendiculars, cd, ef,gh, ik, Im, which are mean pro¬
portionals between A B, CD, CD, E F, &c. then
there will arife a new feries of proportionals, whofe
terms, beginning from that which immediately follows
unity, are double of thofe in the firfl feries, and the I^gaoth-
difference of the terms is become lefs, and approach mic Clirve;
nearer to a ratio of equality than before. Likewife, “ ^
in this new feries, the right lines AL, Ac, exprefs the
diftances of the terms LM cd, from unity, viz. fince
AL is ten times greater than Ac, LM {hall be the tenth
term of the feries from unity : and becaufe A e is three
times greater than Ac, ef will be the third term of
the feries if c c? be the firft, and there fhall be two mean
proportionals between AB and e j\ and between AB
and LM there will be nine mean proportionals. And
if the extremities of the lines B d, D/, F h, &c. be
joined by right lines, there will be a new polygon
made, confifting of more but ihorter fides than the laft.
If, in this manner, mean proportionals be continual¬
ly * placed between every two terms, the number of
terms at lalt will be made fo great, as alfo the number
of the fides of the polygon, as to be greater than any
given number, or to be infinite ; and every fide of the
polygon fo leffened, as to become lefs than any given
right line ; and confequently the polygon will be chan¬
ged into a curve-lined figure; for any curve-lined fi¬
gure may be conceived as a polygon, whofe fides are
infinitely fmall and infinite in number. A curve defcri-
bed after this manner is called logarithmicaL
It is manifeft from this defcription of the logarith¬
mic curve, that all numbers at equal diftances are con-
A a 2 tinually
LOG [ 188 1 LOG
tinually proportional. It is alfo pirn, that if there be cated by thefe right lines will have the fame common Logarithm
four numbers, AB, CD, IK, L.M, fuch that the di- ratio ; and, jdly, That the feries thus indicated by two m‘cLinej»
ftance between the fir ft and fecond be equal to the di- parallel right lines, fuppofed to move laterally, without
ftance between the third and the fourth, let the di- changing either their mutual diftance or parallelifm
ftance from the fecond to the third be what it will, to themfelves, will have each the fame ratio, and in all
thefe numbers will be proportional. For becaufe the feries indicated by fuch two lines, the ratio between an
diftances AC, IL, are equal, AB /hall be to the incre- antecedent and confequent; the former taken upon one
ment D r, as IK is to the increment.MT. Wherefore, line, and the latter upon another, will be alfo the fame,
by compofition, AB . DC :: IK: ML. And, contra- The ijl of thefe propofitions is proved in the fol-
riwife, if four numbers be proportional, the diftance lowing manner. Let the lines AB, CD, EF, repre-Pfate-
between the firft and fecond fhall be equal to the di- fent parts of the logarithmic .line arranged according ^
ftance between ^the third and fourth. to the proportion already mentioned ; and let GH be
The diftance between any two numbers is call- a right line pafting through the points e, c, a, denoting
ed the logarithm of the ratio of thofe numbers ; and, in- numbers in geometrical progreffion ; then will any
deed, doth not meafure the ratio itfelf, but the num- other line IK, drawn acrofs the arrangement, likewife
her of terms in a given feries of geometrical propor- pafs through three pointsf,d, b, in geometrical pcogref-
tionals, proceeding from one number to another, and lion. From one of the points of interfe&ion f in the
defines the number of equal ratios by the compofition lait mentioned line IK, draw the line fg parallel to
whereof the ratios of number is known. GH, and interfering the arrangement in,the points
Logarithmic Lines. For many mechanical purpofes h; and the ratios of the numbers e,f cyi, will be
it is convenient to have the logarithms of numbers laid equal, as well as of a, h; becaufe the intervals on the’
down on feales, as- well as the logarithmic fines and logarithmic line, or differences of tire logarithms of
tangents ; by, which means, computations may be car- thofe numbers, are equal. Again, the point f the line
ried on by mere menfuration with cotnpaffes. Lines if and the line hb, are in arithmetical progreffion de-
of this kind are always put on the common Gunter’s noting the differences between the logarithms of the
fcale ; but as thefe inftruments muft be extended to a numbers themfelves ; whence the quotients of the num-
very great length, in order to contain any confiderable bers are in geometrical progreffion.
quantity of numbers, it becomes an object of impor- The xd propofition is proved in a fimilar manner,
tance to ffiorten them. Such an improvement has been For as it was ffiown that the line fg, parallel to GH,
made by Mr William Nicholfon, and publiftied in the paffes through points of divifion denoting numbers in
77 th volume of the Philofophical Tranfaetions. The the fame continued "ratio as thofie indicated by the line
principles on which the conftruftion of his inftruments GH ; it may alfo be ffiown, that the line LM paral-
depends are as follow : lei to any other line IK, will pafs through a feries of.
1. If two geometrical feries of numbers, having the points denoting numbers which have the fame cdhti-
fame common ratio, be placed m order with the terms nued ratio with thofe indicated by the line IK, to
oppofite to each other, the ratio between any term in which it is parallel.
one feries and its oppofite in the other will be con-
ftantThus, .
2 6 18- 54 162, &c.
3 9 27 81 243, &c. Then,
3 6 918 27 54 81 162 243, &c.
The yl propofition arifes from the parallelifm of
the lines to their former fituation ; by which means
they indicate numbers* in a geometrical feries, having
the fame common ratio as before : their diftance on the
logarithmic line alfo remains unchanged ; whence the
where it is evident, that each of. the terms in the up- differences between the logarithms of the oppofite
per feries is exa&ly two-thirds of the correfponding numbers, and of confequence their ratios, will always
one in the lower. be conftant.
2. The ratio of any two terms in one feries will be 5. Suppofing now an antecedent and confequent to.
the fame with that between thofe which have unequal be given in any geometrical feries, it will always be
diftance in the other. poffible to find them, provided the line be of unlimited:
3. In all fuch geometrical feries as have the fame length. Drawing two parallel lines, then, through each,
ratio, the property above-mentioned takes place, tho’ of the numbers, and fuppofing the lines to move with-
we compare the terms of any feries with thofe of
ther; Thus,
{2 4 8 16 32 64, &c.
"£3 6 12 24 48 96, &c.
16 32 64 128, &c.
out changing their direction or parallel fituation, they
will continually deferibe new antecedents and confe-.
quents in the fame geometrical feries as before-
6. Though the logarithmic line contain no greater
range of numbers than from 1 to 1 o,. it will not be.
^5 10 20 40 80 160, &c. ; where it is found neceffary for the purpofes of computation to re¬
plain that 2, 4, 3, 6; alfo 2,4, 4, 8, and 2, 4,5, xg, &e. peat it. The only thing requifite is.to have a Aider
have the fame ratio with that of each feries. or beam with two fixed points' at the diftance of the
4. If the differences of the logarithms of the num- interval betwixt 1 and 1 o, and a moveable point be
bers be laid in order upon equidiftant parallel right made to range betwixt them always to indicate the an-
lines, in fuch a manner that a right line drawn acrofs tecedent; then, if the confequent fixed point fall with-
the whole ffiall interfedl it at divifiohs denoting num- out the rule, the other fixed point will always denote
bers in geometrical progreffion 4then, from the condi- the divifion on which, it would have fallen had the
tion of the arrangement, and the property of this lo- rule been prolonged ; and this contrivaace may eafily be
garithmic line, it follows, ift. That every right line fo adapted to any arrangement.of parallel lines whatever,
drawn will, by its interfedbions, indicate a geometrical The arrangement of right lines, however, ought al-
feries of numbers j 2dly, That fuch feries as are indi- ways to be difpofed in fuch a manner as to.occupy a
» right
LOG r 189 ] LOG
I',fiprarit>i- 'right angled parallelogram, or the crofs line already
^anc l.'.ney. ^n^joned ought always to be at right angles to the
v length of-the ruler.
Fig. 7. is a ruler ccnfifting of ten parallel lines.
Fig. 8. ,a beam-compafs for meafuring the intervals.
B, A, C, are the parts which apply to the furface of
the ruler ; the middle one, A, being moveable fidewife
in a groove in the piece DE, fo as always to preferve
its parallelifm to the external pieces DC, which are
fixed at a diflance equal to the length of the ruler, and
have their edges placed in fuch a manner as to form
. with the parallel lines which they interfett a ratio,'
which by compofition is ; which in the prefent cafe
requires them to be at right'angles to the length. The
piece DE is applied to the edge FG of the ruler.- The
edges or borders H, I, K, L, are more conveniently
made of tranfparent horn, or tortoife-fhell, than of any
opaque matter.
In ufing this ruler, apply the edge of either B or
C to the confequent, and Aide the piece A to the an¬
tecedent obferving the differente between the num¬
bers on the pieces denoting the lines they are found
on : then, applying the fame edge of A to any other
. antecedent, the other piece B or C will interfeft a con¬
fequent in the fame ratio upon that line, having the
fame fituation with regard to the antecedent that the
line of the former confequent had to its antecedent.
But if B be the cpnfequent piece, and fall without the
ruler, the piece C will fhow the confequent one line
lower ; or if C, in like manner, fall without the ru¬
ler, then B will fhow the-confequent one line higher.
“ It might be convenient (fays Mr-Nicholfon) for the
purpofe of computation, to make inftruments of this
kind with one hundred or more lines : but in the pre¬
fent inftrument, the numbers on the pieces will anfwer
the fame purpofe; for if a confequent fall upon a line
at any given number of intervals without the ruler, it
will be found on that line of the arrangement which oc¬
cupies the fame number of intervals reckoned in¬
wards from the oppofite edge of the ruler.”
Fig. 9. is an inftrument on the plan of a Gunter’s
fcale of 28t inches long, invented by the late Mr Ro-
bertfon. There is a moveable piece AB in the Aider
GH, aorofs which is drawn a fine line-: the Aider ha¬
ving alfo lines CD, EF, drawn/acrofs it at diftances
from each other equal to the length of the ruler AB.
In ufing the inftrument, the line CD or EF is to be
placed at the confequent, and the line in AB at the
antecedent : then, if the. piece AB be placed at any
other antecedent, the fame line CD or EF will indicate
its confequent in the fame ratio taken the fame way :
that is, if the antecedent and confequent lie on the
fame fide of the Aider, all other antecedents and confe- Logarithm
quents in that rhtio will be in the fame manner; and the mic ^ine9,l
contrary if they do not. But if the’confequent line fall '
w ithout the rule, the other fixed line on the Aider will
Atow the confequent, but on the contrary fide of the
Aider to that w-here it would elfe have been feen by
means of the firft confequent line.
Fig. 10. is a circular inftrument equivalent to the
former ; confiftiag of three concentric circles engraved
and graduated upon a plate of an inch and an half dia¬
meter. Two legs A and B proceed from the centre,
having right-lined edges in the dire&iori of radii ; and
are moveable either fingly or together. In ufing the
inftrument, place one of the edges at the antecedent
and the other at the confequent, and fix them at the
angle. Move the two legs then together; and having
placed the antecedent leg at any other number, the
other will give the confequent one in the like po-
fition on the lines. If the line CD happen to lie
between the legs, and B be the Oonfequent leg, the
number fought will be found one line farther from the
centre than it would otherwife have been ; and on the
contrary, it will be found one line nearer in the like
cafe, if A be the confequent leg. “ This inftrument
(fays Mr Nicholfon) differing from that reprefented
fig. 7. only in its circular form, and tHe advantages
refulting from that form, the lines muft be taken to
fiicceed each other in the fame manner laterally ; fo that
numbers wdiich fall either within or without the ar¬
rangement of circles, will be found on fuch lines of the
arrangement as would have occupied the vacant places
if the fucceflion of lines had been indefinitely repeated
fidewife.
“ I approve of this conftruftion as fuperior to every
other which has yet occurred to me, not only in point
of convenience, but like wife in the probability of be¬
ing better executed; becaufe fmall arcs may be gradu¬
ated with very great accuracy, by divifions transferred
from a larger original. The inftrument, fig. 7. may
be contained conveniently in a circle of about four
inches and an half diameter.
“ The circular inftrument is a combination of the
Gunter’s line and the fe&or, with the improvements
here pointed out. The property of the feftor may
be ufefid in magnifying the differences of the loga¬
rithms in the upper parts of the line of fines, the
middle of the tangents, and the beginning of the Ver-
fed fines. It is even poflible, as mathematicians will
eafily conceive, to draw fpirals, on which graduations
of parts, every where equal to each other, will fttow
the ratios of thofe lines by moveable radii, • fimilar ta.
thofe in this inftrument.”
LOGIC-
T OGIC is the art of thinking and reafoning juftly ;
-*-J or, it may be defined the fcienee or hiftory of the
human mind, inafmuch as it traces the progrefs of our
knowledge from our firft and moft fimple conceptions
through all their different combinations, and all thofe
numerous dedudftions that refult from varioufiy com¬
paring them one with another.
The precife bufinefs of logic therefore is, To explain
the nature of the human mind, and the proper manner
of conducing its feveral powers,, in order to the attain¬
ment of truth and knowledge. It lays open thbfe errors
and miftakes we are apt, through inattention, to run.
into ; and teaches us how to diftinguifti between truth,
and what only carries the appearance of it. By thefe’
means we grow acquainted with the nature and force
of the underftanding; fee what things lie within its
reach:
i()Q LOGIC. Parc L
Teach ; where we may attain certainty and demonftra- viz. Perception, Jndgement, Reafoning, and Method.
tion; and when we mult be contented with probabi- This divifion comprehends the whole hiftory of the
lity. fenfations and operations of the human mind.
This feience is generally divided into four parts,
PartI. Of PERCEPTION.
'’IT7E find ourfelves furrounded with a variety of ob-
^ ^ jefts, which adting differently upon our fenfes,
convey diflindl impreffions into the mind, and thereby
roufe the attention and notice of the underflanding.
By refledting too on what pafies within us, we become
fenfible of the operations of our own minds, and at¬
tend to them as a new fet of impreffions. But in all
this there is only bare confcioufnefs. The mind, with¬
out proceeding any farther, takes notice of the im-
prefiions that are made upon it, and views things in
order, as they prefent themfelves one after another.
This attention of the underftanding to the objedl adt-
ing upon it, whereby it becomes fenfible of the im-
prefiions they make, is called by logicians perception;
and the notices themfelves, as they exift in the mind,
and are there treafured up to be the materials of think¬
ing £nd knowledge, are diftinguifhed by the name of
ideas. In the article Metaphysics it fhall be fhown
at large, how the mind, being furnifhed with ideas,
contrives to diverfify and enlarge its Hock : we have
here chiefly to confider the means of making known our
thoughts to others ; that we may not only underhand
how knowledge is acquired, but alfo in what manner
it may be communicated with the greateft certainty
and advantage.
Chap. I. Of Words, confidered as the Signs of
our Ideas.
* I. Our ideas, though manifold and various, arene-
nTlh th/Ur" verthehris all within our own breafts, invifible to o-
reears of thers, nor can of themfelves be made appear. But
recording God, defigning us for fociety, and to have fellowfhip
our own with thofe of our kind, has provided us with organs
thoughts; fittcd
to frame articulate founds, and given us alfo a
capacity of ufing thofe founds as figns of internal con¬
ceptions. Hence fpring words and language : for,
having once pitched upon any found to Hand as the
mark of an idea in the mind, cuilom by degrees efla-
blifhes fuch a conneftion between them, that the ap¬
pearance of the idea in the underflanding always brings
to our remembrance the found or name by which it
is expreffed ; as in like manner the hearing of the
found never fails to excite the idea for which it is made
to Hand. And thus it is eafy to conceive how a man
may record his own thoughts, and bring them again -
into view in any fucceeding period of life. For this
conneftion being once fettled, as the fame founds will
always ferve , to excite the fam£ ideas ; if he can but
contrive to regifler his words in the order and difpo-
fition in which the prefent train of his thoughts pre¬
fent themfelves to his imagination, it is evident he will
be able to recal tliefe thoughts at pleafure, and that too
in the very manner of their firfi appearance. Ac¬
cordingly we find, that the inventions of writing and
printing, by” enabling us to fix and perpetuate fuch
perifhable things as founds, have alfo furnifhed us with
the means of giving a kind of permanency to the
tranfaftions of the mind, infomuch that they may be
in the fame manner fubjefted to our review as any
other objefts of nature,
II. But, befides the ability of recording our own *
thoughts, there is this farther advantage in the ufe of1 *
external figns, that they enable us to communicate communi-
our thoughts to others, and alfo to receive information cation of
of what paffes in their breaks. For any number of men, jfnowlcdSe
having agreed to eftablifh the fame founds as figns °f nian'to'ano-
the fame ideas, it is apparent that the repetition of ther.
thefe founds muH excite the like perceptions in each,
and create a perfeft correfpondence of thoughts.
.When, for inflance, any train of ideas fucceed one
another in my mind, if the names by which I am
wont to exprefs them have been annexed by thofe
with whom I converfe to the very fame fet of ideas,
nothing is tnore evident, than that, by repeating thofe
names according to the tenor of my prefent concep¬
tions, 1 fiiall raife in their minds the fame courfe of
thought as has taken poffeffion of my own. For by
barely attending to what paffes within themfelves
upon hearing the founds which 1 repeat, they will
alfo become acquainted with the ideas in my under-
Handing, and have them in a manner Iqid before their
view. So that we here clearly perceive how a man
may communicate his fentimeiits, knowledge, and dif-
coveries to others, if the language in which he con-
verfes be extenlive enough to mark all the ideas and
tranfaftions of his mind. But as this is not always
the cafe, and men are often obliged to invent terms
of their own to exprefs new views and concep¬
tions of things ; it may be- allied, how in thefe cir-
tircumffances we can become acquainted with the
thoughts of another, when he makes ufe of words, to
which we have never annexed any ideas, and that of
courfe can raife no perceptions in our minds ? In or¬
der to unveil this myffery, and give fome little inlight
into the foundation, growth, and improvement of lan¬
guage, the following obfervations will be found of con-
iiderable moment.
III. Firll, that no word can be to any man the 3
fign of an idea, till that idea comes to have a real ex-
iffence in his mind. For names, being only fo far in-
telligible as they denote known internal conceptions; ed into the
where they have none fuch to anfwer them, there mind by
they are plainly founds without fignification, and 0fw"rdf>.or
courfe convey no inffruftion or knowledge. But notjon> **'
fooner are the ideas to which they belong raifed in the
underffanding, than, finding it eafy to conneft them
with the effablilhed names, we can join in any agree¬
ment of this kind made by others, and thereby enjoy the
benefit of their difeoveries. The firff thing therefore to
be conndered is, how thefe ideas may be conveyed in¬
to the mind ; that being there, we may learn to con¬
neft
Parti-
LOGIC, 391
ne& them with their appropriated founds, and fo be¬
come capable of underftanding others when they make
ufe of thefe founds in laying open and communicating
their thoughts. Now, to comprehend this difUn&ly,
it will be neceffary to attend to the divifion of our
ideas into fimple and complex, (fee Metaphysics.)
And firft, as for our fimple ideas; they can find no
admiffion into the mind, but by the two original
fountains of knowledge, fenfation and reflection. If
therefore any of thefe have as yet no being in the un¬
derftanding, it is impofiible by words or a defcription
to excite them there. A man who had never felt the
fonfation of heat, could hot be brought to comprehend
that fenfation by any thing we might fay to explain
it. If we would really produce the idea in him, it
muft be by applying the proper objeft to his fenfes,
and bringing him within the influence of a hot body.
When this is done, and experience has taught him
the perception to which men have annexed the name
beat) it then becomes to him the fign of that idea,
and he thenceforth underftands the meaning of the
term, which, before, all the words in this world would
not have been fufficient to convey into his mind. The
cafe is the fame in refpeft of light and colours. A
man born blind, and thereby deprived of the only con¬
veyance for the ideas of this clafs, can never be brought
to underftand the names by which they are exprefled.
The reafon is plain : they ftand for ideas that have no
exiftence in his mind; and as the organ appropriated
to their reception is wanting, all other contrivances
are vain, nor can they by any force or defcription be
raifed in his imagination. But it is quite otherwife
in our complex notions. For thefe being no more
than certain combinations of fimple ideas, put toge¬
ther in various forms ; if the original ideas out of
which the collections are made have already got ad¬
miffion into the underftanding, and the names ferving
to exprefs them are known ; it will be eafy, by enu¬
merating the feveral ideas concerned in the compofi-
tion, and marking the order and manner in which
they are united, to raife any complex conception in
the mind. Thus the idea anfwering to the word rain¬
bow may be readily excited in the imagination of ano¬
ther who has never feen the appearance itfelf, by bare¬
ly defcribing the figure, largenefs, pofition, and or¬
der of colours ; if we fuppofe thefe feveral fimple ideas,
with their names, fufficiently known to him.
4 IV. And this leads to a fecond obfervation upon this
The nawes fubjeft, namely, That words Handing for complex
of complex ideas are all definable, but thofe by which we denote
nab^e th("fe dmple ideas are not; for fimple ideas being fecondary
of fimple i- perceptions, which have no other entrance into the
isas not. mind than by fenfation or reflection, can only be got
by experience, from the feveral objects of nature, pro¬
per to produce thofe perceptions in us. Words indeed
may very well ferve to remind us of them, if they have
already found admiffion into the underftanding, and
their connection with tke eftablifhed names is known ;
but they can never give them their original being and
exiftence there. And hence it is, that when any one
afks the meaning of a word denoting a fimple idea,
we pretend not to explain it to him by a definition,
well knowing that to be impoffible; but, fuppofing
him already acquainted with the idea, and only igno-
jaut of the name by which it is called, we either men¬
tion it to him by fome other name with which we
prefume he knows its connection, or appeal to the
objeCt where the idea itfelf is found. Thus,'were any
one to aflc the meaning of the word white, we fhould
tell him it flood for the fame idea as alius in Latin,
or blanc in French ; or, if we thought him a ftranger
to thefe languages, we might appeal to an objeCt pro¬
ducing the idea, by faying it denoted the colour we ob-
ferve in /now or milk. But this is by no means a de¬
finition of the word, exciting a new idea in his un¬
derftanding ; but merely a contrivance to remind him
of a known idea, and teach him its connection with
the eftablifhed name. For if the ideas after which he
inquires have never yet been raifed in his mind; as
fuppofe one who had feen no other colours than black
and white, fhould afk the meaning of the word fcarlet;
it is eafy to perceive, that it would be no more pof-
fible to make him comprehend it by words, or a defi¬
nition, than to introduce the fame perception into the
imagination of a man born blind. The only method
in this cafe is, to prefent fome objeCt, by looking at
which the perception itfelf may be excited ; and thus
he will learn both the name and the idea together.
V. But how comes it to pafs that men agree in the p 5
names of their fimple ideas, feeing they cannot view an(f obler-
the perceptions in one another’s minds, nor make wation
known thefe perceptions by words to others ? The bring men
effeCt is produced by experience and obfervation.
Thus finding, for inftance, that the name of beat is names cf
annexed to that fenfation which men feel when they fimple i-
approach the fire, I make it alfo the fign of the fenfa- deas.
tion excited in me by fuch an approach, nor have any
doubt but it denotes the fame perception in my mind
as in theirs. For we are naturally led to imagine, that
the fame objects operate alike upon the organs of the
human body, and produce an uniformity of fenfations.
No man fancies, that the idea raifed in him by the
tafte of fugar, and which he calls fwecinefs, differs '
from that excited in another by the like means; or
that wormwood, to whofe relifh he has given the epi¬
thet bitter, produces in another the fenfation which
he denotes by the word fweet. Prefuming therefore
upon this conformity of perceptions, when they arife
from the fame objects, we eafily agree as to the
names of our fimple ideas : and if at any time, by a
more narrow fcrutiny into things, new ideas of this
clafs come in our way, which we choofe to exprefs by
terms of our own invention ; thefe names are ex¬
plained, not by a definition, but by referring to the
objects whence the ideas themfelves may be obtained.
VI. Being in this manner furnilhed with fimple i- 6
deas, and the names by which they are expreffed ; the ^e3^* g
meaning of terms that ftand for complex ideas is sa- c,;mplcx i-
fily got, becaufe the ideas themfelves anfwering ta iea fry de»
thefe terms maybe conveyed into the mind by dcfi- fi'Uions, a
nitions. For our complex notions are only certain^*^
combinations of fimple ideas. When therefore thefe
are enumerated, and the manner in which they are
united into one conception explained, nothing more
is wanting to raife that conception in the underftand¬
ing ; and thus the term denoting it .comes of courfe to
be underftood. And here it is worth while to refle&
a little upon the wife contrivance of nature, in thus
furnilhing us wich the very apteft means of commu¬
nicating our thoughts. For were it not fo ordered*
that
192
that we cotild thus convey
one to another by definitions, it would in many cafes
be impofiible to make them known at all. This is
LOGIC. Part I.
complex ideas from thelefs it is univerfally allowed that the fignificatioh of
words is perfeftly voluntary, and not the effect of any
natural and necdfary connection between them and
apparent in thofe ideas which are the proper work of the ideas for which they Hand; fome may perhapi
the mind. For as they exift only in the underftand-
ing, and have no real objects in nature in conformity
to which they are framed ; if we could not make them
•known by defcription, they mult lie for ever hid with¬
in our own breafts, and be confined to the narrow
acquaintance of a fingle mind. All the fine fcenes
that arife from time to time in the poet’s fancy, and
by his lively painting give., fuch entertainment to his
readers; were he ddlitute of this faculty of laying
them open to the view of others by words and de¬
wonder why definitions are not fo too. In order
therefore to unravel this difficulty, and ffiow diltinctly
what is and what is not arbitrary in fpeech, we muft
carefully diftinguifh between the connection of our
words and ideas, and the unfolding of the ideas them-
felves.
II. Firft, as to the conneftion of our words and ideas; 9
this, it is plain, is a purely arbitrary inftitution. When,
for inftance, we have in our minds the idea of any tween
particular fpecies of metals, the calling it by the name words and
fcription, could not extend their influence beyond his gold is an effect of the voluntary choice of men fpeak-
own imagination, or give joy to any but the original ing the fame language, and not of any peculiar aptnefs [untary e-
inventor. in that found to exprefs that idea. Other nations we ftablilh-
1 VII. There is this farther advantage m the ability find make ufe of different founds, and with the fame meut.
a "avail we enj°y °f communicating our complex notions by effedt. Thus aurum denotes that idea in Latin, and
fowards the definitions; that as thefe make by far the largeft clafs or in French ; and even the word gold itfelf would
improve- of our ideas, and molt frequently occur in the progrefs have, as well fei-ved to exprefs the idea of that metal
mentof and improvement of knowledge, fo they are by thefe
knowledge. means imparted with the greateft readinefs, than
which nothing would tend more to the increafe and
fpreading of fcience : for a definition is foon perufed ;
and if the terms of it are well underftood, the idea
itfelf finds an eafy admiffion into the mind. Whereas
in Ample perceptions, where we are referred to the
objedls producing them, if thefe cannot be come at, as
is fometimes the cafe, the names by which they are
expreffed muff remain empty founds. But new ideas
of this clafs occurring vefy rarely in the fciences, they
feldom create any great obftrudtion. It is otherwife
with our complex notions; for every ftep we take
leading us into new combinations and views of things,
it becomes neceffary to explain thefe to others, before
they can be made acquainted with our difcoveries:
and as the manner of definitions is eafy, requiring no
apparatus but that of words, which are always ready,
and at hand ; hence we can with the lefs difficulty re¬
move fuch obftacles as might arife from terms of' our
which we call fiber, had cuftom in the beginning efta-
bliftied it.
III. But although we are thus entirely at liberty in • 10
conne&ing any idea with any found, yet it is quite ^.e 4e"
otherwife in unfolding'the ideas themfelves. For e- pfrimwt (fr
very idea having a precife appearance of its own* by bat bound-
which.it is diffinguifhed from every other idea; it is cd to the
manifcfl, that in'laying it open to others, we tnuft P^en**-
ihidy fuch a defcription as (hall exhibit that peculiar
appearance. When we have formed to ourfelves the pearance by
idea of a figure bounded by four equal fides, joined which they
together at right angles, we are at liberty to exprefs3"
: diftin-
that idea by any found, and call it either a. fquaie or a mong
triangle. But whichever of thefe names we ufe, fo themfelves.’
long as the idea is the fame, the defcription by which
we would fignify it to another mufl: be fo too. Let it
be called fquare or triangle, it is Hill a figure having •
four equal fides, and all its angles right ones. Hence
we clearly fee what is and what is not arbitrary in the
ufe of words. The eftablifliing any found as the mark
own invention, when they are made to ftand for new of fome determinate idea in the mind, is the effedt of
complex ideas fuggefted to the mind by fome prefent free choice, and a voluntary combination among men:
train of thinking. And thus at laft we are let into and as different nations make ufe of different founds
the myftery hinted at in the beginning of this chapter, to denote the fame ideas, hence proceeds all that va-
to's. how we may become acquainted with the thoughts* riety of languages which we meet with in the world,
of another, when he makes ufe of words to which we But when a connexion between our ideas and words
have as yet joined no ideas. The anfwer is obvious is once fettled, the unfolding, of the idea anfwering to
from what has been already faid. If the terms denote any word, which properly conftitutes a definition, is
Ample perceptions, he muff refer us to thefe obje&s of by, no means an arbitrary thing : for here we are
nature whence the perceptions themfelves are to be bound to exhibit that precife conception which either
obtained; but, if they ftand for complex ideas, their the ufe of language, or our own particular choice,
meaning may be explained by a definition. hath annexed to tbe term we ufe.
tt t. r IV. And thus it appears, that definitions, confidered „ }x „
HAp. . f efim ions. as defcriptions of ideas in the mind, are fteady and in- th^oblciiri-
8 LA Definition is the unfolding offome conception of the variable, being bounded to the reprefentation of thefe ty that has
®e®n‘^on mind, anfwering to the word or term made ufe of as the precife ideas. But then, in the application of defini- hitherto
6 6 " JlSn °f lt' Now as, in exhibiting any idea to another, tions to particular names, we are altogether left to 0UI*
it is neceffary that the defcription be fuch as may ex- own free choice. Becaufe as the conne&ing of any of
cite that precife idea in bis mind ; hence it is plain that idea with any found is a perfectly arbitrary inftitu-tions.
definitions, properly fpeaking, are not arbitrary, but tion, the applying the defcription of that idea to that
confined to the reprefenting of certain determinate found muft be fo too. When therefore logicians tell
fettled notions, fuch namely as are annexed by the us that the definition of the name is arbitrary, they
fpeaker or writer to the words he ufes. As never- mean no more than this; that as different ideas may
N° 185. 4 be
Part Ii
LOG
be conhefted with any term, according to the good
pleafure of him that ufes it; in like manner may dif¬
ferent defcriptions be applied to the term fuitable, to
the ideas fo connedted. But this connexion being
fettled, and the term confidered as the fign of fome
fixed idea in the underftattding, we are no longer left
to arbitrary explications, but muft ftudy fuch a de-
fcription as correfponds with that precife idea* Now
this alone, according to what has been before laid
down, ought to be accounted a definition. What
feems to have occafioned no fmall confufion in this
matter, is, that many explanations of words, where no
idea is unfolded, but merely the connexion between
fome word and idea aflerted, have yet been dignified
with the name of definitions. Thus, when we fay
that a clock is an injlrument by which <we meafure
time; that is by fome called a definition; and yet it
is plain that we are beforehand fuppofed to have an
idea of this inftrument, and only taught that the word
clock ferves in common language to denote that idea.
By this rule all explications of words in our dictio¬
naries will be definitions^ nay, the names of even fim-
ple ideas may be thus defined. White, we may fay,
is the colour We obferve irt fnow or milk 5 heat the
fenfation produced by approaching the fire ; and fo in
innumerable other inftaiices. But thefe, and all others
qf the like kind, are by no means definitions, exciting
new ideas in the underftanding, but merely contri¬
vances to remind us of known ideas, and teach their
l2 connection with the eftablilhed names.
I Complex V. But now in definitions properly fo Called, we
ideas alone firft confider the term we ufe, as the fign of feme in-
'hat kfnlfofWarc^ concePt,'on> either annexed to it by cuftom, or
defc b'tion our Pvvn ^ree choice; and then the bufinefs of the de-
which gpcb finition is to unfold and explicate that idea. As there¬
by the name fore the whole art lies in giving juft and true copies
lion de^ni* our hleas ; a definition is then faid to be made per¬
fect, when it ferves diftindtly to excite the idea de-
feribed in the mind of another, even fuppofing him
before wholly unacquainted with it. This point fet¬
tled, let us next inquire what thofe ideas are wrhich
are capable of being thus unfolded ? And in the firft
place it is evident, that all our fimple ideas are necef-
farily excluded. We have feen already that expe-
’ rience alone is to be confulted here, infomuch that if
either the objects whence they are derived come not
In our way, or the avenues appointed by nature for
their reception, are wanting, no defcription is fufficient
to convey them into the mind. But where the un¬
derftanding is already fupplied with thefe original and
primitive conceptions, as they may be united together
/ in an infinity of different forms ; fo may all their fe-
veral combinations be diftiaftly laid open, by enume¬
rating the fimple ideas concerned in the various col-
lettions, and tracing the order and manner in which
they are linked one to another. Now thefe combi¬
nations of fimple notices conftitute what we call our
complex notions ; whence it is evident, that complex
ideas, and thofe alone, admit of that kind of defcrip¬
tion which goes by the name of a definition.
VI. Definitions, then, are pictures or reprefenta-
tions of our ideas ; and as thefe reprefentations are
then only poffible when the ideas themfelves are
complex, it is obvious to remark, that definitions
cannot have place but where we make ufe of terms
Vou.X. Parti,
r c. *93
Handing for fuch complex ideas. But oiir complex
ideas, being, as we have frid, nothing more than dif¬
ferent combinations of fimple ideas; we then know
and comprehend them perfectly, when we know the
feveral fimple ideas of which they confift, and can fo
put them together in our minds as may be neceffary to¬
wards the framing of that peculiar connexion which
gives every idea its diftinft and proper appearance. 13
VII. Two things are therefore required in every ^'wo.
definition : firft, That all the original ideas, out °f ^defiUtion
which the complex one is formed, be diftin&Iy enu-to enume-*
merated; and, fecondly, That the order and manner ef face the
combining them into one conception be clearly ex-
plained. Where a definition has thefe requifites, nc-*^tl^‘"r
thing is wanting to its perfection ; becaufe every one their com*
who reads it and underftartds the terms, feeing at once lunations,
what ideas he is to join together, and alfo in what
manner, can at pleafure form in his own mind the
complex conception, anfwering to the term defined.
Let us, for iriftanee, fuppofe the word fquare to ftand
for that idea by which we reprefent to oUrfelves a
figure whofe fides fubtend quadrants of a circumfcribed
circle. The parts of this idea are the fides bounding
the figure. Thefe muft be four in number, and all
equal among themfelves, becaufe they are each to fub¬
tend a fourth part of the fame circle. But, befides
thefe component parts, we muft alfo take notice of
the manner of putting them together, if we would ex¬
hibit the precife idea for which the word fquare here
Hands. For four equal right lines, any-how joined,
will not fubtend quadrants of a circumfcribed circle.
A figure with this property muft have its fides Hand¬
ing alfo at right angles. Taking in therefore this laft
confideration refpedfing the manner of combining the
parts, the idea is fully deferibed, and the definition
thereby rendered complete. For a figure bounded by
four equal fides, joined together at right angles, has
the property required; and'is moreover the only right-
lined figure to which that property belongs. 14
VIII. It will now be obvious to every one, in what^°w
manner we ought to proceed, in order to arrive at e'ed to^ar"
juft and adequate definitions. Firft, we are to take rive at juft
an exadf view of the idea to be deferibed, trace it to ““d “de
its original principles, and mark the fevcral fimple lluate c‘e®*
perceptions that enter into the compofition of it. Se- IUtlon,•
condfy, we are to Confider the- particular manner in
which thefe elementary ideas are combined, in order
to the forming of that precife conception for which the
term we make ufe of ftands. When this is done, and
the idea wholly unravelled, vst have nothing more to
do than fairly tranferibe the appearance it make's to
our own minds. Such a defcription, by diftin&ly ex¬
hibiting the order and number of our primitive con¬
ceptions, cannot fail to excite at the fame time in the
mind of every one that reads it, the complex idea re-
fulting from them ; and therefore attains the true and
proper end of a definition.
Chap. III. Of the Compofition and Refolutions of
our Ideas, and the Rules of Definition thence
arifing.
I. The rule laid down in the foregoing chapter is
general, extending to all pofiible cafes ; and is indeed
that to which alone we can have recourfe, where any
B b doubt
194 LOGIC. Parti,
>5 doubt or difficulty arifes. It is not, however, neceflary then in the fecond, or any other fucceeding order, as
^ imTii that we ffiould pra&ife it in every particular inllance. they are formed out of thofe gradual combinations,
our'ideas, Many °f our ideas are extremely complicated, info- and conftitute the inferior clafles, it is not neceflary,
we proceed much that to enumerate all the Ample perceptions out in deferibing them, to mention .one by one all the fim-
by a fuccel- 0f which they are formed, would be a very trouble- pie ideas of which they confifl. They may be more
iion8fa^1 feme and tedious work. For this reafon logicians, diftinttly and briefly unfolded, by enumerating the
have eftablilhed certain compendious rules of defining,, compound ideas of a lower order, from whofe union
of which it may not be amifs here to give fome ac- they refult, and which are all fuppofed to be already
count. But in order to the better underftanding of known in confequence of, previous definitions. Here
what follows, it will be neceffary to obferve, that then it is that the logical method of defining takes
there is a certain gradation in the compofition of our place ; which, that it may be the better underftood.
ideas. The mind of man is very limited in its views,
and cannot take in a great number of objects at once.
We are therefore fain to proceed by flops, and make
our firft advances fubfervient to thofe which follow.
Thus, in forming our complex notions, we begin at
firft with but a few Ample ideas, fuch as we can ma-
we fhall explain fomewhat more particularly the fe-
veral flops and gradations of the mind in compound¬
ing its ideas, and thence deduce that peculiar form of
a definition which logicians have thought fit to efta-
blilh. jg
IV. All the ideas we receive from, the feveral ob-The fteps
nage with eafe, and unite them together into one con- jects of nature that furround us, reprefent diflinft in- vv*1.‘c^
ception. When we are provided with a fufficient
flock of thefe, and have by habit and.ufe rendered
them familiar to our minds, they become the compo¬
nent parts of other ideas ftill more complicated, and.
form what we may call a fecond order of compound
notions. This procefs, as is evident, may be conti¬
nued to any degree of compofition we pleafe, mount¬
ing from one flage to another, and enlarging the num-
^ ber of combinations.
Hence ideas II. But now in a ferfes of this kind, whoever would
of this elafs acquaint himfelf perfectly with the laft and higheft
. belt com- order of ideas, finds it much the moft expedient me-
wherTwe ’ to proceed gradually through all the interme-
advance diate fteps. For, were he to take any very compound
gradually idea to pieces, and, without regard to the feveral pared, and retain only the particulars wherein they
thefevcral c^a^es fimple perceptions that have already been for- agree. It is eafy to conceive the mind proceeding
orders/ mc(l into diftinft combinations, break it at once into its thus from one ftep to another, and advancing through.
original principles, the number would be fo great as per- its feveral daffies of general notions, until at laft it
feftly to confound the imagination, and overcome the comes to the higheft genus of all, denoted by the word
nfmrtfl- rprirK nml tlip rmnrl. AA/ViPn fpi* hpincr. where the hare irlea n-f f'vi^Ve»nr»e ic r»n1ir erm-
dividuals. Thefe individuals, when compared toge-
ther, are found in certain particulars to referable each fr0m parti-
other. Hence, oy colle&ing the refembling particulars-cular ro gc-
into one conception, we form the notion of a fpecies. aera^ ideas.
And here let it be obferved, that this laft idea is lefs
complicated than that by which we reprefent any of
the particular objects contained under it. For the idea
of the fpecies excludes the peculiarities of the feveral
individuals, and retains only fuch properties as are
common to them all. Again, by comparing feveral' .
fpecies together, and obferving their refemblance, we
form the idea of a genus ; where, in the fame manner-
as before, the compofition is leffened, becaufe we
leave out what is peculiar to the feveral fpecies com-
utmoft reach and capacity of the mind. When we fee
a prodigious multitude of men jumbled together in
crowds, without order or any regular pofition, we find
it impoffible to arrive at an exa<ft knowledge of their
number. But if they are formed into feparate batta¬
lions, and fo fiationed as to fall within the leifure
being, where the bare idea of exiftence is only con¬
cerned. .
V. In this procedure we fee the mind unravelling The con-
a complex idea, and tracing it in the afeending fcale, du<a °/ '^s
from greater or lefs degrees of compofition, until jt n’',’a,n
terminates in one fimple perception. If now we take^
flirvey of the eye; by viewing them fucceffively the feries the contrary way, and, beginning with the dea-
and in order, we come to an eafy and certain deter¬
mination. It is the fame in our complex ideas. When
the original perceptions, out of which they are framed,
are very numerous, it is -not enough that we take a
view of them in loofe and fcattered bodies ; we mull
form them into diftinft claffes, and unite thefe claffes
in a juft and orderly manner, before we can arrive at
a true knowledge of the compound notices refulting
from them.
r d/fini- HI* This gradual progrefs of the mind to its com?
 ,3 fhould pound notions, through a variety of intermediate fteps,
keep pace plainly points out the manner of conducing the defi-
 v rations by which thefe notions are conveyed into the
laft or higheft genus, carry our view downwards,. a<^vaince8
through all the inferior genera and fpecies, quite to ^j?ren®
the individuals, we ftiall thereby arrive at a diftintt orders of
apprehenfion of the conduit of the underftanding in perception.
compounding its ideas. For, in the feveral claffes of
our perceptions, the higheft in the fcale is for the
moft part made up of but a few fimple ideas, fuch as
the mind.can, take in and furvey with eafe. This firft
general notion, when branched out into the different
fubdivifions contained under it, has in every one of
them fomething peculiar,, by which they are diftin-
guifhed among themfelves; infomuefi that, in de¬
ft-ending from the genus , to the fpecies, we always
fuperadd fome new idea, and thereby increafe the
like grada- and eafy combinations, and advances through a fuc- degree of compofition. Thus the idea denoted by the
4ion. ceffion of different orders, rifihg one above another in word figure is of a very general nature, and compo-
the degree of compofition, it is evident, that, in a train fed’ of but few, fimple perceptions, as implying no
of definitions expreffing thefe ideas, a like gradation
is to be obferved. Thus the complex ideas of the
loweft order can no othenvife be deferibed than by
enumerating the Ample ideas out of which they are.
more than fpace every where bounded. But if we
defeend farther, and confider the boundaries of this
fpace, as that they may be either lines or furface, vve
fall into the feveral fpecies of. figure. For where the-
made, and explaining the manner of their union. But fgace is bounded by one or more farfac.es, we give it die,
name
Parti.
L O
name of a folidjtgure; but where the boundaries are
lines, it is called a plain figure (a).
The idea of VI. In this view of things it is evident, that the
the fpecies fpecies is formed by fuperadding a new idea to the
fiTeratL gcnus'* Here, for inftance, the genus is circumfcri-
ding the be<i fpace. If now to this we fuperadd the idea of a
fpecific dif- circumfcription by lines, we frame the notion of that
ference to .fpecies of figures which are called plain ; but if we
the genus, concejve the circumfcription to be by furfaces, we
have the fpecies of folid figures. This fuperadded
idea is called the fpecific difference, not only as it ferves
G I C.
to divide the fpecies from the genus, but becaufe,
being different in all the feverai fubdivifions, we there¬
by alfo diftinguifh the fpecies one from another. And
as it is likewife that conception, which, by being
joined to the general idea, completes the notion of
the fpecies ; hence it is plain, that the genus and fpe¬
cific difference are to be confidered as the proper and
conftituent parts of the fpecies. If we trace the pro-
grefs of the mind ftill farther, and obferve it advancing
through the inferior fpecies, we (hall find its manner
of proceeding to be always the fame. For every lower
B b 2 fpecies
(a) This account of the compofition and refolution of our ideas is agreeable to the common doftrine of logicians
on the fubjett. Into the truth of the doftrine itfelf we (hall inquire afterwards under the article Metaphysics s
but to prevent miftakes, it may be proper to obferve here, that though every writer of logic has treated
largely of general and fpecific ideas, there is in reality nothing general in the matter but the terms of language.
When we utter, for inltance, the word triangle, that general term does not, as has been often faid, fugged
to the mind the general idea of a triangle, which is neither oblique nor re£tangle, neither equilateral nor fcalenon,
&c. for fuch a triangle, as it cannot exijl in nature, cannot be conceived \n idea. In like manner, tho general
term Virtue does not excite a general idea of virtue, which is neither prudence, nor temperance, nor fortitude, nor
jufiice, nor charity. See. for that which is diflinS from all thefe is not virtue. What then is the import of fuch
general terms ? The anfwer is obvious : They denote claffes of objeHs ; and are never ufed without fome word of
limitation, but when fomething that has no dependence upon the particular qualities, which diftinguifh the indi-
.viduals from each other, is affirmed or denied of the whole clafs. Thus we may affirm, that the three angles
of a plain triangle are equal to two right angles: and this propofition is demonftrably true, not of a triangle,
which is neither oblique nor red angle, neither equilateral nor fcalenon, for fuch a triangle never was conceived;
but of all thefe triangles equally, as the truth of the propofition and the progrefs of the demonftration has no
dependence upon the peculiarities which difiinguijh thefe triangles from one another. Again, when we fay
that a man of virtue will be rewarded by God, we do not mean by the word virtue a general idea making part
of each of the complex and more particular ideas of prudence, fortitude, jujlice, See. and at the fame time dif¬
ferent from them all; but we affirm, that the man who pra&ifes any or all of thefe virtues, according as he
has opportunity, will be rewarded by God.
The hiftory of .our ideas is ffiortly this:—That a6t of the mind, if it may be called an a8, which makes
known an external obje3, is termed perception. That aft of the mind which makes known an internal ob-
je8, is termed consciousness. Objefts once perceived may be recalled to the mind by the power of
memory ; and when they are fo recalled, we have a perception of them in all refpefts fimilar to the original
perception, only lefs diftinft; we fancy ourfelves in the fame place, and the objeti perceived attended by the
fame circumfiances. This indiftinft feconclary perception of an objeft is termed an idea ; and-therefore the precife
and accurate definition of an idea, in contradiftinftion to an original perception, is “ that perception of a real
objeft which is raifed in the mind by the power of memory.” Now all our original perceptions being of par¬
ticular objetls, it is obvious that our ideas, which are only thofe perceptions, recalled, muft be of particular ob-
jetls Ukewife, and that no man can have an idea of a thing of which the real exifience is contradiftory and im-
poffible. But the general and fpecific ideas of logicians, are ideas of nothing which exifis, or which can poffibly
exijl. They are acquired, we are told, by abfifaction, in the following manner. Among a number of indivi¬
duals we perceive certain qualities the fame in all, whilft in each individual there are other qualities which
have nothing fimilar to them in any other individual: now the -mind, it is fa'id, has a powef of abftrafting
the particular qualities of each individual from thofe which are common to the whole, and of thefe laft forming a
general idea of the whole clafs. Thus "all men have nearly the fame form; and they have each fome Jlature and
fome colour, though there are not perhaps two ‘ individuals who have precifely the fame Jlature and the fame co¬
lour. Now, fay the advocates for general ideas, if we abfiracl what is peculiar to each individual, and retain
wliat is common to the whole race, we have fho general idea fignified by the word man. That is, if we con¬
ceive a being in human (hape, which is ofjlature and colour, but neither tcdl norfort, neither white nor black, -
nor red nor brown, nor any other colour which we ever faw, we have the general idea of humanity, and under-
ftand the meaning of the word man ! Surely no perfon who is not the (lave of prejudice wall pretend that he
can frame fuch an idea as this—the idea of an objeft which cannot poffibly exift in nature.
By this we do not mean to affirm, that we cannot frame ideas of fuch objefts as have no real exiftence ; for
it is as eafy to imagine a man with ten heads as with one, becaufe there is nothing contradiftory between ten
heads and one body. B ut figure, which is faid to be fpace bounded neither by lines nor fuperficies ; colour, which
is neither red nor white, nor blue nor black. See, ; and animal, which is neither man, beafi, bird, nor infebi ;
are impoffible in nature, and inconceivable in idea. There is, however, no harm in ftill retaining the phrafe
genera], idea, provided he who ufes it takes care to let it be known, that by thefe words he means not any
abffratd and contradiftory idea, but merely a clafs of real objefts. The phrafe may at times prevent much circum¬
locution ; for which reafon we have retained the ufe of it. in the text.
T9S
sc;6
Part I.
fpecies is formed by fuperadding fome new idea to the
Ipecies next above it ; infomtich that in this defcending
other of the fame kind. And hence it is, that in this
la it cafe, logicians choofe'to call the fuperaddcd idea by
fcale of our perceptions, the underftanding paffes the name of the numerical difference; infomuch that,
through different orders of complex notions, which
become more and more complicated at every ftep it
takes. Let us refume here, for inftance, the fpecies
of plain figures. They imply no more than fpace
bounded by lines. But if we take in an additional
confideration of the nature of thefe lines, as whether
they are right or curves, we fall into the fubdivifions
of plain figure, diftinguiihed by the names of rectilinear,
si curvilinear, and nuxtdinear.
And in all VII. And here we are to obferve, that though
P‘a‘n figures, when confidered as one of thofe branches
fuperad-" t^at come under the notion of figure in general, take
dif.g the the name of a fpecies ; yet compared with the olafies
Ipeofic dtf of curvilinear, rettilinear, and mixtilinear, into which
they themfelves may be divided, they really become
a genus, of which the before mentioned fubdivifions
conftitute the feveral fpecies. Thefe fpecies, in the
fame manner as in the cafe of plain and folid figures.
ference
the nearefl
genus.
confift of the genus and fpecific difference as their together the genus and fpecific difference. And as it
as the idea »f a fpecies is made up of the neareft ge¬
nus and fpecific difference, fo the idea of an indivi¬
dual confifts of the loweft fpecies and numeric differ¬
ence. Thus the circle is a fpecies of curve-lined fi¬
gures, and what we call the lowejl fpecies, as com¬
prehending under it only individuals. Circles in par¬
ticular are diffinguifhed from one another'by the length
and polition of their diameters. The length therefore
and pofition of the diameter of a circle form what logi¬
cians call the numerical difference-; becaufe, thefe be-
ing given, the circle itfelf may be defcribed, and an
individual thereby conllituted. aj
IX. Thus the mind, in compounding its ideas, be-Definition*
gins, we fee, with the moft general notions, which,
confifting of but a few fimple notices, are eafily com-in train
bined and brought together into one conception, and pafi)
Thence it proceeds to the fpecies comprehended un-duo’ the
der this general idea, and thefe are formed by joining
• together the o-prms and fnecifir difference. And as it.-  
conffituent parts. For in the curvilinear kind, the
curvity of the lines bounding the figure makes what is
often happens, that thefe fpecies may be ftill farther compound
fubdivided, and run on in a long feries of continued ideas..
called the fpecfic difference; to which if we join the ^gradations, producing various orders of compound
genus, which here is a plain figure or fpace circum-
fcribed by lines, we have all that ' is neceffary towards
completing the notion of this fpecies. We are only
to take notice, that this laft fubdivifion, having two
genera above it, viz. plain figure, and figure in gene¬
ral ; the genus joined with the fpecific difference, in
order to conllitute the fpecies of curvilinears, is that
which lies neareft to the faid fpecies. It is the
perceptions; fo all thefe feveral orders are regularly
and fuccefiively formed by annexing in every ftep the
fpecific difference to the neareft genus. When by
this method of procedure we are come to the loweil
order of all, by joining the fpecies and numeric dif¬
ference, we frame the ideas of individuals. And here
the feries neceffarily terminates, becaufe it is imppf-
fibie any farther to bound or limit our conceptions*
lion of plain figure, and not of figure in general, that. This view of the compofition of our ideas, reprefent-
joined with the idea-of curvity, makes up the complex
conception of curve-lined figures. For in this de¬
fcending fcale of our ideas, figure in general, plain
figures, curve-lined figures, the two firft are cenfider-
ed as genera in refpeA of the third; and the fecond
ing their conftituent parts in every ftep of the pro-
greffion, naturally points out the true and genuine
form of a definition. For as definitions are no more
than defcriptions of the ideas for which the terms de¬
fined Hand ; and as ideas are then defcribed, wheti.
in order, or that which Hands next to the third, is we enumerate diftin&ly and in order the parts of
called the nearejl genus. But now as it is this fecond which they confift; it is plain, that by making our de¬
idea, which, joined with the notion of curvity, forms finitions follow one another according to the natural
the fpecies of curve-lined figures ; it is plain, that the train of our conceptions, they-will be fubjeft to the
third or laft idea in the feries is made up of the near- fame rules, and keep pace with the ideas they de-
eft genus and fpecific difference. This rule holds in- fcribe. 2-4
* variably, however far the feries is continued ; becaufe, X. As therefore the ftrft order of our compound The fortn
in a train of ideas thus fucceeding one another, all notions, or the ideas that conftitute the higheft gene- ^ aj[~
that precede the laft are confidered as fo many genera ra in the different fcales of perception, are formed by t^e vanous
in refpedl of that laft; and the laft itfelf is always uniting together a certain number of fimple notices; aiders of
formed by fuperadding the fpecific difference to the fo the terms expreffing thefe genera are defined by conception*
^ genus next it. enumerating the Jimple notices fo combined. And as the
The "idea of VIII. Here then we have an univerfal defcription, fpecies comprehended under any genus, or the com-
any indivi- applicable to all our ideas of whatever kind, from the plex ideas of the fecond order, arife from fuperadding
dual com- higheft genus to the loweft fpecies. For, taking them the fpecific difference to the faid general idea ; fo the
thekweft *n or^er downwards from the faid general idea, they definition of the names of the fpecies is abfolved, in a
fpecies and evei7 where confift of the genus proximum, and dif- detail of the ideas of the fpecific difference, connected
numeric ferentia fpecifica, as logicians love to exprefs. them-
diffcrence. felves. But when we come to the loweft fpecies of
all, comprehending under it only individuals, the fu-
peradded idea, by which thefe individuals are diftin-
guilhed one from another, no longer takes the name
of the fpecific difference. For here it ferves not to
denote diftimft fpecies, but merely a variety of indivi-
with the term, of the genus. For the genus having
been before defined,, the term by which it is expref-
fed Hands for a known idea, and may therefore be
introduced into all fubfequent definitions, in the fame
manner as the names of fimple perceptions. It will
now be fufficiently obvious, that the definitions of all
the fucceeding orders of compound notions will every
duals, each of which, having a particular exiftence of where confift of the term of the neareft genus, joined
its. own* is therefore numerically different from every with an enumeration of the ideas that conftitute the.
fpecifre-
Part IT. L O
fpecific difFerence ; and that the definition of indivi¬
duals unites the names of the loweft fpecies with the
terms by which we exprefs the ideas of the numeric
difFerence.
XL Here then we have the true and proper form
G I C. 197
of a definition, in all the various orders of conception.
This is that method of defining which is commonly
called logical, and which we fee is perfect in its kind,
inafmuch as it prefents a full and adequate defcription
of the idea for which the term defined Hands.
Part II. Of JUDGMENT.
Chap. I. Of the Grounds of Human Judgment.
Intuition nnHE mind being furnifhed with ideas, its next flep
refpedh the X in the way to knowledge is, the comparing thefe
between ^eas together, in order to judge of their agreement
»ur ideas or difagreement. In this joint view of Our ideas, if
when they the relation is fuch as to be immediately difcoverable
are imme- ^ infpe£ti0n of the mind, the judgments
«ivabl/er* t^cnce obtained are called intuitive, from a word that
denotes to look at; for in this cafe, a mere attention
to the ideas compared fuffices to let us fee how far
they are connected or disjoined. Thus, that the Whole
is greater than any of its Parts, is an intuitive judge¬
ment ; nothing more being required to convince us
of its truth, than an attention to the ideas of whole
and part. And this too is the reafon why we call the
aft of the mind forming thefe judgments intuition;
as it is indeed- no more than an immediate percep-
26 tion of the agreement or difagreement of any two ideas.
Experience II. But here it is to be obferved, that our know-
and tefti- ledge of this kind refpefts only our ideas, and the re-
cround of lations between them ; and therefore can ferve only
judglrg as as a foundation to fuch reafonings as are employed in
to fadts. inveftigating thofe relations. Now it fo happens,
that many of our judgments are converfant about facts,
and the real exiftence of things, which cannot be tra¬
ced by the bare contemplation of our ideas. It does
not follow, becaufe I have the idea of a circle in my
mind, that therefore a figure anfwering to that idea
has a real exiftence in nature. I can form to myfelf
the notion of a centaur or golden mountain, but never
imagine on that account that either of them exifts.
What then are the grounds of our judgment in rela¬
tion to fafts ? experience and tefinwny. By experience
we are informed of the exiftence of the feveral ob-
jefts which furround us, and operate upon our fenfes.
Teftimony is of a wider extent, and reaches not
only to objefts beyond the prefent fphere of our ob-
fervation, but alfo to fafts and tranfaftions, which be¬
ing now pail, and having no longer any exiftence,
could not without this conveyance have fallen under
,7 our cognizance.
Threefoun- III. Here we have three foundations of human
dations of judgment, from which the whole fyftem of our know-
*1^man ledge may with eafe and advantage be derived. Firft,
i/af 1. In’ intuition, which refpefts our ideas themfelves, and
tuition, the their relations ; and is the foundation of that fpecies
ground of of reafoning which we call demonf ration. For what-
knowledge ever *s de<luce(l from our intuitive perceptions, by a
clear and connefted feries of proofs, is faxd to be
demonftrated, and produces abfolute certainty in the
mind. Hence the knowledge obtained in this man¬
ner is what we properly term fcience; becaufe in every
ftep of the procedure it carries its own evidence along
with it, and leaves no room"for doubt or hefitation.
And what is highly worthy of notice; as the truths
of this clafs exprefs the relation between our ideas,
and the -fame relations mult ever and invariably fub-
fift between the fame ideas, our deduftions in the
way of fcience conftitute what we call eternal, neeffary,
and immutable truths. If it be true that the whole is
equal to all its parts, it mull be fo unchangeably ; be¬
caufe the relation of equality being attached to the
ideas themfelves, muft ever intervene where the fame
ideas are compared. Of this nature are all the truths
of natural religion, morality, and mathematics, and in
general whatever may be gathered from the bare view
arid confideration of our ideas. 2g
IV. The fecond ground of human judgment is ex- 2. Experf-
perience; from which we infer the exiftence of thofe erc<Vthe
fubjefts that furround us, and fall under the immediate
notice of our fenfes. When we fee the fun, or call lecjge 0f "
our eyes towards a building, we not only have per-the powera
ceptions of thefe objefts within ourfelves, but aferibe at,d
to them a real exiftence out of the mind. It is alfo^
by the information of the fenfes that we judge of the
qualities of bodies ; as when we fay that fnow is while,
fre hot, or feel hard. For as we are wholly unac¬
quainted with the internal ftrufture and coijftitution of
the bodies that produce thefe fenfations in us, nay, and
are unable to trace any cemneftion between that ftruc-
ture and the fenfations themfelves, it is evident, that
we build our judgments altogether upon pbfervation,
aferibing to bodies fuch qualities as are anfwerable to
the perceptions they excite in us. Not that we ever
fuppofe the qualities of bodies to be things of the fame
nature with our perceptions; for there is nothing in
fire fimilar to our fenfation of heat, or in a fword iimi-
lar to pain : but that when different bodies excite in
our minds fimilar perceptions, we neceffarily aferibe
to thefe bodies not only an exiftence independent oi
us, but likewife fimilar qualities, of which it is the
nature to produce fimilar perceptions in the human
mind. But this is not the only advantage derived
from experience ; for to that too are we indebted for
all our knowledge regarding the coexiftence oi fen-
fible qualities in objefts, and the operations of bodies,
one upon another. Ivory, for inftani?e, is hard and
elaftic ; this we know by experience, and indeed by'
that alone. For, being altogether ftrangers to the true*
nature both of elafticity and hardnefs, we cannot by
the bare contemplation of our ideas determine how
far the one neceffarily implies the other, or whether
there may not be a repugnance between them. But
when we obferve them to exift both in the fame ob-
jeft, we are then affured from experience that they
are not incompatible ; and when we alfo find, that a-
ftone is hard and not elaftic, and that air though ela¬
ftic. is not hard, we alfo conclude upon the fame foun¬
dation, that the ideas are not neceffarily conjoined^,
6 bus.
I;()8 L O (
but may cxlfl feparately in different obje&s. In like
manner with regard to the operations of bodies one
upon another, it is evident, that our knowledge this
way is all derived from oblervation. Aquaregia dif-
folves gold, as has been found by frequent trial, nor
is there any other way_of arriving at the difcovery.
Naturalifts may tell us, if they pleafe, that the parts
of aquaregla are of a texture apt to infinuate between
the corpufcles of gold, and thereby loofen and lhake
them afunder. If this is a true account of the matter,
it will notwithftanding be allowed, that our conje&ure
in regard to the conformation of thefe bodies is de¬
duced from the experiment, and not the experiment
from the conjefture. It was not from any previous
knowledge of the intimate ftrufture of aquctregia and
gold, and the aptnefs of their parts to a£t or to be a£t-
cd upon, that we came by the conclufion above men¬
tioned. The internal conftitution of boclies is in a
manner wholly unknown to us; and could we even
furmount this difficulty, yet as the feparation of the
parts of gold implies fomething like an active force in
the menftruum, and we are unable to conceive how it
comes to be pofleffed of this aftivity, the effedt mull
be owned to be altogether beyond our comprehenfion.
But when repeated trials had once confirmed it, in-
fomuch that it was admitted as an eftabliflied truth
in natural knowledge, it was then eafy for men to
fpin out theories of their own invention, and con¬
trive fuch a ftrufture of parts, both for gold and aqua-
regia, as would bell ferve to explain the phenomenon
upon the principles of that fyllem of philofophy they
had adopted.
V. From what has been faid it is evident, that as
intuition is the foundation of what we call fcientifical
knowledge, fo is experience of natural. For this lall
being wholly taken up with objects of fenfe, or thofe
bodies that conftitute the natural world; and their
properties, as far as we can difcover them, being to
be traced only by a long and painful feries of obferva-
tions; it is apparent, that, in order to improve this
branch of knowledge, we mult betake ourfelves to
the method of trial and experiment.
VI. But though experience is what we may term
the immediate foundation of natural knowledge, yet
with refpedt to particular perfons its influence is very
narrow and confined. The bodies that furround us
are numerous, many of them lie at a great dillance,
and fome quite beyond our reach. Life is fo ffiort,
and fo crowded with cares, that but little time is left for
any Angle man to employ himfelfin unfolding the my-
fteries of nature. Hence it is neceffary to admit many
things upon the teftimony of others, which by this
means becomes the foundation of a great part of our
knowledge of body. No man doubts of the power
of aquaregia to difiblve gold, though perhaps he ne¬
ver himfelf made the experiment. In thefe therefore
and fuch like cafes we judge of the fadts and opera¬
tions of nature upon the mere ground of teltimony.
However, as we can always have recourfe to expe¬
rience where any doubt or fcruple arifcs;, this is jultly
confidered as the true foundation of natural philofo¬
phy ; being indeed the ultimate fupport upon which
our aflent relts, and whereto we appeal when the
highell degree of evidence is required.
VII. But there are many Fadts that will not allow
t 1 C. Part II,
of an appeal to the fenfes; and in this cafe teltimony *9.
is the true and only foundation of our judgments.
All human actions of whatever kind, when coniidered^QUn *Qf
as already pall, are of the nature here defcribed; hiftorical
becaufe having now no longer any exiltence, both knowledge,
the fadts themfelves, and the circumltances attending
them, can be known only from the relations of fuch
as had fufficient opportunities of arriving at the truth.
Tejlimony therefore is jullly accounted a third ground
of human judgment; and as from the other two we
have deduced fcientifical and natural knowledge, fo we
mqy from this derive hifiorical; by which we mean,
not merely a knowledge of the'civil tranfadtions of
Hates and kingdoms, but of all fadts whatfoever, where
teltimony is the ultimate foundation of our belief.
Chap. II. (y Affirmative and Negative Propofitions.
3®
I. While the comparing of our ideas is confideredThc ( bjedt
merely as an adt of the mind, aflembling them toge- rre<ti-
ther, and joining or disjoining them according to thecate a
refult of its perceptions, we call it judgment; but when explained,
our judgments are put into words, they then bear the
name of propofitions. A propofition therefore is a fen-
tence expreffing fome judgment of the mind, whereby
two or more ideas are affirmed to agree or difagree.
Now, as our judgments include at leall two ideas, one
of which is affirmed or denied of the other, fo mull a
propofition have terms anfwering to thefe ideas. The
idea of which we affirm or deny, and of courfe the
term expreffing that idea, is called the fubjeS of the
propofition. The idea affirmed or denied, as alfo the
term anfwering it, is called the predicate. Thus in
the propofition, God is omnipotent: God is the fubjedt,
it being of him that we affirm omnipotence ; and om¬
nipotent is the predicate, becaufe we affirm the idea
exprelfed by that word to belong to God. 31
II. But as, in propofitions, ideas are either joined The copn-
or disjoined ; it is not enough to have terms expref-'3’ ^c*
fing thofe ideas, unlefs we have alfo fome words to
denote their agreement or difagreement. That word
in a propofition, which connects two ideas together,
is called the copula ; and if a negative particle be an¬
nexed, we thereby underlland that the ideas are dif-
joined. The fubjiantine verb is commonly made ufe
of for the copula: as in the above-mentioned propofi¬
tion, God is omnipotent; where is reprefents the co¬
pula, and fignifies the agreement of the ideas of God
and omnipotence. But if we mean to feparate two
ideas ; then, befides the fubllantive verb, we mult alfo
ufe fome particle of negation, to exprefs this repug¬
nance. The propofition, man is not perfeEl, may ferve
as an example of this kind ; where the notion of per¬
fection being removed from the idea of man, the ne¬
gative particle not is inferted after the copula, to fig-
nify the difagreement between the fubjedt and predi¬
cate. 3,2
III. F.very propofition neceflarily confifts of thefe Propofi-
three parts: but then it is not alike needful that they
be all feverally exprefled in words ; becaufe the copula pte(pe(i
IS often included in the term of the predicate, as when a (ingle 1
wfi fay, he fits ; which imports the fame as he is fitting, word.
In the Latin language, a Angle word has often the
force of a whole fentence. Thus ambulat is the fame
as ille ft ambulant; amo, as ego fum amans ; and fo in
4 innumerable
Part II. L O
innumerable other inftances: by which it appears,
that we are not fo much to regard the number of words
jn a fentence, as the ideas they reprefent, and the man¬
ner in which they are put together. For wherever
two ideas are joined or disjoined in an expreflion, tho’
of but a fingle word; it is evident that we have a fub-
je&, predicate, and copula, and of confequence a com-
33 plete propofition.
AffirniPtive IV. When the mind joins two ideas, we call it an
tive "uTo aMrmatl,ve judgment; when it feparates them, a ne-
fidons?^0 gatwe •* and as any t\Vo ideas compared together muft
neceffafily either agrie or not agree, it is evident that
all our judgments fall under thefe two divifions. Hence
likewife the propofitions exprefiing thefe judgments
are all either affirmative or negative. An affirmative
propofition connects the predicate with the fubjeft, as
a Jlone is heavy ; a negative propofition feparates them,
as God is not the author of evil. Affirmation therefore is
the fame as joining two ideas together, and this is done
by means of the copula. Negation on the contrary
marks a repugnance between the ideas compared ; in
which cafe a negative particle mull be called in, to
fhow that the connexion included in the copula does
not take place.
When the V. Hence we fee the reafon of the rule commonly
negative laid down by logicians, That in all negative propofi-
ferveslo tions the negation ought to affeft the copula. For as
disjoin the copula, when placed by itfelf, between the fubjeCl
ideas. and the predicate, manifeftly binds them together ; it
is evident, that in order to render a propofition ne¬
gative, the particles of negation mull enter it in fuch
a manner as to deftroy this union. In a ward, then
only are two ideas disjoined in a propofition, when the
negative particle may be fo referred to the copula, as
to break the affirmation included in it, and undo that
connexion it would otherwife eftablifh. When we
fay, for inflance, No -man is perfect; take away the
negation, and the copula of itfelf plainly unites the
ideas in the propofition. But as this is the very reverfe
of what is intended, a negative mark is added, to fhow
that this union does not here take place. The nega¬
tion, therefore, by deftroying the effect of the copula,
changes the very nature of the propofition, infomuch
that, inflead of binding two ideas together, it denotes
their feparatioe. On the contrary, in this fentence,.
‘The man who departs not from an upright behaviour is be¬
loved of God, the predicate beloved of God is evidently
affirmed of the fubjett an upright man; fo that, not-
withftanding the negative particle, the propofition is
ftill affirmative. The reafon is plain : the negation
here affe&s not the copula ; but, making properly a
part of the fubjeft, ferves, with other terms in the fen¬
tence, to form one complex idea, of which the predi¬
cate beloved of God is diredfly affirmed.
Chap. III. Of Univerfaland Particular Propofitions.
I. The next confiderable divifion of propofitions is
G I C. i9£
into vniverfal wA particular. Our ideas, according ta . 35
what has been already obferved in the Firit Part, are
all fingular as they enter the mind, and reprefent in- [j^iTinto
dividual objects. But as by abflraction we can render univerfal
them univerfal, fo as to comprehend a whole clafs of and paid-
tilings, and fometimes feveral claffes at once ; hence cu^ar*
the terms expreffing thefe ideas muft be in like man¬
ner univerfal. If therefore we fuppofe any general
term to become the fubjeft of a propofition, it is evi¬
dent, that whatever is affirmed of the abftradl idea
belonging *to that term, may be affirmed of all the in¬
dividuals to which that idea extends. Thus, when we
fay, Men are mortal; we confider mortality, not as
cpnfined to one or any number of particular men, but
as what may be affirmed without reftriction of the
whole fpecies. By this means the propofition becomes
as general as the idea which makes the fubjedt of it;
and indeed derives its univerfality entirely from that
idea, being more or lefs fo according as this may be
extended to more or fewer individuals. But it is fur¬
ther to be obferved of thefe general terms, that they
fometimes enter a propofition in their full latitude, as in
the example given above ; and fometimes appear with
a mark of limitation. In this laft cafe we are given to
underftand, that the predicate agrees not to the whole
univerfal idea, but only to a part of it ; as in the pro-
poiition, Some men are wife : For here wifdom is not
affirmed of every particular man, but reftrained to a
few of the human fpecies (b). 36
II. Now from this different appearance of the ge- Propofi-
neral idea that conftitutes the fubjeCt of any judge- verfalwher-
ment, arifes the divifion of prop'oiitions into univerfal the fubje*
and particular. An univerfal propofition is, that where- is fo, with¬
in the fubjeCl is fome general term taken in its full la- <1“t an?ar^
titude ; infomuch that the predicate agrees to all the nc"
individuals comprehended under it, if it denotes a
proper fpecies ; and to all the feveral fpecies, and
their individuals, if it marks an idea, of a higher order.
The words all, every, no, none, &c. are the proper
figns of this univerfality ; and as they feldom fail to
accompany general truths, fo they are the moil obvi¬
ous criterion whereby to diftinguifh. them. All ani¬
mals have a power of beginning motion. This is an.
univerfal propofition ; as we know from the word all
prefixed to the fubjedft animals, which denotes that it
muft be taken in its full extent. Hence the power ofi
beginning motion may be affirmed of all the feveral
fpecies of animals.
III. A particular propofition has in like manner Propofi-
fome general term for its fubjeCt; but with a mark of tions parti*,
limitation added, to denote, that the predicate agrees w^.erer
only to fome of the individuals comprehended under mverfaHub-
fpecies, or to one or more of the fpecies belonging to.je& appears-
any genus, and not to. the whole univerfal idea. Thus,,witha marfec
Some fanes are heavier than iron ; Some men have an. linhu-
common foare of prudence. In-the laft of thefe propo- tlon“
fitions, the fubjedt fame men implies only a certain num¬
ber
(b) See the preceding note, where it is demonftrated that the terms alone, and not the ideas, are in reality
general. The term man is equally applicable to every individual of the human race ; and therefore, what is af¬
firmed or denied of men in general, is affirmed or denied of all the individuals, without regard to their difcrimi-
Dating qualities. Some is a definitive word (fee Grammar), which, prefixed to the word man, limits ther
fignification of that general term ; and therefore what is affirmed of fame men, is affirmed only of part of thee
race, but that part itieif is not afcertained„
200
LOGIC.
Parc II,
"bcr of uidivi^uals, comprehended under a dngle fpecies.
In the former, where the fubjeft is a genus that ex¬
tends to a great variety of diitinft clafles, fome Jlones
may not only imply any number of particular Hones,
but alfo ftveral whole fpecies of Hones, inafmuch as
there may be not a few with the property there de-
fcribed. Hence we fee, that a propofition does not
ceafe to be particular by the predicate’s agreeing to a
whole fpecies, unlefs that fpecies, fxngly and diftinft-
ly confidered, makes alfo the fubject of which we af-
38 firm or deny.
Singular jy. There is Hill one fpecies of propofitions that
propofitinns remajng t0 fog deferibed, and which the more deferves
contained . . . ’ , , • •
under the our notice, as it is not yet agreed among logicians to
head of which of the two clafles mentioned above they ought
particulars to be referred ; namely,yfrifa/tir propofitions, ot thofe
where the fubjedt is an individual. Of this nature are
the following : Sir Ifaac Newton Was the inventor of
fluxions ; This look contains many nfeful truths. What
occafions fome difficulty as to the proper rank of thefe
propofitions is, that, the fubjeft being taken according
to the whole of its extenfion, they fometimes have
the fame effedt in reafoning as univerfals. But if it
be confidered that they are in truth the moH limited
kind of particular propofitions, and that no propofition
can with any propriety be called univerfal but where
the fubjedt is fome univerfal idea ; we lhall net be
long in determining to which clafs they ought to be
referred. When we fay, Some hooks contain ufeful
truths ; the propofition is particular, becaufe the ge¬
neral term appears with a mark of reflridtibn. - If
therefore we fay, This book contains ufeful truths; it
is evident that the propofitioh mufi be Hill more par¬
ticular, as the limitation implied in the word this is of
39 a more confined nature than in the former cafe.
The lour- V. We fee, therefore, that all propofitions are either
mid dwi- affirmative or negative; nor is it lefs evident, that in
pofitioiis both cafes they may be univerfal or particular. Hence
arifes that celebrated fourfold divifion of them into
univerfal affirmative and univerfal negative, particular
affirmative and particular negative, which comprehends
indeed all their Varieties. The ufe of this method of
difiinguiffiing them will appear more fully afterwards,
when we come to treat of reafoning and fyllogifm.
Chap. IV. Of Abfolute and Conditional Propofitions.
4*.
Diftindion I. The objedh about which we are chiefly conVer-
ol qualities fant jn th;s worJd>
are all of a nature liable to change,
into effen- TTT, , J. , r , . o
eblandac- what may be amrmed 01 them at one time, cannot
cfdental. often at another ; and it makes no fmall part of our
knowledge to difiinguifli rightly thefe variations, and
trace the reafons Upon which thfy depend. For it is
obfervable, that amidfi all the viciffitude of nature,
fome things remain conHant and invariable j nor even
are the changes, to which we fee others liable, eHeft¬
ed but in confequence of uniform and Heady laws,
which', when known, ,are fiifficient to direft us in our
judgments about them. Hence philofophers, in dh
flinguifliing the objefts of our perception into various
claffes, have been very careful to note, that fome
properties belong efientially to the general idea, fo as
not to be feparable from it but by deflroying its very
nature ; while-others are only accidental, and may be
affirmed or denied of it in different circumffances.
N° 185.
Thus folidity, a yellow colour, and great weight, are
confidered as effential qualities of gold; but whether
it fliall exiff as an uniform conjoined mafs, is not alike
neceffary. We fee that by a proper menflruum it
may be reduced to a fine powder, and that an intenfe
heat will bring it into a Hate of fufion. 4T
II. From this diverfity in the feveral qualities offence a
things arifes a confiderable difference as to the man- "nfid?r'
ner of our judging about them. For all fuch proper-*,16^'^*
ties as are infeparable from objefts when confidered manner of
as belonging to any genus or fpecies, are affirmed ab-judging,
folutely and without referve of that general idea.
Thus we fay, Gold is very weighty; AJlone is hard;
Animals have a power of felf-motion. But in, the cafe
of mutual or accidental qualities, as they depend up¬
on fome other confideration diffinft from the general
idea; that alfo muff be taken into the account, in or¬
der to form an aexurate judgment. Should we affirm,
for inffance, of fome Hones, that they are very fuf-
ceptible of a rolling motion ; the propofition, while it
remains ill this general form, cannot with any advan¬
tage be introduced into 'our reafonings. An aptnefs
to receive that mode of motion flows from the figure
of the Hone; which, as it may vary infinitely, our
judgment then only becomes applicable and determi¬
nate, when the particular figure, of which volubility is
a confequence, is alfo taken into the account. Let us
then bring in this other confideration, and the propo¬
fition will run as follows : Stones of a fpherical form are
eafily put into a rolling motion. Here we fee the condition
upon which the predicate is affirmed, and therefore
know in what particular cafes the propofition may be
apphed. _ 4J
III. This confideration of propofitions refpefting the Which
manner in which the predicate is affirmed of the fub-lrive' r‘f® ^
jeft gives rife to the divifion of them into abfolute f1(,)nh'fdlJ<£
and conditional. Abfolute propofitions are thofe where-
in we affirm fome property infeparable from the ideam abfo'ute
of the fubjeft, and which therefore belongs to it inan<1 condi-
all poffible cafes : 2.%,.Godis infinitely wife ; Virtue tends1'0™'
to the ultimate happinefs of man. But where the predicate
is not neceffarily connefted with the idea of the fub¬
jeft, unlefs upon fome confideration diffinft from that
idea, there the propofition is called conditional. The
reafon of the name is taken from the fuppofition
annexed, which is of the nature of a condition, and may
be expreffed as-fuch, thus: If a fione is expofed to the
rays of the fun, it will contrast- fome degree of heat ; If a
river runs in a very declining channel, its rapidity will con-
ftantly increafe.
IV. There is not any thing of greater* importance
in philofophy than a due attention to this divifion of Lmportanctf
propofitions. If we are careful never to affirm things 'his divi-
abfolutely but where the ideas are infeparably con-^j^**
joined'; and if in otir other judgments we diffinftly pr0p0fj_
mark the conditions which determine the predicate to dons deter-
belong to the fubjeft; we fhall be the lefs liable tominate.
miffake in applying general truths to the particular con¬
cerns of human life. It is owing to the exaft obfer-
vance of this rule that mathematicians have been fo hap¬
py in their difeoveries, and that what they demonffrate
of magnitude in general may be applied with eafe in all
obvious occurrences.
V. The truth of it is, particular propofitions are
then known to be true, when we can trace their con-
neftiof
20T
Part If. L O G I C.
44 ncftionwith univerfals; and it is accordingly the great fume degree of heat. Here we have but one fubject
tes them*1 kufinefs of fcience to find out general truths that may and one predicate ; for the complex exprefiion, A
from par- he applied with fafety in all obvious inftances. Now , Jlone expofed to the rays of the fun, conftitutes the pro-
ticulars to the great advantage arifing from determining with n
generals, care the conditions upon which one idea may be af¬
firmed or denied of another is. this: that thereby par¬
ticular propofitions really become univerfal, may be
introduced with certainty into our reafonings, and
ferve as fiandards to conduft and regulate our judge¬
ments. To illuftrate this by a familiar inftance: if
we fay, Some water ads very forcibly ; the propofi-
tion is particular: and as the conditions on which
this forcible aftion depends are not mentioned, it is
as yet uncertain in what cafes it may be applied. Let
us then fupply thefe conditions, and the propofition
will run thus: Water conveyed in fufficient quantity
along a feep defeent aBs very forcibly. Here we have
an univerfal judgment, inafmuch as the predicate for¬
cible aBion may be aferibed to all water under the
circumftances mentioned. Nor is it lefs evident that
the propofition in this new form is of eafy applica¬
tion ; and in fa6l we find that men do apply it in in-
ftances where the forcible action of water is required;
as in corn-mills and many other works of art.
Chap. V. Of Simple and Compound Propofitions.
45
Divifion of I. Hitherto we have treated of propofitions,
propofi- where only two ideas are compared together. Thefe
per fubjedt of this propofition, and is no more than
one determined idea. The fame thing happens in ,
caufals. Rehoboam was unhappy becaufe he followed evil
counfel. There is here an appearance of • two propo¬
fitions arfing from the complexity of the exprefiion ;
but when we come to confider the matter more near¬
ly, it is evident that we have but a fingle fubjeft and
predicate.. The purfuit of evil counfel brought mifery upon
Rehoboam. It is not enough, therefore, to render a pro¬
pofition compound, that the fubjedf and predicate are
complex notions, requiring fometimes a whole fentence
to exprefs them : for in this cafe the comparifon is ftill
confined to two ideas, and conftitutes what we call a
fimple judgment. But where there are feveral fubjefts
or predicates, or'both, as the affirmation or negation
may be alike extended to them all, the propofition ex¬
prefling fuch a judgment is truly a qolledtion of as ma¬
ny fimple ones as there are different ideas compared.
Confining ourfelves therefore to this more ftridt and
juft notion of compound propofitions, they are all re¬
ducible to two kinds, viz. copulatives and disjunc-
tk’eS' ... 47
III. A copulative propofition is, where the fubjeCls Compound
•and predicates are fo linked together, that; they may propofiti-
be all feverally affirmed or denied one of another. Of'ms> either
fimple and al c 111 t^ie Senera^ called fimple ; becaufe, having but this nature are the examples of compound propofitions c,>Pu^ativc:
compound. one fubjeft and one predicate, they are the effedl of given above. Riches and honours are apt to elate the
a fimple judgment that admits of no fubdivifion. But
if it fo happens that feveral ideas offer themfelves to
our thoughts at once, whereby we ,are led to affirm
the fame thing of different objects, or different things
of the fame objedh; the propofitions expreffing thefe
judgments are called compound ; becaufe they may be re-
folved into as many others as there are fubjedts or pre-
dieptes in the whole complex.determination on the mind.
Thus, God is infinitely wife and infinitely powerful.
Here there are two predicates, infinite wtfdom and
infinite power, both affirmed of the fame fubjedl; and
accordingly tire propofition may be refolved into two
others, affirming thefe predicates feverally. In like
maimer in the propofition, Neither kings nor people are
exempt from death ; the predicate is denied of both fub-
jefts, and may therefore be feparated from them in di-
ftindf propofitions. Nor is it lefs evident, that if a com¬
plex judgment confifts of feveral fubje&s and predicates,
it may be refolved into as many fimple propofitions as
are the number of different ideas compared together.
Riches and honours are apt to elate the mind, and in-
creafe the number of our defires. In this judgment there
mind, and increafe the number of our defires. Neither kings
nor people are exempt from death. In the firft of thefe
the two predicates may be affirmed feverally of each
fubjedt, whence we have four diftindt propofitions.
The other furnifhes an example of the negative kind,
where the fame predicate, being disjoined from both
fubjedts, may be alfo denied of them in feparate pro¬
pofitions.
IV. The other fpecies of compound propofitions are Q
thofe called disjunctives; in which, comparing feveral t;VCiISJunC*
predicates with the fame fubjedt; we affirm that one
of them neceffarily belongs to it, but leave the parti¬
cular predicate undetermined. If any one, for ex¬
ample, fays, This world either exifis of itfelf, of is the work
of fame all-wife and powerful caiife, it is evident that one
of the two predicates muft belong to the world ; but
. as the propofition determines not which, it is therefore
of the kind we call disjunBive. Such too are the fol¬
lowing : The fun either moves round the earth, or is the
centre about which the earth revolves. Friendfhipfinds
mm equal, or makes them fo. It is the nature of all pro¬
pofitions of this clafs, fuppofing them to be exadt in
two fubjedts and two predicates, and it is at the ..point of form, that upon determining the particular
“ *"* ‘  ’ - r predicate, the reft are of courfe to be removed; or if
aH the predicates but one are remoyed, that one necef¬
farily takes place. Thus, iu . the example given a-
bove ; if we allow the world to be the work of fome
wife and powerful caufe, we of courfe deny it to be
felf-exiftent; or if we deny it to be felf-exiftent, we
mull neceflarily admit tlmt it was produced by fome
wife and powerful caufe. Now this particular man¬
ner of linking the predicates togethei, fo that the
eftablifhing one difplaces all the reft; or the ex¬
cluding all but one neceffarily eftabliihes that one ;
cannot otherwife be effedted than by means of dif-
C c junflive
fame time apparent that it may.be refolved into four
diftindt propofitions. Riches are apt to elate the mind.
Riches are apt to increafe the number of our defires. And
fo of’honours.
The proper H. Logicians have divided thefe compound piopo-
notion of a fitions into a great many different claffes ; but, in our
compound opinion, not with a due regard ,to their proper defi-
propofitii.n nition. Thus - conditionals, caufals, relatives, &c. are
a certamed. nijentjone^ as many diftmdl fpecies of this kind,
though in fadt they are no more than fimple propo¬
fitions. To give an inftance of a conditional; If a
Jlqne is expofed to the rays of the fun, it will contraB
Vol. X. Part L
202
LOGIC. Part II.
jmBlve particles. And hence it is that proportions
of this clafs take their names from thefe particles
which make fo neceflary a part of them, and indeed
eonftitute their very nature confidered as a diftinft
fpecies.
Chap VI. Of the Divifton of Propoftions into Self-
evident and Demonftrable-
Propofiti- WH£N any propofition is offered to the view of
cns divided the mind, if the terms in which it is expreffed be
into felf- underftood ; upon comparing the ideas together, the
®v^en^arK* agreement or difagreement afferted is either immedi-
1 ately perceived, or found to lie beyond the prefent
J reach of the underftanding. In the firft: cafe the pro¬
pofition is faid to be ftf-evident, and admits not of
any proof, becaufe a bare attention to the ideas them-
felves produces full conviction and certainty; nor is
it pofiible to call in any thing more evident by way of
confirmation. But where the connexion or repug¬
nance comes not fo readily under the infpeftion of the
mind, there we muff have recourfe to reafoning;
and if by a clear feries of proofs we can make out the
truth propofed, infomuch that felf-evidence ffiall ac¬
company every ftep of the procedure, we are then
able to demonftrate what we affert, and the propofi¬
tion itfelf is faid to be demonfrable. When we affirm,
for inflance, that it is impoffible for the fame thing to be
and not to be; whoever underftands the terms made
ufe of perceives at firft glance the truth of what is af¬
ferted, nor can he by any efforts bring himfelf to be¬
lieve the contrary. The propofition therefore is felf-
evident, and fuch that it is impoffioble by reafoning to
make it plainer; becaufe there is no truth more ob¬
vious or better known, from which as a confequence
it may be deduced. But if we fay, This world had a
beginning; the affertion is indeed equally true, but
fhines not forth with the fame degree of evidence.
We find great difficulty in conceiving how the world
could be made out of nothing: and are not brought
to a free and full confent, until by reafoning we ar¬
rive at a clear view of the abfurdity involved in the
contrary fuppofition. Hence this propofition is of the
kind we call demonjlrable, inafmuch as its truth is not
immediately perceived by the mind, but yet may be
made appear by means of others more known and
obvious, whence it follows as an unavoidable confe¬
quence.
II. From what has been faid, it appears, that reafon¬
ing is employed only about demonftrable propofitions,
and that our intuitive and felf-evident perceptions are
the ultimate foundation on which it refts.
Self evi HI. Self-evident propofitions furnifh the firft prin-
cent truths ciples of feafoning; and it is certain, that if in our
the firft refearches we employ only fuch principles as have
ptincii les this chara&er of felf-evidence, and apply them accord-
<>f rtafon- jng to the rules to be afterwards explained, we ffiall
be in no danger of error in advancing from one dif-
covery to another. For this we may appeal to the
writings of the mathematicians, which being conduct¬
ed by the exprefs model here mentioned, are an incon-
teftable proof of the firmnefs and liability of human
knowledge, when built upon fo fure a foundation. For
not only have the propofitions of this fcience ftood the
left of ages ; but are found attended with that invinci¬
ble evidence, as forces the affent of all who duly con-
fider the proofs upon which they are eftabbflied. Since
the mathematicians are univerfally allowed to have hit
upon the right method of arriving at unknown truths,
fince they have been the happieft in the choice as well as
the application of their principles, it may not be amifs
to explain here their-method of ftating felf-evident pro¬
pofitions, and applying them to the purpofes of demon-
ftration.
IV. Firft then it is to be obferved, that they have Definitions
been very careful in afcertaining their ideas, and fix-1
ing the fignfication of their terms. For this purpofc
they begin with definitions, in which the meaning of a-d ev;_
their words is fo diftinctly explained, that they can- dence in
not fail to excite in the mind of an attentive reader knowledge,
the very fame ideas as are annexed to them by the
writer. And indeed the clearnefs and irrefiftible evi¬
dence of mathematical knowledge is owing to nothing
fo much as this care in laying the foundation. Where
the relation between any two ideas is accurately and
juftly traced, it will not be difficult for another to com¬
prehend that relation, if in fetting himfelf to difcover'
it he brings the very fame ideas into comparifon. But
if, on the contrary, he affixes to his words ideas dif¬
ferent from thofe that were in the mind of him who
firft advanced the demonftration ; it is evident, that as
the fame ideas are not compared, the fame relation can¬
not fubfift, infomuch that a propofition will be rejected
as fal e, which, had the terms been rightly underftood,
muft have appeared inconteftably true. A fquare, for
inftance, is a figure bounded by four equal right lines,
joined together at right angles. Here the nature of the
angles makes no lefs a part of the idea than the equa¬
lity of the fides ; and many properties demonftrated
of the fquare flow entirely from its being a reftangular
figure. If therefore we fuppofe a man, who has form¬
ed a partial notion of a fquare, comprehending only
the equality of its fides, without regard to the angles,
reading fome demonftration that implies alfo this latter
confideration ; it is plain he would reject it as not uni¬
verfally true, inafmuch as it could not be applied
where the fides were joined together at equal angles.
For this laft figure, anfwering ftill to his idea of a
fquare, would be yet found without the property
affigned to it in the propofition. But if he comes af¬
terwards to corrredt his notion, and render his idea
complete, he will then readily own the truth and juft-
nefs of the demonftration.
V. We fee, therefore, that nothing contributes fo Mathtma-
much to the improvement and certainty of human t,aa:'s>. by
knowledge, as the having determinate ideas, and
keeping them fteady and invariable in all our dif- procure a
courfes and reafonings about them. And on this ac-ready re¬
count it is, that mathematicians, as was before obferved, c®P^on
always begin by defining their terms, and diftin&ly un-Jj^^
folding the notions they are intended to exprefs. vance.
Hence fuch as apply themfelves to thefe ftudies have
exactly the fame views of things; and, bringing al¬
ways the very fame ideas into comparifon, readily dif-
cern the relations between them. It is likewife of
importance, in every demonftration, to exprefs the fame
idea invariably by the fame word. From this practice
mathematicians never deviate ; and if it be neceffary in
their demonftrations, where the reader’s comprehenfion
is aided by a diogram, it is much more fo in all reafon-
ings about moral or intellectual truths where the ideas
cannot
203
Part II.
53
The efla-
blifhinj; of
principles,
the fecond
flcp in ma¬
thematical
knowledge.
54
Propofiti-
ons divided
into fpecu-
lative and
practical.
cannot be reprefented by a diagram,
of this rule may fometimes be productive of ill-found¬
ing periods; but when truth is the objeft, found ought
to be defpifed.
VI. When the mathematicians have taken this firft
ftep, and made known the ideas whofe relations they
intend to inveftigate ; their next care is, to lay down
fome felf-evident truths, which may ferve as a founda¬
tion for their future reafonings. And here indeed
they proceed with remarkable circumfpe&ion, admit¬
ting no principles but what flow immediately from
their definitions, and neceflarily force themfelves upon
a mind in any degree attentive to its ideas. Thus a
circle is a figure formed by a right line moving round
fome fixed point in the fame plane. The fixed point
round which the line is fuppofed to move, and where
one of its extremities terminates, is called the centre of
the circle. The other extremity, which is conceived
to be carried round until it returns to the point whence
it firft fet out, defcribes a curve running into itfelf, and
termed the circumference. AH right lines drawn from
the centre to the circumference are called radii. From
thefe definitions compared, geometricians derive this
felf-evident truth; that the radii of the fame circle are all
equal to one another.
VII. We now obferve, that in all propofitions we
either affirm or deny fome property of the idea that
conftitutes the fubjeCt of our judgment, or we maintain
that fomething may be done or effected. The firft/ort
are called fpeculalive propofitions, as in the example
mentioned above, the radii of the fame circle are all
equal one to another. The others are called pradical, for
a reafon too obvious to be mentioned ; thus, float a right
LOGIC.
The obfervation kind, and is treated as fueh by geometrical writer#.
Thus, to draw a right line from one point to another, is
aflumed by Euclid as a poftulate, becaufe the manner
of doing it is fo obvious, as to require no previous
teaching. But then it is not equally evident, how we
are to conftruft an equilateral triangle. For this rea¬
fon he advances it as a demonftrable propofition, lays
down rules for the exa& performance, and at the fame
time proves, that if thefe rules are followed, the figure
will be juftly defcribed. ^
IX. This leads us to take notice, that as felf-evident And Je-
truths are diftinguiffied into different kinds, according tnonftrable
as they are fpeculative or pradical; fo is it alfo witk ProPoCtl'
demonftrable propofitions. A demonftrable fpecula- the0rems
tive propofition is by mathematicians called a theorem, and pro^
Such is the famous 47th propofition of the firft book bkms.
of the elements, known by the name of the Pythago-
ric theorem, from its fuppofed inventor Pythagoras,
viz. “ that in every right-angled triangle, the fquare
defcribed upon the fide fubtending the right-angle is
equal to both the fquares defcribed upon the fides
containing the right-angle.” On the other hand, a
demonftrable pradical propafition is called a problem ;
as where Euclid teaches us to defcribe a fquare upon a
given right-line. ^
X. It may not be amifs to add, that, befides the Cc rclUries
four kinds of propofitions already mentioned, mathe- rc obvious
maticians have alfo a fifth, known by the name of^^^®"*
corollaries. Thefe are ufually fubjoined to theorems or reiris or
problems, and differ from them only in this ; that they problems,
flow from what is there demonftrated in fo obvious a
manner as to difeover their dependence upon the pro¬
pofition whence they are deduced, almoft as foon as
line may be drawn from one ^oint to another is a pradical propofed. Thus Euclid having demonftrated, “that
55
Hence ma¬
thematical
principle*
diftinguilh-
ed imoaxi-
propofition; inafmuch as it expreffes that fomething
may be done.
VIII. From this twofold confiderationof propofitions
arifes the twofold divifion of mathematical principles
into axioms and poftulates. By an axiom they un-
derftand any felf-evident fpeculative truth ; as, That the
whole is greater than its parts : That things equal to one
and the fame thing are equal to one another. But a felf-
evident pradical propofition is what they call a pqftu~
late. Such are thofe of Euclid ; that a fnite right line
may by continued direSly forwards ; that a circle may be
defcribed about any centre with any di/lance. And here we
are to obferve, that as in an axiom the agreement
or difagreemeent between the fubjed and predicate
muft come under the immediate infpedion of the
in every right-lined triangle all the three angles taken
together are equal to two right-angles;” adds by way of
corollary, “ that all the three angles of any one triangle
taken together are equal to all the three angles of any
other triangle taken togetherwhich is evident at
firft fight; becaufe in all cafes they are equal to two
right ones, and things equal to one and the fame thing
are equal to one another. .g
XL The fcholia of mathematicians are indifferently Scholia
annexed to definitions, propofitions, or corollaries ; krve the
and anfwer the fame purpoCes as annotations upon a j^Dtation*
claffic author. For in them occafion is taken to explain “rTcom-
whatever may appear intricate and obfeure in a train of ment.
reafoning; to anfwer objedions; to teach the applica¬
tion and ufes of propofitions; to lay open the original
mind; fo in a poftulate, not only the poffibility of and hiftory of the feveral difeoveries made in the fei-
the thing afferted muft be evident at firft view, but
alfo the manner in which it may be effeded. For
where this manner is not of itfelf apparent, the pro¬
pofition comes under the notion of the demonftrable
ence ; and, in a word, to acquaint us with all fuch par¬
ticulars as deferve to be known, whether confidered as
points of curiofity or profit.
Part III. OfREASONIN G.
£hap
. I. Of Reafoning in general, and the Parts of fo/ Jr!ftanc;’ 7 fontpare two figures of a d
J J l-l ■ ra ferent make, in order to judge of their equality or 1
whic it conjij s. equality, it is plain, that by barely confidering the
"When, for inftance, we compare two figures of a dif- „ 59
. , • 0 v. . Remotere»
f ?r ‘^lationsdif-
w me fi- covered by
IT often happens in comparing ideas together, that gures themfelves, we cannot arrive at an exad deter- means of
their agreement or difagreement cannot be difeern- mination ; becaufe, by feafon of their difagreeing forms, »
cd at firft view, efpecially if they are of fuch a nature as it is impoffible fo to put them together, as that their fe- ate 1
not to admit of an exad application one to another, veral parts fliall mutually coincide. Here then it be-
C c a comes
2®4
LOGIC. ParcIIL
comes neceflary to look out for fome third idea that wherever there is this ability of diftinguifhing good
will admit of fuch an application as the prefent cafe re- from bad adtions, and of purfuing the one and avoid-
quires ; wherein if we fucceed, all difficulties vaniffi, ing the other, there alfo a creature is accountable. We
and the relation we are in quell of may be traced with have then got a third idea, with which accountable-
eafe. Thus right-lined figures are all reduced to nefs is infeparably connedled, viz. reafon and liberty ;
truth ter¬
med rea-
foiiing.
ing and a
lyllogifir.
fquares, by means of which we can meafure their areas, which are here to be conlidered as making up one
and determine exadlly their agreement or difagreement complex conception. Let us now take this middle
in point of magnitude. idea, and compare it with the other term in the que¬
ll. But how can any third idea ferve to difeover a ftion, viz. man, and we all know by experience that it
■ relation between two others ? The anfwer is, By be- may be affirmed of him. s Having thus by means of
ing compared feverally with thefe others; for fuch a the intermediate idea formed two feveral judgments,
comparifon enables us to fee how far the ideas with viz. that man is ptjfejfed of reafon and liberty; and that
which this third is compared are connedled or disjoin- reafon and liberty imply accountablenefs ; a third obvi-
ed between themfelves. In the example mentioned oully and necefiarily follows, viz. that man is accountable
above of two right-lined figures, if we compare each of for his aSions. Here then we have a complete act
them with fome fquare whofe area is known, and find of reafoning, in which, according to what has been
the one exactly equal to it, and the other lefs by. a already obferved, there are three diftindl judgments;
iquare inch, we immediately conclude that the area of two that may be ftyled previous', inafmuch as they lead
the firft figure is a fquare inch greater than that of the to the other, and arife from comparing . the middle
fecond. This manner of determining the relation be- idea with the two ideas in the queftion : the third is a
tween any two ideas, by the intervention of fome confequence of thefe previous acts, and flows from
third with which they may be compared, is that which combining the extreme ideas between themfelves. If
we call reafoning; and is indeed the chief inllrument now we put this reafoning into words, it exhibits what
by which we pufh on our difeoveries, and enlarge our logicians term a fyllogifm ; and, when propofed in due
knowledge. The great art lies in finding out fuch in- form, runs thus :
termediate ideas, as, when compared with the others in “ Every creature poflefled of reafon and liberty is ac-
the queftion, will furnifh evident and known truths ; countable for his actions.
becaufe, as will afterwards appear, it is only by means of “ Man is a creature poflefled of reafon and liberty:
them that we arrive at the knowledge of what is hid- Therefore man is accountable for his actions.” ,
den and remote. V. In this fyllogifm we may obferve, that there are prermies,
III. Hence it appears, that every aft of reafoning three feveral propofitions exprefiing the three judge- conclufion,
neceflarily includes three diftinft judgments; two ments implied in the aft of reafoning ; and fo difpofed, ^.^emes,
t wherein the ideas whofe relation we want to difeover as to reprefent diftinftly what pafles within the mind inte*m
are feverally compared with the middle idea, and a tracing the more diftant relations of its ideas. The two
third wherein they are themfelves connefted or disjoin- firft propofitions anfwer the two previous judgments
ed, according to the refult of that comparifon. Now, in reafoning, and are called the premifes, becaufe they
as in the fecond part of logic our judgments, when put are placed before the other. The third is termed the
, into words, were called propofitions, fo here in the conclufion, as being gained in confequence of what was
third part the expreffions of our reafonings are termed aflerted in the premifes. We are alfo to remember,
fyllogifms. And hence it follows, that as every aft of that the terms expreffing the two ideas whofe rela-
reafoning implies three feveral judgments, fo every fyl- tions we enquire after, as here man and accountable-
logifm muft include three diftinft propofitions. When nefs, are in general called the extremes ; and that the
a reafoning is thus put into words, and appears in form intermediate idea, by means of which the relation is
of a fyllogifin, the intermediate idea made ufe of, to traced, viz. a creature poffeffed of reafon and liberty,
difeover the agreement or difagreement we fearch for, takes the name of the middle term. Hence it follow s,
is called the middle term ; and the two ideas themfelves, that by the premifes of a fyllogifm we are always to
w ith which this third is compared, go by the name of underftand the two propofitions where the middle term
the extremes. is feverally compared w'ith the extremes ; for thefe con-
IV. But as thefe things are bell illuftrated by ex- ftitute the previous judgments, whence the truth we
ic"amples; let us, for inftance, fet ourfelves to inquire are in quell of is by reafoning deduced. The conclu-
whether men are accountable for their actions. As the fion is that other proposition, in which the extremes
relation between the ideas of man and accoi^ntablenefs ■ themfelves are joined or feparated agreeably to what
comes not within the immediate view of the mind, appears upon the above comparifon. ^
our firft care muft be ta find out fome third idea that VI. The conclufion is made up of the extreme terms Major and
will enable us the more eafily to difeover and trace it. of the fyllogifm : and the extreme, w hich ferves as the minor
A very fmall meafure of refteftion is fufficient to in- predicate of the conclufion, goes by the name of the
form us, that no creature can be accountable for his major term : the other extreme, which makes the fub-rop’‘
aftions, unlefs we fuppofe him capable of diftinguilh- jeft in the fame propofition, is called the minor term, ; IU
ing the good from the bad ; that is, unlefs we fuppofe From this diftinftion of the extremes ariles alfo a di-
him poflefied of reafon. Nor is this alone fufficient. ftinftion between the premifes, where thefe extremes
For what would it avail him to know good from bad are feverally compared with the middle term. That
aftions, if he had no freedom of choice, nor could a- propofition which compares the greater extreme, or
void the one and purfue the other ? hence it becomes the predicate of the conclufion, with the middle term,
neceflary to take in both confiderations in the prefent is called the major propoftion: the other, wherein the
cafe. It is at the fame time equally apparent, that fame middle term is compared with the fubjeft of the
5 conclufioa
205
Part III.
LOGIC.
conclufion or lefTer extreme, is called the minor propo-
Jition. All this is obvious from the fyllogifm already-
given, where the conclufion is, Man is accountable for
his afiions. For here the predicate accountable for his
aSions, being connefted with the middle term in the
firft of the two premifes, every creature pojfejjed of rca-
fon and liberty is accountable for his actions, gives what
we call the major propcfition. In the fecond of the
premifes, man is a creature poffeffed of reafon and liberty,
we find the lefier extreme, or fubjeft of the conclu¬
fion, viz. man, connefted with the fame middle term,
whence it is known to be the minor propoUticn. When
a fyllogifm is propofed in due form, the major propo-
fition is always placed firft, the minor next, and the
, conclufion laft.
Irafmg!e VII. Thefe things premifed, we may in the gene-
adt of rea- ral define reafoning to be an aft or operation of the
foning the mind, deducing feme unknown propofition from other
niuftbe*in- Prcv’ous ones are evident and known. Thefe
tuime previous propofitions, in a fimple aft of reafoning, are
truths. only two in number ; and it is always required that
they be of themfelves apparent to the underftanding,
infomuch that we aflent to and perceive the truth of
them as foon as propofed. In the fyllogifm given
above, the premifes are fuppofed to be felf-evident
truths ; otherwife the conclufion could not be inferred
by a tingle aft of reafoning. If, for inftance, in the
major, every creature pojfejfed of reafon and liberty is ac¬
countable for his aBions, the conneftion between the
fubjeft and predicate could not be perceived by a bare
attention to the- ideas themfelves; it is evident that
this propofition would no lefs require a proof than the
conclufion deduced from it. In this cafe a new middle
term mull be fought for, to trace the conneftion here
fuppofed; and this of courfe furnifhes another fyllo-
gifm, by which having etlablithed the propofition in
queltion, we are then* and, not before, at liberty to
ufe it in any fucceeding train of 'reafoning. And
thould it fo happen, that in this fecond etfay there was
ttill fome previous propoiition whofe truth did not ap¬
pear at firll fight, we mull then have recourfe to a
third fyllogifm, in order to lay open that truth to the
mind : becaufe fo long as the premifes remain uncer¬
tain, the conclufion built upon them mull be fb too.
When, by condufting our thoughts in this manner,
we at laft arrive at fome fyllogifm where the previ¬
ous propofitions are intuitive truths ; the mind then
retls in full fecurity, as perceiving that the feveral con-
clufions it has palled through Hand upon the immove¬
able foundation of felf-evidence, and when traced to
their fource terminate in it.
(d\ VIII. We fee, therefore, that in order to infer a
kiethe^'i1^i-corlc^u^lon k}' a fingk aft of reafoning, the premifes
eft extm'e mull be intuitive propofitions. Where they are not,
ofit,on!ya previous fyllogifms are required ; in which cafe rea-
coflcatena- foning becomes a complicated aft, taking in a variety
logifms ^ fuccelhve Heps. This frequently happens in tra¬
cing the more remote relation of our ideas; where,
many middle terms being called in, the conclufion can¬
not be made out but in confequence of a feries of fyl¬
logifms following one another in train. But although
in this concatenation of propofitions, thofe that form
the premifes of the laft fyllogifm are often confide-
rably removed from felf-evidence ; yet if we trace the
reafoning backwards, we ftiall find them the cbnclufions
of previous fyllogifms, whofe premifes approach nearer
and nearer to intuition in proportion as we advance,
and are found at laft to terminate in it. And if, af¬
ter having thus unravelled a demonftration, we take it
the contrary way ; and obferve how the mind,- fetting
out with intuitive perceptions, couples them together
to form a conclufion; how, by introducing this con¬
clufion into another fyllogifm, it ilill advances one
ftep farther ; and fo proceeds, making every new dif-
covery fubfervient to its future progrefs ; we (hall
then perceive clearly, that reafoning, in the hjgheft
fenfe of that faculty, is no more than an orderly com¬
bination of thofe fimple afts which we have already fo
fully explained. 6-j
IX. Thus we fee, that reafoning, beginning with Squires
firft principles, rifes gradually from one judgement to ^
another, and connefts them in fuch manner, that every every ftep
ftage of the progreffion.brings intuitive certainty along of the pro-
with it. And now at length we may clearly under- grelfion.
Hand the definition given above of this diftinguilhing
faculty of the human mind. Reafon, we have faid, is
the ability of deducing unknown truths from principles
or propofitions that are already known. This evi¬
dently appears by the foregoing account, where we
fee that no propofition is admitted into a fyllogifm, to
ferve as one of the previous judgments on which the
conclufion refts, unlefs it is itfelf a known and efta-
blifhed truth, whofe conneftion with felf-evident prin¬
ciples has been already traced.
Chap. II. Of the feveral hinds of Reafoning ; and
firfl, of that by -which we determine the Genera
and Species of Things.
I. All the aims of human reafon may in the general Reafoning
be reduced to thefe two: I. To rank things under twofold,
thofe univerfal ideas to which they truly belong ; and,
Z. To aferibe to them their feveral attributes and pro¬
perties in confequence of that diftribution. ^
II. One great aim of human reafon is to determine The firft
the genera and fpecies of things. We have feen in re-
the Firft Part of this treatife, how tlie mind proceeds
in framing general ideas f. We have alfo feen in the f^ecieil 0f
Second Part, how by means of thefe general ideas we thin^.
come by univerfal propofitions. Now as in thefe uni- 1 See Faot-
verfal propofitions we affirm fome property of a ge- "9te’ P-
nus or fpecies, it is plain that we cannot apply this
property to particular objefts till we have firft deter¬
mined whether they are comprehended under that ge¬
neral idea of which the property is affirmed. Thus
there are certain properties belonging to all even num¬
bers, which neverthelefs cannot be applied to any par¬
ticular number, until rte have firft difeoyered it to be
of the fpecies exprefted by that natural name. Hence
reafoning begins with referring things to their feve¬
ral divilions and daffes in the fcale of our ideas ; and
as thefe divifions are all diftinguilhed by particular
names, we hereby learn to apply the terms expreffing
general conceptions to fuch particular objefts as come
under our immediate obfervation.
III. Now, in order to arrive at thefe conclufions, by The ftepa
which the feveral objefts.of perception are brought un- by which
der general names, two things are manifeftly necef-we arnve
fary. Firft, that we take a view of the idea itfelf^
denoted by that general name, and carefully attend to porU
the
‘ L O
-the diilingutflung marks which ferve to charafterize
it. Secondly, that we compare this idea with the
-objeft under confideration, obferving diligently where¬
in they agree or differ. If the idea is found to corre-
fpond with the particular objeft, we then without he-
fitation apply the general name ; but if no fuch corre-
fpondence intervenes, the conclufion muft. neceflarily
take a contrary turn. Let us, for inftance, take the
number eight, and confider by what Heps we are led
to pronounce it an even number. Firft then, we call
to mind the idea fignified by the expreflion an even
number, viz. that it is a number divifible into two equal
parts. We then compare this idea with the number
eight, and, finding them manifeftly to agree, fee at
once the neceflity of admitting the conclufion. Thefe
feveral judgments therefore transferred into language,
and reduced to the form of a fyllogifm, appear thus:
“ Every number that may be divided into two
“ equal parts is an even number :
“ The number eight may be divided into two equal
“ parts;
“ Therefore the number eight is an even number.’'
Thole fteps IV. Here it may be obferved, that where the ge-
slways fol- neral idea, to which particular obje&s are referred, is
lowed, tho’ very familiar to the mind, and frequently in view ;
cafeTwe do reference, and the application of the general
not always name> feem to be made without any apparatus of rea-
attend to foning. When we fee a horfe in the fields, or a dog
them. in the llreet, we readily apply the name of the fpe-
cies ; habit, and a familiar acquaintance with the ge¬
neral idea, fuggefting it inftantaneoully to the mind.
We are not however to imagine on this account that
the underftanding departs from the ufual rules of jult
thinking. A frequent repetition of ails begets a ha¬
bit ; and habits are attended with a certain prompt-
nefs of execution, that prevents our obferving the fe¬
veral fteps and gradations by which any courfe of ac¬
tion is accomplilhed. But in other inftances, where
we judge not by precontracted habits, as when the
general idea is very complex, or lefs familiar to the
mind, we always proceed according to the form of
reafoning eftablilhed above. A goldfmith, for in¬
ftance, who is in doubt as to any piece of metal, whe¬
ther it be of the fpecies called gold, firft examines its
properties, and then comparing them with the gene¬
ral idea fignified by that name, if he finds a perfeft
correfpondence, no longer hefitates under what clafs
of metals to rank it.
V. Nor let it be imagined that our refearches here,
The great becaufe in appearance bounded to the impofing of ge-
importance neral names upon particular objetts, are therefore tri-
brarch of v'a^ an<I bttle confequence. Some of the moft con-
rcafoning. fiderable debates among mankind, and fuch too as
nearly regard their lives, intereft, and happinefs, turn
wholly upon this article. Is it not the chief employ¬
ment of our feveral courts of judicature to determine
in particular inftances, what is law, juftice, and equity ?
Of what importance is it in many cafes to decide a-
right whether an a&ion {hall be termed murder or
man (laughter ? We fee then that no lefs than the lives
and fortunes of men depend often upon thefe decifions.
The reafon is plain. Actions, when once referred to
a general idea, draw after them all that may be af¬
firmed of that idea ; infomuch that the determining
the fpecies of actions is all one with determining what
G I G. Part III
proportion of praife or difpraife, commendation or
blame, tsV. ought to follow them. For as it is allow¬
ed that murder deferves death ; by bringing any par¬
ticular aftion under the head of murder, we of courfe
decide the punilhment due to it.
VI. But the great importance of this branch of rea- An<J ^ ex<
foning, and the neceffity of care and circumfpctlion a& 0bfer.
in referring particular objefts to general ideas, is ftill vance of It
farther evident from the practice of the mathemati-Pra^lfeJ b7
cians. Every one who has read Euclid knows, that ^^,ema'U'
he frequently requires us to draw lines through certain
points, and according to fuch and fuch directions.
The figures thence refulting are often fquares, paral¬
lelograms, or reCtangles. Yet Euclid never fuppofes
this from their bare appearance, but always demon-
ftrates it upon the ftriCteft principles of geometry.
Nor is the method he takes in any thing different from
that deferibed above. Thus, for inftance, having de¬
fined a fquare to be a figure bounded by four equal
Tides joined together at right angles ; when fuch a fi¬
gure arifes in any conftruCtion previous to the demon-
ftration of a propofition, yet he never calls it by that
name until he has ftiown that its Tides are equal, and
all its angles right ones. Now this is apparently the
fame form of reafoning we have before exhibited int
proving eight to be an even number.
VII. Having thus explained the rules by which wep;xed an(1
are to conduCt ourfelves in ranking particular objects invariable
under general ideas, and ihown their conformity to idea?, with
the practice and manner of the mathematicians ; it
mains only to obferve, that the true way of render-
ing this part of knowledge both eaiy and certain, is, (iers this
by habituating ourfelves to clear and determinate ideas, part of
and keeping them fteadily annexed to their refpeCtive
names. For as all our aim is to apply general words ^ Cettajn,
aright, if thefe words ftand for invariable ideas that
are perfectly known to the mind, and can be readily
diftinguifhed upon occafion, there will be little danger
of miftake or error in our reafonings. Let us fuppofe
that, by examining any objeCt, and carrying our at¬
tention fuccelfively from one part to another, we have
acquainted ourfelves with the feveral particulars ob-
fervable in it. If among thefe we find fuch as confti-
tute Tome general idea, framed and fettled before¬
hand by the underftanding, and diftinguifhed by a par¬
ticular name, the refemblance thus known and percei¬
ved neceffarily determines the fpecies of the objeCt,
and thereby gives it a right to the name by which
that fpecies is called. Thus four equal Tides, joined
together at right angles, make up the notion of a
fquare. As this is a fixed and invariable idea, with¬
out which the general name cannot be applied; we ne¬
ver call any particular figure a fquare until it appears
to have thefe feveral conditions ; and contrarily,
wherever a figure is found with thefe conditions, it
neceffarily takes the name of a fquare. The fame
will be found to hold in all our other reafonings of this
kind, where nothing can create any difficulty but the
want of fettled ideas. If, for inftance, we have not
determined within ourfelves the precife notion deno¬
ted by the word manflaughter, it will be impoffible for
us to decide whether any particular aCtion ought to
bear that name : becaufe, however nicely we examine
the aCtion itfelf, yet, being ftrangers to the general
idea with wliich it is to be compared, we are utterly
unable
Partlll. LOG
unable to judge of their agreement or difagreeroent.
But if we take care to remove this obftacle, and di-
ftinftly trace the two ideas under confideration, aH
difficulties vanilh, and the refolution becomes both eafy
and certain.
VIII. Thus we fee of what importance it is towards
the improvement and certainty of human knowledge,
that we accuftom ourfelves to clear and determinate
ideas, and a fteady application of words.
Chap. III. Of Reafoningy as it regards the Powers
and Properties of Things^ and the Relations of
our general Ideas.
The diftinc- I* We now come to the fecond great end which
tion of rea- men have in view in their reafonings; namely, the
foning, as it difcovering and afcribing to things their feveral attri-
fcience* and ^utes aud properties. And here it will be neceffary
a* it con- to diftinguifh between reafoning, as it regards the
corns com- fciences, and as it concerns common life. In the fei-
pionjife. cnees, our reafon is employed chiefly about univerfal
truths, it being by them alone that the bounds of hu¬
man knowledge are enlarged. Hence the divifion of
things into various clafles, called otherwife genera and
Jpecies. For thefe univerfal ideas being fet up as the
reprefentatives of many particular things, whatever
is affirmed of them may be alfo affirmed of all the in¬
dividuals to which they belong. Murder, for inftance,
is a general idea, reprefenting a certain fpecies of hu¬
man actions. Reafon tells us that the punifhment due
to it is death. Hence every particular action, coming
under the notion of murder, has the punifhment of
death allotted to it. Here then we apply the general
truth to fome obvious inilance ; and this is what pro¬
perly conftitutes the reafoning of common life. For
men, in their ordinary tranfa&ions and intercourfe
one with another, have, for the moll part, to do on¬
ly with particular objects. Our friends and relations,
their charafters and behaviour, the conftitution of the
feveral bodies that furround us, and the ufes to which
they may be applied, are what chiefly engage our at¬
tention. In ail thefe, wp reafon about particular
things; and the whole refult of our reafoning is, the
applying the general truths of the fciences in the or¬
dinary tranfaitions of human life. When we fee a
viper, we avoid it. Wherever we have occafion
for the forcible a£lion of water to move a body that
makes conliderable relillance, we take care to con¬
vey it in fuch a manner that it fhall fall upon the ob¬
ject with impetuolity. Now all this happens in con-
fequenqe of our familiar and ready application of thefe
two general truths. The bite of a viper is mortal* Wa¬
ter, falling upon a body with impetuqfty, a8s very forcibly
towards fciting it in motion. In like manner, if we fet
curfelves to conlider any particular character, in order
to determine the lhare of praife or difpraife that be¬
longs to it, our great concern is to afeertain exactly
the proportion of virtue and vice. The reafon is ob¬
vious. A juft determination, in all cafes of this kind*
depends entirely upon an application of thefe general
maxims of morality: Virtuous aftions deferve praife ;
vicious adions deferve blame.
II. Hence it appears that reafoning, as it regards
common life, is no more than the afcribing the ge-
*eral properties of things to thofe feveral objects with
I C. 207
which we are more immediately concerned, accord-,
ing as they are found to be of that particular divifion
or clafs to which the properties belong. The fteps^ proc(ed
then by which we proceed are manifeftly thefe. Firft, in the rea- .
we refer the objedl under confideration to fome gene- r'>nmg of
ral idea or clafs of things. We then recolledl the fe. |'“umon
veral attributes of that general idea. And, laftly, a-
feribe all thefe attributes to the prefent objedl. Thus,
in confidering the charadler of Sempronius, if we find
it to be of the kind called virtuous, when we at the
fame time refleft that a virtuous charadler is defer-
ving of efteem, it naturally and obvioufly follows that
Sempronius is fo too. Thefe thoughts put into a fyl-
logifm, in order to exhibit the form of reafoning here
required, run thus:
“ Every virtuous man is worthy of efteem.
“ Sempronius is a virtuous man :
“ Therefore Sempronius is worthy of efteem.”
III. By this fyllogifm it appears, that before we af-y},e ^n,
firm any thing of a particular objedl, that object muftneition and
be referred to fome general idea. Sempronius is- pro- dependence
nounced worthy of efteem only in confequence of his tflj 5W0
being a virtuous man, or coming under that general,hes of rea-
notion. Hence we fee the neceflary connection of timing one
the various parts of reafoning, and the dependence ui’)n ano'
they have one upon another. The determining thet ler‘
genera and fpecies of tilings is, as we have faid, one
exercife of human reafon ; and here we find that this
exercife is the firft in order, and previous to the o-
ther, which confifts in afcribing to them their powers,
properties, and relations. But when we have taken
this previous ftep, and brought particular objects un¬
der general names ; as the properties we aferibe to
them are no other than thefe of the general idea, it is
plain that, in order to a fuccefsful progrefs in this part
of knowledge, we muft thoroughly acquaint ourfelves
with the feveral relations and attributes of thefe our
general ideas. When this is done, the other part will
be eafy, and requires fcarce any labour or thought,,
as being no more than an application of the general
form of reafoning reprefented in the foregoing fyllo¬
gifm. Now, as we have already fufficiently fhowii'
how we are to proceed in determining the genera
and fpecies of things, which, as we have faid, is the
previous fttp to this fecond branch of human know¬
ledge ; all that is farther wanting towards a due ex¬
planation of it is, to offer fome confiderations as to-
the manner of inveftigating the general relations of
our ideas. This is the higheft exercife of the powers-
of the underftanding, and that by means whereof we
arrive at the difeovery of univerfal truths; infomuch
that our deductions in this way conftitute that particu¬
lar fpecies of reafoning which we have Before faid re¬
gards principally the fciences. yg
IV. But that we may cond 11 fl our thoughts with Two things,
fome order and method, we fhall begin with obfer-r-<Juired to’
ving, that the relations c( our general ideas are of twOgoo'dVea-
kinds: either fuch as immediately difeover themfelves, foner.
upon comparing the ideas one with another; or fuch
as, being more remote and diftant, require art and
contrivance to bring them into view. The relations
of the firft kind furnifh us with intuitive and felf-eri-
dent truths : thole of the fecond are tx-aced by reafon¬
ing, and a due application of intermediate ideas. It
is of this laft kind that we are to fpeak here, having
t dif-
20 8
.79
Firft, an
extenfive
knowledge
of interme¬
diate ideas.
So
To excel in
any one
branch of
learning,
we muft be
in general
acquainted
with the
whole eir-
x cle of arts
and feien-
8r
Secondly,
the ikill of
applying in¬
termediate
ideas hap¬
pily in par¬
ticular in-
fonces.
L O
diTpatched what was ncceiTary with regard to the o-
ther in the Second Part. As, therefore, in tracing the
more dillant relations of things, we muft always have
recourfe to intervening ideas, and are more or lefs
fuccefsful in our refearches according to our acquain¬
tance with thefe ideas, and ability of applying them ;
it is evident that, to make a good reafoner, two
things are principally required. Firfl, An extenfive
knowledge of thofe intermediate ideas, by means of
which things may be compared one with another.
Secondly, The (kill and talent of applying them happily
in all particular inftances that come undef confidera-
tion.
V. In order to our fuccefsfnl progrefs in reafoning,
we muft have an extenfive knowledge of thofe inter¬
mediate ideas by means of which things may be com¬
pared one with another. For as it is not every idea
that will ahfwer the purpofe of our inquiries, but fuch
only as are peculiarly related to the objedls about
which We reafon, fo as, by a comparlfon with them,
1(0 furnifh evident and known truths; nothing is more
apparent than that the greater variety of conceptions
we can call into view, the more likely we are to find
fome among them that will help us to the truths here
required. And, indeed, it is found to hold in experi-.
ence, that in proportion as we enlarge our views of
things, and grow acquainted with a multitude of dif¬
ferent objects, the reafoning faculty gathers ftrength :
for, by extending our fphere of knowledge, the mind
acquires a certain force and penetration, as being ac-
cuftomed to examine the feveral appearances of its
ideas, and obferve what light they call one upon ano¬
ther.
VI. Tins is the rcafon why, in order to excel re¬
markably in any one branch of learning, it is necefl'a-
ry to have at leaft a general acquaintance with the
whole circle of arts and fciences. The truth of it is,
all the various divifions of human knowledge are very
nearly related among themfelves, and, in innume¬
rable inftanees, ferve to illuftrate and fet off each o-
ther. And although it is not to be denied that, by an
obftinate application to one branch of ftudy, a man
may make conftderable progrefs, and acquire fome
degree of eminence in it; yet his views will be al¬
ways narrow and contra&ed, and he will want that
mafterly difeernment which not only enables us to pur-
fue our difeoveries with eafe, but alfo, in laying them
open to others, to fpread, a certain brightnefs around
them. But when our reafoning regards a particular
fcience, it is farther neceflary that \ve more nearly
acquaint ourfelves with whatever relates to that fei-
jence. A general knowledge is a good preparation,
and enables us to proceed with eafe and expedition
in whatever branch of learning we apply to. But
then, in the minute and intricate queftions of any
fcience, we are by no means qualified to reafon with
advantage until we have perfectly maftered the fci¬
ence to which they belong.
VII. We come now to the fecond thing requi¬
red, in order to a fuccefsful progrefs in 'reafoning}
namely, the fkill and talent of applying intermedi¬
ate ideas happily in all particular inftances that come
under confideration. And here, rules and precepts
are of little fervice. Ufe and experience are the beft
xnftru&ors. For, whatever logicians may boaft of
N°i86.
G I C. PartlH.
being able to form perfect reafoners by book and rule,
we find by experience, that the ftudy of their pre¬
cepts does not always add any great degree of fti ength
to the underftanding. In fhort, it is the habit alone
of reafoniirg that makes a reafoner. And therefore
the true way to acquire this talent is, by being much
converfant in thofe fciences where the art of reafon¬
ing is allowed to reign in the greateft perfection.
Hence it was that the ancients, who fo well under-
ftood the manner of forming the mind, always began
with mathematics, as the foundation of their philo-
fophical ftudies. Here the underftanding is by de¬
grees habituated to truth, contrails infenfibly a cer¬
tain fondnefs for it, and learns never to yield its af-
fent to any propofition but where the evidence is
fufficient to produce full convicftion. For this reafon
Plato has called mathematical demonftations the ca¬
thartics or purgatives of the foul, as being the pro¬
per means to cleanfe it from error, and reftore that
natural exercife of its faculties in which juft thinking
con fills. gj
VIII. If therefore we would form our minds to aThelludy
habit of reafoning clofely and in train, we cannot°l n*athe-
take any-more certain nlethod than the exercifing our-1”®^1^6"
felves in mathematical demonftrations, fo as to contract ons 0| great
a kind of familiarity with them. Not that we look avail in thi*
upon it as neceffary that all men fliould be deep ma-refP£<ft'
thematicians ; but that, having got the way of reafon¬
ing which that ftudy neceffarily brings the mind to,
they may be able to transfer it to other parts of know¬
ledge, as they lhall have occafion.
IX. But although the ftudy of mathematics be of all a? alfo of
others the moll ufeful to form the mind and give it fuch an*
an early relilh of truth, yet ought not other parts of il‘ors °n
philofophy to be neglected. For there alfo we meet •’'^ra^a'e
with man}- opportunities of exerciiing the powers of liftinguilh-]
the underftanding ; and the variety of fubjefts natu- ed for
rally leads us to obferve all thofe different turns of
thinking that ate peculiarly adapted to the feveral^^^”6.®
ideas we examine, and the'truth we fearch after. Aing.
mind thus trained acquires a certain maftery over its
own thoughts, infomuch that it can range and model
them at pleafure, and call fuch into view as beft fuit
its prefent defigns. Now in this the whole art of rea¬
foning confifts ; from among a great variety of differ¬
ent ideas to fingle out thofe that are moft proper for
the bufinefs in hand, and to lay them together in fuch
order, that from plain and eafy beginnings, by gentle
degrees, and a continued train of evident truths, we
may be infenfibly led on to fuch difeoverics, as at our
firft fetting out appeared beyond the reach of human
underftandiHg. For this purpofe, befides the lludy of
mathematics before recommended, we ought to apply
ourfelves diligently to the reading of fuch authors as
have dillinguilhed themfelves for ftrength of reafoning,
and a juft and accurate manner of thinking. For it is
obfervable, that a mind exercifed and feafoned to
truth, feldom refts fatisfied in a bare contemplation of
the arguments offered.by others ; but will be frequent¬
ly affaying its own ftrength, and purfuing its difeove¬
ries upon the plan it is moft accuftomed to. Thus we
infenfibly contract a habit of tracing truth from one
ftage to another, and of inveftigating thofe general
relations and properties which we afterwards aferibe to
particular things, according as we find them compre¬
hended
I’art III. t O
hcnded under the afcflraft ideas to which the proper¬
ties belong.
Chap. IV. Of the Forms of Syllcgifms.
The^fi ures MitMerto we have contented ourfelvee with a
'of general notion of fyllogifms, and of the parts of which
'gifms. they coniift. It is now time to enter a little more
particularly into the fubjeft, to examine their various
forms, and lay open the rules of argumentation pro¬
per to each. In the fyllogifms mentioned in the fore-
going chapters, we may obferve, that the miM/e term
is the fubjeft of the major propofition, and the predi¬
cate of the minor. This dtfpofition, though the moft
natural and obvious, is not however neceffary ; it fre¬
quently happening, that the middle terhi is the fub-
jeft in both the premifes, or the predicate in both ;
and fometimes, direftly contrary to its difpofition in
the foregoing chapters, the predicate in the major,
and the fubjeft in the minor. Hence the diftindlion
of fyllogifms into various kinds, called fgores by logi¬
cians. For figure, according to their ufe of the word,
is nothing elfe but the order and difpofition of the
middle term in any fyliogifm. And as this difpofitioh
is, we fee, fourfold, fo the figures of fyllogifms thenCC
urifing are four in number. When the middle term is
the fubjeft of the major propofition, and the predicate
of the minor, we have what is called the frjlfgure :
As,
“ No work of God is bad :
“ The natural paflions and appetites of hien afe
“ the work of God:
“ Therefore none of them is bad.”
If, on the other hand, it is the predicate of both the
•premifes, the fyllogifm is faid to be the feeondfigure :
As,
“ Whatever is bad is not the work of God :
“ All the natural paffions and appetites of men
“ are the work of God :
“ Therefore the natural paffions and appeties of
“ men are not bad.”
Again, in the third figure, the middle term is the fub-
je£t of the two premifes : As,
“ All Africans are black ;
“ All Africans are men :
“ Therefore fome men are black.”
And laftly, by making it the predicate of the major,
and fubjeft of the piinor, we obtain fyllogifms in the
fourth figure : As,
“ The only being who ought to be worihipped is
“ the Creator and Governor of the world:
“ The Creator and Governor of the world is
“ God:
“ Therefore God is the only being who ought to
g “ be worihipped.”
The moods H. But, beftdeS this fourfold diflinction of fyllo-
of fyllo- gifms, there is alfo a farther fubdivifion of them in
giims. every figure, arifing from the quantity and quality, as
they are called, of the propofitions. By quantity we
mean the coniideration of propofitions, as univerfal or
particular ; by quality, as affirmative or negative.
Now as, in all the feveral difpofitions of the middle
term, the propofitions of which a fyllogifm confills
may be either univerfal or particular, affirmative or
Vol. X. Part k
G I C.
negative ; the due determination of thefe, and fo put¬
ting them together as the laws of argumentation re¬
quire, conftitute what logicians call the moods of fyllo¬
gifms. Of thefe moods there is a determinate num¬
ber to every figure, including all the poffible ways in
which propofitions differing in quantity or quality can
be combined, according to any- difpofition of the mid-
die term, in order to arrive at a juft conclufion.
The firft figure has only four legitimate moods.
The major propofition in this figure muft be univerfal,
and the minor affirmative j and it has this property*
that it yields conclufibns of all kinds, affirmative and
negative, univerfal and particular.
The fecond figure has alfo four legitimate moods.
Its major propofition muft be univerfal, and one of the
premifes muft be negative. It yields conchifions both
univerfal and particular, but all negative.
The third figure has fik legitimate moods. Its mi¬
nor muft always be affirmative ; and it yields conclu-
fions both affirmative and negative, but all particular,
 Thefe are all the figures which were admitted by
the inventor of fyllogifms ; and of which, fo far as we
know, the number of legitimate moods has been af-
certained, and feverally demonftrated. In every fgure
it will be found upon trial, that there arefixty-fuur dif¬
ferent moods of fyllogifm ; dnd he who thinks it worth
while to eonftrudt fo many in the fourth figure, always
remembering that the middle term in each muft be the
predicate of the major and the fubjed of the minor pro¬
pofition, will eafily difcern what number of thefe moods
ate legitimate', and give true eonclufions.
BefideS the rules that are proper to each figure,
Ariftotle has given fome that are common to all, by
which the legitimacy of fyllogifms may be tried.
Thefe may be reduced to five: 1. There muft
be only three terms in a fyllogifm : As each term
occurs in two of the propofitions, it muft be pre-
cifely the fame in both ; if it be not, the fyllogifm is
faid to have four terms, which makes a vicious fylle-
gifm. 2. The middle term muft be taken univerfally in
one of the premifes. 3. Both premifes muft not be par¬
ticular propofitions, nor both negative. 4. The conclu¬
fion muft be particular, if either of the premifes be parti¬
cular ; and negative, if either of the premifes be negative.
No term can be taken univcrfally in the conclufion, if
it be not taken univerfally in the premifes.
For underftanding the fecond and fifth of thefe rules*
it is neceffary to obferve, that a terrh is faid to be takeri
Univerfally, not only when it is the fubjed of a univer¬
fal propofition, but alfo when it is the predicate of a ne¬
gative propbfition. On the other band, a term is faid
to be taken particularly, when it is either the fubjed of
a particular or the predicate of an affirmative propofl-
tion. gg
III. The divifion of fyllogifms according to mood Foundation
and figure refpefts thofe efpecially which are known of the other
by the name of plain fimple fyllogifms ; that is, which *
are bbunded to three propbfitiong, all fimple, and J 8' ’1
where the extremes and middle term are connetfted*
according to the rules laid down above. But as the
mind is not tied down to any one precife form of rea-
foning, but fometimes makes ufe of more, fometimes
of fewer premifes, and often takes in compound and
conditional propofitions, it may riot be amifs to take
• D d notied
210 LOG
notice of the different forms derived from this fource,
and explain the rules by which the mind condufts it-
g7 felf in the ufe of them.
Conditional IV. When in any fyllogifm the major rs a conditio-
fyiiogifms. nal propofition, the fyllogifm itfelf is termed conditional.
Thus:
“ If there is a God, he ought to be worfhipped:
“ But there is a God :
“ Therefore he ought to be worfhipped.”
In this example, the major, or firft propohtion, is,
we fee, conditional, and therefore the fyllogifm itfelf
is alfo of the kind called by that name. And here we
are to obferve, that all conditional propofitions are
made of two diftmCl parts : one exprefling the condi¬
tion upon which the predicate agrees or difagrees with
the fubjeft, as in this now before us, if there is a God;
the other joining or disjoining the faid predicate and
fubjeft, as here, he ought to be loorjhipped. The firft
of thefe parts, or that which implies the condition, is
called the antecedent ; the fecond, where we join or dif-
join the predicate and fubjedt, has the name of the ton-
88 Sequent-
Ground of V. In all propofitions of this kind, fuppofing them
illation in to be exaft in point of form, the relation between, the
conditional antecedent and confequent muft ever be true and real;
fyllogifms. js> antecedent muft always contain fome cer¬
tain and genuine condition, which neceflarily implies
the confequent ; for otherwife the propofition itfelf
will be falfe, and therefore ought not to be admitted
Part HI.
Bnt if now we on the contrary fuppofe that the mi-.
nor rejects the confequent, then it is apparent that the
conclufion muft alfo rejeft the antecedent. In this
cafe w.e are faid to argue from the removal of the con¬
fequent to the removal of the antecedent, and the par¬
ticular mood or fpecies of fyllogifms thence arifing is
called by logicians the modus tollens; becaufe in it both
antecedent and confequent are rejefted or taken away,
as appears'by the following example.
“ If God were not a Being of infinite goodnefs,
“ neither would he confult the happinefs of his
“ creatures:
“ But God does confult the happinefs of his crea-
“ tures:
“ Therefore he is a being of infinite goodnefs.
VII. Thefe two fpecies take in the whole clafs of They in¬
conditional fyllogifms, and include all the poffible ways ciude at!
of arguing that lead to a legitimate conclufion ; be-t!le leijiti-
caufe we cannot here proceed by a contrary procefs
of reafoning, that is, from the removal of the ante¬
cedent to the removal of the confequent, or from the
eftablifhing of the confequent to the eftablifhing of the
antecedent. For although the antecedent always ex-
prefles fome real condition, which, once admitted,
neceffarily implies the confequent, yet it does not fol¬
low that there is therefore no other condition ; and if
fo, then, after removing the antecedent, the confe¬
quent may ftill hold, becaufe of fome other determi¬
nation that infers it. When we fay, /faJlon
into our reafonings. Hence it follows, that when any pofed fome time to the rays of the fun, it will contraB a
conditional propofition is aflumed, if we admit the
antecedent of that propofition, we muft at the fame
time neceffarily admit the confequent; but if we re¬
ject the confequent, we are in like manner bound to
rejett the antecedent. For as the antecedent always
txpreffes fome condition which neceffarily implies the
truth of the confequent; by admitting the antecedent,
we allow of that condition, and therefore ought alfo
to admit the confequent. In like manner, if it appears
certain degree of heat; the propofition is certainly
true; and, admitting the antecedent, we muft alfo
admit the confequent. But as there are other ways
by which a ftone may gather heat, it will not follow,
from the ceafing of the before-mentioned condition,
that therefore the confequent cannot take place. In
other wofds, we cannot argue : But the Jlone has not
been expofed to the rays of the fun ; therefore neither has
it any degree of heat: Inafmuch as there are a great
that the consequent ought to be rejected, the antece- many other ways by which heat might have Been
*9
The tv
mood- of
dent evidently muft be fo too ; becaufe, as was juft now
demonftrated, the admitting of the antecedent would
neceffarily imply the admiffion alfo of the confequent.
VI. There are two ways of arguing in hypothetical
fyllogifms, which lead to a certain and unavoidable con-
eonditional cluflon. For as the major is always a conditional pro-
y ogifms. p0fition> confifting of an antecedent and a confequent;
if the minor admits the antecedent, it is plain that the
conclufion muft admit the confequent. This is called
arguing from the admiffi n of the antecedent to the
admiffion. of the confequent, and conftitutes that mood
or fpecies of hypothetical fyllogifms which is diftin-
guiftied in the fchools by the name of the modus ponens,
inafmuch as by it the whole conditional propofition,
both antecedent and ccmfequent, is eftablilhed. Thus:
“ If God is infinitely wife, and a&s with perfect
“ freedom, he does nothing but what is heft:
“But God is infinitely wife, and a Sis with per-
“ feSt freedom
“ Therefore he does nothing but what is beft.,,
Here we fee the antecedent or firft part of the con¬
ditional propofition is eftabliftied in the minor, and the
confequent or fecond part in the conclufion; whence
the fyllogifm itfelf is an example of the modus ponens*
communicated to it. And if we cannot argue from
the removal of the antecedent to the removal of the
confequent, no more can we from the admiffion of
the confequent to the admiffion of the antecedent:
becaufe, as the confequent may flow from a great va¬
riety of different fuppofitions, the allowing of it does
not determine the precife fuppofition, but only that
fome one of them muft take place. Thus in the forego^
ing propofition, If aJlone is expofedfome time to the rays of
the fun, it will contraB a certain degree of heat; admitting
the confequent, viz. that it has contraBed a certain de¬
gree of heat, we are not therefore bound to admit the
antecedent, that it has been fome time expofed to the rays
of the fun; becaufe there are many other caufes
whence that heat may have proceeded. Thefe two
ways of arguing, therefore, hold not in conditional
fyllogifms.
VIII. As-from the major’s being a conditional pro- ph/man-
pofition, we obtain the fpecies of conditional fyllo-ner 0far.
gifms; fo, where it is a.disjunctive propofition, thegaingin
fyllogifm to which it belongs is alfo called disjunBive, diqau&ive
as in the following Example : iyUogilms.
“ The world is either felf-exiftent, or the work
“ of fome finite, or of fome infinite Being :
“ But
Part HI. L O
“ But it is not felf-exiftent, n«r the work of a fi-
“ nite being :
“ Therefore it is the work of an infinite Being.”
Now, a disjun&ive propofition is that, where of fe-
veral predicates, we affirm one necefTarily to belong
to the fubjeft, to the exclufion of all the reft, but
leave that particular one undetermined. Hence it
follows, that as foon as we determine the particular
predicate, all the reft are of courfe to be rejefted ; or
if we rejeft all the predicates but one, that one necef-
farily takes place. When, therefore, in a disjunftive
fyllogifm, the feveral predicates are enumerated in the
major ; if the minor eftablifhes any one of thefe pre¬
dicates, the conclufion ought to remove all the reft ;
or if, in the minor, all the predicates but one are re¬
moved, the conclufion muft neceflarily eftablifh that
one. Thus, in the disjundtive fyllogifm given above,
the major affirms one of the three predicates to be¬
long to the earth, viz. fe/f-exi/lence, or that it is the
•work of a finite, or that it is the work of an infinite Be¬
ing. Two of thefe predicates are removed in the
minor, viz. fef-exiftence, and the work of a finite be¬
ing. Hence the conclufion neeefTarily afcribes to it the
third predicate, and affirms that it is the work of an
infinite Being. If now we give the fyllogifm another
turn, infomuch that the minor may eftablifh one of the
predicates, by affirming the earth to be the produeiion
of an infinite Being: then the conclufion muft remove
the other two, afierting it to be neither felfexifient,
nor the work of a finite being. Thefe are the forms of
reafoning in thefe fpecies of fyllogifms, the juftnefs of
which appears at firft fight: and that there can be no
other, is evident from the very nature of a disjunctive
propofition.
Imperfeft IX. In the feveral kinds of fyllogifms hitherto men-
or mutila- tioned, we may obferve, that the parts are complete ;
tedfylfo- that
is, the three propofitions of which they confift are
* 8‘ reprefented in form. But it often happens, that feme
one of the premifes is not only an evident truth, but
alfo familiar and in the minds of all men ; in which cafe
it is ufually omitted, whereby we have an imperfeCt
fyllogifm, that feems to be made up of only two pro¬
pofitions. Should we, for inftance, argue in this
manner:
“ Every man is mortal:
“ Therefore every king is mortal
the fyllogifm appears to be imperfeCt, as confifting
but of two proportions. Yet it is really complete ;
only the minor [every king is a man'] is omitted : and
left to the reader to fupply, as being a propofition fo
familiar and evident that it cannot efcape him.
Enthyme- Thefe feemingly imperfeCt fyllogifms are called
®e». enthymemes; and occur very frequently in reafoning,
efpecially where it makes a part of common conver-
fation. Nay, there is a particular elegance in them,
hecaufe, not difplaying the argument in all its parts,
they leave fomewhat to the exercife and invention of
the mind. By this means we are put upon exerting
•urfelves, and feem to (hare in the difcovery of what
is propofed to us. Now this is the great fecret of
line writing, fo to frame and put together our thoughts,
as to give full play to the reader’s imagination, and
draw him infenfibly into our very views and courfe
of reafoning. This gives a pleafure not unlike to that
which the. author himfelf feels in compofing. It befidee
G I C. 211
(hortens difcourfe, and adds a certain force and liveli-
nefs to our arguments, when the words in which they
are conveyed favour the natural quicknefs of the mind
in its operations, and a Angle exprdfion is left to ex¬
hibit a whole train of thoughts. 9^
XI. But there is another fpecies of reafoning with Ground ot
two propofitions, which feems to be complete in itfelf, rca/oninK
and where we admit the conclufion without fuppofing n'fe-
any tacit or fupprefled judgment in the mind, from quenccs.
which it follows fyllogiftically. This happens between
propofitions, where the connection is fuch, that the ad-
miffion of the one neceffarilyand at the firft fight implies
the admiffion alfo of the other. For if it fo falls out,
that the prdpofition on which the other depends is
felf-evident, we content ourfelves with barely affirm¬
ing it, and infer that other by a direCt conclufion.
Thus, by admitting an univerfal propofition, we are
forced alfo to admit of all the particular propofitions
comprehended under it, this being the very condition
that conftitutes a propofition univerfal. If then that
univerfal propofition chances to be felf-evident, the
particular ones follow of courfe, without any farther
train of reafoning. Whoever allows, for inftance,
that things equal to one and the fame thing are equal to
one another, muft at the fame time allow, that two
triangles, each equal to a fquare whofe fide is three inches,
are alfo equal between themfielves. This argument
therefore,
“ Things equal to one and the fame thing, are equal
“ to one another:
“ Therefore thefe two triangles, each equal to the
“ fquare of a line of three inches, are equal be-
“ tween themfelves
is complete in its kind, and contains all that is necef-
fary towards a juft and legitimate conclufion. For the
firft or univerfal propofition is felf-evident, and there¬
fore requires no farther proof. And as the truth of
the particular is infeparably connected with that of the
univerfal, it follows from it by an obvious and un¬
avoidable confequence. qj
XII. Now, in all cafes of this kind, where propofi- All reduci-
tions are deduced one from another, on account of a 11 le.to fy1-
known and evident connection, we are faid to reafon °
by immediate confequence. Such a coherence of pro- form or Q„
pofitions manifeft at firft fight, and forcing itfelf upon cher.
the mind, frequently occurs in reafoning. Logicians
have explained at feme length the feveral fuppoiitions
upon which it takes place, and allow of all immediate
csnfequences that follow in conformity to them. It is
however obfervable, that thefe arguments, though
feemingly complete, becaufe the conclufion follows ne-
ceffarily from the fingle propolition that goes before,
may yet be confidered as- real enthymemes, whofe ma¬
jor, which is a conditional propofition, is wanting. The
fyllogifm but juft mentioned, when reprefented accord¬
ing to this view, will run as follows :
“ If things equal to one and the fame thing, are e-
“ qual to one another ; thefe two triangles, each
“ equal to a fquare whofe fide is three inches,
“ are alfo equal between themfelves.
“ But things equal to one and the fame thing, are
“ equal to one another:
“ Therefore alfo thefe triangles, &c. are equal be-
“ tween themfelves.”
This obfervation will be found to hold in all imme-
D d a diate
212 L O G I C. Part 111*
diale confequence* whatfoever, infomuch that they are of which is the afTcrtion to be difproved, and the con-
in fail no more than enthymemes of hypothetical fyl- fequcnt a disjunclive propofition, enumerating all the
logifms. But then it is particular to them, that the poffible fuppofitions upon which that afl'ertion can take
ground on which the conclufion refts, namely its co- place. If then it appears, that all thefe feveral fup-
herence with the minor, i$ of itfelf apparent, and pofitions ought to be reje&ed, it is plain, that the an-
feen immediately to flow from the rules and reafons of tecedent or affertion itfelf mull be fo too. When
9& logic. therefore fiich a propofition as that before mentioned
A forites of XIII. The next fpecies of reafoning we fhall take is made the major of any fyllogifm ; if the minor re-
pliin fimple notice of here is what is commonly known by the name je&s all the fuppofitions contained in the confequent,
j -Cgifms. a jiffos' This is a way of arguing, in which a it follows neceffarily, that the conclufion ought to re-
great number of propofitions are fo linked together, jeft the antecedent, which, as we have fajd, is the.
»hat the predicate of one becomes continually the fub- very affertion to be difproved. This particular wav
jeft of the next following, until at laft a conclufion is of arguing is that which logicians call a dilemma ; and
formed, by bringing together the fubjeft of the firft from the account here given of it, it appears that we
propofition, and the predicate of the lalt. Of this
kind is the following argument.
“ God is omnipotent :
*‘An omnipotent being can do every thing pollible:
“ He that- can do every thing poffible, can do what-
“ ever involves not. a contradi&ion:
“ Therefore God can do whatever involves not a
“ contradiction.”
This particular combination of propofitions may be
continued to any length we pleafe, without in the leaffi
weakening the ground upon which the conclufion refts.
The reafon, is, becaiife the forites- itfelf may be refol-
ved into as many fimple fyllogifms as there are middle
terms in it; where this is found univerfally to hold,,
that when, fuch a refolu.lior\is made, and the fyllogifms
are placed in train, the conclufion of the laft in the
feries is alfo the conclufion of the forites. This kind
of argument, therefore, as it ferves to unite feveraj
fyllogifms into one, muft ftand upon the- fame founda¬
tion with the fyllogifms of which it confifts, and is in¬
deed, properly fpeak.ing, no other than a compendious
way of reafoning fyllogiftically.
may in the general define it to be a hypothetical fyl¬
logifm, where the confequent of the major is a dif~
junCtive propofition, which is wholly taken away or
removed in the minor,. Of this kind is the follow-
ing :
“ If God did not create, the world perfect in its.
“ kind, it muft either proceed from want of in-.
“ clination, or from want of power:
w But it could not proceed either from want of in--
“ clination, or from want of power:
,i Therefore, he created the. world perfeCl in its
" kind.” Or, which is the fame thing: “ It is
“ abfurd to fay that he did not create the world
“ perfect in its kind.”
XVI. The nature then of a dilemma is univerfally An ifniverv
this. The major is a conditional propofition, whofe fal dcfcrip.
Confequent contains all the feveral fuppofitions. upontion ll‘
which the antecedent can take place. As therefore
thefe fuppofitions are wholly removed in the minor,
it is evident that the antecedent muft be fo too ; info-
much that we here always' argue from the removal of
the confequent to the removal of the antecedent. That
is, a dilemma is an argument in the modus tollens of
A forites of XIV. What is here faid of plain fimple propofitions ^
hypotheti- may be as well applied, to thofe that are conditional; hypothetical fyllogifms, as, logicians love to fpeak,
cal fyilo- that is, any number of them may be fo joined to- Hence it is plain, that if the antecedent of the major
gums. gether in a feries, that the confequent of one fhall be- is an affirmative propofition, the conclufion of the di-
come continually the antecedent of the next follow- lemma will be negative ; but if it is a negative pro,,
ing ; in which cafe, by eftabliffiing the antecedent, of pofition, the conclufion will be affirmative,
the firft propofition, we eftahliffi the confequent of the
laft, or by removing the laft canfequent remove alfo
the firft antecedent. This way of reafoning is ex¬
emplified in the following argument,
“ If we love any perfon, all emotions of hatred to-
“ wards hjm.ceafe :.
“ It all emotions of hatred towards a perfon ceafe,
“ w,e cannot rejoice in his misfortunes:
u If we rejoice not. in his misfortunes, we certainly
“ wiffi him no injury: _ ^ ^
“ Therefore,, if we love a perfon, w.e wifti him no The mathematician indeed may be confidered as taking
“injury.” his ideas from thebeginning in their genet al form. Every
It is evident that tins, forites/ as well as the laft, propofition compofed of fuch, ideas is therefore general j
may be refolved into a feries of diftimft fyllogifms, ami thofe which are theoretic are reducible to two parts
with this only difference, that here the fyllogifms are or terms, a predicate and a fubjed, with a copula gene-
all conditional. rally affirmative, if the agreement or the relation be-
'i3 , XV. The laft fpecies of fyllogifm we fhall take tween the two terms be not immediate and felf-evident,
argu°-Un not'ce in. this chapter is that commonly diftinguifh- he has.recourfe to an axiom, which is a propofition ftilf
mentation ed by the name of a dilemma* A dilemma is an ar- more general, and which fupplies him with a third or
in a dilem- gument by which, we endeavour to prove the abfur- middle term* This he compares firft with the predicate,.
ms. ciity or falfehood of fome affertion, In order to this, and then with the fubjed, or vice vetfa. Thefe two
• we affume a conditional propofition, the antecedent comparifons, when drawn out in form, make two pro-
6, pofitiensa
Ch .4 p. V. Of InduElion.
I'. All reafoning proceeds ultimately from firft Reafo°a»
truths, either felf-evident or taken.foxgranted; and the firft em-
firft truths of fyllogiftic reafonings are general propofi- ployed a-
tions. But except in the mathematics, and fuch other t,.ouj Par'’
fciences as, being converfant'about mere ideas, havetlcUar5*
no immediate relation to things without the mind, we
cannot affume as truths propofitions which; are general.
fart HI. L O
pofitions, which are called the prcmifes ; and if they
happen to be immediate and felf-evident, the conclujion,
<onfifting of the terms of the queftion propofed, is faid
to be demonftrated. This method of reafoning is con¬
duced exaftly in the fyllogiftic form explained in the
preceding chapter.
II. But in fciences which treat of things external
to the mind, we cannot aflame as firjl principles the
moft general propofitions, and from them infer others
lefs and lefs general till we defcend to particulars. The
reafon is obvious. Every thing in the univerfe, whe¬
ther of mind or body, prefents itfelf to our obfervation
in its individual ftate ; fo that perception and judgment
employed in the inveftigation of truth, whetherphyfi-
ecd, metaphyfical, moral, or hijlorical, have in the firft
place to encounter with particulars. “ With thefe
reafon begins, or fhould begin, its operations. It ob-
ferves, tries, canvaffes, examines, and compares them to¬
gether, and judges of them by fome of thofe native
evidences and original lights which, as they are the
firft and jndifpenfable inlets of knowledge to the mind,
have been called the primary principles of truth. See
Metaphysics.
From * HI. “ By fuch a&s of obfervation and judgment, di-
which, by ligently practifcd and frequently repeated, on many indi-
indudijn, it vduals of the fame clafs or of a fimilar nature, noting
afeends to their agreements, marking their differences however mi-
axioms * °r nute> an(i rejecting all instances which, however fimilar
in appearance, are not in effeft the fame, reason, with
much labour and attention, extraCs fome general laws
refpe&ing the powers, properties, qualities, aftions,
paffions, virtues, and relations of real things. This is
no hafty, premature, notional abftraction of the mind,
by which images and ideas are formed that have no
archetypes in nature : it is a rational, operative, expe¬
rimental procefs, inftituted and executed upon the con-
ftitution of beings, which in part compofe the univerfe.
By this procefs reason advances from particulars to
generals, from lefs general to more general, till by a feries
of flow progreffion, and by regular degrees-, it arrive
at the moji general notions, called forms or formal
Causes(c). And by affirming or denying a genus of
-a fpecies, or an accident of a fubrftance or clafs of fub*
fiances, through all the ftages of the gradation, we form
G I C. 213
conchifions, which, if logically drawn, are axiom's fu)
or general propofitions ranged one above another, till
they terminate in thofe that are universal. I0l
IV. “ Thus, for inftance, the evidence of the external The pro-
fenfes is obvioufly the primary principle from which ,n'
all phyfical knowledge is derived. But, whereas nature amplified**
begins with caufes, which, after a variety of changes, ;n phjfic*.
produce effeBs, the fenfes open upon the effeBs, and
from them, through the flow and painful road of ex¬
periment and obfervation, afeend to caafcs. By expe¬
riments and olfervations fkilfully chofen, artfully con¬
duced, and judicioufly applied, the philofopher ad¬
vances from one ftage of inquiry to another in the ra¬
tional inveftigation of tk.e general caufes of phyfical truth.
From different experiments and obfervations made on
the fame individual fubjeft, and from the fame experi¬
ments and obfervations made on different fubjefts of
the fame kind, by comparing and judging, he difeo-
vers fome qualities, caufes, or phenomena, which, after
carefully diilinguiftiingand rejecting all contradictory in-
ftances that occur, he finds common to many. Thus,
from many collateral comparifons and judgments formed
upon particulars, he afeends to generals; and by a repe¬
tition of the fame induftrious procefs and laborious in¬
veftigation, he advances from general to more general,.
till at laft he is enabled to form a few of the mojl gene¬
ral, with their attributes and operations, into axioms
or fecondary principles, which are the well-founded laws
enacted and enforced by the God of nature.—This is
that juft and philofophic method of reafoning which
found logic preferibes in this as well as in other parts
of learning ; by which, through the flow but certain
road of experiment and obfervation, live mind afeends
from appearances to qualities, from effects to caufes,
and from experiments upon many particular fubjeCts
iorms general proportions concerning the powers and pro¬
perties of phyfical body. 103
V. “ Axioms fo inveftigated and eftabliflred are ap- Axioms, fo -
plicable to all parts of learning, and are the indifpen-efta|?llI]1fc) (d)’
fable, and indeed the wonderful expedients, by which,
in. every branch of knowledge, reafon puftres on its m-» of learning,
quiries in the particular purfuit of truth : and tire me¬
thod: of reafoning by which they are formed, is that of
true and legitimate induction ; which is therefore by
Lord
(c) Qui formas novit, is, qua; adhuc non fa£ta funt, qualia nec naturie viciffitudines, nec experimentales
ihduftrise unquam in a£tum produxiffent, nec cogitationem humanam fuBitura: fuiffent,. detegit et educit. Ba-
coni Nov. Org.
(d) The word axiom- literally fignifies dignity : Hence it is ured metaphorically to denote a general
truth or maxim, and fometimes any truth that is felf-eviden.t, which is called a dignity on account of its import
ance in a procefs of reafoning. The axioms of Euclid are propofltions extremely general; and fo are the
axioms of the Newtonian philofophy. But thefe two kinds of axioms have very different origins. The former
appear true upon a bare contemplation of our ideas; whereas the latter are the refult of the moft laborious in--
auftion. Lord Bacon therefore ftrenuoufly contends that they ftiould never be taken upon conje&ure, or even
upon the authority of the learned ; but that, as they are the general principles-and grounds of all learning, they
fhould be canvaffed arid examined with the moft fcrupuloua attention, “ utaxioraatum corrigatur iniquitns, qua;
plerumque in exemplis vulgaris fundamentum habentDe Augm. Sc. lib. ii. cap. 2. “ Atque ilia ipfa
putativa principia ad rationes reddendas compellare decrevimus, quoufque plane conftantDifirib. 0peris. 
I)r Tatham makes a diftinftion between axioms intuitive and axioms fIf-evident. Intuitive -axioms, according to -
him, pafs through the firft inlets of knowledge, and flafh direft conviction on the minds, as external objeds do
cn the fenfes, of all men. Other axioms^though not intuitive, may be properly faid to be felf-evident; becaufe,
in tlieir formation, reafon judges by fingle comparifons without the help of a third idea or middle term ; fo that'
they have their evidence in themfelves, and though inductively framed they cannot be fyllogiftically grovri.
if this diftinction he juft, and we think it is, only particular -truths can be intuitive axioms.
214
LOGIC.
Part III.
Lord Bacon, the bell and foundeft of logicians, called
the key of interpretation. ,
VI. “ Inftead of taking his axioms arbitrarily out of
the great families of the categories (fee Category),
and creeling them by his own fophiftical invention in¬
to the principles upon which his difputation was to be
employed, had the analytical genius of Ariftotle pre*
fented us with the laws of the true inductive logic,
by which axioms are philofophjcally formed, and
had he with his ufual fagacity given us an example of
it in a fingle branch of fcience ; he would have brought
to the temple of truth an offering more valuable than
he has done by the aggregate of all his logical and phi-
j©4 lofophical productions.
Fndmftion VII. “ In all fciences.,-except the mathematics, it is
prior to only after the inductive procefs has been induftriouf-
e m ion, jy purfue(j an(jfuccefsfully performed, that definition
may be logically and ufefully introduced, by beginning
with the genus, pafling through all the graduate and fub-
ordinate ftages, and marking the fpecific difference as it de-
feends, till it arrive at the individual, which is the fubjeCt
of the queftion. And by adding an affirmation or ne¬
gation of the attribute of the genus on the /peeks or in-
dividua', or of a general accident on the particular/i/^-
Jlance fo defined, making the definition a propofition,
the truth of the queftion will be logically folved with¬
out any farther procefs. So that inftead of being the
JirJl, as employed by the logic in common ufe,, dffini-
tion may be the lajl aft of reafon in the fearch of truth
nos *n genera^
And to fyl- VIII. “ Thefe axioms or general propofitions, thus
logifm. inductively eftablifhed, become another fpecies of prin¬
ciples, which may be properly called secondary,
and which lay the foundation of the fyllogiftic method
of reafoning. When thefe are formed, but not .before,
we may fafely admit the maxim with which logicians
fet out in the exercife of their art, as the great hinge
on which their reafoning and difputation turn : From
truths that are already known, to derive others which are
not known- Or, to ftate it more comprehenfively, fo
as to apply to probable as well as to fcientific reafon¬
ing—From truths which are better known, to derive others
which are lefs known. Philofophically fpeaking, fyllo¬
giftic reafoning is, under general propofitions to reduce
ethers which are lefs general or which are particular ;
for the inferior ones are known t© be true, only as we
trace their conneftisn with the fuperior. Logically
(peaking, it is, To predicate a genus of a fpecies or in¬
dividual comprehended under it, or an accident of the
Jubfance in which if is inherent.
I®^ IX. “ Thus induction and syllogism are the
and^yHo" two niethods of direEl reafoning correfponding to the
gifm total- two kinds of principles, primary and fecondary, on which
iy different, they are founded, and by which they are refpeclively
condufted. In both methods, indeed, reafon proceeds
hy judging and comparing, but the procefs is different
throughout; and though it may have the fanftion of
Ariftotle, an induttive fytlogifm is a folecilm.
InduSIon “ Till general truths are afeertained by induc-
the founds- tion, the third or middle terms by which fyllogifms are
tion of fyl-
logiini.
made are no where fafely to be found. So that ano¬
ther pofition of the Stagyrite, that fyllogifm is naturally
prior in order t» induction, is equally unfounded ; for
indwdion does not only naturally but neceffarily precede
fyllogifm ; and, except in mathematics, is in every re-
fpeft indifpcnfable to its exiftence ; fince, till generals
are ellabliftied, there can be neither defnitim, propofition,
nor axiom, and of courfe no fyllogifm. And as induftion
is the firft, fo is it the more effential and fundamental
inftrument of reafoning: for as fyllogifm cannot pro¬
duce its own principles, it muft have them from induc¬
tion ; and if the general propofitions or fecondary
principles be imperfeftly or infirmly eftablifhed, and
much more if they be taken at hazard, upon authority,
or by arbitrary affumption like thofe of Ariftotle, all
the fyllogifing in the world is a vain and ufelefs logo¬
machy, only inftrumental to the multiplication of falfc
learning, and to the invention and confirmation of error.
The truth of fyllogifms depends ultimately on the truth
of axioms, and the truth of axioms on the foundnefs of Iag
induftions (e).”—But though induftion is prior in'why we
order, as well as fuperior in utility, to fyllogifm, we have have treat-1
thought it expedient to treat of it laft ; both becaufe cc3 fy1-
fyllogifm is an eafier exercife of the reafoning faculty loglfm
than induftion, and becaufe it is the method of mathe¬
matics, the firft fcience of reafon in which the ftudent
is .commonly initiated.
Chap. VI. Of Demsnf ration.
I. Having difpatched what feemed neceffary to be
laid with regard to the two methods of direft reafon-
ing, induction and fyllogifm ; we now proceed to confi-
der the laws of demonftration. And here it muft be
acknowledged, that in ftrift demonftration, which re¬
moves from the mind all pofiibility of doubt or error,
the induftive method of reafoning can have no place.
When the experiments and obfervations from which
the general conclufion is drawn are numerous and ex-
tenfive, the refult of this mode of reafoning is moral
certainty ; and could the induftion be made complete,
it would be abfolute certainty, equally convincing with
mathematical demonftration. But however numerous
and extenfive the obfervations and experiments may
be upon which an induftive conclufion is eftablifhed,
they muft of necelfity come fhort of the number and
extent of nature ; which, in fome cafes, by its im-
menfity, will defeat all poflibility of their co-exten-
fion ; and in others, by its diftance, lies out of the
reach of their immediate application. Though truth
does not appear in all other departments of learning
with that bold and refiftlefs conviftion with which it
prefides in the mathematical fcience, it fhines through
them all, if not interrupted by prejudice or perverted
by error, with a clear and ufeful, though inferior
ftrength. And as it is not neceffary for the general
fafety or convenience of a traveller, that he (hould al-
ways enjoy the heat and fplendor of a mid-day fun,
whilft he can with more eafe purfue his journey under
the weaker influence of a morning or an evening rayj fo
it is not requiftte, for the various concerns and pur-
pofes
(e) This chapter is almoft wholly taken from Tat ham's Chart and Scale of Truth ; a work which, notwith-
ftanding the ruggednefs of its ftyle, has fo much real merit as a fyltem of logic, that it cannot be too diligently
ftudied by the young inquirer who wifhes to travel by the llraight road to the temple of Science.
PartlH. t O
poCes of life, that men' fhould be led by truth of the
moft redundant brightnefs. Such truth is to be had
only in thofe fciences which are converfant about ideas
and their various relations ; where every thing being
certainly what it appears to be, definitions arid axioms
arife from mere intuition. Here/yllogifm takes up the
procefs from the beginning ; and by a fublime intellec¬
tual motion advances from the fimpleft axioms to the
moft complicated fpeculations, and exhibits truth
fpringing out of its firft and pureft elements, and fpread-
ing on all fides into a fyftem of fcience. As each ftep
in the progrefs is fyllogiftic, we fliall endeavour to ex¬
plain the ufe and application of fyllogifms in this fpe-
lo cies of reafoning.
Ofreafon- We have feen, that in all the different appearances
ing by a they put on, ftill arrive at a juft and legitimate con-
tionofM* c^ill0n ’ now ^ °ften happens, that the conclufion of
los'ifms ^" one fyUogifm becomes a previous propofi'tion in ano¬
ther ; by which means great numbers of them are
fometimes linked together in a feries, and truths are
made to follow one another in train. And as in fuch
a concatenation of fyllogifms all the various ways of
reafoning that are truly conclufive may be with fafety
introduced ; hence it is plain, that in deducing any
truth from its firft principles, efpecially where it lies at
a confiderable diftance from them, we are at liberty to
combine all the ieveral kinds of fyllogifms above ex¬
plained, according as they are found beft to fuit the
end and purpofe of our inquiries. When a propofi-
tion is thus, by means of fyllogifms, collected from
others more evident and known, it is faid to be proved;
fo that we may in the general define the proof of a
propofition to be afyllogifm, or feries of fyllogifms, col-
lefting that propofition from known and evident truths.
But more particularly, if the fyllogifms of which the
proofs confift admit of no premifes but definitions, felf-
_ evident truths, and propofitions already eftabliftied, then
is the argument fo conftituted called a (Lmon/lratlon ;
whereby it appears that demonftrations are ultimately
ljo founded on definitions and felf-evident propofitions.
AH fyllo- II* All fyllogifms whatfoever, whether compound,
gifmswhat- multiform, or defedfive, are reducible to plain Ample
foeyer re- fyllogifms in feme one of the four figures. But this is
the filVfi- n0t aI1* Syllogifms of the firft fig*ure, in particular,
gure. admit of all poflible conclufions c that ia, any propofi¬
tions whatfoever, whether an univerfal affirmative or
univerfal negative, a particular affirmative or parti¬
cular negative, which fourfold divifion, embraces all
their varieties; any one of thefe may be inferred by
virtue of fome fyllogifm in the firft figure. By this
means it happens that the fyllogifms of all the other
figures are reducible alfo to fyllogifms of the firft- fi¬
gure, and. may be confidered as ftanding on the fame
foundation with them.. We cannot here demonftrate
and explain the manner of this redudlion, becaufe it
would too much fwell the bulk of this treatife.. It is
enough to take notice that the thing is univerfally
, known and allowed among logicians, to.whofe wri¬
tings-we refer fuch as defire farther fatisfaftion in this
matter. This then being laid down, it is plain that
any demonllration whatfoever may be canfidered as
compofed of a feries of fyllogifms, all in the firft fi¬
gure. For, fince all the fyllogifms that enter the de-
monftration are reducible to fyliogifms of fome one of
the four figures; and fince the fyllogifms of all the
4.
c.
2*5
other figures are farther reducible to fyllogifms of the
firft figure, it is evident, that the whole demonftra-
tion may be refolved into a feries of thefe laft fyllo¬
gifms. Let us now, if poflible, difeover the ground
upon which the conclufion refts in fyllogifms of the
firft figure ; becaufe, by fo doing, we ihall come at an
univerfal principle of certainty, whence the evidence
of all demonftrations in all their parts may be ulti-
matelyr derived. jjj
III. The rules then of the firft figure are briefly Thepround
.thefe. The middle term is the fubjedt of the major ‘.,f reafor-~
propofition, and the predicate of the minor. The^^^
major is always an univerfal propofition^ and the mi- ‘ °
nor always affirmative. Let us now fee what effedf
thefe rules will have in reafoning. The major is an
univerfal propofition, of which the middle term is the
fubjed, and the predicate of the conclufion the predi¬
cate. Hence it appears, that in the major the pre¬
dicate of the conclufion is always affirmed or denied
univerfally of the middle term. Again the minor is
an affirmative propofition, whereof the fubjed of, the
conclufion is the fubjed, and the middle term the pre¬
dicate. Here then the middle term is affirmed of the
fubjed of the conclufion; that is, the fubjed of the
conclufion is affirmed to be comprehended under, or
to make a part of, the middle term. Thus then we
fee what is done in the premifes of a fyllogifm of the
firft figure. The predicate of the conclufion is uni¬
verfally affirmed or denied of fome idea. The fub¬
jed ot the conclufion is affirmed to be or to make a
part of that idea- Hence it naturally and unavoidably
follows, that the predicate of the conclufion ought to
be affirmed or denied of the fubjed. To illuftrate this
by an example, we fhall refume one of the fyllogifms
of the firft chapter.
“ Every creature poffeffed of reafon and liberty is
“ accountable for his adions:
“ Man is a creature poffeffed of reafon and liberty:
“ Therefore man is accountable for his adions.”
Here, in the firft propofition, the predicate of the,
conclufion, accountab'lenefs^ is affirmed of all creatures
that have reafon and liberty. Again, in the fecond
propofition, man, the fubjed of the conclufion, is af¬
firmed to be or to make a part of this clafs of crea¬
tures.- Hence .the conclufion neceffarily and unavoid¬
ably follows, viz. that man is accountable for his ac¬
tions becaufe, if reafon and liberty be that which
conftitutes. a creature accountable, and man has reafon
and liberty, it is plain he has that which conftitutes
him accountable. In like manner, where the major
is a negative propofition, or denies the predicate of
the conclufion univerfally of. the middle term, as the
minor always afferts the fubjed of the conclufion to
be or make a part of that middle term, it is no lefs
evident that the predicate of the conclufion ought in
this cafe to be denied of the fubjed. So that the
ground of reafoning, in all fyllogifms of the firft figure,
is manifeftly this “ Whatever may be affirmed uni-
verfally of any idea, may be affirmed of every or
any number of particulars comprehended under that
idea.” And. again : “ Whatever may be denied
univerfally of any idea, may be in like manner denied
of every or any number of its individuals.” Thefe.
two propofitions are called by logicians file dictum de
omni, and' diflum de nulla; and are indeed the great
principles.-
2i1S LOG
principles of lyllogiftlc reafoning, inafmuch as all con-
clulions whatfoever either reft immediately upon them,
or upon propofttions deduced from them. But what
adds greatly to their value is, that they are really
felf-evident truths, and fuch as we cannot gainfay
without running into an exprefs contradi&ion. To
affirm, for inftance, that no man is perfett, and yet ar¬
gue that fame men are perfed ; or to fay that all men are
mortal, and yet that fome men are not mortal, is to affert
Tii a thing to be and not to be at the fame time.
tienionHra- IV. And now we may affirm, that, in all fyllogifrtis
of the firft figure, if the premifes are true, the conclu-
guide^o f,on mu ft needs be true. If it be true that the pre¬
truth and dicate of the conclufion, whether affirmative or nega-
v.er-tainry. tive, agrees univerfally to feme idea; and if it be alfo
true that the fubjeft of the conclufion is a part of or
comprehended under that idea; then it necefiarily
follows, that the predicate of the conclufion agrees alfo
to the fubjeift. For to affert the contrary, would be
to run counter to feme one of the two principles be¬
fore eftabliffied; that is, it would be to maintain an
evident contradiction. And thus we Are come at laft
to the point we have been all along endeavouring to
eftabliih ; namely, that every propofition which can
be demonftrated is neceflarily true. For as every
demonftration may be refolved into a feries of fyllo-
gifms all in the firft figure; and as in any one of thefe
fyllogifrns, if the premifes are true, the conclufion
muft needs be fo too ,; It evidently follows, that if all
the feveral premifes are true, all the feveral conclu¬
sions are fo, and confequently the conclufion alfo of
the laft fyllogifm, which is always the propofition to
be demonftrated. Now that all the premifes of a de¬
monftration are true, will eafily appear from the very
nature and definition of that form of reafoning. A
demonftration, as we have faid, is a feries of fyllo-
gifms, all whofe premifes are either definitions,' felf-
evident truths, or propofitions already eftabliffied.
Definitions are identical propofitions, wherein we
connebb the defeription of an idea with the name by
which we choofe to have that idea called, and there¬
fore as to their truth there can be no difpute. Self-
evident propofitions appear true of themfelves, and
leave no doubt or uncertainty in the mind, Propofi¬
tions, before eftabliffied, are fro other than conclutions
gained by one or more fteps from definitions and felf-
evident principles, that is, from true premifes, and
therefore muft needs be true. Whence all the pre¬
vious propofitions of a detnonftration being, we fee,
mamfeftly true ; the laft conclufion, or propofition to
be demonftrated, muft be fo too. So that demonftra¬
tion not only leads to certain truth, but we have here
alfo a clear view of the ground and foundation of that
certainty. For as, in derttonftrating, we may be faid
to do nothing more than combine a feries of fyllogifms
together, aft refting on the fame bottom ; it is plain
that one uniform ground of certainty runs through the
whole, and that the conclufions are every where built
upon fome one of the two principles before eftabliffied,
as the ioundaticn of all our reafoning. Thefc two
principles are eafily reduced into one, and may be ex-
preffed thus : “ Whatever predicate, whether affir¬
mative or negative, agrees univerfally to any idea ;
the fame muft needs agree to every or any number of
individuals comprehended under that ideJ.” And
N3 186.
I C. Part HI.
thus at length we have, according to our firft defign,
reduced the certainty of demonftration to one Ample
and univerfal principle ; which carries its own evidence
along with it, and which is indeed the ultimate foun¬
dation of all fyllogiftic reafoning. Ir^
V. Demouftration therefore lerving as an infallible The rules
guide to truth, and (landing on fo lure and unalter-fur-
able a bafis, we may now venture to affert, that the n’fll a
rules of logic furnilh a fufficient criterion for the di- rion^o^the
ftinguiffiing between truth and falfehood. For fince diftinguiftii
every propofition that can be demonftrated is necef->ng between
farily true, he is able to diftinguiffi truth from falfe- aI'ci
hood who can with certainty judge when a propofi- e 00 !
tion is truly demonftrated. Now, a demonftration is,
as we have faid, nothing more than a concatenation
of fyllogifms, all whofe premifes are definitions, felf-
evident truths, or propofitions previoufty eftabliffied.
To judge therefore of the validity of a demonftration,
we rauft be able to diftinguiffi whether the definitions
that enter it are genuine, and truly deferiptive of the
ideas they are meant to exhibit: whether the pro¬
pofitions affumed without proofs as intuitive truths
have really that felf-evidence to which they lay claim:
whether the fyllogifms ai-e drawn up in due form,
and agreeable to the laws of argumentation : in fine,
whether they are combined together in a juft and or¬
derly manner, fo that no demonftrable piopofitions
ferve any where as premifes unlefs they are conclu¬
fions of previous fyllogifms> Now, it is the bufinefs
of logic, in explaining the feveral operations of the
mind, fully to inftruA us in all thefe points. It teaches
the nature and end of definitions, and lays down the
rules by which they ought to be framed. It unfolds
the feveral fpecies of propofitions, and diftinguiffies
the felf-evident from the demonftrable. It delineates
alfo the different forms of fyllogifms, and explains the
laws of argumentation proper to each. In fine, it de^
feribes the manner of combining fyllogifms, fo as that
they may form a train of reafoning, and lead to the
fucceffive difeovery of truth. The precepts of logic,
therefore, as they enable us to judge With certainty
when a propofition is duly demonftrated, furniffi a
fure criterion for the diftinguiffiing between truth and
falfehood. lr^
VL Perhaps it may be obje&ed, that demonftra-And ex-
tion is a thing very rare and uncommon, as beirig the^d'ng fo
prerogative of but a few fciences, and therefore the^Jj^6*
criterion here given can be no great ufe. But certain
wherever, by the bare contemplation of our ideas, knowledge
truth is difcoverable, there alfo demonftration may be ' f truth >3
attained. Now that is an abundantly fufficient crite-attaina e*
rion which eirables us to judge with certainty in all
cafes where the knowledge of truth comes within our
reach ; for with difeoveries, that lie beyond the li¬
mits of the human mind, we have, properly, no bufi¬
nefs or concernment. When a propofition is demon¬
ftrated, we afe certain of its truth. When, on the
contrary, our ideas are fuch as have no vifible connec¬
tion or reptignance, and therefore fufmffi not the pro¬
per means of tracing their agreement , or difagreement,
there we are fure that fcientifical knowledge is not
attainable. But where there is fome foundation of
reafoning, which yet amounts not to the full evidence
of demonftration, there the precepts of logic, by
teaching us to determine aright of the degree of
procf>
it?
PartlH. LOGIC.
proof, and of what is flill wanting to render it full true. F®r as the one is neeeflarily true, and the other
and complete, enable us to make a due eftimate of neceffarily falfe ; when we come to difcover which is
the meafures of probability, and to proportion our the falfe propofition, we thereby alfo know the other
alfent to the grounds on which tfte propofition ftands. to be true.
And this is all we can poffibly arrive at, or even fo IX. Now this is precifely the manner of an indirect 117
much as hope for, in the exercife of faculties fo im- demonftration, as is evident from the account given of it tie*
perfeCf and limited as ours. above. For there we afl'umea propofition which dire&ly tj°n3 ^furc
115 VII. Before we conclude this chapter, it may not be contradifts that we mean to demonftrate ; and, having guide to
Thediftmc- improper to take notice of the diftindtion of demonftra- by a continued feries of proofs Ihown it tobe falfe, thence certainty.
nionftra-6" t^on *nto dire3 and indirect. A direct demonjiration is, infer that its contradictory, or the propofition to be
tion into when, beginning with definitions, felf-evident propofi- demonftrated is true. As, therefore, this laft conclu-
diredt and tions, or known and allowed truths, we form a train of fyl- fion is certain and unavoidable; let us next inquire
indirect, logifms, and combine them in an orderly manner, con- after what manner we come to be fatisfied of the falfe-
tinuing the feries through a variety of fuccellive Heps, hood of the aflumed propofition, that fo no ppffible
until at lafl: we arrive at a fyllogifm whofe conclufion doulff may remain as to the force and validity of de¬
ls the propofition to be demonftrated. Proofs of this monftrations of this kind. The manner then is plains
kind leave no doubt or uncertainty behind them ; be- ly this: Beginning with the aifumed propofition, we,
caufe, all the feveral premifes being true, the conclu- by the help of definitions, felf-evident truths, or pro-
fions muft be fo too, and of courfe the very laft con- pofitions already eftabliflied, continue a feries of rea-
clufion or propofition to be proved. The other fpe- foning, in the way of a diredt demonftration, until at
cies of demonftration is the indiretl, or, as it is fome- length we arrive at fome abfurdity or known falfehood.
times called, the apogogical. The manner of proceed- Thus Euclid, in the example before-mentioned, from
ing here is, by affuming a propofition which diredtly the fuppofttion that circles touching one another in-
contradidts that we mean to demonftrate; and thence, wardly have the fame centre, deduces, that a part is
by a continued train of reafoning, in the way of a di- equal to the ‘whole. Since, therefore, by a due and or-
redf demonftration, deducing fome abfurdity or ma- derly procefs of reafoning, we come at laft to a falfe
nifeft untruth. For hereupon we conclude, that the conclufion ; it is manifeft, that all the premifes can-
propofition affumed was falfe ; and thence again, by not be true : for, were all the premifes true, the
an immediate confequence, that the propofition to be laft conclufion muft be fo too, by what has been
demonftrated is true. Thus Euclid, in his third book, • before demonftrated. Now, as to all the other pre¬
being f' uemonftrate that circles which touch one another mifes made ufe of in the courfe of reafoning, they
Inwardly have not the fame centre, affumes the diredt are manifeft and known truths by fuppofition, as
contrary to this, viz. that they have the fame centre; and being either definitions, felf-evident propofitions, or
thence, by an evident train of reafoning, proves that a truths previoully eftabliflied. The affumed propofi-
part is equal to the whole. The fuppofition therefore tion is that only as to which any doubt or uncertainty
leading to this abfurdity he concludes to be falfe, viz. remains. That alone, therefore, can be falfe ; and in-
that circles touching one another inwardly have the fame deed, from what has been already ftiown, muft una-
centre ; and thence again immediately infers^ that they voidably be fo. And thus we fee, that in indiredf de-
have not the fame centre. monftrations, two contradidtory propofitions being laid
*16 VIII. Now, becaufe this manner of demonftration is down, one of which is demonftrated to be falfe, the
Ground of acc0unted by fome not altogether fo clear and fatisfac- other, which is always the propofition to be proved,
inlndlreft tot7 > we ^iah therefore endeavour to fliow, that it muft- neceffarily be true ; fo that here, as well as in
demonftra- equally with the other leads to truth and certainty, the diredt way of proof, we arrive at a clear and fatif-
tions. Two propofitions are faid to be contradidory one of fadtory knowledge of truth.
another, when that which is afferted to be in the one X. This is univerfally the method of reafoning in all
is afferted not to be in the other. Thus the propo- apogogical or indiredt demonftrations. But if any pro- i^caf^of
fitions, Circles that touch one another inwardly have the pofition is affumed, from which, in a diredt train of indiredt dt - '
fame centre, and Circles that touch one another inwardly reafoning, we can deduce its contradidtory ; the pro- 'lionftra
have not the fame centre, are contradictories, becaufe the - pofition fo affumed is falfe, and the contradidtory one aon8'
fecond afferts the diredt contrary of what is afferted true. For if we fuppofe the affumed propofition to
in the firft. Now, in all contradidtory propofitions, be true, then, fince all the other premifes that enter
this holds univerfally, That one of them is neceffarily the demonftration are alfo true, we ftiall have a feries
true, and the other neceffarily falfe. For if it be of reafoning confifting wholly of true premifes;
true, that circles which touch one another inwardly whence the laft conclulion or contradidtory of the af-
have not the fame centre ; it is unavoidably falfe, that fumed propofition muft be true likewife : fo that by
they have the fame centre. On the other hand, if it this means we fhould have two contradidtory propoii-
be falfe that they have the fame centre, it is neceffarily tions both true at the fame time, which is manifeftly
true that they have not the fame centre. Since therefore impofiible. The affumed propofition, therefore, whence
it is impoffible for them to be both true or both falfe this abfurdity flows, muft neceffarily be falfe ; and
at the fame time ; it unavoidably follows, that one confequently its contradidtory, which is here the pro-
is neceffarily true, and the other neceffarily falfe. This pofition deduced from it, jnuil be true. If then any
then being allowed, which is indeed felf-evident; if any propofition is propofed to be demonftrated, and we
two contradidtory propofitions are affumed, and one of ajfume the cnntradidory of that propofition, and thence
them can by a clear train of reafoning be demonftra- diredtly infer the propofition to be demonftrated ; by
ted to be falfe, it neceffarily follows that the other is this very means we know that the propofitiou fo in-
Vol.X, Parti. Ee ferred,
2l8
LOGIC Part III.
ferred is true. For, fmce from an affumed propofition
we have deduced its contradictory, we are thereby
certain that the affumed propofition is falfe ; and if fo,
then its contradictory, or that deduced from it, which
in this cafe is the fame with the propofition to be de-
monftrated, muff be true.
119 XI. We have a curious inftance of this in the twelfth
A due propofition of the ninth book of the Elements. Eu-
ofthe pnn* there propofes to demonftrate, that in any feries
ciples of lo- °f numbers, rifing from unity in geometrical progref-
gic indif- ft on, all the prime numbers that meafure the loft term
neceff ^ ^ ferm aV° meafure ^ next after lintty- In
make uJt0 orc^er to t^*s, affumes the contradiftory of the pro-
proper pofition to be demonrtrated ; namely, that fame prime
judges of number meafuring the lajl term in the feries does not
demonftra- meaJure the next after unity; and thence, by a eonti-
i- nued train of reafoning, proves that it actually does
meafure it. Hereupon he concludes the affumed pro¬
pofition to be falfe ; and that which is deduced from
it, or its contradictory, which is the'-tery propofition
he propofed to demonftrate, to be true. Now that
this is a juft and conclufive way of reafoning, is a-
bundancly manifeft from what we have fo clearly efta-
blifhed above. Whence it appears, how neceffary fome
knowledge of the rules of logic is, to enable us to judge
of the force, juftnefs, and validity, of demonftrations.
For, though it is readily allowed, that by the mere
ftrength of our natural faculties we can at once difcern,
that of two contradictory propofitions, the one is ne-
ceffarily true, and the other neceffarily falfe; yet
Part IV. Of
111 WE have now’ done with the three firft operations
The under- Gf the mind, whofe office it is to fearch after
handing truth, and enlarge the bounds of human knowledge,
employed* There is yet a fourth, which regards the difpofal and
in putting arrangement of our thoughts, when we endeavour fo
together to put them together as that their mutual connexion
truths'1 am* dependence may be clearly feen. This is what lo¬
gicians call Method, and place always the laft in order
in explaining the powers of the underftanding; be-
caufe it neceffarily fuppofes a previous exercife of pur
other faculties, and fome progrefs made in knowledge
before wre can exert it in any extenfive degree.
II. In this view, it is plain that we muft be before-
Sometimes hand well acquainted with the truths we are to combine
in the together; otherwife, how could we difcern their feveral
^ifcover"^ connections and relations, or fo difpofe of them as
of fuclTas their mutual dependence may require ? But it often
are un- happens, that the underftanding is employed, not in
known. the arrangement and compofition of known truths,
but in the fearch and difcovery of fuch as are un¬
known. And here the manner of proceeding is very
different. We affemble at once our whole ftock of
knowledge relating to any fubjeCt, and, after a gene¬
ral furvey of things, begin with examining them fe-
parately and by parts. Hence it comes to pafs, that
whereas, at our firft fetting out, we were acquainted
only with fome of the grand ftrokes and outlines of
truth ; by thus purfuing her through her feveral
windings and receffes, we gradually difeover thofe
more inward and finer touches whence fhe derives all
her ftrength, fymmetty, and beauty. And here it
5
w’hcn they are fo linked together in a demonftration,
as that the one ferves as a previous propofition whence
the other is deduced, it does not fo immediately ap¬
pear, without fome knowledge of the principles of lo¬
gic, why that alone, which is eollefted by reafoning,
ought to be embraced as true, and the other, whence
it is colledted, to be rejeifted as falfe.
XII. Having thus fufficiently evinced the certainty of no
demonftration in all its branches, and ffiown the rulesby
which we ought to proceed, in order to arrive at a juft clentm
conclufion, according to the various ways of arguing guard us a-
made ufe of; it is needlefs to enter upon a particular gainft error
coniideration of thofe feveral fpecies of falfe reafoning and fa!fe
which logicians diftingui'fii by the name of fophifms.rea 0Iliri“*
He that thoroughly underftands the form and ftruc-
ture of a good argument, will of himfelf readily dif¬
cern every deviation from it. And although fophifms
have been divided into many elaffes, which are all
called by founding names, that therefore carry in them
much appearance of learning; yet are the errors
themfelves fo very palpable and obvious, that it would
be loft labour to write for a man capable of being
milled by them. Here, therefore, we choofe fo conclude
this part of logic ; and {hall in the next give fome
account of Method: which, though infeparable from
reafoning, is neverthelefs always confidered by logi¬
cians as a diftimSt operation of the mind ; becaufe
its influence is not confined to the mere exercife of
the reafoning faculty, but extends in fome degree ta
all the tranfatfions of the underftanding.
METHOD.
is, that when, by a narrow ferutiny into things, we
have unravelled any part of knowledge, and traced it
to its firft and original principles, infomuch that the
whole frame and contexture of it lies open to the vjew
of the mind; here it is, that, taking it the contrary
way, and beginning with thefe principles, we can fo
adjuft and put together the parts as the order and me¬
thod of fcience requires.
III. But as thefe things are heft underftood when il- 113
luftrated by examples ; let us fuppofe any machine, for^u^rat.e^.
inftance a watch, prefented to us, whofe ftru&ure and ^[udee0f^
compofition we are as yet unacquainted with, but watch,
want, if poffible, to difeover. The manner of pro¬
ceeding, in this cafe, is, by taking the whole to pieces,
and examining the parts ftparately, one after another.
When, by fuch a ferutiny, we have thoroughly in¬
formed ourfelves of the frame and contexture of each,
we then compare them together, in order to judge of
their mutual a (ft ion and influence. By this means we
gradually trace out the inward make and compofition.
of the whole, and come at length to difcern how parts
of fuch a form, and fo put together as we found in
unravelling and taking them afunder, conftitute that
particular machine called a watch, and contribute ta
all the feveral motions and phenomena obfervable is
it. This difcovery being made, we can take things
the contrary way, and, beginning with the parts, fa
difpofe and conne<ft them as their feveral ufes and ftruc-
tures require, until at length we arrive at the whole
itfelf, from the unravelling of which thofe parts re-
fulted.
IV. And
PartlV. L O
' Ia4, ^ IV. And as it is in tracing and examining the works
tb«°analy- art 5 *s 't> 'n a great meafure, in unfolding any part
tic and fyn-°I human knowledge: for the relations and mutual
tbetic me-- habitudes of things do not always immediately appear
thods. upon comparing them one with another. Hence we
have recourfe to intermediate ideas; and, by means of
them, are furnifhed with thofeprevious propofitions that
lead to the conclulion we are in quell of. And if it
fo happen that the previous propofitions themfelves are
not fufficiently evident, we endeavour, by new middle
terms, to afeertain their truth ; ftill tracing things
backward, in a continual feries, until at length we
arrive at fome fyllogifm where the premifes are firft
and felf-evident principles. This done, we become
perfectly fatisfied as to the truth of all the conclulions
we have puffed through, inafmuch as they are now
feen to Hand upon the firm and immoveable founda¬
tion of our intuitive perceptions. And as we arrived
at this certainty by tracing things backward to the
original principles whence they flow ; fo may we at
any time renew it by a diredt contrary procefs, if, be¬
ginning with thefe principles, we carry the train of
our thoughts forward until they lead us, by a con-
nected chain of proofs, to the very lall conclufion of
the feries.
}}S V. Hence it appears, that, in difpofing and putting
method hf together our thoughts, either for our own ufe, that the
to analytic difeoveries we have made may at all times lie open to
and (ynthe-the review of the mind, or where we mean to commu-
tic' nicate and unfold the difeoveries'to others, there are
two ways of proceeding equally within our choice:
for we may fo propofe the truths relating to any part
of knowledge, as they prefented themfelves to the mind'
in the manner of invelligation; carrying on the-feries
of proofs, in a reverfe order, until they at laft termi¬
nate in firft principles : or, beginning with thefe prin¬
ciples, we may take the contrary way, and from them
deduce, by a diredt train of reafoning, all the feveral
propofitions we want to eftablifh. This diverfity in the
manner of arranging our thoughts gives rife to the
twofold divifioh of method eftablifhed among logi¬
cians: for method, according to their ufe of the word,
is nothing elfe but the order and difpofition of our
thoughts relating to any fubjedl. When truths are fo
propofed and put together as they were or might have
' been difeovered, this is called the analytic method, or the
method of rrfolution ; inafmuch as it traces things back¬
ward to their fource, and refolves knowledge into its
firft and original principles. When, on the other hand,
they are deduced from thefe principles, and connected
according to their mutual dependence, infomuch that
the truths firft in order tend always to the demonftra-
tion of thofe that follow; this conftitutes what we call
the fynthetic method, or method of competition. For here
W’e proceed by gathering together the feveral fcatter-
ed parts of knowledge, and combining them into one
whole or fyftem, in fuch manner that the underftand-
ing is enabled diftinflly to follow truth through all her
different ftages and gradations.
Called o- VI, There is this farther to be taken notice of, in
therwife relation to thefe two fpecies of method; that the firft
of6 ' has alfo obtained the name of the method oj invention,
tion and becaufe it obferves the order in which our thoughts
the method fucceed one another in the invention or difeovery of
ot fciencc. truth. The other, again, is often denominated the
G I G
method of doElrine or infruBion ; inafmuch as, in laying
our thoughts before others, we generally choofe to
proceed in the fynthetic manner, deducing them from
their firft principles. For we are to obferve, that al¬
though there i» great pleafure in purfuing truth in the
method of inveftigation, becaufe it places us in the
condition of the inventor, and fhows the particular
train and procefs of thinking by w’hich he arrived at
his difeoveries; yet it is not fo well-accommodated to
the purpofes of evidence and conviftion. For, at our
firft fetting out, we are commonly unable to divine
where the analyfis will lead us; infomuch that our re-
fearches are for fome time little better than a mere
groping in the dark. And even after light begins to
break in upon us, we are ftill obliged to many reviews,
and a frequent comparifon of the feveral fteps of the
inveftigation among themfelves. Nay, wheivwe have
unravelled the whole, and reached the very foundation
on w hich our difeoveries ftand, all our certainty, in re¬
gard to their truth, will be found in a great meafiire to
arife from that connexion we are now able to difeera
between them and firft principles, taken in the order of
compoiition. But in the fynthetic manner of difpo-
fing our thoughts, the cafe is quite different: for as
we here begin with the intuitive truths, and advance
by regular dedudtions from them, every ftep of the
procedure brings evidence and conviction along with
it; fo that, in our progrefs from one part of knowr-
ledge to another, we have always a clear perception of
the ground on which our affent refts. In communi¬
cating therefore our difeoveries to others, this method
is apparently to be chofen, as it wonderfully improves
and enlightens the underftanding, and leads to an im¬
mediate perception of truth.
VII. The logic which for fo many ages kept p.of-
feffion of the fchools, and was deemed the moll im¬
portant of the fciences, has long been condemned as a
mere art' of wrangling, of very little ufe in the purfuit
of truth. Attempts have been made to reftore it to
credit, but without fuccefs ; and of late years little or
no attention whatever has been paid to the art of reafon¬
ing in the courfe of what is called a liberal education.
As both extremes may be faulty, it ihould feem that
we cannot conclude this ftiort treatife more properly
than with the following
Reflections on the Utilitt of Logic.
If Ariftotle was not the inventor of logic, he was
certainly the prince of logicians. The whole theory
of fyllogifms he claims as his own, and as the fruit of
much time and labour; and it is univerfally known,
that the later writers on the art have borrowed their
materials almoft entirely from his Organon and Por¬
phyry’s Introduftion. But after men had laboured
near 2000 years in fearch of truth by the help of fyl¬
logifms, Ford Bacon propofed the method of induc¬
tion, as a more effectual engine for that purpofe ; and
fince his days the art of logic has gradually fallen into
difrepute.
To this confequence many caufes contributed. The
art of fyllogifm is admirably calculated for wrangling;
and by the fchoolmen it was employed with too much
fuccefs, to keep in countenance the abfurdities of the
Romifti church. Under their management it pro¬
duced numberlefs difputes, and numberlefs feds, who
E e 2 fought
219
220
LOG
fought againft each other with much animofity with¬
out gaining or lofing ground; but it did nothing con-
fiderable For the benefit of human life, whilft the me¬
thod of induction has improved arts and increafed
knowledge. It is no wonder, therefore, that the ex-
ceffive admiration of Ariftotle, which continued for fo
many ages, fhould end in an undue contempt; and
that the high efteem of logic, as the grand engine of
fcience, fhould at lail make way for too unfavourable
an opinion, which fcems now prevalent, of its being
unworthy of a place in a liberal education. Men rare¬
ly leave one extreme without running into the contrary:
Thofe who think according to the fafhion, -will be as
prone to go into the prefent extreme as their grand¬
fathers were to go into the former; and even they who
in gavral think for themfelves, when they are offend¬
ed at the abufe of any thing, are too apt to entertain
prejudices againft the thing itfelf. “ In practice (fays
t Tntroluc- t}le learned Warburton f), logic is more a trick than
a/T &c l~*-fcunce> formed rather to amufe than to inftruCt. And
in fome fort we may apply to the art of fyllogifm what
a man of wit fays of rhetoric, that it only tells us how
to name thofe tools which nature had before put into
our hands. In the fervice of chicane, indeed, it is a
meer juggler’s knot, now faft, now loofe; and the
fchools where this legerdemain was exercifed in great
perfection are full of the ftories of its wonders.” The
authority o£ Warburton is great; but it may be coun¬
terbalanced by another which, on fubjeCts of this na¬
ture, is confeffedly greater.
“ Laying afide prejudice, whether fafhionable or
t Appendix unfafhionable,let usconfider (fays Dr Reid J) whether
to Lord' logic is or may be made fubfervient to anygood purpofe.
Sketch on ^ts profcfled end is, to teach men to think, to judge,
thePrinciple and to reafon, with precifion and accuracy. No man
and Pregrtfe will fay that this is a matter of little importance : the
oflien/cn. on]y thing therefore that can admit of doubt is, whe¬
ther it can 'be taught ?
“To refolve this doubt, it may be obferved, that
our rational faculty is the gift of God, given to
men in very different meafures: Some have a large
portion, fome a lefts; and where there is a remarkable
defeft of the natural power, it cannot be fupplied by
any culture. But this natural power, even where it
I
Part IV*
s the ftrongeft, may lie dead for want of the means of ed with rules may carry
dicious and feafonable; to wit, That the improvement
of our reafoning power is to be expected much more,
from an intimate acquaintance with the authors who
reafon beft, than frpm ftudying voluminous fyftems of
fchool logic. But if he had meant, that the ftudy of
logic was of no ufe, nor deferved any attention, he
furely would not have taken the pains to make fo con-
fiderable an addition to it, by his Etfay on the Rumin
Underflanding, and by his Thoughts on the Condud of the
Underjlanding; nor would he have remitted his pupil
to Chilling'worth, the acuteft logician as well as the beft
reafoner of his age.”
There is no ftudy better fitted to exercife and
ftrengthen the reafoningjrowers than that of the ma¬
thematical fciences; becaufe there is no other branch
of fcience which gives fuch fcope to long and accu¬
rate trains of reafoning, or in which there is fo little
room for authority or prejudice of any kind to give a
falfe bias to the judgment. When a youth of mode¬
rate parts begins to ftudy Euclid, every thing is new
to him : His apprehenfion is unfteady ; his judgment
is feeble; and refts partly upon the evidence of the
thing, and partly upon the authority of his teacher.
But eveiy time he goes over the definitions, the axioms,
the elementary propofitions, more light breaks in upon
him; and as he advances, the road of demonftration
becomes fmooth and eafy: he can walk in it firmly,
and take wider fteps, till at la ft he acquires the habit
not only of underftanding a demonflration, but of dif-
covering and demonftrating m; thematical truths.
It muft indeed be confeffed, that a man without the
. rules of logic may acquire a habit of reafoning juftly
in mathematics, and perhaps in any other fci^nce. Good
fenfe, good examples, and affiduous exercife, may bring
a man to reafon juftly and acutely in his own profeffion
without rules. But whoever thinks, that from this
conceffion he may infer the inutility of logic, betrays
by this inference a great want of that art; for he
might as well infer, becaufe a man may go from Edin¬
burgh to London by the way of Paris^ that therefore
any other road is ufelefs.
There is perhaps no art which may not be acquired,
in a very confiderable degree, by example and prac¬
tice, withoftt reducing it to rules. But praftice join-
i forward in his art far-
improvement. Many a favage may have been born
with as good faculties as a Newton, a Bacon, or an
Rrijlotle; but their talents were buried by having never
been put to ufe, whilft thofe of the philofophers were
cultivated to the beft advantage. It may likewife be
ther and more quickly than praftice without rules.—
Eveiy ingenious artift knows the utility of having his
art reduced to rules, and thereby made a fcience. By
rules he is enlightened in his praiftice, and works with
more affurance. They enable him fometimes to correct.
obferved, that the chief mean of improving our ration- his own errors, and oiten to deleft the errors of others;
al power, is the vigorous exercife of it in various ways
and on different fubjefts, by which the habit is ac¬
quired of exercifing it properly. Without fuch ex-
eicife, and good fenfe over and above, a man who has
ftudied logic all his life may be only a petulant wrang¬
ler, without true judgment or (kill of reafoning in any
fcience.”
Tlfts muff have been Locke’s meaning, when in his
Thoughts oaEducation he fays, “ If you would have
your fon to reafon well, let him read Chillingworth.”
The ftate of things is much altered fince Locke wrote:.
Logic has been much improved chiefly by his writings;
and yet much lefs ftrefs is laid upon it, and lefs time
eonfumedin its ftudy. His counl'el, therefore, was ju¬
and he finds them of great ufe to confirm his judgment,
to juftify what is right, and to condemn what is wrong.
Now mathematics are the nobleft praxis of logic.
Through them we may perceive how the ftated forms
of fyllogifm are exemplified in one fubjeft, namely the
predicament of quantity ; and by marking the force of
thefe forms, as they are there applied, we may be en¬
abled to apply them of ourfelves elfewhere. Whoever,
therefore, will ftudy mathematics with this view, will
become not only by mathematics a more expert logici¬
an, and by logic a more rational mathematician, but a
wifer philofopher, and an acuter reafoner, in all the pof-
fible fubjedfs either of fcience or deliberation. But.
when mathematics, inftead of being applied to this ex-
i cellent.
221
Part IV. L O
cellent purpofe, are ufed not to exemplify logic, but
to fupply its place ; no wonder if logic fall into con¬
tempt, and if mathematics, inftead of furthering fei-
ence, become in fait an obftacle. For when men,
knowing nothing of that reafoning which is univerfal,
come to attach themfelves for years to z. ftngle Jpedes,
a fpecies wholly involved in lines and numbers, the mind
becomes incapacitated for reafoning at large, and efpe-
cially in the fearch of moral truth. The objeft of ma¬
thematics is demonftration ; and whatever in that fcience
is not demonftrEftion, is nothing, or at leaftbelow the
fublime inquirer’s regard. Probability, through its al-
moft infinite degrees, from fimple ignorance up to abfo-
lute certainty,is the terra incognita of the mathematician.
And yet here it is that the great bufinefs of the human
mind is carried on in the fearch and difeovery of all the
important truths which concern us as reafonable be¬
ings. And here too it is that all its vigour is exerted :
for to proportion the afient to the probability accom¬
panying every varying degree of moral evidence, re¬
quires the molt enlarged and fovereign exercife of rea-
fon.
In'reafonings of this kind, will any man pretend
that it is of no ufe to be well acquainted with the va-
'• rious powers of the mind by which we reafon ? Is it
of no ufe to refolve the various kinds of reafoning in¬
to their fimple elements; and to difeover, as far as we
are able, the rules by which thefe elements are com¬
bined in judging and in reafoning ? Is it of no ufe to
mark the various fallacies in reafoning, by which even
the molt ingenious men have been led into error ? It
mult furely betray great want of underllanding, to
think fhefe things ufelqfs or unimportant. Now thefe
are the things which logicians have attempted; and
which they have executed—not indeed fo completely
as to leave no room for improvement, but in fuch a
manner as to give very confiderable aid to our reafon¬
ing powers. That the principles they have laid down
with regard to definition and divifion, with regard to
the converfion and oppofition of propofitions, and the
general rules of reafoning, are not without ufe, is fuf-
ficiently apparent from the blunders committed daily
by thofe who difdain any acquaintance with them.
Although the art of categorical fyllogifm is confef-
fedly little fitted for the difeovery of unknown truth,
G I C.
it may yet be employed to excellent purpofes, as it is
perhaps the moll compendious method of detedling a
fallacy. A man in quell of unknown truths mull.ge¬
nerally proceed by the way of induftion, from effefts to
caufes; but he, who as a teacher is to inculcate any
fyllem upon others, begins with one or more felf-evi-
dent truths, and proceeds in the way of demonllration,
to the conclufion which he wilhes to eltablifh. Now
every demonllration, as has been already obferved, may
be refolved into a feries of fyllogifms, of which the con¬
clufion of the preceding always enters into the premi-
fes of that which follows: and if the firll principles be
clear and evident, and every fyllogifm in fome legiti¬
mate mode and figure, the conclufion of the whole
mult infallibly be admitted. But when the demon¬
llration is thus broken into parts j if we find that the
conchifion of one fyllogifm will not, without altering
the meaning of the terms, enter legitimately into the
premifes of that which Ihould immediately follow ; or,,
fuppofing it to make one of the premifes of a new fyl¬
logifm, if we find that the conclufion, refulting from
the whole feries thus obtained, is different from that
of the demonftration ; we may, in either of thefe cafes,
reft allured that the author’s reafoning is fallacious,
and leads to error; and that if it earned an appear¬
ance of conviction before it was thus refolved into its
elementary parts, it mull have been owing to the ina¬
bility of the mind to comprehend at once a long train
of arguments. Whoever willies to fee the fyllogiftic
art employed for this purpofe, and to be convinced of
the truth of what we have faid refpe&ing its utility,
may confult the excellent writer recommended by
Locke, who, in places innumerable of his incomparable
book, has, without pedantry, even in that pedantic
age, made the happieft application of the lules of logic
for unravelling the fophiitry of his Jefuitical antago-
nift.
Upon the whole, then, though we readily acknow¬
ledge that much time was wafted by our forefathers
in fyllogiftic wrangling, and what might with little:
impropriety be termed the mechanical part of logic
yet the art of forming and examining arguments is cer¬
tainly an attainment not unworthy the ambition of that
being whole higheft honour is to be endued with rea¬
fon.
LOG
LOG
Logifte, LOGISTiE, certain officers at Athens, in num-
Logogra- ker ten> whofe bufinefs confifted in receiving and paf-
, l1^’ fing the accounts of magiftrates when they went out
^’~v of office. The logijla were eleaed by lot, and had
* ten euthyni or auditors of accounts under them.
LOGOGRAPHY, a new method of printing, in
which the types, inftead of anfwering only to fingle let-^
ters, are made to correfpond to whole words.
This method, though feemingly a retrograde pro-
ceffion in the printing art, has lately obtained the fanc-
tion of his Majefty’s patent, and has for fome time
been aaually put in execution in the way of trade,
apparently with advantage to the proprietors. In
the year 1783, a treatife upon this fubjefl appeared,
by Henry Johnfon, in which the origin as well as
the utility of the art are fully laid down, and the Logogra-
matter fet forth in fuch a light as can fcarce allow p T j
us to doubt that it is an improvement in the art.
Mr johnfon informs us, that about five years before,,
viz. in the year 1778, intending to publifh a daily
lift of'blanks and prizes in the lottery numerically ar¬
ranged, he found it could not be accotnpliftied in time
by the ordinary way of printing. On this account
he procured types of two, three,, or more figures as
was neceflary for his purpofe ; and thus any entire num¬
ber might as readily be taken up as if it had been a*
fingle type. His next attempt was in forming fome
large mercantile tables of pounds, {hillings, pence, and
farthings. For thefe he procured types expreffive of -
any fum of money ready compofed and united, “ bv
whic*;
LOG [2:
Logogra- which (fays he) every fpecies of figure-printing could
, be performed for the tenth part of the coft, printers
v always charging it double the price of letter print-
ing.” Having thus fucceeded to his wiih in his two
firft attempts, he next began to confider if the me¬
thod could not be applied to words; and in this alfo
the fuccefs was equal.
The properties of the logographic art, according
to our author, are, 1. That' the compofitor fhall have
lefs charged upon his memory than in the common
way. 2. It is much lefs liable to error. 3. The
type of each word is as eaiily laid hold of as that of
a Angle letter. 4. The decompofition is much more
readily performed, even by the mereft novices, than
they now decompofe letters. 5. No extraordinary
expence nor greater number of types is required in the
logographic than in the common method of printing..
The firft. of thefe politicos is proved by our author
in the following manner. In the common method,
the compofitor has 150 divifions to which there is no
reference, and the printing offices are not agreed with
refpedl to the mode of placing their boxes 5 “ but
under this improvement, he has only to know the
letters of the alphabet, and is affifted with an index
of them, infomuch that the fimplicity of the latter
apparatus enables him, by a little praftice, to lay his
finger alnjoft blindfold on the word required ; and the
meaneft capacity is equal to this mental exercife,
having little more to do than knowing by infpedtion
the difference between words under three and thofe
above three fyllables; and all the apparatus being
within a compafs not a great deal more extended than
common printing, for thefe reafons he is as foon pof-
feffed of his type of a word as they are of a fingle
letter.”
Thus the firft and third pofitions may be faid to
be proved ; but in his proof of the fecond, our author
himfelf Ihows that his art is not infallible, by fubfti-
tuting the word third inftead of fecond. Subftitutions
of this kind, he owns, may readily take place; but
fuch errors are much more confpicuous than literal
ones, though they may be cprrefted with equal eafe ;
« for the erroneous fubftitution cannot fail of being
nearly equal in length to the word required; although,
even otherwife, it would not be attended with greater^
difadvantage than in the common way, and it would
be rectified with greater facility.”
The eafe with which the compofition is performed,
fhows that there muft be an equal eafe in performing
the decompofition; “ from whence (fays Mr John-
fon)” it is further demonftrable, that any work can
be compofed by this method nearly as foon as it can
be deliberately read; and as te the fifth pofition, that
it (hall not require a greater expence of types, it is
anfwered, that it is impoffible for more types of let¬
ters to be wanted for this method than by any other
printer according to the equal quantity of bufinefs to
be performed, every office having certain known quan¬
tities of each letter called a fount. A printer’s fount
contains about 92,503 letters, and our want is not
‘ more; nay, nearer the truth, the prefent quantity
for a fount containing much more of fome letters than
neceffary, and fewer of others; which arifes from the
calculation of the quantity of each letter wanted be¬
ing adhered to fince the old fpelling.
2 ] LOG
Our author now proceeds to demonftratc that the Ln?cgra-
number of types muft neceffarily decreafe as they are ,
combined into fyllables, and much more when formed ’
into words. The whole art of arranging the words
confifts in placing them under as few divifions as pof-
fible, and ftill fewer fubdivilions; which is attained by
the following procefs,
1. A collection of words, with the addition of
tenfes, plurals, and degrees of comparifon, amount¬
ing to more than 100,000, was made from the belt
Englilh dictionaries.
2. Collections were made from the mifcellaneous part
of 20 newfpapers, the Spectator, and Common Prayer-
book. The method was, by procuring duplicates of
every Iheet, fo that each alternate fide might be palled
over with white paper, in order to leave the whole of
the words on both fides perfeCt; and thus the whole
might be touched with lefs danger of injury than other-
wife could have been done. The confufion arifing
from the parts of other words being feen from the
oppofite fide was likewife prevented.
3. The words, being feparately cut out, were then
put into a cafe marked with the divifions from one to
16, according to the number of letters contained in
each word. Thus feveral letters w'ere diftinCtly col¬
lected; and then each feparate parcel forted in a cafe
containing 26 divifions, marked with the letters of
the alphabet, according to the commencing letter of
the wrord; and thus all the words were ranged alpha¬
betically, confifting of two, three, four, or five let¬
ters, in feparate parcels.
4. The fame words were then placed together, and
polled into an alphabet, with the number of times
marked to each that had occurred on the whole; that
in this manner a proportion might be determined how
many times particular words ought to be repeated for
the printing of one Iheet, and alfo to know wffiat
words are in general ufe : There are likewife a num¬
ber of technical terms, and favourite phrafes a greaf
number of times repeated almoft by every author, but
though thefe occur throughout the whole book in
great proportion to the reft, no more of them wall be
neceftary than what fuffice for a fingle Iheet.
5. The whole of the above might be done without
the trouble juft mentioned, by polling every wrord at
once into a triformed alphabet ; becaufe the fubdivi-
fious of the fecond and third commencing letter of
each word for references are now obtained, and thus
can eaiily be placed in its proper divilion, and may be
marked as often as it occurs, without repeating the
fame word; whence we plainly fee the eafe and expe¬
dition of it, from the facility and expedition of pelt¬
ing every word from a leaf in any book. Before fuch
fubdivifions were known, they could only have been
placed under the firft commencing letter of the word ;
which would caufe fuch a multiplicity of repetitions,
that it would take up more time, be far more liable
to error, and require more fubordinate pollings to
bring them into arrangement; fo that they may be
found more eafily than by the above proceedings. Thus
alfo a collection will be obtained of fingle and double
words, which are conftantly required from 20 to 400
or 500 times in the printing one Iheet of any work
whatever; and which alone would abridge the com-
politor’s work near one-third. This fecond procefs
likewife
LOG [ 223 ] LOG
lfosrnp:ra- likewlfe enabled the author to rejeft, out of the firft
colleftion, obfolete words, technical terms, &c. which
reduces the original colledtion to one fifth part.
6. By proceeding in this manner, feveral fpecies of
words are omitted in the founts, x. Obfolete words;
becaufe they occur fo feldom, that the difference of
time loft in compofing them in the ordinary method
would be imperceptible. 2. Technical terms, names
of places, animals, &c.; though, for any particular
work, the terms peculiar to it may be added to the
fount in a biformed alphabet apart. 3. Real com¬
pounds, or words that may be compounded of others,
are alfo rejected ; becaufe we aftually have the words
already, and they may be joined with fufficient ex¬
pedition, though the fpaces are annexed to each, by
being conftrudfed accordingly. 4. Thofe of the fame
fpelling are likewife omitted, though they bear diffe¬
rent fignifications, for obvious reafons. '
7. The variation of tenfes, degrees of comparifon,
and numerous words in the Englifh language, having
in general the fame terminations, fuch as ed, ing, ly,
ment, ness, &c. an alphabet may be formed of fuch
a kind as is capable of being annexed to the abfo-
lute words or radices, as cxpeditioufly as the whole
W'ord could be found in the fount, from its being
thereby fo much lefs extended. Thus, by dividing
fev eral words into their radices and terminations, many
ether words may be formed from the radix by the ad¬
dition of various terminations, and each termination
may be added to other radices to which they are ap¬
plicable.
8. Some radices are imperfeft, viz. fuch as end
with the vowel e, which muft therefore be added in
the ufual way of compofition. Thus, in the word
adore, the radix is ador, to which the terminations
es, ed, ejl, eth, er, ing, may be added occafionally.
9. By rejecting alfo the words which come under
this laft denomination, the number neceffary for a
fount is reduced to one-tenth of what it would other-
wife be, as will”appear evident from the following con-
iiderations : 1. There are at leaft 42 verbs, the infi¬
nitive of which ends in ify; as qualify, ftgnify; the
radices of which are qual,Jign; the terminations are,
ijitv, ified, ifying, &c. And Mr Johnfon informs us,
that by applying thefe radices to other terminations,
he was enabled to difpenfe with more than 500 W'ords
which would otherwife have been neceffary. 2. For
all regular verbs, no more than fix terminations are
neceffary, viz. j, ejl, eth, ed, es, ing. There are but
few irregular ones in the Englifh language ; whence it
happens that 12 or 14w'ords maybe formed from one
fingle perfedt verb as a radix, and many imperfeft
ones fave double that number.
10. By ufing only the fet of terminations which
may be contained in a box of two feet fquare, the
common operation of printing would be fhortened near¬
ly one half; and in order to find out thofe which are
moft in ufe, and fitteft to retain, our author digefted
them alphabetically, with the radices, words, or fyl-
lables, which make complete words annexed to them.
Thus,
tain,. 1 abs—apper—afeer
 * de—dis-—con
 ing I “r-cap—cur
——meat J tntcr—niain—re—^us> ^
1 x. Thus it will be found, that out of more than Logogra-
100,000 words of which the Englifh language confifts, PhY‘ ,
there will not be wanted much above 3500 for a com- " ,
plete fount. This will be very evident to any perfon
who confults a dictionary. He will there find, that a
vail number of words require an explanation ; whereas
in any mifcellaneous work, there are none but wdiat
can be underftood moft readily either together or a-
part. Newfpapers retain more of the uncommon kind
of words than any others. “ The vocabulary (fays
our author) or alphabet as it is called, of the Chi-
nefe, confifts of above 80,000 letters or charadlers; yet
he is admitted a mafter of the language w'ho knows
about 4000 of them, no more being in general ufe.”
The expedition with which the logographic method
of printing can be accompliihed, depends effentially on
their arrangement; which, from great numbers of ex¬
periments, our author found to be belt accomplilhed
in the following manner: 1. Words of one, two, or
three fyllables, are alphabetically placed by themfelves,
including all poffible commencing fyllables, by which
the compofitor cannot fail of finding the word either
in whole or in part let it be what it will; and when
the whole cannot be found at once, the remainder may
ealily be found in fingle or double fyllables among
the terminations. 2. All words above three fyllables
have the fame alphabetical arrangement; the termina¬
tions being the lame at the bottom of each. Experi¬
ence Ihows, that by a very few leffons, the meaneit ca¬
pacity may determine the number of fyllables, and re¬
fer to the particular cafe containing words of that
number, there being confpicuous references to each ;
and by thus equalizing them, any perfon may poffefs
himfeif very expeditioully of what he wants. Even
boys who fcarce knew more than the letters of the al¬
phabet, were hardly a fortnight employed in this me¬
thod, when they could at the firft glance tell the num¬
ber of letters contained in any word.
By this limplicity of arrangement, any intelligent
perion, who never compofed in his life, by being pla¬
ced in a room with the apparatus, could compofe and
print, without other previous initrudtion than defiring
him to remember that the words under three fyllables,
and thofe above three, are placed in feparate alphabets;
and that whenever he wants a word, the firft letter is
feen in capitals of two inches on the walls, the fecond
in letters of one inch in right lines ; and where it is
necefl’ary to have more columns than one for fuch fe¬
cond letter, the third is given in red down the co¬
lumn, comprehending about 12 divilions, to contain
the types of the word coming under fuch reference.
To exemplify this method as far as it can be done
without actually feeing the apparatus, our author in-
ftances the two words' Above and Unfortunately. In
looking for the former, the firft letter, A, is feen upon
the wall as already mentioned ; the fecond, B, is on
the cafe under it, and down that column is OVE,
oppofite to the cell containing the types of the whole
w'ord ; which would be only three references inftead
of five with fpaces, as in the common method. The
other word, viz. Unfortunately, may be found by the
fame references, though it contains 13 letters ; but
“ admitting that practice will give the word as foon
as a fingle letter, the average will be found eight for
one.”—Our author’s explanation of the method in
which this word might be compofed, however, feema
by
LOG [ 224 ] LOG
vLogogra- "by no means intelligible.—“ For this diftinftion in
Phy- the cafes (fays he), the alphabet, or rather marks of
v firft reference in large charafters on the wall, is di¬
vided into two claffes, not as vowels and confonants,
but as follows, viz. A, Con, Dif, E, In, O, P, S,
Un, commencing references, the fecond or fubfequent
letters of the words being in a right line from left to
right, and down each column is found the remainder
of the reference to the words, dillinguifhing always
the third letter in red. The fecond diilinction is,
that for all other commencing letters, the fecond letter
of reference is in a column down, and the third letter
in lines from left to right in red.
Thefe are the directions given by our author for
forming a fount of words ; the next requifite is a fount
gf fyllables, formed in the following method : 1. A
•complete fet of two letters was obtained in all their
poffible combinations, amounting to 676. 2. Having
next obtained the poffible combination of thefe letters,
t/k. 17576, by retaining only all poffible fyllables, and
words ofthreeletters, itis reduced to the jothpart,which
anfwer all the purpofes of compofing with fyllables of
two and three letters, for Latin, French, Engliffi, and
all names, of perfons, places, and things, every pof-
iible fy liable being comprehended among them. Hence
it forms an univerfal triformed alphabet, where En¬
gliffi characters are ufed ; from whence all partial bi-
formed and triformed alphabets in the arrangement of
Engliffi, French, Latin, and all technical matters, are
drawn. Though combinations of four letters are
again 26 times the number of thofe of three letters,
and five letters increafe in the fame ratio ; yet as much
as all poffible combinations increafe in quantity pro¬
portionate to the number of letters combined, fo they
decreafe in the aftual number of fyllables included
among them, infomuch, that all the fyllables of four,
five, fix, and feven letters together, are confiderably
fewer than the fyllables of three letters only.—Be-
fides the two founts already mentioned, a third was
found neceffary for fuch terminations as are moft com¬
monly followed by particular punctuations; but, after
fome confideration, this was judged unneceffary.
Our author now proceeds to obviate fome objec¬
tions which mull naturally occur to one who firft hears
of his invention. Thefe are,
1. A fingle letter damaged in a word renders the
whole ufelefs.
This is not denied by Mr Johnfon; but he contends,
that the quantity of metal loft in this manner is quite
trifling.
2. How are the blanks or fpaces in a line to be ma¬
naged, as thefe are by no means equal ?
To this our author replies, that, at the time of wri¬
ting the pamphlet, he was undetermined whether it be
moft eligible to have fpaces call along with the be¬
ginnings of words, or to fpace them in the common
manner. The former would be more expeditious; and
where a greater diftance is required, other fpaces may
be introduced in the ordinary method.
3. How is a long word at the end of a line to be
divided ?
This may be eafily accompliffied by means of the fyl-
labic fount already mentioned.
4. How is the error of fubftituting one word for
another to be reftified ?
N° 186.
The anfwer to this is, that an error of the kind fpe- Lo^ogr>
cified may be corrected in the very fame manner as is
done in common printing. Long words may be di- Jl
vided by means of the fyllabic fount already mention- , 'urni .
ed, and the intervals between the words may be filled
up with fpaces as ufual.
LOGWOOD. See Hjematoxylon.
LOHOCH, or Loch, in pharmacy, a compofition
of a middle confiftence between a foft eleCtuary and a
fyrup, principally ufed in diforders of the lungs.
LOINS, in anatomy, the two lateral parts of the
umbilical region of the abdomen.
LOIRE, the largeft river in France, rifes in the
mountains of the Cevennes, and, after running a courfe
of about 50O miles, falls into the bay of Bifcay.
LOKE, in mythology, the name of one of the
deities of the northern nations, anfwering to the Ari-
manes among the Perfians, whom they reprefent as at
enmity both with gods and men, and the author of
all the evils which defolate the univerfe. Loke is de-
fcribed in the Edda as producing the great ferpent
which incircles the' world ; which feems to have been
intended as an emblem of corruption or fin : he alfo
gives birth to Hela or death, the queen' of the infernal
regions; and alfo to the wolf Fenris, that monfter who
is to encounter the gods and deftroy the world.
LOKMAN the Wise, an eminent philofopher a-
mong the Eafterns. The Arabians fay he was the fon
of Baura, the fon or grandfon of a fitter or aunt of
Job. He was an Ethiopian, and a flave for fome time.
It is related that he was born in the time of David,
and lived till the age of the prophet Jonas. Some fup-
pofe him to have been the fame with -difop the my-
thologift : and indeed we find in the parables or apo¬
logues of Lokman in Arabic, many particulars that
are feen in iEfop’s fables ; fo that it is not eafy to de¬
termine whether the Greek or the Arabian are the ori¬
ginals. He is faid to have been deformed in his per-
fon ; but that this defeCt was fufficiently made up by
the perfections of his mind. Some pieces of his are
extant; and he was looked upon as fo excellent a per-
fon, that Mahomet has inferted a chapter of the Ko¬
ran, called after his name, in which he introduces God
as faying, “ We heretofore beftowed wifdom on Lok¬
man.”—It is related that he got his liberty on the fol¬
lowing occafion. His mailer having given him a bitter
melon to eat, he eat it all. His mailer, furprifed at
his exaCt obedience, alked, How it was poffible fpr
him to eat fuch a naufeous fruit ? He anfwered, “ I
have received fo many favours from you, that it is no
wonder I ffiould once in my life eat a bitter melon from
your hand.” This generous anfwer of the Have ftruck
the mafter to fuch a degree, that he immediately gave
him his liberty. M. Galland tranllated all the fables
of Lokman, and Bidpai or Pilpay a bramin philofo¬
pher, which were publiffied at Paris in 1724.
LOLIUM, darneLtL-grass, in botany : A genus
of the digynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 4th order. Gramma. The calyx is monophyllous,
fixed, and uniflorous. The moft remarkable fpecies
are, 1. The perenne, red darnel, or rye-grafs. This
is very common in roads and dry paftures. It makes
excellent hay upon dry, chalky, or fandy foils. It
i* advantageoufly cultivated along with clover, and
Iprmgs
L O L [ 225 1 L O M
Lollards, fprings earlier than other gralles; thereby fupplying
food for cattle at a time when it is moil difficult to
be obtained. Cows, horfes, and fheep eat it $ goats
are not fond of it. 2. The temulentum, or white
darnel, grows fpontaneoufly in ploughed fields. If
the feeds of this fpecies are malted with barley, the
ale foon occafions drunkennefs ; mixed with bread-
corn, they produce but little effect unlefs the bread is
eaten hot.
LOLLARDS, in ecclefiaftical hiilory, a religious
feft, differing in many religious points from the church
of Rome, which arofe in Germany about the begin¬
ning of the 14th century; fo called, as many writers
have imagined, from Walter Lollard, who began to
dogmatife in 1315, and was burnt at Cologn : though
others think that Lollard was no furname, but mere¬
ly a term of reproach applied to all heretics who con¬
cealed the poifon of error under the appearance of
piety.
The monk of Canterbury derives the origin of the
: word Lollard among us, from lolium, “ a tare as if
the Lollards were the tares fown in Chrift’s vineyard.
Abeily fays, that the word Lollard fignifies “ praifing
God,” from the German Men, “ to praife,” and ierr,
“ Lordbecaufe the Lollards employed themfelves
in travelling about frotn place to place, finging pfalms
and hymns.
Others, much to the fame purpofe, derive lollhard,
lullhard, or lollert, lullert, as it was written by the an¬
cient Germans, from the old German word lullen. Id¬
ler), or lallen, and the termination hard, with which
many of the High Dutch wor ds end. Lollen fignifies
64 to fing with a low voice,” and therefore Lollard
is a finger, or one who frequently fings; and in
the vulgar, tongue of the Germans it denotes a perfon
who is continually praifing God with a fong, or fing¬
ing hymns to his honour. The Alexians or Cellites
were called Lollards, becaufe they were public fingers
who made it their bufinefs to inter the bodies of thofe
who died of the plague, and fang a dirge over them
in a mournful and indiftin& tone as they carried them
> to the grave. The name was afterwards aflumed by
perfons that difhonoured it; for we find, among thofe
Lollards who made extraordinary pretences to piety
and religion, and fpent the greateft part of their time
in meditation, prayer, and fuch afts of piety, there
were many abominable hypocrites, who entertained
the moil ridiculous opinions and concealed the moll
enormous vices under the fpecieus mark of this ex¬
traordinary profeffion. And many injurious afperfions
were propagated againft thofe who affumed this name
by the priefts and monks ; fo that, by degrees, any
perfon who covered herefies or crimes under the ap¬
pearance of piety, was called a Lollard. Thus the
name was not ufed to denote any one particular fe£l,
but was formerly common to all perfons and all fefts
who were fuppofed to be guilty of impiety towards
God or the church, under an external profeffion of
extraordinary piety. However, many focieties, confiil-
ing both of men and women under the name of Lol¬
lards, were formed in moil parts of Germany and Flan-
vlers, and were fupported partly by their manual la¬
bours, and partly by the charitable donations of pious
perfons. The magiftrates and inhabitants of the towns
where thefe brethren and filters refided, gave them
Vol. X. Parti.
particular marks of favour and prote&ion, on account Lollard*
of their great ufefulnefs to the fick and needy. They U
were thus fupported againft their malignant rivals, and tjom^ar **.
obtained many papal conftitutions by which their in-
ilitute was confirmed, their perfons exempted from
the cognifance of the inquifitors, and fubjeiled en¬
tirely to the jurifdidlion of the biihops ; but as thefe
meafures were infufficient to fecure them from mo-
leftation, Charles duke of Burgundy, in the year
1472, obtained a folemn bull from Pope Sixtus IV.
ordering that the Cellites or Lollards fhould be rank¬
ed among the religious orders, and delivered from thd
jurifdi&ion of the biihops ; and Pope Julius II. grant¬
ed them yet greater privileges in the year 1506. Mo-
Pneim informs us that many focieties of this kind are
ftill fubfifting at Cologn, and in the cities of Flanders,
though they have evidently departed from their an¬
cient rules.
Lollard and his followers rejected the facrifice of
the mafs, extreme unclion, and penances for fin ; ar¬
guing, that Chrift’s fufferings were fuffieient. He is
likewife faid to have fet aiide baptifm, as a thing of
no effedl; and repentance, as not abfolutely necefl’ary,
&c.—In England, the followers of Wickliffe were
called, by way of reproach, Lollards, from fome affinity
there was between fome of their tenets ; though o-
thers are of opinion, that the Engliih Lollards came
from Germany.
They were folemnly condemned by the archbiihop
of Canterbury and the council of Oxford.
LOMBARD (Lambert), an eminent painter, born
at Liege in 1500 ; who, after a diligent ftudy of the ■
antique at Rome, introduced that ftyle of painting
among his countrymen inftead of the Gothic. He
painted hiftory, architedlure, and perfpe&ive ; and
though he could never altogether free himfelf from his
national gout, he is ranked among the bell painters of
his time. Fie died in 1560.
Lombard (Peter), well known by the title of
Majler of the Sentences, was born at Novara in Lom¬
bardy ; but being bred at Paris, he diftinguiftied him¬
felf fo much at that univerftty, that he firft had the
canomy of Chartres conferred on him, was fome time
tutor to Philip fon of Louis le Gros, and laftly ob¬
tained the fee of Paris. He died in 1064. His work
of the Sentences is looked on as the fource of the
fcholaftic theology of the Latin church. . He wrote
alfo Commentaries on the Pfahns, and on St Paul’s
Epiftles.
LOMBARDS, a Scandinavian nation, who for¬
merly fettled in Italy, and for fome time made a con*
fiderable figure. e
Their name of Lombards, or Longobards, is by fome Etymology
derived from the word lack, or lache, fignifying in the the
German tongue 'winter; becaufe the Lombards, while
in Scandinavia, lived in marlhes, or near the fea. Others
think that it comes from the two German words langen
harden, or hellelorden, that is, from the long halbert*
they were fuppofed to ufe in war. But Paulus Dia-
conus their hiftorian, and who was himfelf a Lombardi,
tells us, that they were called Longobards from the
length of their beards. A nation called the Lombards
is mentioned by Tacitus, Strabo, and Ptolemy; but
thefe are different from the Lombards who afterwards
fettled in Italy, and are reckoned to be the fame with
F f the
L O M [2
Lflmtocis the Gcpkire, whom the Italian Lombards almoil ex-
     terminated. The Lombards who fettled in Italy are
a firft mentioned by Profper Aquitanus, biihop of Rhe-
Vandals<te-gium in the year 379. That writer tells us, that
by about this time the Lombards, abandoning the moft
birds0111* dillant coails of the ocean, and their native country
Scandinavia, and feeking for new fettlements, as they
were oyerllocked with people at home, firft attacked
and overcame about this time the Vandals in Germany.
They were then headed by two - chiefs, Iboreus and
Aion ; who, dying about the year 389, were fucceeded
by Agilmund, who is commonly reckoned the firft king
of the Lombards. '
Before the time of Odoacer, the Lombard hiftory
affords nothing remarkable; in his time, however,
3 they fettled on the Danube, in the country of the
They fettle Rugians, whom Odoacer had almoft totally extermi-
nat:e^ or carried into captivity. During their ftay in
Rugians country, they rendered themfelves formidable to
the neighbouring nations, and carried on fuccefsful
wars with the Heruli and Gepidae. In 526, they
were allowed by the emperor Juftinian to fettle in
Pannonia; and here they made war a, fecond time
with the Gepidte. Alboinus, the 'Lombard king,
4 killed the king of the Gepidae with his own hand, put
Deftroy the his army to the rout, and cut fuch numbers of them
Gepidae. jn pieces, that they ceafed from that time to be a na¬
tion. Having caufed the deceafed king’s head to be
cut off, he made a cup of his fkull, called in the lan¬
guage of the Lombards fchala, which he made life of
in all public entertainments. However, having taken,
among many other captives of great diftinftion, the
late king’s daughter, by name Rofamunda, he married
her after the death of his former wife Cladifvinta, the
daughter of Clotaire king of France.
By this victory Alboinus gained fuch reputation,
that his friendlhip was courted by Juftinian ; and, in
confequence of the emperor’s application, a body of
600O Lombards were fent to the affiftance of Narfes
againft the Goths. The fuccefs of the Romans in
this expedition, the invafion of Italy by the Lombards,
and their fucceffes in that countiy, have been taken
5 notice of under the article Italy, nn 28—32. At
Alboinus ]aft Alboinus, having made himfelf mafter of Venetia,
Liguria, ,iEmilia, Hetruria, and Umbria, was fiain by
treachery of his wife, in the year 575, the fourth
ar ch j Hi-of his reign,. This, princefs was the daughter of the
jraton <f king of the Gepidte, whom i^boinus had killed in
fcis wife. battle, and made a cup of his flcull, as above related.
As he was one day fcarfting at Verona with his chief
favourites and principal officers, in the height of hjs
mirth he fent for the queen, and, filling the detefted
eup, commanded her to drink merrily with her father.
Rofamund, ftruck with horror, hurried out of the
room ; and highly incenfed againft her hufband for
thus barbaroufly triumphing over the misfortunes of
her family, refolved, at all events, to make him pay
dear for fuch an inhuman and affronting condudt.
Accordingly, fhe difcovered her intention to Helmi-
child the king’s ffiield-bearer, a youth of great bold-
nefs and intrepidity. Helmichild preremptorily refufed
to imbrue his hands.in the blood of his fovereign, or
to be any way acceffory to his death 5.. and in this re-
folution he perfifted till he was, by a ffiameful ftrata-
gecij forced by the queen to a compliance for Ihe,
26 ] L O M
knowing that be carried on an intrigue with one of Lombard
her ladies, placed herfelf one night in her bed, and  v *
receiving the youth, indulged him as if (he had been
his own miftrefs in his amorous defires; which Ihe had
no foOner done, than, difcovering herfelf to the de*-'
ceived lover, (lie told him that he muft now either put'
the king to death, or be put to death by him. Hel¬
michild, well.apprifed, that, after what he had done*
his fafety depended upon the death of the king, enfc
gaged in the treafon, which he otherwife abhorred.
One day, therefore, while Alboinus was repofing iii
his chamber after dinner, Helmichild, with fome others
whom he had made privy to his defign, breaking in
unexpectedly, fell upon the king with their daggers.
Alboinus, ftarting up at their firft coming in, laid
hold of his fword, which he had always by him ; but
having in vain attempted to draw it, the queen having
beforehand faftened it in the fcabbard,-..he defended
himfelf for fome time with a footftool; but was in ths
end overpowered, and difpatched with many wounds,
Rofamund had promifed to Helmichild, that, as
foon as he had difpatched the king, ffie would marry
him, and, with her perfon, beftow upon him the king--
dom of the Lombards. The firft part of her promife s
ffie immediately performed ; but was fo far from being
able to beftow the crown upon him, that both of them
were obliged to fave themfelves by flight. They fled
to Longinus the exarch of Ravenna, taking with them
all the jewels and treafure of the late king. Longinus ,
received her with the greateft marks of friendfhip and
kindnefs, and allured her of his protection. She had
not been long in Ravenna, however, before the exarch;,
judging that a favourable opportunity now offered of»
making himfelf king of Italy by her means, imparted
his defign to her, and declared his intention to marry
her, provided, by fome means or other, fhe difpatched :
Helmichild.—Rofamund, highly pleafed with the pro-
pofal, refolved to fatisfy her ambition by .getting rid
of the perfon whom fhe had married in order to gra¬
tify her revenge. Accordingly, having prepared a
ftrong poifon, fhe mixed it with wine, and gave it to
her hufband as he came out of the bath, and called for
drink, according to his cuftom. Helmichild had not
half emptied the cup, when, by the ffllden and ftrange
operation which he felt in his bowels, he concluded ^
what it was; and, with his fwo»d pointed at the queen’s ^jer
breaft, compelled her to drink the reft.: The- poifon
had the fame effect on both.; for they.died in a- few
hours. Longinus, on the death of the queen, laid
afide aU thoughts of making himfelf king of Italy,
and lent the king’s treafure to Conftantinople, toge¬
ther with Albifoinda, the; daughter of Alboinus by
Rofamund, whom fhe had brought along with her.
After the death of Alboinus, the Lombai^s ehoft
Clephis, one of the nobility, for their king. He was
murdered after a ftiort reign of 18 months; upon which
enfued an interregnum of xo years, as related under
the article Italy,. n° 32, Daring this time, they Monjr'cf,y
extended their conquefts in that country ; but at laft aboiifhed.
the Romans, jealous of their progrefs, refolved to put
a flop to their vi&ories, and, if poffible, to drive .them
quite out.. For this purpofe, they defigned not only
to employ their own force, but entered into alliance
with the Franks; which fo alarmed the Lombard^,
that they re-eftabliffied the monarchical form of.go
a vcrnneat
1 O M
L 227 ]
L O M
I*)taWds. vernmeirt among themfelves, and cliofe Autharis the people were fo .provoked at that innovation, that, in LomWd*
““ fon of Clephis for their king. This monarch, confi- feveral places, they openly revolted, and, falling up- ^
dering that the power of the dukes, who had governed
Lombardy for the fpace of 10 years, was during that
length of time very much eftablifhed, and that they
would not probably be willing to part with the au¬
thority which they had fo long enjoyed, allowed them
to continue in their government; but obliged them to
contribute one moiety of their revenues towards the
' maintenance and fupport of his royal dignity, fuffer-
ing them to ciifpofe of the other as they thought pro¬
per. ~ He referred to himfelf the fupreme dominion
and authority ; and took an oath of the dukes, that,
in time of war, they would readily affift him to the
utmoft of their power. Though he could remove the
on the emperor’s officers, drove them out of the cities.
In the ealt, Germanus, patriarch of Conftantinople,
oppofedthe emperor’s defign with great warmth ; but
Leo caufed him to be depofed, and Anaftafius to be
raifed to that fee in his room, ordering at the fame
time all the images in the imperial city to be pulled
down and publicly burnt. He ftriclly enjoined his
officers in the weft, efpecially the exarch of Ravenna,
to fee his edict punctually obeyed in their refpedtive
governments. In compliance with thefe orders, Scho-
lafticus, then exarch, began to pull down the images
in all the churches and public pluses in Ravenna ;
which incenfed the fuperftitious multitude to fuch a
dukes at pleafure, yet he deprived none of them of degree, that, taking, arms, they openly declared they
would rather renounce their allegiance to the emperor
than the worlhip of images.
Thus a kind of civil war being kindled in the city,
Luitpfand thought he had now a favourable opportu¬
nity of making himfelf mailer of the feat of the exarch,
not doubting but the conquell of fuch an important
kings who embraced Chriftianity. Moll of his fob- place would be followed by that of the whole ex- ,r
jetls followed the example of their monarch: but as archate. Having therefore drawn together all his He befieges
they were all inltructed by Arian bilhops, they conti- forces, he unexpectedly appeared before Ravenna, and*'' *
nued long infeded with that herefy; which occafioned clofely belieged it.
their dukedoms, except in cafes of treafon ; nor gave
them to others, except when their male iffue failed.
Having fettled matters in this manner with the dukes,
he enacted feveral wholefome laws againll theft, ra¬
pine, murder, adultery, and other vices which prevailed
among his fobjeCts, and was the firft of the Lombard
great difputes between them and the orthodox bilhops
of the cities fubjeCl to them.
From the re-eftablilhment of the monarchy under
Autharis, to the reign of Rotharis in 636, the hiftory
forprife, as a friendly correfpondence had been main¬
tained for many years between the exarchs and the
Lombard kings. However, he defended the place
with fuch courage and refolution, that Luitprand,
9gn of the Lombards aftords nothing memorable. This defpairing of fuccefs, broke up the fiege and led his
vhen .period is remarkable for the introduction of written
firft intro- laws among thefe people. Before his time they had
army againft Claffis, at a fmall diftance from Ravenna,
which he took, plundered, and levelled with the
been governed only by tradition ; but Rotharis, in imi- ground. The lofs of this place, and the fevere treat¬
ment the inhabitants met with from the king, threw
the citizens of Ravenna into the utmoft coftlleimation j
which Luitprand being informed of, he refolved to
take advantage of their fears, and, returning before
Ravenna while the inhabitants were thus diffieartened,
to attempt once more the reduction of that place.
tation of the Romans and Goths, undertook the pub-
liffiing of written laws; ^nd to thofe which he enaCted,
many were added by the fucceeding princes. Grotius
prefers the method which the Lombards followed in
making laws, to that which was praCtifed by the Ro¬
mans themfelves. Among the latter the emperor was
the foie lawgiver; fo that whatever pleafed him had Accordingly he led his whole army againft it, and,
the force of a law. But the Lombard kings did not by frequent attacks, tired the inhabitants and garri-
aflume that power to themfelves, fince their laws were fon to fuch a degree, that the exarch, finding they
enabled in public affemblies, convened for that purpofe, could hold out no longer, and defpairing of relict,
after they had been maturely examined and approved privately withdrew. Luitprand, informed of his re-
of by all the lords of the kingdom. From thefe affem- treat, attacked the town with more violence than
blieswere excluded the ecclefiaftic order, and the peo¬
ple ; fo that the legillative power was lodged in the
king and nobles alone.
The reign of Rotharis is remarkable, not only for
his introducing written laws among his fubjebls, but
for the conquefts he made, and the fuccefsfol wars
carried on with the exarch of Ravenna, whom he
totally defeated in feveral engagements, and made
himfelf mailer of fome part of his territories. This
monarch died in 652 ; and the affairs of the Lombards
and, having carried it by ftorm, gave it up to be plun¬
dered by his foldiers, who found in it an immenfe
bohty, as it had been for a long time the feat of the
Roman emperors, of the Gothic kings, and the ex¬
archs. The king {tripped it of moft of its valuable
monuments of antiquity, and caufed, among the reft,
an equeftrian ftatue of an emperor, of wonderful work-
manlhip, to be conveyed to Pavia, where it is to be
feen to this day. The reduction of Ravenna was fol¬
lowed by the forrender of feveral cities of the exarchate,
Avent on profperoufly, till the ambition of Luitprand which Luitprand reduced to a dukedom ; appointing Reduct
laid the foundation of the total ruin of his kingdo
He afeended the throne of Lombardy in 711, and
Hildebrand his grandfon to govern it with the title ofrhe ' xar-
duke ; and giving him, as he was yet an infant, P£re"dukedom*
f ’jitprnnd’s watched all opportunities of enlarging his dominions at deus duke of Vicenza for his guardian,
®I1) Ition. 4-L -fVw-i t i o rt £r\ i n n n p f\f T? no -j
the expence of the emperors. Of this, -a fair oppor¬
tunity offered in 716: for the emperor Leo Ifauricus,
who at that time reigned in the eaft, having, by his
famous edict, forbidden the worfhip of images, and
ordered them to be every where pulled down, the
The conqueft of Ravenna and the greater part of
the exarchate did not a little alarm Gregory II. bi-
ihop of Rome. He was then at variance with the
emperor, whofe edibl againft the worihipping of ima¬
ges he had oppofed with all his might, and by that
F f 2 mean-*'
L O M f 228 1 L O M
Lombards, means provoked Leo to fuch a degree, that he had
‘““"'■V'—-' threatened to drive him from the fee, and fend him in¬
to exile. However, the pope, no lefs jealous of the
power of the Lombards than all his predecelfors had
been, refolved, by fome means or other, to put a flop
to their conquefts. The only prince in Italy to whom
he could have recourfe was Urfus duke of Venice,
13 the Venetians making already no inconfiderable figure.
The t-xarch T0 him accordingly he wrote a very pre fling letter;
the Ven/- conjuring him to afiilt his worthy fon the exarch, and,
tians. f°r riie i°ve °f the holy faith, to attempt with him
the recovery of the exarchate,-which the wicked na¬
tion of the Lombards had unjuftly taken from his fons
Leo and Conftantine emperors. Urfus and the Ve-
jaetians, moved with the pope’s letter, and at the fame
time greatly alarmed at the growth of fo powerful a
. neighbour, promifed to afiiil the exarch with the whole
ftnmgth of their republic ; and accordingly fitted out
a confiderable fleet, pretending it was defigned for the
fervice of the emperor againft the Saracens. At the
fame time the exarch, who had taken refuge in Ve¬
nice, abandoning that place, as it were in defpair of
bringing the duke over to his party, raifed, in the
places Itill fubjett to the emperor, what forces he was
able; and having got together a confiderable body,
he marched with them towards Imola, giving out that
he defigned to befiege that city; but, turning.on a
fudden towards Ravenna, as had been agreed on be¬
tween him and the Venetians, he laid fiege to it by
land, while they invefted it almoft at the fame inftant
by fea. Peredeus defended the town for fome time
14 with great courage and refolution ; obliging all thofe
Who retake who were able to bear arms to repair to the walls. But
ieavenna. tjlc Venetians having, in fpite of all oppofition, foxxed
open one of the gates on the fide of the fea, the city
was taken, and Peredeus llain, while he was attempt¬
ing, at the head of a choice body, to drive the enemy
from the polls they had feized. As for Hildebrand,
he fell into the hands of the Venetians ; who, having
thus recovered Ravenna to the emperor, returned home,
leaving the exarch in poflefiion of the city. Luitprand
■was then at Pavia ; but the town was taken before he
could aflemble his troops to relieve it.
And now Gregory bilhop of Rome, to whom the
recovery of Ravenna was chiefly owing, perfuading
himfelf, that the emperor would, out of gratitude,
give ear to his remonllrances and admonitions, began
to folicit him with more prefling letters than ever to
revoke his edift againil the worlhip of images : but
Leo, w-ell apprifed that the bilhop, in all the mea-
fures he had taken, had been more influenced by a re¬
gard to his own intereft, than to that of the empire,
inftead of hearkening to his remonllrances, was Hill
more provoked againll him for thus obftinately oppo-
fing the execution of his edidl. Being, therefore, re¬
folved at all events to have it obferved in Rome itfelf,
and, on the other hand, not doubting but the pope
would oppofe it to the lall with all his might; in order
to remove all obllacles, he fent three officers to Rome,
with private orders, either to difpateh the pope, or to
take him prifoner and convey him to Conllantinople.
At the fame time, he wrote to Mauritius duke of
Rome, fecretly enjoining him to aflill his three officers
in their undertaking : but no favourable opportunity
offering to put their defign in execution, the emperor.
in the year 725, recalled Scholafticus, and fent Paul Lombard*,
a patrician into Italy, to govern in his room, with pri- *
vate infirufiiions to encourage the above-mentioned of¬
ficers with the promife of great rewards, and to af-
fure them of his protection.
But, in the mean time, the plot was difeovered, and
two of the confpirators were apprehended by the citizens
of Rome, and put to death ; the third having efcaped
into a monallery, where he took the monaitic habit,
and ended his days. Hereupon the exarch, in com¬
pliance with the emperor’s orders, refolved to proceed
no longer by fecret plots, but by open force. Accord¬
ingly, he drew together a confiderable body of troops,
and fet out at the head of them on his march to Rome,
with a defign to feize on the pope, and fend him, as he 15
had engaged to do, in chains to Conllantinople. But, Luitprani
on this occafion, Luitprand, though highly provoked 6
againft Gregory for having llirred up the Venetians a-gafnft tfcc
gainft him, yet refolved to aflift him and the citizens of exarch.
Rome againft the exarch, in order to keep the balance
even between them, and by aflifting fometimes the
one and fometimes the other, weaken both. Purfuant
to this refolution, he ordered the Lombards' of Tuf-
cany, and thofe of the dukedom of Spoleto, to join
the pope and the inhabitants of Rome; who, being
by this reinforcement far fuperior in llrength and num¬
ber to the exarch, obliged him to return to Ravenna,
and give over all thoughts of any further attempt on
the perfon of the pope.
In the mean time, Leo, perfifting in his former re¬
folution of fupprelfing throughout his dominions the
worlhip of images, fent frelh orders to the exarch
Paul, ftri&ly enjoining him to caufe his edict to be put
in execution in all the cities of Italy under his empire,
efpecially in Rome. At the fame time, he wrote to the
pope, promifing him his favour and protedtion if he
complied with the edidt; and declaring him, if he con¬
tinued to oppofe it, a rebel, and no longer veiled with
the papal dignity. But Gregory was fo far from
yielding to the emperor's threats or promifes, that, on
the contrary, he folemnly excommunicated the exarch
for attempting to put the imperial edidt in execution;
and at the fame time wrote circular letters to the Ve¬
netians, to king Luitprand, to the Lombard dukes, and
to all the chief cities of the empire, exhorting them ■
to continue ftedfaft in the Catholic faith, and to op¬
pofe with all their might fuch a detellable innovation.
Thefe letters made fuch an imprelfion on the minds of
the people in Italy, that, though of different interefts, .
and often at war with one another, they all united;
protefting they would defend the Catholic faith, and
the life of the pope, in fo glorious a caufe, at the ex¬
pence of their own : nay, the citizens of Rome, and
the inhabitants of Pentapolis, now Marca d’ Ancona,
not contenting themfelves with fuch a protellation, o-
penly revolted from the emperor ; and, pulling down
his llatues, they eledled, by their own authority, mar
giftrates to govern them during the interregnum. We
are even told, that, tranfported with a blind zeal, they
were for choofing a new emperor, and coududling
him to Conllantinople, not doubting but the people
would every-where join them. But the pope, think¬
ing this refolution unfeafonable, and not to be eafily
put in execution, oppofed it j fo that it did not take
L O M [ 229 ] L O M
Lombards. In the mean time, the exarch Paul, haying' gained he had fent to Rome, being apprehended by the citi- LniMard?,
■"v  a confrderable party in Ravenna, began, purfuant to zens, and an order from the emperor being found up- v—
the repeated orders from the emperor, to remove the i- on him to all his officers in tliat city, commanding
mages, as fo many idols, out of the churches. Here- them to put the pope to death at all events, the pope’s
16 upon the adyerfe party, fupported and encouraged by friends thenceforth guarded him with inch care, that
A civil war p0pej flew to arms; and, falling upon the iconoc* the exarch’s emiffaries could never afterwards find an
in avenna Qr jmage_krt.akerS, as they ftyled them, gave rife opportunity of executing their dcfign. As for the mef-
to a civil war within the walls of Ravenna. Great num- fenger, the Romans Were for putting him to death ;
bers were killed on both fides : but thofe who were for but the pope interpofed, contenting himfelf with ex-
the worfhip of images prevailing in the end, a dread- communicating the exarch.
ful flaughter was made- of the oppofite party; and, And now the Romans, provoked more than ever The Ro-
among the reft, the exarch himfelf was murdered, againft Leo, and, on the other hand, unwilling to r-"~
However, the city of Ravenna continued faithful to live under the Lombards, refolved to revolt from the volt'
the emperor ; but moft of the cities of Romagna be- emperor, and appoint their own magiftrates, keeping
longing to the exarchate, and all thofe of Pentapblis themfelves united under the pope, not yet as their
or La Marca d’Ancona, abhorring the emperor as an prince, but only as their head. This they did ac-
heretic, fubmitted to Luitprand king of the Lombards; cordingly ; and from thefe flender beginnings»the fo-
who, pretending a zeal for the Catholic religion, took vereignty of the popes in Italy took its rife, though
care to improve the difeontent of the people to his 'they did not then, as is commonly fuppofed by hifto-
advantage, by reprefenting to them, that they could rians, but many years after, become fovereign lords
never maintain their religious rights under a prince, of Rome.
who was not only an heretic, but a perfecutor of the Eutychius faifed in his defign upon the life of the
orthodox. pope ; but having brought with him from Con ftanti-
In Naples, Exhilaratus, duke of that city, having nople a good number of troops, he eafily quelled the
received peremptory orders from the emperor to cauie rebellion in Ravenna, and feverely puniftied the au-
fcis edift to be put in execution, did all that lay in h’s thors of the late difturbances. As for the rebellious
power to perfuade the people to receive it; but find- Romans, he was well apprifed he could never reduce
ing all his endeavours thwarted by the bilhop of Rome, them, fo long as they were fupported by the king of
for whom the Neapolitans had a great veneration, he the Lombards; and therefore he employed all his art
hired affaflins to murder him. But the plot being dif- and policy to take off that prince from the party of
covered, though carried on with great fecrecy, the the Romans, and bring him over to his own. ig
Neapolitans, highly provoked againft the duke, tore Luitprand, for fome time, withftood all his offers; Luitprand'
both him and his fon to pieces, and likewife put to but Thrahmund duke of Spolcto revolting at this very concludes
death one of his chief officers, who had compofed a jumSlure, the exarch, laying hold of that opportuni-an a!1ianco-
libel againft the pope. Luitprand, and Gregory at ty, offered to affift the king with all his ftrength
that time duke of Beneventov laying hold of fo fa- gainft the rebellious duke, provided he would, in like
vourable an opportunity to make themfelves mafters manner, affift him againft the pope and the Romans,
of the dukedom of Naples,, did all that lay in their With this propofal Luitprand readily clofed; and a
power to perfuade the Neapolitans to fubmit to them, league being concluded upon thei'e terms between him
But the Neapolitans, bearing an irreconcileahle ha- and the exarch, the two armies joined, and began
tred to the Lombards, with whom they had been con- their march towards Spoleto. At their approach, the
ftantly at variance, rejected every overture of that na- duke, defpairing of being able to refill two fuch
ture with the utmoft indignation ; and, continuing powers, came out with a fmall attendance to meet
ftedfaft in their allegiance to Leo, received from Con- them, and, throwing himfelf at the king’s feet fued,
ftantinople one Peter, who was fent to govern them in in -that humble pofture, for pardon ; which Luitprand
the room of Exhilaratus. Some writers fuppofe the not only granted him, but confirmed him in the duke-
Neapolitans, in this general revolt of the cities of Italy, dom, after he had obliged him to take a new oath of
to have lhaken off the yoke with the relt, and to have allegiance, and give hoftages for his fidelity in time,
appointed magiftrates of their own election to govern to come. From Spoleto, the two armies marched,
them, in the room of the officers hitherto fent from in purfuance of the treaty, to Rome ; and encamped
Conftantinople, or named by the exarch: but they in the meadows of Nero, between the Tiber and the
are certainly miftaken ; it being manireft from hiftory, Vatican. ip
that Peter fucceeded Exhilarates in that dukedom,. Gregory had caufed the city of Rome to be fortified The pop»
and that the Neapolitans continued to live under the in the belt manner he could : but being fenfible that j'lb.rnit8 ^
emperors, till they were conquered many years after the Romans alone could not long hold out againft two "
by the Normans. fuch armies, and reflecting on the kind treatment the
In the mean time, Leo hearing of the murder of the duke of Spoleto had met with upon his fubmitting to
exarch, and the general revolt of the cities, and. not the king, he relolved to-follow his example ; and ac-
doubting but the pope was the chief author of fo much cordingly, taking with him fome of the clergy, and.
mifehief, fent the €11110011 Eutychius into Italy, with the principal inhabkants of the city, he went to wait
the title and authority of <%vrA, ftriCtly enjoining on the king in his camp ; and there, with a pathetic,
him to get the pope difpatched by feme means or o- fpeech, as he was a great mailer of eloquence, foften-
ther, fince his death was abfioluteiy neceffary for the ed Luitprand to fuch a degree, that, throwing him-
tranquillity of Italy. The exarch \ cl no pains to felf at his feet in the prefence of the whole army, he
get the pope into his power: bin • . enger, whom begged pardon for entering into an alliance againft
hints;
L O M [ 230 ] L O M
Xotn^rdf. ■fi’m : an<?, afluring him of his prote&ion for the fu-
ture, he went with him to the church of St Peter ;
and there, difarming himfelf in the prefence of his
chief officers, he laid his g’rdle, his fword, and his
gantlet, with his royal mantle, his crown of gold, and
crofs of filver, on the apoftle’s fepulchre. After this,
he reconciled the pope with the exarch, -who was
thereupon received into the city, where he continued
for fome time, maintaining a friendly correfpondence
with the pope. At this time an impoftor, taking the
■name of Tiberius, and pretending to be defcended from
the emperors, feduced a great many people, in Tuf-
cany, and was by them proclaimed emperor. The
exarch refolved to march againll him ; but as he had
not fufficicnt forces to oppofe the rebels, Gregory, who
let no opportunity flip of obliging Leo, perfuaded the
Romans to attend the exarch in this expedition 5 by
which means the ufurper being taken in a caftle, his
head was fent to the emperor, and the rebellion utter¬
ly fupprefled. But the emperor {till infilling upon his
edidl againll the images being received in Rome, the
Romans, at the inlligation of the pope, publicly re¬
nounced their allegiance to Leo, paid him no more
tribute, and withdrew for ever their obedience to the
ao emperors of the Eall.
The empe- Leo, informed of this revolt, and not queftioning
-the dom:- ^ut t^ie P°Pe was t^e auth°r of it, immediately caufed
2iions of the the patrimonies of the church of Rome in Sicily,
pope. Calabria, and his other dominions, to be confifcated.
At the fame time, he ordered a powerful army to be
raifed, with a defign to recover the towns that had re-
x volted; to challife the Romans for their rebellion ; and,
above all, to be revenged on the pope, who had rai-
fed all thefe difturbances, by oppofing himfelf, and
perfuading others to oppofe, the execution of his e-
di£t. Gregory, alarmed at the warlike preparations
that were carrying on throughout the empire, and
well apprifed that they were chiefly defigned againll
him and the Romans, refolved to recur to the pro-
steftion of the French, the only , nation at that time
capable of coping with the emperor, and on whom,
on account of their zeal for religion, he thought he
might depend. The Lombards were then very pow¬
erful ; but, as they wanted to be mailers of Rome,
he did not think .it advifable to trull them. The Ve¬
netians, though zealous in the defence of the pope,
were not yet in a condition to withftand the power of
-/the emperor ; and, befides, were jealous of the Lom¬
bards, who watched all opportunities of enlarging
their dominions at the expence of their neighbours.
As for Spain, it was then in a moll dqdorable condi¬
tion, being over-run, and almoll wholly ruined, by the
,5I Saracens.
Who ap- The French nation was at this time governed by
plies to the the celebrated Charles Martel, who had diftinguilhed
menc . fi;mfelf Jn a moll eminent manner in tire wars of
France and Germany; and had, not long before,
gained a fignal vittory over the Saracens in the neigh¬
bourhood of Tours; whence he was generally repu¬
ted the bell commander, and the greatdl hero, of his
time. To him, therefore, Gregory fent a folemn em-
bafiy, with a great number of relics, earneftly ih-
treating him to take the Romans, and the church, un¬
der his protedlion, and defend them againll the at-
tempts of Leo. The ajnb.alTadors were received with
extraordinary marks of honour; and a treaty was foon Lombard*
concluded between them and Charles, who engaged to ^ orn<.nta
march into Italy in perfon, at the head of a power- - cc‘x>'
ful army, in defence of th^ Romans and the church, .—y-—*
if they Ihould be attacked either by the emperor or the
Lombards. .On the other hand, the Romans were to
acknowledge him for their protestor, and confer oa
him the honour of the confullhip, as it had been for¬
merly conferred on Clovis by the emperor Anaftafius,
after that prince had defeated the Viligoths. The am-
balladors returned from France loaded with rich pre-
fents. But Gregory did not long enjoy the fruit of
their negociations ; for he died the fame year 731, and
was fucceeded by Gregory III. in whofe time fome
place the above-mentioned embafiy.
The French nation was at this time juft recovered End of ths
from its diftreffed fituation under the defcendants of Lomnard
Clovis; and by the bravery and condmft of Charles m°narC
Martel, had become the moll powerful kingdom in
the weft. His fuccefibr Pepin was no lefs wife and
powerful than his father had been ; and as the ambi¬
tion of the Lombard princes would be fatisfied with
nothing lefs than, the entire conqueft of Italy, the
French monarch, Charlemagne, under colour of affift-
ing the pope, at laft put an end to the empire of
Lombardy, as related under the 'article France,
n-zi, 22. 43
The Lombards were at firft a cruel and barbarous Charadkr,
nation ; but divefting themfelves by degrees of their &c< < f ‘h®
native fiercenefs and barbarity, efpecially after they Loml)ar°3’
had embraced the Chriftian religion, they governed
with fuch equity and moderation, that molt other na¬
tions envied the happinefs of thofe who lived under
them. Under the government of the Lombards (fays
Paulus Diaconus) no violence was committed, no one
unjuftly difpolfeffed of his property, none oppreffed
with taxes ; theft, robberies, murder, and adultery,
were feldom heard of: every one went, without the
leaft apprehenfion, wherever he pleafed. Their laws
were fo juft and equitable, that they were retained in
Italy, and obferved there fome ages after their king¬
dom was at an end.—-According to Paulus Diaconus,
alfo, their drefs was loofe, and for the moll part of
linen, fuch a* the Anglo-Saxons wore, being inter¬
woven with various colours; that their Ihoes were
open to the end of their foot, and that they ufed to
button or lace them. From fome ancient paintings,
it appears, that they lhaved the back part of their
heads, but that their hair was long before; their
locks being parted, and laid on each fide their fore*
heads.
LOMBARD, or Lombart (Peter), an engraver
of confiderable eminence, who flourilhed about the
/ear 1660. He was a native of Paris, where he learn¬
ed the art of engraving. It appears that he came into
England before the revolution, becaufe fome of his plates
for Englith publications are dated prior to that event.
He executed a vaft variety of plates, as well hillorical as
emblematical; which, however, were chiefly for books.
But his bell works are portraits ; and of thefe he pro¬
duced a confiderable number, which are efteemed. They
are moftly after Vandyck.—He alfo engraved hiftori-
cal fubjedls, from Poulfin, Raphael, Annibal Caracci,
Guido, and other mailers.
LOMFNTACF.L, in botany (from lomentum, a
colon?
I, O M [2
colour ufed by painters), the name of the 33d order
in Linnaeus's Fragments- of a Natural Method, con-
fitting of the following genera, many of which furnifh
beautiful tinfhires that are ufed in dyeing, viz. ade-
nanthera, banhinia, ccefalpina, caflia, ceratonia, cercis,
gledittia,. guilandina, iia-matoxylon, liymensa, mimofa,
parkinfonia, poinciana, polygama- See Botany,
p. 464.
Locu-LOMOND, a large lake of Dunbarton or
Lennox.-ttiire in Scotland, of which Mr Pennant gives
live following defcription. “ Loch-lomond, the latt,
the moft beautiful of the Caledonian lakes. The ttrtt
view of it from Tarbat prefents an exteniive ferpentine
winding amidft lofty hills; on the north, barren,
black, and rocky, which darken with their fliade that
contra fled part of the water. On the weft fide, the
mountains are cloathed near the bottoms with woods
of oak quite to the water-edge y their fummits lofty,
naked, and craggy. On the. eaft fide, the mountains
are-equally high; but the. tops forma more even ridge
parallel to the.lake,, except, where Ben-lomond, like
Saul ajnidtt his companions,, overtops the reft. The
ripper, parts were black and. barren ; the. lower had
great marks of fertility, or at leaft of induftryy for the
yellow corn was finely contrafted with the. verdure of
the proves intermixed with,, it.
“ This eaftern boundary is part of the Grampian
hills, which extend from hence through the counties of
Perth, Angus, Mearns,. and Aberdeen. , The road runs
fometimes through, woods, at others is expofed and
naked ; in fome, fo' fteep as .to require the fupport of
a wall; the whole, the work of the foldiery: ble'ied
exchange of infiruments of deftru&ion for tliofe that
give fafety to the traveller, and a polilh to the once
inacceffible native! T wo. great head-lands covered with
trees feparate the firft fcene from one totally different;
the laft is called the Point of Firkin. On palling this
cape an expanfe of water, burfts at once on your eye,
varied with all the fofter beauties of nature. Imme¬
diately beneath is a flat covered with wood arid corne
beyond, the headlands ftretch far into the water, and
confift of gentle rifings; many have their furfaces co¬
vered with wood,, others adorned with trees loofely
flattered either over a fine verdure, or the purple bloom
of the heath. Numbers of illands are difperfed over
the lake, of. the fame elevated form as the little capes,
and wooded in the fame manner ; .others juft peep a-
bove the furface, and are tufted, with trees; and numr
hers are fo djfpofed as to form magnificent vi.ftos be¬
tween.
“ Oppofite Lufs, at .a fmali diftance from lhore, is a
mountainous ille alnaoft covered, with wood ; is near
luilf a mile, long, and has a moft fine effeif. I could
not count the number of iflands, but was told there
are 28; the largeft two miles long, ..and. flocked with
deer.
“ The length, of this charming lake is 24 Scotch
miles; its greateft breadth 8 ; its greateft depth,
which is between, the point of'Firkin and Ben-lbmond,
is 120 fathoms. Befides the filh. common to the lochs
are guiniads, called here poans. .
“ The furface of .Loch-lomond has for feveral years
faff been obferved gradually to increafe, and invade the
adjacent Ihore: and there is reafon to fuppofe that
churches, Jioufes, and other buildings, have, been loll
31 ] 1. o M
in the water.' Near Lufs is a large heap of Hones at I-omond±
a dillance from the Ihore,\ known by the nan>: of the zof- ,
old church ; and about a mile to the fouth of that, in
the middle of. a large bay, between Camftraddan and
the ille Inch-lavanack, is another heap, faid to have
been the ruins of a houfe. To confirm this, it is
evident by a pallage in Cambden's Atlas Britannica,
that an illand, exilling in his, time, is now loft; for
he fpeaks of the ifie of Camftraddan, placed between
the lands of the fame name and Inch-lavanack, in
which, adds he, was an houfe and orchard. Befides ,
this proof, large trees with their branches Hill adi
hering are frequently found in the mud near the Ihore,.
overwhelmed in former times by the increafe of water.
This is fuppofed to be occafieaed by the vail quanti¬
ties of ttone and gravel that are continually brought
down by the mountain rivers, and by the falls of the
banks of the Leven ; the firft filling the bed of the
lake, the laft impeding its difcharge through the bed
of the river.”
LOMONOZOF, vt celebrated Ruffian poet, the
great, refiner of his native tongue,, was the fon of a
perfon who trafficked in filh at Kolmogori: he was—
born in 1711, and was fortunately taught to read ; a *,
rare iuftance for a perfon of fo low a llation in Ruffia.
His natural genius for poetry was firll kindled by the
perufal of the Song of Solomon, done into verfe by
Folotiki, whofe rude compofitions,. perhaps fcarcely fu-
perior to our vtfifion of the pfalms by Sternhold and
Hopkins, infpired him with fuch an irrefiftible paffion
for the mufes, that he fled from his father, who was
defirous of compelling him to marry, and took refuge
in the Kaikonofpalki monailery at Mofcow ; there he
had an opportunity of indulging his tatte. for letters,
and of Undying' the Greek and Latin languages. In
tliis feminary lie made fo confiderable a progrefs in po¬
lite literature, as to. be noticed .and employed by the
Imperial academy of fciences. In. 1736 ,he. was fent
at the expence of that fociety, ta the univerfity of
Marpurgh in Heffe Caffel, where he became a fcholar
of the celebrated Chriftian Wolf, under whom he Hu-
died univerfal grammar, rhetoric, and philofophy. He
continued at Marpurgh four years, during, which time r
he applied himfelf. with indefatigable.-diligence to che-
miftry, which lie. afterwards purfued with Hill greater
fuccefs under the famous. Henekel at. Freyberg in
Saxony.. In 1741 .he returned into. Ruffia ; was cho-
fen in 1742 adjunct to the imperial academy; and in
the enfuing year member, of that fociety and'profeffor
of chemillry. In 1760 fie was appointed infpector of
the feminary, then annexedthe academy ; in 1764 .
he was gratified by the prefent emprefs with the title of
counfeUqr of Hate ; and died April 4th that year, in >•
the 54th year ofhis age. Lomonoaof excelled in va¬
rious kinds of compolition; but his chief merit, by
which he bears the firft rank among the Ruffian wri¬
ters, is derived from his poetical compofttions, the
fineli of which are his odes. The firft ,was written In
1739, while he iludied in Germany^ upon the taking
of Kotfchin, a fortrefs.of Crini..Tartary, by Marlhai v
Munich. The odes of Lomonozof are greatly ad¬
mired for originality of invention, fublimity of fentU ■
ment, and energy of language; and compeni’ate for the
turgid llyle which, in fome inllances, have been im- -
puled to. than,, .by that-fpirit and .-fire which are the
pan*.
LON [23:
liomnno ■principal cliarafteriftics In this fp:c:es of cpmpcfitlon.
J ondon rindar was his great model; and if we ma^- give cre-
^ ' dit to a perfon well verfed in the Ruffian tongue, he
has fucceeded in this daring attempt to imitate the
Theban bard, without incurring the cenfure of Ho¬
race. In this, as well as feveral other fpecies of com-
poiition, he enriched his native language with various
kinds of metre, and feems to have merited the appella¬
tion bellowed upon him of the Father of Ruffian Poe¬
try. A brief recapitulation of the principal works of
Tomonozof, which were printed in three volumes oc¬
tavo, will ferve to (how the verfatility of his genius,
and his extenfive knowledge in various branches of
literature. The fir 11 volume, befide a Preface on the
advantages derived to the Ruffian tongue from the ec-
clefiaflical writings, contains ten facred and nineteen
panegyric odes, and feveral occafional pieces of poetry.
The fecond comprifes An Effay in Profe on the Rules
for Ruffian Poetry ; Tranllation of a German Ode;
Idylls; Tamira and Selim, a tragedy ; Demophoon,a
tragedy ; Poetical Epiftle on the Utility of Glafs; two
cantos of an epic poem, intitled, Peter the Great j A
Congratulatoiy Copy of Verfes; An Ode; Tranflation
of Bap till Rouffeau’s Ode Sur le Bonhmr; Heads of a
Courfe of Leftures on Natural Philofophy ; certain
pafiages tranflated in verfe and profe, according to the
original, from Cicero, Erafmus, Lucian, iEIian, Am-
mianus Marcellinus, Quintus Curtins, Homer, Virgil,
Martial, Ovid, Horace, and Seneca, which Ruffian
tranflations were brought as examples in his Lectures
upon Rhetoric; laftly, Defeription of the Comet which
appeared in 1744. The third volume conlifts chiefly
of Speeches and Treatiies read before the Academy ;
Panegyric on the Emprefs Elizabeth; on. Peter the
Great; Treatife on the Advantages of Chemiftry; on
the Phenomena of the Airoccafioned by the Ele&rical
Fire, with a Latin tranflation of the fame ; on the
Origin of Light as a new Theory'of Colours; Me¬
thods to determine with preciiion theCourfeofa Veffel;
on the Origin ofMetaLby the means of Earthquakes;
Latin Diflertation on Solidity and Fluidity; on the
Tranfit of Venus in 1761, with a German tranflation.
Befide thefe various fubjefts, Lomonozof made no in-
confiderable figure in hiftory, having publiflied two
fmall works relative to that of his own country. The
firft, ftyled Annals of the Ruffian Sovereigns, is a fliort
chronology of the Ruffian monarchs.; and the fecorid
is, the Ancient Hiftory of Ruffia, from the Origin of
that Nation to the Death of the Great Duke Yaro-
flaf I. in 1054; a performance of great merit, as it il-
luftrates the moft difficult and obfeure period in the
annals of this country.
LONDON, a large city of Middlefex in England,
the metropolis of Great Britain, and one of the moft
wealthy and populous places in the world, is lituated
on the river Thames, in 5i°3i' north latitude, 400
miles fouth of Edinburgh, and 270 fouth-eaft of Dub¬
lin ; x8o miles weft of Amfterdam, 210 north-weft’of
Paris, 500 fouth-weft of Copenhagen, 600 north-weft of
Vienna, 790 fouth-weft of Stockholm, 800 north-eaft of
Madrid, 820 north-weft of Rome, 85. • north-eaft of
Lifloon, 1360 north-weft of Conftantinople, and 1414
1 fouth-weft of Mofcow.
Its different This city was by the Romans firft called Londinium
names. or Lundinum, as we find it in Tacitus, Ptolemy, An-
N° 186.
! ] LON
toninus, and Ammianus. That name was afterwards London,
changed into si gujla ; in honour, as fome fay, of He- -r—'
le,na Augufta, the mother of Conftantine the Great;
while others think it more probable that it had this
name from the fecond legion, whofe.peculiar title was
ugufa; and fome imagine that the honourable ap¬
pellation of Augufta was conferred upon this city by
the Romans, as upon other principal cities of their em¬
pire, on account of its being grown up to be the ca¬
pital of their Britifii province. How long the name
of Augujla prevailed, is not now certainly known ; but
after the eftablifliment of the Saxons we find no more
mention of Augufta. It was then called Caer Lun-
dain, Lundoun Byrig, Lunden Ceajler, Lunden-wye,
Lundenne, Lundsn-herb, or Lur.denlurg ; fince the con-
queft the records call it Londinia, Lundonia, Londine,
Lt,mires; and, for feveral ages paft, it has been call¬
ed London, a manifeft corruption from Tacitus’s Lon¬
dinium. The moft probable derivation of thefe names
appears to be, either from the Britifh words Ihong “ a
(hip,” and din “ a town,” i. e. a town or harbour for
(hips ; or from lAin “ a lake,” i. e. Llin din, “ the
town upon the lake,” the Surry fide being fuppofed,
upon very probable grounds, to have been anciently a
great expanfe of water. %
Londiuium, however, was not the primitive name When
of this famous place, which exifted before the invafion founded,
of the Romans ; being, at the time of Caefar’s arrival
in the ifland, the capital of the Trimbantes or Trinou-
a .tes. The name of this nation, as appears from Bax¬
ter’s Britiih Gloffaryf, v^as derived fvom the three.
following Britifti w-ords, tri, nou, hunt, which fignify ' J
the “ inhabitants of the new city.’b This name, it is
fuppofed, might have been given them by their neigh¬
bours, on account of their having newly come from
the continent into Britain, and having there founded
acity called tri-now, or the “new city:” the moftancient
name of the renowned metropolis of Britain. The Tri- Henry's
nobantes had^come fo lately from Belgium, that they H'f - vol v
feem fcarcely to have been firmly eftabliftied in Britain I7°*
at the time of the firft Roman invafion : For their new
city, which foon after became fo famous, w'as then fo
inconhderable, that it is not mentioned by Csefar, tho’
he mull have been within, fight of the place where it
was fituated. His filence about this place, indeed, is
brought as a proof that he did not crofs the Thames;
while Norden by the firmijfma civilas of the Triuoban-
tes underftands the city in queftion the Trinobantes
themfelves having been among the firll of the Britiih
Hates who fubmitted to that conqueror.
By Ptolemy, a«d fome other ancient writers of good
authority, indeed, Londinium is placed in Cantium,
or Cent, on the fouth ftde of the Thames; and it is
the opinion of fome moderns, that the Romans pro¬
bably had a ftation there,, to (ecure their, conquefts on
that fide of the river, before they reduced the Trino¬
bantes. The place fixed upon for this ftation is
St George’s fields, a large plat of ground fituated
between Lambeth and Southwark, where many Ro¬
man coins, bricks, and checquered pavements, have
been found. Three Roman ways from Kent, Surry,
and Middlefex, interfected each other in this place :
this therefore is fuppofed to be the original Londinum,
which it is thought became negle&ed after the Ro¬
mans reduced the Trinobantes, and fettled on the other
3 fide
LON
fide of tnc Thames ,* and the name was transferred to
the new city.
The fituation of this city, as Mr Pennant obferves,
t *33 1
LON
which might be adduced, that this city was *.he capi- t>"»ndonc
tal of Britain in the Roman times.
At firft London had no walls or other fortifications when firft
was juft fuch as the people would feleft according to to defend it, and was therefore expofed to the attacks tufrounded
When ta¬
ken poflef-
fion of by
the Ro-
tmns.
the rule cftablifhed among the Britons. An immenfe
foreft originally extended to the river-fide, and even as
late as the reign of Henry II. covered the northern
neighbourhood of the city, and was filled with various
fpecies of beafts of chace. It was defended naturally
by fofles ; one formed by the creek which run along
Fleet-ditch, the other afterwards known by that of
Walbrook ; the fouth fide was guarded by theThames ;
the north they might think lufficiently protected by
the adjacent foreft.
The Romans poffefled themfelves of London, on
their fecond invafion in the reign of Claudius, about
105 years after their firft under Csefar. They had be¬
gun with Camalodunum, the prefent Maldon in Effex ;
and having taken it, planted there a colony confifting
of veterans of the 14th legion. London and Verulam
of every enemy* and thus it fuffered feverely aboutw*hs»
the year 64, being burnt by the Britons under Boa-
dicea, and all the inhabitants maflacred. But it was
foon reftored by the Romans } and increafed fo much,
that in the reign of the emperor Severus it is called
by Herodian a great and wealthy city. It continued,
however, in a defencelefs ftate for more than a centu¬
ry after'this laft period 5 when at laft a wall of hewn
ftone and Britifii bricks was erefted round it.
London at this time extended in length from Lud-
gate-hill to a fpot a little beyond the Tower. The
breadth was not half equal to the length, and at each
end grew confiderably narrower. Maitland aferibes
the building of the walls to Theodofms governor of
Britain in 3694 Dr Woodward, with more probabi¬
lity, fuppofes them to have been founded under the
were next taken pofleflion of about one and the fame aufpices of Conftantine the Great; and this feems to
time. Camalodunum was made a colonia, or place go- be confirmed by the numbers of coins of that empe-
verned entirely by Roman laws and cuftoms; Verulam ror’s mother Helena, which have been difeovered un*
(on the file of which St Alban’s now ftands), a muni-
cij>ium, in which the natives were honoured with the
privileges of Roman citizens, and enjoyed their own
laws and conftitutions ; and Londinium only a preefec-
tiira, the inhabitants, a mixture of Romans and Britons,
being fuffered to enjoy no more than the name of citi-
der them, placed there by him in compliment to her.
The fame emperor made it a bilhop’s fee; for it ap¬
pears that the biftiopsof London and York, and ano¬
ther Englifii bifliop, were at the council of Ailes in the
year 314; he alfo fettled a mint in it, as is plain from
lortie of his coins. The ancient courfe of the wall Their aft.
zens of Rome, being governed by Praefe&s fent annu- was as follows : It began with a fort near the prefent ci<
ally from thence, without Imving either their own laws
or magiftrates. “ It was even then of fuch concourfe
fite of the Tower, was continued along the Minories, courfe, &&
and the back of Houndfditch, acrofs Bifliopfgate-
(fays Mr Pennant), and fuch vaft trade, that the wife ftreet, in a ftraight line by London-wall to Cripple-
conquerors did not think fit to truft the inhabitants
with the fame privileges as other places of which they
had lefs reafon to be jealous.” But others obferve, that
this is a miftake; and that the Romans, in order to
fecure their conqueft, and to gain the affedlions ofthofe
Britons who had already fubmitted to their authority,
made London equally a municipium or free city with
gate ; then returned fouth ward by Crowder’s Well
Alley, (where feveral remnants of lofty towers were
lately to be feen) to Alderfgate; thence along the
back of Bull and Mouth-ftreet to Newgate, and again
along the back of the houfes in the Old Bailey to
Ludgafe ; foon after which it probably finilhed with
another fort, where the houfe, late the king’s print*
Verulamium, as may be feen by referring to Aulus ting honfe, in Black Friars, now ftands: from, hence
'Ancient
commerce
pi London.
Gellius, 1. 16. c. 13. and to Spanhem. orbis Roman,
p. 37, 38. tom. ii.
It is difficult to fay What were the particular articles
another wall ran near the river fide, along Thames^
ftreet, quite to the fort on the eaftern extremity. The
walls were three miles a hundred and fixty-five feet in
of commerce exported from and imported into the circumference, guarded at proper diftances on the land
f* T v- „ 1- T r. T M.. A FI 1. .G fY., I ~ -CY _ - a- ^^^ L ^u „ ....
port of London at this period. The imports and ex¬
ports of the iftand in general we know: Strabo fays,
“ Britain produceth corn, cattle, gold, filver, iron ;
befides which, (kins, Haves, and dogs naturally excel-
fide with fifteen lofty towers ; fome of them were re¬
maining within thefe few years, and poffibly may ftilh
Maitland mentions one twenty-fix feet high, near Gra¬
vel-lane, on the weft fide of Houndfditch ; another,
lent hunters, are exported from that ifland.” It is about eighty paces fouth-eaft towards Aldgate ; and
probable that the two firft and three laft articles were the bafes of another, fupportihg a modern houfe, at
exported from London ; and perhaps, too, the gagates the lower end of the ftreet called the VinCgaryard,
or jet-ftone mentioned by Solinus as one of the pro-
duftions of Britain, together with horfes, wete export¬
ed from thence. The imports were at firft fait, earth¬
en ware, and works in brafs, polifhed bits of bones
fouth of Aldgate. The walls, when perfect, are fup-
pofed to have been twenty-two feet high, the towers
forty. Thefe, with the remnants of the Wall, proved
the Roman ftru&ure, by the tiles and difpofition of
emulating ivory, horfe-collars, toys of amber, glaffes, the mafonry. London-wall, near Moorfields, is now
and other articles of the fame material.
In the reign of Nero, as Tacitus informs us, Lon¬
don was become a city highly famous for the great
conflux of merchants, her extenfive commerce, and
plenty of all things. No fewer than feven of the four¬
teen itinera of Antoninus begin or end at Lon-
. ...t.' L . , . 1 . .1 . r
the moft entire part left of that ancient precinft. The
gates, which received the great military roads, were
four. The Praetorian way, the Saxon Watling ftreet,
paffed under one, on the fite of the late Newgate ;
veftiges having been difeovered of the road in digging
above Holburn-bridge : it turned down to Dowgate,
don ; which tends to corroborate the many proofs or more properly Dwr-gate or Water-gate, where
Vpt. X. Parti.
Gg
there
.London.
London
fubmits to
the Saxons.
Plundered
by the
Danes.
R ecoTers
under Al¬
fred the
Creat.
10
Reduced to
afhca.
it
Its govern¬
ment fet¬
tled.
LON f 234 ] LON
there was a trajeftus or ferry, to join it to the Wat-
ling-ftjreet, which was continued to Dover. The Her-
mih ftreet paffed under Cripplegate ; and a vicinal way
went under Aldgate by Bethnal-green, towards Old-
ford, a pafs over the river Lee to Duroleiton, the
modern Leiton in Effex.
After the Romans deferted Britain, a new and fierce
race fucceeded. The Saxons, under their leaders
Hengift and Horfa, landed in 448, having been invi¬
ted ever by the provincials as auxiliaries againft the
Scots and Pi£ts; but quarrelling with their friends,
they found means to eftablilh themfelves in the ifland,
and in procefs of time entirely fubdued them, as re'
lated under the article England, n° 31—44. Lon¬
don fell into the hands of thofe invaders about the
year 457 ; and became the chief city of the Saxon
kingdom in Effex. It fuffered much in the wars car¬
ried on between the Britons and Saxons : but it foon
recovered; fo that Bede calls it a princely mart-town,
under the government of a chief magiftrate, whofe
title of port grave, or portrcve (for we find him cal¬
led by both names), conveys a grand idea of the mer¬
cantile ftate of London in thofe early ages, that re¬
quired a governor or guardian of the port. During
the civil wars of the Saxons with each other, the
Londoners had always the addrefs to keep themfelves
neuter; and about the year 819, when all the feven
Saxon kingdoms fell under the power of Egbert, Lon¬
don became the metropolis of England, which it has
ever fince continued.
During the invafions of the Danes, London fuffered
greatly. In 849, thefe invaders entered the Thames
.with 250 fhips, plundered and burnt the city, and maf-
facred the inhabitants ; and two years after they re¬
turned with a fleet of 350 fail, fully determined to de-
ftroy every thing that had efcaped their barbarity in
the former expedition. At this time, however, they
were difappointed ; moft of their troops being cut in
pieces by king Ethelwolf and his Ion Athelbald ; yet
fuch was the deftruftion made by thofe barbarians at
London, that it fuffered more from thefe two incur-
fions than ever it had done before.
In the reign of king Alfred the Great, London be¬
gan. to recover from its former ruinous Hate. He re¬
built its walls, drove out the Danifh inhabitants who
had fettled there, reftored the city to its former liberties
and beauty, and committed the care of it t@ his fon-
ii)-law, Elthelred duke of Mercia, in hopes that this
might always be a place of fecure retreat within its
Jfrong walls, whatever might happen from a foreign or
domeftic enemy. In 893, however, he had the mor¬
tification to fee his capital totally reduced to afhes by
an accidental fire, which could not be extinguifhed, as
the houfes at that time were all built of wood. The
walls, however, being conflrufted of incombuftible ma¬
terials, continued to afford the fame protection as be¬
fore ; the hoafes were quickly rebuilt, and the city di¬
vided into wards and precincts for its better order and
government. This king alfo inftituted the office of
ffieriff, tide nature of which, office made it neceffary to
have it alfo in London fo that here we have the glim¬
merings of the order of magiftrates afterwards fettled
in the city of London ; in the perfon of the portreve,
or portgrave, or governor of the city, as fupreme ma¬
giftrate ; in the Iheriff, and in the officer or fubordi-
nate magiftrate by what name foever then diftingurffi- Loaders,
ed, which, being placed at the head of each ward or '1 ' v
precinft, were anabgpus to the more modern title of
aldermen and common-council men.
Alfred having fettled the affairs of England in the Brick and
moil prudent manner, direded his attention to the or- done
namenting, as much as poffible, the city of London;houfcs fir&
For this purpofe, he fpirited up the Engliih to an emu-ere<ae<**
lation in building their houfes of ftronger and more
durable materials than formerly. At that time their
houfes were moftly of wood; and an houfe built of
any other materials was looked upon as a kind of won- •
der. But Alfred having begun to raife his palaces of
ftone and brick, the opulent Londoners, and the no¬
bility refident in and about London, followed the ex- *
ample, though the cuftom did not come into general
ufe till fome ages after.
In 1015, a foreign enemy again appeared before Befie^«d bjpf
London. Canute king of Denmark having invaded Canuiet
and plundered the counties of Dorfet, Somerfetj and
Wilts, failed up the ‘Thames with 200 ffiips, and laid
fiege to the city. The citizens continued faithful, not-
withftanding the defection of the greateft part of the
kingdom ; and made fuch a brave refiftance, that Ca¬
nute thought fit to withdraw his army, leaving only
his fleet to blockade the city by water, that when he
found a fair opportunity he might renew the fiege with
better fuccefs. At lalt, however, being defeated in
feveral battles by .Edmund Ironfide, he was obliged
to call off his fhips to cover his own army in cafe of
neceffity. In the cpmpromife, however, which was
afterwards made between Edmund and Canute, the
city of London was given to the latter, and owmed him
for its lawful fovereign. We Have a ftrong proof of
the opulence of London even at this time, from the tax
laid upon it by Canute in order to pay his army ; this
being no lefs than 10,500 1. while the reft of the nar
tion was at the fame time taxed only at 72,000!.
In 1046, we have the firft inltance of the London-gends re.
ers fending reprefentatives to parliament. This hap-prefenta-
pened on fettling the fucceffion to the throne after Ca-rives t0 rar“
nute’s death. The Englifh in general declared for Ed.hament.
ward fon of king Ethelred; or, if that could not be
carried, for Hardicanute, fon of Canute by queen
Emma, and then abfent on a tour to Denmark. The
city of London efpoufed the claim and interefl of Ha¬
rold Harefoot, ion alfo of Canute, by queen Elgiva
of Northampton. Edward’s party foon declined ; and
the Londoners agreed, for the peace of the realm, that
the two brothers (hould divide the kingdom between
them; but as Hardicanute did not return in proper
time to Enlgand, a wittenage-mote was held at Ox¬
ford, where earl Leofric, and moft of the thanes on
the north of the Thames, with the pilots of London,
• chofe Harold for their king. Here, by pilots we are
to underftand the direftors, magiftrates, or leading
men of the city : and this manifeftly ffiows, that Lon¬
don was then of fuch confequence, that no important
national, affair was tranfadled without the confent of
the. inhabitants; for the Saxon annals affure us, that
none were admitted into this affembly of eledlion but
the nobility and the pilots of London.
On the invafion of the Normans under William !• “ T b
London fubmitted as well as the reft of the kingdom ;greSjhyur^.
and received two charters from that prince, confirm- canes, ft?,
4 iBS
LON [ 235 ] LON
J/ttdon. ing all the privileges they had under the Saxon kings,
  and adding feveral new ones. But while the citizens
were promifing themfelves all manner of fecurity and
tranquillity under the new government, it was almoft
entirely reduced to allies by an accidental -lire in 1077.
It had fcarcely recovered from this calamity, when it
was vifited by another of the fame kind in 1086, which
began at Ludgate, and dellroyed the beft and molt o-
pulent part of the city; confuming, among other build-
ings, the cathedral of St Paul’s ; which, however, was
foon rebuilt more magnificently than before. Under
the reign of William Rufus, London fuffered confider-
ably by fires, hurricanes, and inundations, and feems
■ to have been depreffed by the tyranny of that prince ;
but Henry I. granted large immunities to the city,
which again revived its trade, and was favourable to
the progrefs of the arts. The king, however, ftill re¬
gained the privilege of appointing the portreve, or
chief magiftrate * but the immunities granted to the
Londoners fecured their affe&ions, and tended much
to fecure him on the throne. At the fame time, there
was fuch a plenty of all kinds of provifions, that as
much corn was fold for x s. as would fuffice 100 people
for a day ; 4d. would purchafe as much hay and corn
as would maintain 20 horfes for a day; and a Iheep
could be bought for a groat.
Monftrous Henry thought proper alfo to check the licentious
licentiouf- behaviour of the Normans, which, by the favour
nefs of the fhowecl them under the two Williams, had carried
ormans. tkem Jnt0’the moil barbarous practices. Thofe who
followed William Rufus in his excurfions5, haraffed
and plundered the country at diferetion. Many of
them were fo extravagant in their barbarity, that what
they could not eat or drink in their quarters, they ei¬
ther obliged the people to carry to market and fell
for their ufe, or elfe they would throw it into the fire:
and, at their going off, they frequently wafhed their
horfes heels with the drink, and ftaved the calks con¬
taining the remainder. King Henry refolved to put
a flop to thefe exceffes and favage cufloms ; and there¬
fore publifhed a proclamation at London, commanding
that thenceforward all perfons who fhould be convicted
of fuch barbarities fhould have their eyes pulled out,
or their hands or feet cut off, as the miniflers of juflice
fhould think fit. This effectually checked the info-
lence of the Normans, and the city continued to flou-
rifh throughout the reigns of Henry I. and Stephen.
The attachment of the citizens to Stephen, however,
was a crime which never could be forgiven by Henry II.
and, of confequence, he made them fenfible of his dif-
pleafure, by making frequent demands of money from
Of the them. About this time, indeed, the Londoners were
•Londoners, arrived at fuch a pitch of licentioufnefs, that their pro-
fperity feemed a curfe rather than a bleffing. The
fons of the moll eminent and wealthy citizens entered
into a confederacy to commit burglaries, and to rob
and murder all that came in their way in the night¬
time. The king took an opportunity from thefe irre¬
gularities to enrich himfelf. He demanded feveral
loans and free gifts; till at lafl the Londoners, to
prevent further inquiries into their condud, paid into
the exchequer 50001. in three years. Thefe diforders,
however, were at lafl flopped by the execution of John
Senex } who, though a very rich and reputable citizen,
had engaged in thefe enterprizes. He offered 500 lb. Lr«ndotr.
weight of filver, a prodigious fum in thofe days, for ^ ‘
his pardon, but was refufed. The king, however, Hill
continued to drain the citizens of their money by free
gifts ; and at lafl fined every feparate guild, fraternity,
or company, that had prefumed to aft as bodies cor¬
porate without the royal letters-patent.
On the death of Henry II. the title of the firfl ma-
giflrate of London was changed from portgrevc to that
of bailiff; and in 1189 claimed and afted in the office
of the chief butler at the coronation of Richard I. In
1191 this monarch permitted the bailiff, named Henry
Fit% Altvine, to affume the title of mayor. For, in **
1192, we find certain orders of the mayor and alder-of
men to prevent fires ; whereby it was ordained, that when firlt
“ all houfes thereafter to be erefted in London and inlUtuted.
the liberties thereof, fhould be built of itone, with
party-walls of the fame ; and covered either with dates
or tiles, to prevent thofe dreadful calamities by fire,
which were frequently and chiefly occafioned by houfes
built of wood, and thatched with llraw or reeds.”
And for this purpofe, it was alf@ provided by the dif-’
creeter men of the city, “ that 12 aldermen of the
city fhould be chofen in full huftings, and there fworn
to affiil the mayor in appeafing contentions that might
arife among neighbours in the city upon inclofure be¬
twixt land and land, and to regulate the dimenfions of
party-walls, which were to be of flone, 16 feet high'
and three feet thick ; and to give direftions about
girders, windows, gutters, 'and wells.” Such confi¬
dence alfo did Richard put in-the wifdom and faith-
fulnefs of the city of London, that when it was re¬
folved to fix a flandard for weights and meafures f®r
the whole realm, his majelly committed the execution
thereof to the fheriffs of London and Middlefex, whom
he commanded to provide meafures, gallons, iron rods,
and weights for llandards, to be fent to the feveral
counties of England. This happened in 1198, at
which time corn was advanced to the enormous price
of 18 s. 4d. per quarter.
The city of London was much favoured by King Fav(j’^g
John, who granted them three charters fbon after his granted t©
acceffion. The firfl was a recital and confirmation of the city by
thofe granted by Henry I. and II. with the farther K,“S Jolu3«
privilege of being free from toll and every other duty
or cullom in his majefty’s foreign dominions; for
which they paid the fum of 3000 merks. The fecond
was a confirmation of one granted by King Richard.
By this the citizens of London had the jurifdiftion
and confervancy of the river Thames ; with a claufe to
extend that jurifdiftion, and the powers therewith
granted, to the river Medway ; and with another
claufe to enable the faid city, as confervators of the'
rivers Thames and Medway, to inflift a penalty of Xol.
upon any perfon that fhould prefume to ereft a wear
in either of thefe rivers. The third charter contains’
a fee-farm-rent of the (heriffwicks of London and
Middlefex at the ancient rent, of which they had been
deprived by Queen Maud ; granting them alfo the ad¬
ditional power of choofing their own fheriffs. This
charter was given by way of conveyance from the
crown to the citizens for a valuable coniideration, by
which the fheriffwick becamfe their freehold ; and this
is the firll covenant or conveyance we find on record
G g 2 wittf
LON
[ 23« ]
London, with the legal terms of to have and to hold, which
  r— at tliis time accounted an effential part in all convey-
ances of property.
London op- During the reign of Henry III. the city of London
yrefled by was opprefi'ed in many different ways. In 1218, he
Henry III. exacted a fine of 40 marks for felling a fort of cloth
not two yards within the lifts; and a 15th of the citi-
LON
were confirmed. They were exempted from profecu- London.
tions for burels, i. e. lifted cloth ; and were granted  
the right of having a common feal. The neceffitous
circumftances of this monarch, however, made him of¬
ten exadt money arbitrarily as long as he lived.
Under the fucceeding reigns, as the liberty of the peo¬
ple in general was augmented, fo the liberty, opulence.
sens perfonal eftates for the enjoyment of their ancient and power of the citizens of London increafed, until they
rights and privileges. In 1221, he commanded by
proclamation all the foreign merchants to depart the
city ; which drew 30 marks from the Anfeatic com¬
pany of the Steelyard, to have feifin of their guild or
hall in Thames-ftreet. But it was the wrellling-match
at St Giles’s in the fields that brought on their great-
eft burden. In the year 1221, on St James’s day,
the citizens pf London having carried off the victory
*from the people of Weftminfter and other neighbour¬
ing villages, the fteward of the abbot of Weftminfter,
meditating revenge againft the Londoners, propofed
another wreftling-match with them, and gave a ram for
the prize. The citizens reforted to the place at the
time appointed ; but were unexpectedly affaulted by a
great number of armed men, who killed and wounded
many, and difperfed the reft. This raifed a great
commotion in the city. The populace breathed
revenge ; and, by the inftigation of Conftantine Fitz-
Amulph, a great favourer of the French party during
the troubles ill king John’s reign, they proceeded to
Weftminfter, and pulled down the houfes both of the
fteward and abbot. Hearing afterwards that the ab¬
bot was come into the city with his complaint to
Philip Daubney the king’s counfel, they purfued him,
beat his fervants cruelly, took away 12 of his horfes,
and would have murdered himfelf, had he not efcaped
by a back-door. Upon this tumult, Hubert de Bury,
then chief jufticiary, fummoned the mayor and many of
the principal citizens to attend him in the tower of
London ; and inquiring for the authors of the riot,
Conftantine, the ringleader, boldly anfwered, that “ he
was one; that they had done no more than they
ought; and that they were refolved to avow what
they had done, let the confequence be what it would.”
In this he was feconded by his nephew and one Geof-
fery ; but the jufticiary, having difmiffed all the reft,
detained thefe three, and ordered them to be hanged
next morning, though Conftantine offered 15,000
marks for his pardon. Hubert then coming into the
became a kind of balance to the power of the crown
itfelf, which in fome meafure they ftill continue to be.
Riots indeed, forwhich they generally fuffered, were by
no means unfrequent; the city often fuffered by fires
and plagues. Nothing, however, happened which ma¬
terially affe&ed the welfare of the city, till the reign of-
Charles II. in 1665.—This year London was ravaged af
by the moft violent plague ever known in Britain. Dreadful
The whole fummer had been remarkably ftill and plague in
warm, fo that the wreather was fometimes fuffccating*56^-
even to people in perfeft health ; and by this unufual
heat and fultry atmofphere, people were undoubtedly
prepared for receiving the infection, which appeared
with violence in the months of July, Auguft, and
September. A violent plague had raged in Holland
in the year 1663 ; on which account the importation
of merchandife from that country was prohibited by
the Britilh legiflature in 1664. Notwithftanding this
prohibition, however, it feems the plague had actually
been imported ; for in the clofe of the year 1664, two
or three perfons died fuddenly in Weftminfter, with
marks of the plague on their bodies. Some of their
neighbtturs, terrified at the thoughts of their danger,
removed into the city j but their removal proved too
late for themfelves, and fatal to thofe among whom
they came to.refide. They foon died of the plague j.
and communicated the infection to fo many others,
that it became impoffible to extinguilh the feeds of it
by feparating thofe that were infe&ed from fuch as
were not. It was confined, however, through a hard
frofty winter, till the middle of February, when it
again appeared in the parifti of St Giles’s, to which it
had been originally brought; and after another long,
reft till April, Ihowed its malignant force afrelh, as
foon as the warmth of the fpring gave it opportunity*
—At firft, it took off one here and there, without any
certain proof of their having infe&ed each other, and
houfes began to be ihut up, with a defign to prevent
its fpreading. But it was now too late ; the infcftion
city with a ftrong guard, caufed the hands and feet of gained ground every day, and the {hutting up of
moft of the principal rioters he could feize to be cut v’'"'r'oS  ^ D—,~
off: all which was executed without any legal pro¬
ceedings or form of trial. After thefe arbitrary cruel¬
ties, he degraded the mayor and all the magiftrates }
placed a cujtos over the city, and obliged 30 perfons
of his own choofing to become fecurities for the good
behaviour of the whole city. Several thoufand marks
were alfo exacted by the king, before he would con-
fent to a reconciliation.
This arbitrary behaviour alarmed the whole nation.
The parliament of 1224 began to be uneafy for them-
fielves, and addreffed his majefty that he would be plea-
fed to confirm the charter of liberties which he had
fworn to obferve ; and the confequenee of this applica¬
tion was a confirmation of the magna charta in the full
houfes only made the difeafes fpread wider. People,,
afraid of being ftiut up, and fequeftered from all commu¬
nications with fociety, concealed their illnefs, or found,
means to efcape from their places of confinement $
while numbers expired in the greateft torments, defti-
tute of every afliftance; and many died both of the
plague and other difeafes, who would in all probabi¬
lity have recovered, had they been allowed their
liberty, with proper exercife and air.—A houfe was
ftiut up on account of a maid-fervant, who had only
fpots, and not the gangrenous plague-blotches, upon
her, fo that her diftemper was probably a petechial
fever. She recovered; but the people of the houfe
obtained no liberty to ftir, either for air or exercife, for
40 days. The bad air, fear, anger, and vexation, at-
parliament at Weftminfter in the year 1225. ^ t^‘s tending this’ injurious treatment, caft the miftreft of
lime alfo, the rights and privileges of the citizens the family into a fever. The vifitors appointed to
fearch
LON L 237 ] LON
London, fearch the hotifes, faid it was the plague, though the
J- phyficians were of a different opinion : the family,
however, were obliged to begin their quarantine anew,
though it had been almoft expired before ; and this
fecond confinement affected them fo much, that moft
of the family fell fiek, fome of one diftemper and fome
of another. Every illnefsthat appeared in the family
produced a frefh prolongation of their confinement;
till at lall the plague was aftually brought in hy fome
of thofe who came to inquire into the health of the
family, and almoft every perfon in the houfe died.—
Many examples of a fimilar kind happened, arid this
was one of the worft confequences of (hutting up
houfes. All means of putting a (top to the infection
were evidently ineffeftual. Multitudes fled into the
, country ; many merchanrs, owners of (hips, 81c. (hut
b themfeives up, on board their veffels, being fupplied
with provifions from Greenwich, Woolwich, and fingle
farm-houfes on the Kentifh fide. Here, however,
they were fafe; for the infection never reached below
Debtford, though the people went frequently on fliore
to the country-towns, villages, and farm-houfes, to
buy frelh provifions. As the violence of the plague
increafed, the (hips which had families on board re¬
moved farther off; fome went quite out to fea, and
then put into fuch harbours and roads as they could
bed get at.
In the mean time, the diftemper made the moft ra¬
pid advances within the city. In the laft week of
July, the number of burials amounted to 20x0 ; but
the iirft week of Auguft it rofe to 3817 ; thence to
3880 ; then to 4237 ; the next week, to 6102 ; and at
laft to 7000 and 8000 weekly. In the laft week of
Septemper, however, the fury of the difeafe began
to abate ; though vaft numbers were fick, yet the
number of burials decreafed from 7155 to 5538 ; the
next week there was a farther decreafe to 4929, then
to 4327, next to 2665, then to 1421, and the next
week to 1031.
AH this while, the poor people had been reduced
to the greateft diftreffes, by reafon of the ftagnation
of trade, and the fickneffes to which they were pe¬
culiarly liable on account of their manner of living.
The rich, however, contributed to their fubftftence in
a moft liberal manner. The firms collected on this
occafion, are indeed almoft incredible; being faid
to amount to ioo,ocol. per week. The king is re¬
ported to have contributed xoool. weekly; and in th«
parilh of Cripplegate alone 17,000!. was diftri-
buted weekly among the poor inhabitants.—By the
vigilance alfo of the magiftrates, provifions continued
remarkably cheap throughout the whole time of this
dreadful calamity, fo that all riots and tumults on
that account were prevented; and at laft, on the ceffa-
tion of the difeafe in the winter of 1665-, the inhabi¬
tants who had fled returned to their habitations, and
London to appearance become as populous as ever,
though it was computed that 100,000 perfohs had
been carried off by the plague.
Account of city was fcarcely recovered from the defolation
the great occafioned by the plague, when it was almoft totally
Sre in 1666. laid in afhes by a moft dreadful fire. This broke out
in a baker's (hop in Pudding-lane, on Saturday-night,
September 2. 1666. In a few hours Billingfgate ward
was entirely burnt down; andbefore morning the fire had
exoifed Thames-ftreet, and deftroyed the church of St
Magnus. From thence it proceeded to the bridge, I'emflon*
and confumed a great pile of buildings there ; but
was (topped by the want of any thing more to de-
ftroy. The flames, however, being fcattered by a
ftrong eaft wind, continued their devaftations in other
quarters. All efforts to ftop it proved unfuccefsful
throughout the Sunday. That day it proceeded up as
far as Garlick-hithe; and deftroying Canon-ftreet, inva¬
ded Cornhill and the exchange. On Monday, the flames
having proceeded eaftward againft the wind through
Thames-ftreet, invaded Tower-ftreet, Grace-church-
ftreet, Fenchurch-ftreet, Dowgate, Oki-fifh-ftrect,-
Watling-ftreet, Thread-needle-ftx-eet, and feveral others,
from all which it broke at once into Cheapfide. In a
few hours Cheapfide was all in flames, the fire having
reached it from fo many places at once. The fire then
continuing its courfe from the river on one fide, and
from Cheapfide on the other, furrounded the cathedral
of St Paul’s. This building flood by itfelf at fome
diftance from any houfes; yet fuch was the violence of
the flames, and the»heat of the atmofphere occafioned
by them, that the cathedral took fire at top. The
great beams and maffy ftones broke through into
Faith-church underneath, which was quickly fet oi»
fire ; after which, the flames invaded Pater-nofter-row,.
Newgate-ftreet, the Old Bailey, Ludgate-hill, Fleets
ftreet, Iron-monger-lane, Old-Jury, Laurence-lane,
Milk-ftreet, Wood-ftreet, Gutter-lane, Fofter-lane,,
Lothbury, Cateaton-ftreet ; and, having deftroyed
Chrift-church, burnt furioufly through St Martin’s Le
Grand towards Alderfgqte.
The fire had now attained its greateft extent, and
was feveral miles in compafs. The vaft clouds of finoke
obfeured the fun fo, that he either could not be feea
at all, or appeared through it as red as blood. The
flames reached an immenfe way up into the air, and
their reflection from the finoke, which in the night¬
time feemed alfo like flame, made the appearance (till
more terrible. The atmofphere was illuminated to a
great extent, and this illumination is faid to have been
vifible as far 33 Jedburgh in Scotland. Some of the
light allies alfo are faid to have been carried to the di-
ftanee of 16 miles. Guildhall exhibited a lingular ap-
perance. The oak with which it was built was fo
(olid that it would not flame, but burnt like charcoal, fo*
that the building appeared for feveral hours like an en¬
chanted palace of gold or burnilhed brafs.
At laft, on Wednefday morning, when every one
expected that the fuburbs as well as the city were to
have been burnt, the fire began of itfelf to abate by
reafon of the wind having ceafed, and fome other
changes no doubt taken place in the atmofphere. It
was checked by the great building iu Leaden-hall-
ftreet, and in other ftreets by the-blowing •'up fe¬
veral houfes with gun-powder ; and on Thurfday the
flames were quite exlinguifned.—The following is a
calculation of the damage done by this extraordinary
conflagration. - ^
Thirteen thoufand two hundred L. ' s. dbCalculatio*
houfes, at 12 years purchafe, fup- of the <la-
pofing the rent of each 251. Ster- mage dor.r*
ling, - 3,960,000 o o
Eighty-fcven parifti-churches, at
80001. - - - 696,000 o o
carrried forward 4*6,67gloo o o
Sis
L 0 N
• brought over L.
~ Six confecrated chapels, at 2000I.
The royal exchange
The cuftom-houfe
Fifty-two halls of companies, at
15001. each.
Three city-gates at 3000I. each
Jail of Newgate - - '
Four ftone-bridges
Seffions-houfe
Guildhall, with the courts and
offices belonging to it
Blackwell-hall -
-Bridewell - - -
Poultry Compter
Woodftreet Compter
St Paul’s church
Wares, houfehold-ftuff, money,
find moveable-goods loft or fpoiled
Hire of porters, carts, wag¬
gons, barges, boats, &e. for re*
moving goods
Printed books and paper in
Ihops and warehoufes
Wine, tobacco, fugar, &c. of
which the town was at that time
very full
4,656,000
12,00© o o
50,000 o o
10,000 o o
78,000 o o
9000 o o
15,000 Q O
'6000 o o
7000 o o
40,000 o o
3000 o o
5000 O o
5000 o o
3000 o o
2,000,000 e o
2,000,800 z> O
200,000 O O
150,000 o o
233 ]
LON
- 1,500,00© o o
105689,000 O O
It was never certainly known whether; this fire was
accidental or defigned. A fufpicion fell upon the Pa1-
pifts; and this gained fuch general credit, that it is af-
ferted for a truth on the monument which is erefted in
memory of the conflagration. Of the truth of this af-
fertion, however, though there wras notfufficient proof,
it had the effeft of making the Papifts moft violent¬
ly fufpe&ed and abhorred by the Proteftants, which
fome time after proved very prejudicial to the city
itfelf.
Adefign From this calamity, ’ great as it was, London foon
to Jet it recovered itfelf, and became much more magnificent
on fire than before; the ftreets, which were formerly crooked
again. and narrow, being now built wide and fpacious; and
the induftry of its inhabitants repaired ‘the Ioffes they
had fuftained. In '1679, the -city was again alarmed
by the difcovery of a defign to deftroy it by fire a fe-
cond time. Elizabeth Gxly, fervant to one Rind in
Fetter-lane, having fet her matter’s houfe on fire, was
apprehended on fufpicion, and confeffed, that fhe had
been hired to do it by one Stubbs a Papift, for a re¬
ward of 5 1. Stubbs being taken into cuftody, ac-
inowledged that he had perfuaded her to it; and
that he himfelf had been prevailed upon by one father
Gj^Ford his confeffor, who had affured him, that by
burning the houfes of heretics he would do a great fer-
vice to the church. He alfo owned that he had feve-
ral conferences with Gifford and two Iriflimen on the
affair. The maid and Stubbs alfo agreed in declaring,
that the Papifts intended to rife in London, expefting
to be powerfully fupported by a French army. In
confequence of this difcovery, the Papifts were banifti-
*d from the city and ten miles round, and five jefuits
were hanged for the abovementioned plot.
The Papifts thought to revenge themfelves, by for¬
ging what was called the meal-tub plot> in which the
Prefhyterians were fuppofed to hatch treacherous de- Faruia*,
figns againft the life of the king. Sir Edmondbury —-v—--*
Godfrey alfo, who had been very adtive in his pro-
ceedings againft the Papifts, was murdered by fomegivesocca-
unknown perfons ; and this murder, together with iiaa to a
their difcovering the falfehood of the meal-tub plot, quarrel
fo exafperated the Londoners, that they refolved toWIth thc
fhow their deteftation of Popery, by an extraordinary cour *
exhibition on the 17th of November, Queen Eliza¬
beth’s acceffion to the throne, on wdiich day they
had ufually burnt the pope in effigy. The proceffion
began with a perfon on horfeback perfonating Sir Ed¬
mondbury Godfrey, attended by a bell-man proclaim¬
ing his execrable murder. He was followed by a per*
fon carrying a large filver crofs, with priefts in copes, •
Carmelites, and Gray-friars, followed by fix Jefuits : >,
then proceeded divers waiters, and after them fome
bifliops with lawn-fleeves, and others with copes and
mitres. Six cardinals preceded the pope, enthroned
in a ftately pageant, attended by divers boys with pots
of incenfe, and the devil whifpering in his ear. In this
order they marched from Bilhopfgate to Fleet-ftreet;
and there, amidft a great multitude of fpetlators,
committed his holinefs to the flames.
This proceffion gave great offence to the court, at
which the duke of York, afterwards James 11. had a
great influence. The breach was farther widened by
the choice of ftieriffs for that year. The candidates
fet up by the court were rejefted by a majority of al-
moft two to one; but this did not deter their par¬
ty from demanding a poll in their behalf, upon which
a tumult enfuedr' This was reprefented by the Popifli
party in fueh colours to the king, that he iffued out a
commilfion that fame evening for trying the rioters*;
which, however, was fo far from intimidating the reft,
that they grew more and more determined, not only
to oppofe the Popiffi party, but to exclude the duke
of York from his fucceffion to the crown.
In the mean time, the king prorogued the parlia¬
ment, to prevent them from proceeding in their in¬
quiry concerning the Popifli plot, and the exclufion-
bill. Upon this the lord-mayor, aldermen, and com¬
mon-council, prefented a petition to his -majefty, in
which they requefted, that he would permit the
parliament to fit in order to complete their falutary
meafures and councils. This petition was highly re¬
lented by the king; who, inftead of granting it, dif-
•folved the parliament, and could never afterwards be
reconciled to the city. From this time it was deter¬
mined to feize their charter; and frefh provocations
having been given about the eleftion of flieriffs, a <luo^ g46
warranto was at lall produced by the attorney-gene-
Tal, in order to overthrow their charter, and thereby gra ned
to deprive the citizens of the power to chodfe (heriffs. againft the]
This information fet forth, That “ the mayor and aty*
commonalty and citizens of the city of London, by
the fpace of a month then laft paft and more, ufed,
and yet do claim to have and ufe, without any lawful
warrant or regal grant, within the city of London a-
forefaid, and the liberties and privileges of the fame
city, the liberties and privileges following, viz. 1. To
be of themfelves a body corporate and politic, by the
name of mayor and commonalty and citizens of the city erf
London. 2. To have flieriffs cinAiai. et com. l.cndort.
& com. Middlefexy and to name, make, and cleft, and
cof.ftitute
LON [ 239 ] LON
London, corrftitute them. 3. That the mayor and aldermen his room. 6. That the juflices of the peace fhould London,
i—y—_ 0jp t[je {Vjj^ cjty (hould be juftices of the peace, and be by the king’s commiflion; and the fettling of thofe ——y——
hold feffions of the peace. All which liberties, pri- matters to be left to his majefty’s attorney-general,
vileges,' and franchifes, the faid mayor and commo- and counfel learned in the law.”
nalty, and citizens of London, upon the king did To thefe the lord keeper added, in the king’s name,
by the fpace aforefaid ufurp, and yet do ufurp.” “ That thefe regulations being made, his majefty would
Though nothing could be more unjuif than this not only pardon this profecution, but would confirm
profecution, the miniftry were determined at all events their charter in fuch a manner as fhould be confiftent
to crufh the Londoners; rightly judging, that it would with them concluding thus : “My lord mayor,
be an eafy matter to make all other corporations the term draws towards an end, and Midfumtner-day
furrender their charters into the king’s hands, and ts at hand, when lome of the officers ufed to be cho-
that they had no other body in the nation to fear, fen ; whereof his majefty will referve the approbation.
Accordingly they difplaced fuch judges as would not Therefore, it is his majefty’s pleafure, that you return
approve of their proceedings ; and, on the 12th of to the city, and confult the common-council, that he
June 1683, Juftice Jones pronounced the following may fpeedily know your refolutions thereupon, and
fentence : “ That a city might forfeit its charter; accordingly give his diredtions. That you may fee
that the malverfations of the common-council were the king is in earneft, and the matter is not capable of
adfs of the whole city; and that-the points fet forth delay, I am commanded to let you know he hath given
in the pleadings were juft grounds for the forfeiting of orders to his attorney-general to enter upon judgment
a charter.” ' on Saturday next; unlefs you prevent it by your com-
Notwithftanding this fentence, however, the attor- pliance in all thefe particulars.”
ney-genend, contrary to the ufual cuftom in fuch cafes, A common-council was fummoned, when the friend*
was diredled to move that the judgment might not be of liberty treated thofe llavifti conditions as they de-
recorded ; being afraid of the confequences. Yet it ferved ; and even declared, that they were ready to fa-
was judged that the king might feize the liberties of critice all that was near, or dear to them, rather than'
the city. A common-council was immediately fum- fubmit to fuch arbitrary impofitions : but when it was
moned to deliberate on this exigency. The country pot to the vote, there appeared a majority of 18 for
party moved to have the judgment entered ; but they lubmiffion.
were over-ruled by the court-party, who infilled upon Thus the. king got the government of the city into The kmg
an abfolute fubmiffion to the king before judgment his own hands, though he and his brothers entirely loft breakt hio
was entered ;. and though this was in effedi a.voluntary the affedlions of the Londoners. But, not content with Promife»
furrender of the city liberties, and depriving them- their fubmiffion, his majefty departed from his promife ;
felves of the means of getting the judgment reverfed, commanded the judgment upon the quo warranto to
the aft of fubmiffion was carried by a great majority : be entered ; and commiffioned Sir William Pritchard,
and in a petition from the lord-unayor, aldermen, and the lord mayor, to hold the.fame office during his ma-
common-council, they “ acknowledged their own mif- jelly’s pleafure. In the fame manner he-appointed or
government, and his majefty’s lenity ; begged his difplaced the other magiilrates as he thought proper ;
pardon, and promifed conftant loyalty and obedience; after which the miniftry, having nothing to fear, pro-
and humbly begged his majefty ’s commands and di- ceeded in the molt arbitrary manner. ^
Conditions reftions.” To this his majefty anfwered,, that he In this fuhjeftion to the will of the court, the city pr;v;i^,ej .
cfreconci- would not rejeft theiefuit, if they would agree upon of London continued till the Revolution : but, in 1689,0! the city
tween the t^ie Allowing particulars. X- That no lord-mayor, the immediate reftoration of the Londoners to their reftorta.
king and IherifF, recorder, common ferjeant, town-clerk, or cot franchifes was ordered; and in fuch a manner and form,
sky.. roner, of the city of London, or, fteward of the bo- as to put it out of the powers of an arbitrary miniftry
rough of Southwark, ftiall be capable of, or admitted and a corrupjt judge and jury to deprive them of their
to, the exercife of their, refpeftive offices before his chartered liberties for the time to come. Accordingly
majefty lhall have approved of them under his fign a bill was brought into parliament, and palled, for re¬
manual. 2.. That if his majefty ftiall difapprove the verfing the judgment of the quo'warranto againft the
choice of any perfon to be lord mayor, and fignify city of London, and for reftoring the fame to its ancient-
the fame under his fign manual to the lord mayor, or* rights and privileges. Since that time the city of Lon-
in default of a lord mayor, to the recorder or fenior don hath enjoyed tranquillity ; its commerce hath been
alderman, the citizens ftiall, . within one week*, pro- carried to the highelt pitch; and for the politenefs,
ceed to a new choice : and if his majefty ftiall in like riches, and number of its inhabitants, as well as its ex¬
manner difapprove the.fecond choice, his majefty may, tent .and the magnificence of its buildings, is inferior-
if he pleafes, nominate a perlon to be lord mayor for to no eity in. Europe, if not luperior to every,one._
the year enfuing.. 3. If his majefty lhall,, in like That part of this immenfe capital which is diftin-.De{.c^°tjon
manner, difapprove the perfons chofen to be fheriffs, guilhed by the name of The City> ilands on the -north oAhe city,,
or either of them, his majefty may appoint Iheriffs Ihore of the river, from the Tower to the Temple,
for the year enfuing. 4. That the lord mayor and? Occupying only that fpace formerly encompaffed by, the
court of aldermen may, with the leave of his majefty, wall, which in circumference meafures but three miles
difplaee any alderman, recorder, &c. 5.. Upon the and 165 feet. In this wall there were feven gates by
cleftion of an alderman, if the court of aldermen (hall land, viz. Ludgate, Aldgate, Cripplegate, Alderfgate,
judge and declare the perfon prefented to be unfit, the Moorgate, Bilhopfgate, which were all taken down
ward lhall choofe again ; and upon a difapproval of in September 1760; and Newgate, the county gaol,
a fecond choice,, the court, may appoint another in which was alio taken down in 1776, and a maflive.
building (
LON [ 240 ] LON
London, 'building erected a little fouth of it, which by the
yrioters in 1780 received damage to the amount of
Ja. 80,000. On the fide of the water there were Dow-
gate and Billingfgate, long fince demolifhed, as well
as the poftern-gate near the Tower. In the year 1670
there was a gate ere&ed called Temple-Bar, which
terminates the bounds of the city weftward. The
fiterties, or thofe parts of this great city which are fub-
jedl to^its jurifdi&ion and lie without the walls of
Tondon, are bounded on the eaft, in White-chapel,
the Minories, and Bifliopfgate, by bars, which were
formerly ports and chains, that were frequently taken
away by arbitrary power, when it was thought pro¬
per to feize the franchifes of the city of London ; on
the north, they are bounded in the fame manner in
Pick-ax ftreet, at the end of Fan-alley, and in St
John’s ftreet: on the weft, by bars in Holborn : at
the eaft end of Middle Row, and at the weft end of
Fleet-ftreet, by the gate called Temple-Bar, already
mentioned : on the fouth, we may include the jurif-
diftion which the city holds on the river Thames, and
over the borotigh of Southwark.
Tiie city, including the borough, is at prefent divid-
ed into 26 wards.
Divifion in- 1 • Alderfgate ward lakes its name from a city-gate
£0 wards, which lately flood in the neighbourhood. It is bound¬
ed on the eaft by Cripplegate ward; oil the weft, by
Farringdon ward within and without; and on the
fouth, by Farringdon ward within. It is very large,
and is divided into Alderfgate-within and Alderfgate-
without. Each of thefe divifions confifts of four pre-
cindts, under one alderman, eight common-council
men, of whom two are the alderman’s deputies, eight
cohftables, fourteen inqueft-men, eight fcavengers, and
a beadle; exclufive of the officers belonging to theliberty
of St Martin’s le Grand, which contains 168 houfes.
2. Aldgate takes its name alfo from a gate, which
was of great antiquity, being mentioned in king Ed¬
gar’s charter to the knights of the Knighton Guild
about the year 967 ; and was probably of a much
more ancient foundation, for it was the gate through
which the Roman Vicinal way lay to the ferry at Old-
ford. In the time of the wars betwixt king John
and his barons, the latter entered the city through this
gate, and committed great devaftations among the
houfes of the religious. Aldgate was rebuilt by the
leaders of the party after the Roman manner. They
made ufe of ftone which they brought from Caen, and
a fmall brick called the Flanders tile, which Mr Pen¬
nant thinks has been often miftaken for Roman. The
new gate was very ftrong, and had a deep well within
it. In 1471 this gate was aflaulted by the Ballard of
Falconbridge, who got pofleffion of it for a few hours ;
but the portcullis being drawn up, the troops which
had entered were all cut off, and the citizens, headed
by the alderman of the ward and recorder, having
made a fally, defeated the remainder with great flaugh-
ter. In 1606 Aldgate was taken down and rebuilt;
and many Roman coins were found in digging the
foundations.—The ward of Aldgate is bounded on
the eaft by the city-wall, which divides it from Port-
foken-ward ; on the north, ‘ by Bilhopfgate ward; on
the weft, by Lime-ftreet and Langboum wards ; and '
on the fouth, by Tower-ftreet ward. It is governed by
an alderman, fix common-council men, fix conltables,
N° J 86.
twenty inqueft-men, feven fcavengers, and a beadle} London,
befides the officers belonging to St James’s, Duke’s
Place.—It is divided into feven precindts.
3. Baffl/haw or Bajtnghall ward, is bounded on the
eaft and fouth by Coleman-ftreet ward, on the north
by part of Cripplegate, and oh the weft by part of
the wards of Cheap and Cripplegate. On the fouth,
it begins at Blackwell-hall; and runs northward to
London-wall, pulled down fome time ago to make
way for new buildings in Fore-Jlreet, and fpreads 88
feet eaft, and 54 feet weft againft the place where that
wall Hood. This is a very fmall ward, and confifts
only of two precindts : the upper precindt contains no
more than 66, and the lower only 76 houfes. It is
governed by an alderman, four common-council men,
of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, three con-
ftables, feventeen inqueft-men, three fcavengers, and
a beadle. It has its name from Bafinghall, the man-
fion-houfe of the family of Bafins, which was the
principal houfe in it, and flood in the place of Black¬
well-hall.
4. Billingfgate ward is bounded on the eaft by
Tower-ftreet ward; on the north, by Langbourn
ward; on the weft, by the ward of Bridge-within }
and on the fouth, by the river Thames. There have
been many conjedtures concerning the origin of the
name of Billingfgate, none of which feems to be very
well authenticated. It is, for inftance, fuppofed td
have derived its name from a Britifh king named
Belinus, faid to have been an affiftant of Brennus king
of the Gauls at the taking of Rome, and is the fame
with the Beli-Maur mentioned in the Welfh genea¬
logies. The name of Ludgate is faid to be derived
from his fon Lud.—It is divided into 12 precindls J
and is governed by an alderman, to common-council
men,* one of whom is the alderman’s deputy, 11 con-
ftables, 14 inqueft-men, fix -fcavengers, and a beadle.
The fituation of Billingfgate, on the river, gives it
great advantages with refpedl to trade and merchan¬
dize ; fo that it is well inhabited, and is in a conti*
nual hurry of bufinefs at the feveral wharfs or quays.
5. Bijhopfgate ward i* bounded'on the eaft by Aid-
gate ward, Poftfoken ward, arid part of the Tower-
liberty, or Norton-falgate; on the weft, by Broad-ftreet
ward and Moorfields ; and on the fouth, by Langbourn
ward. It is very large, and divided into Bifhopfgate-
within and Bifhopfgate-without. The firft contains
all that part of the ward within the; city-wall and
gate, and is divided into five precindls; tire fecond
lies without the wall, and is divided into four precindts.
Bifhopfgate-withOut extends to Shoreditch, taking its
name from one Sir John de Sordich, an eminent law¬
yer much in favour with king Edward III. both on
account of his knowledge in the law, and of his
perfonal valour. In the time of Henry VIII. one
Barlo, a citizen and inhabitant of this place, was
named duhe of Shoreditch, on account of his fkill in
archery ; and, for a number of years after, the title
belonged to the captain of the London archers. This
ward is governed by an alderman, two deputies, one
within and the other without, 12 common-council men,
feven conftables, 13 inqueft-men, nine fcavengers, and
two beadles. It took its name from the gate, which
has been pulled down to make that part of the city
more airy and commodious. This gate was built by
Erkenwald
LON [ 241 ] LON
London- Erkenwald bifhop of London in 675: ; and it is faid
*1 v1 ■ to have been repaired by William the Conqueror foon
after the Norman conqueft. In the time of Henry III.
the Hanfe merchants had certain privileges confirmed
to them, in return for which they were to fupport
this gate ; and in confequence of this they rebuilt it
elegantly in|i479. There were two ftatues of bilhops,
in memory of the founder and firft repairer; other
two were alfo put up, which are fuppofed to have
been defigned for Alfred and iEldred earl of Mercia,
to whofe care the gate had been committed.
6. Bread-Jlreet ward is encompafled, on the north
and north-weft, by the ward of Fardingdon-within ; on
the eaftj'byCordwainer’s ward; on the fouthby Queen-
hithe-ward ; and on the weft, by Caftle-Baynard ward.
It is divided into 13 precin&s ; and is governed by an
alderme.i, 12 common council-men, of whom one is
the alderman’s deputy, 13 conftables, 13 inqueft-men,
13 fcavengers, and a beadle ; and yet contains no
more than 331 houfes. It takes its name from the
ancient bread-market, which was kept in the place
now called Bread-Jlreet; the bakers being obliged to fell
their bread only in the open market and not in (hops.
7. Bridge-ward within is bounded on the fouth by
the river Thames and Southwark; on the north, by
Langbourn and Biftiopfgate ward ; on the eaft, by
Billingfgate j and on the weft, by Candlewick and
Dowgate wards. It is divided into 14 precinfts,
three of which were on London-bridge ; and is go¬
verned by an alderman, 15 common-council men, one
of whom is the alderman’s deputy, 14 conftables, 15
inqueft-men, 14 fcavengers, and a beadle. It takes
its name from its connexion with London-bridge.
8. Broad-Jlreet ward is bounded, on the north and
eaft, by Biftiopfgate ward ; on the fouth, by Cornhill
and Wallbrook ward ; and on the weft by Coleman-
ftreet ward. It is divided into 1 o precin&s ; and go¬
verned by an alderman, 10 common-council men, one
of whom is the alderman’s deputy, 10 conftables, 13
inqueft-men, eight fcavengers, and a beadle. It has
its name from that part of it now diftinguiftied by the
name of Old BroadJlreet; and which, before the fire of
1666, was accounted one of the broadeft ftreets in
London.
9. Candlewick ward. Candle wick Jlreet, or Candle-
wright Jlreet ward as it is called in fome ancient re¬
cords, is bounded on the eaft by Bridge ward ; on the
fouth, by Dowgate and part of Bridge ward ; on the
weft, by Dowgate and Wallbrook ; and on the north,
by Langbourn ward. It is but a fmall ward, confift-
ing of about 286 houfes; yet is divided into feven
precinfts. It is governed by an alderman, eight
common-council men, of whom one is the alderman’s
deputy, feven conftables, 13 inqueft-men, feven fca¬
vengers, and a beadle. It has its name from a ftreet,
formerly inhabited chiefly by candle wrights or candle-
makers, both in tallow and wax : a very profitable bu-
ftnefs in £he times of Popery, when incredible quanti¬
ties of wax-candles were confumed in the churches.
That ftreet, however, or at leaft its name, Candlewick,
re loft fince the great conflagration, for which the
name Canon-Jlreet is fubftituted, the candle wrights
being at that time burnt out and difperfed through
the city.
10. Cajlle-Baynard ward is bounded by Queen-
Vol. X. Part I. ^
hithe and Bread-ftreet wards on the eaft ; on the fouth, London,
by the Thames ; and on the weft and north, by the
ward of Farringdon-within. It is divided into 10 pre¬
cincts, under the govermnent of an alderman, 10 com¬
mon council-men, one of whom is the alderman’s de¬
puty, nine conftables, 14 inqueft-men, feven fcaven¬
gers, and a beadle. It takes its name from a caftle *
built on the bank of a river by one Baynard, a fol-
dier of fortune, who came in with William the Con¬
queror, and was by that monarch raifed to great ho¬
nours and authority.
11. Cheap ward is bounded on the eaft by Broad-
ftreet and Wallbrook wards ; on the north, by Cole-
man-ftreet, Baffifhaw, and Cripplegate ; and on the
fouth, by Cordwainer’s ward. It is divided into nine
precinfts ; and is governed by an alderman, 12 common-
council men, of whom one is the alderman’s deputy,
ix conftables, 13 inqueft-men, nine fcavengers, and a
beadle. It has its name from the Saxon word chepe,
which' fignifies a market, kept in this divifion of the
city, now called Cheapfide; but then known by the
name of WeJlcheap, to diftinguilh it from the market
then alfo kept in Eaftcheap, between Canon or Candle-
wick ftreet and Tower-ftreet.
12. Colemanjlreet ward is bounded on the eaft by
Bifhopfgate, Broadftreet, and Cheap wards; on the
north, by Cripple-gate ward, Middle Moorfields, and
Biftiopfgate ; on the fouth, by Cheap ward ; and on the
weft, by Bafliftiaw ward. It is divided into fix pre-
cincfts ; and is governed by an alderman, fix common-
council men, one of whom is the alderman’s deputy,
fix conftables, 13 inqueft-men, fix fcavangers, and
a beadle. The origin of the name is not certainly
known.
13. Cordwainers ward is bounded on the eaft by
Wall-brook, on the fouth by Vintry ward, on the weft
by Bread-ftreet, and on the north by Cheap-ward. It
is divided into eight precinfts; and is governed'by an
alderman, eight common-council men, one of whom
is the alderman’s deputy, eight conftables, 14 inqueft
men, eight fcavangers, and a beadle. Its proper
name is Cordwainers-Jlreet ward; which it has from
Cordwainers ftreet, now Bow-lane, formerly occu¬
pied chiefly by ftioemakers and others that dealt or
worked in leather.
14. Cornhill ward is but of fmall extent. It is
bounded on the eaft by Bifhopfgate, on the north by
Broad ftreet, on the weft by Cheap ward, and on the
fouth by Langbourn ward. It is divided into four
precintts, which are governed by one alderman, fix
common-council men, of whom one is the alderman’s ’
deputy, four conftables, 16 inqueft.men, four fcaven¬
gers, and a beadle. It takes its name from the prin¬
cipal ftreet in it, known from the earlift ages by the
name of Cornhill, becaufe the corn-market was kept
there.
15. Cripplegate ward is bounded on the eaft by
Moorfields, Coleman-ftreet ward, Baflifhaw ward, and
Cheap ward ; on the north by the parifh of St Luke’s,
Old-ftreet; on the weft, by Alderfgate ward; and on
the fouth, by Cheap-ward. It is divided into 13 pre-
cinfts, nine within and four without the wall; and is
governed by an alderman, 12 common council men,
of whom two are the alderman’s deputies, 13 conftables,
34 inqueft-men, 16 fcavengers, and three beadles. It
H h takes
LON
[ 242 ]
LON
London, takes its name from Cripplegatc, which flood on the
* y   north-weft part of the city-wall. It was an old plain
ftru&ure, void of all ornament, with one poftem ; but
from fome lime-kilns that were formerly built in or London,
near Lime-ftreet. y——*
21. Portfoken ward is bounded on the eaft by the
had more the appearance of a fortification than any of parifhes of Spitalfields, Stepney, and St George’s in
the other gates. It was removed in order to widen the eaft ; on the fouth, by Tower-hill; on the north,
the entrance into Wood-ftreet, which, by the nar- by Bifhopfgate ward, and on the weft by Aldgate
*rownefs of the gateway, was too much contracted
and rendered dangerous for paffengers and great wag¬
gons.
16. Dow^ate ward is bounded on the eaft by Candle-
wick and Bridge wards, on the north by Wallbrook
ward, on the weft by Vintry ward, and on the’fonth
by the Thames. It is divided into eight precin&s,
under the government of an alderman, eight common-
council men, of whom one is the alderman^ deputy,
eight conftables, 15 inqueft-men, five fcavenge'rs, and
a beadle. It has its name from the ancient water-gate.
ward. It is divided int© five precincts; and is go¬
verned by an alderman, five commofi-council men, one
of whom is the alderman's deputy, five conftables,
inqueft-men, five fcavengers, and a beadle. Its name
fignifies the franchife of the liberty gate. This Portfoken
was for fome time a guild ; and had its beginning in
king Edgar, when 13 knights, “ well-beloved of the
king and realm, for fervices by them dene,” requefted
to have a certain portion of land on the eaft part of the
city left defolate and forfaken of the inhabitants by
reafon of too much fervitude. They befought *he king
called Dour gate, which was made in the original wall to have this land, with the liberty of a guild for ever.
that ran along the north fide of the Thames, for the
fecurity of the city againft all attempts to invade it by
water.
17. Farringdon ward within is bounded on the eaft
by Cheap ward and Baynard-caftleward ; on the nortlt,
by Alderfgate and Cripplegate wards, and the liberty
of St Martin’s le Grand ; on the weft, by Farringdon-
withoiit; and on the fouth, by Baynard-caftle ward,
and the river Thames. It is divided into iB precincts;
and governed by one alderman, 17 common-council
men, of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, 19 con¬
ftables, 17 ' inqueft-men, 19 fcavengers, and two
beadles. It takes its name from William Farringdon
. citizen and goldfmifh of London, who, in 1279, Pur“
chafed all the aldermanry with the appurtenances,
within the city of London and fuburbs of the fame,
between Ludgate and Newgate, and alfo without thefe
gates.
IB. Farringdon-ward without is bounded on-the eaft
by Farringdon within, the precindt of the late priory
of St Bartholomew near Smithfield, and the ward of
Alderfgate ; on the north, by the charter-houfe, the
parifli of St John’s Clerkenwell, and part of St An¬
drew’s pariih without the freedom ; on the weft, by
High Holborn and St Clement’s parifh in the Strand ;
and on the South by the river Thames. It is governed
by one alderman, 16 common-council men, of whom
two are the alderman’s deputies, 23 conftables, 48 in¬
queft-men ; 24 fcavengers; and four beadles. It takes:
Its name from the fame goldfmitli who gave name to
Farringdon-within.
19. LanghorM ward is bounded on the eaft by Aid-
gate ward; on the north, by part of the fame, and
Limeftreet ward ; on the fouth, by Tower-ftreet, Bil-
lingfgate, Bridge, and Candlewick wards; and on the
weft by Wallbrook. It is divided into 12 precinits.
It had its name from a rivulet or long bourn of frelh-
Water, which anciently flowed from a fpring near
The king granted their requeft on the following condi¬
tions, m%. that each of them fhould vi&orionfly accom-
plifti three combats, one above the ground, one under
ground, and the third in the water: and after this, at
a certain day, in Eaft Smithfield, they fliould run with
fpears againft all comers. All this was glorioufly per¬
formed ; upon which the king named it Knighten
Guild, and extended it from Aldgate to the places
where the bars now are on the eaft, and to the Thames
on the fouth, and as far into the water as an horfeman
could ride at low water and throw his fpear.
22. §>ueen-hithe w&rd is bounded on the eaft by
Dowgate, on the north by Bread-ftreet and Cord-
wainers wards, on-the fouth by the Thames, and on the
weft by Caftle-Baynard ward. It is divided into nine
precindls; and is governed by one alderman, fix com¬
mon-council men, one of whom is the alderman’s depu¬
ty, and nine conftables. It has its name from the hithe%
or harbour for large boats, barges, and lighters; for
which, and even for (hips, it was the anchoring place,
and the key for lading and unloading vefiels almoft of
any burden ufed in ancient times. It has the name of
queen, becaufe the queens of England ufually pofleffed
the tolls and cuftoms of veffels that unloaded goods at
this hithe, which were very confiderabk.
23. Tower ward, or Tower-flreet ward, is bounded
on the fouth by the river Thames, o-n the eaft by1
Tower-hill and Aldgate ward, on the north by Lang-
bourn ward, and on the weft by Billingfgate ward. It
is governed by one alderman, 12 common-council men,
of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, 12 conftables,
13 inqueft men, 12 fcavengers, and one beadle. It
takes its name from Tower-Jlreet, fo called becaufe it
leads out of the city in a direft line to the principal
entrance of the Tower of London.
24. Vintry ward is bounded on the eaft by Dow¬
gate, on the fouth by the Thames, on the weft by
Queen-hi tlie ward, and on the north by Cordwainers
Magpye alley adjoining to St Catherine Coleman’s ward. It is a finall ward, containing only 418 houfes ;
1 1 but is divided into nine precinfts, and governed by an-
alderman, nine common-council men, one of whom ia
the alderman’s deputy, nine conftables, 13. inqueft-
men, three fcavengers, and a beadle. It takes its
name from the vintners or wine-merchants of Boilr-
deaux, who formerly dwelt in this part of the city,
were obliged to land their wines on this fpot, and to
fell them in 40 days, till the 28th of Edward I.
5
church.
20. Limejlreet ward is bounded on the eaft and
north by Aldgate wa rd, on the weft by Bifhopfgate;
and on the fouth by Langbourn ward. It is divided
into four precincts ; and governed by an alderman, four
common-council men, one of whom is the alderman’s
deputy, four conftables, 13 inqueft-men, four fcaven¬
gers, and a beadle. It is very finall; and has its name
LON
2y, Wa!l-lrook ward is bounded i
[ 243 1
LON
Langbourn, on the fouth by Dowgate ward, on the
weft by Cordwainers ward, and on the north by
Cheap ward. It is {mail, containing only 306 hpufes;
but is divided into feven precinfts, and governed by an
alderman, eight common-council men, of whom one
the eaft by termine any difference that may happen among the London.
citizens, and to do other bufmefs incident to the office -
of a chief magiftrate. Once in fix weeks, or eight
times in the year, he fits as chief judge of Oyer and
Terminer, or gaol-delivery of Newgate for London
and the county of Middlefex. His jurifdiiftion ex-
the alderman’s deputy, feven conftables, 13 inqueft- tends all over the city and fuburbs, except fome places
men, fix fcavengers, and a beadle. It has its name
from the rivulet Wall-brook., that ran down the ftreet
of this name into the river Thames near Dowgate;
but in procefs of tiipe it was fo loft by covering it
with bridges and buildings upon thofe bridges, that
its channel became a common fewer.
26. The ward of Bridge-without includes the borough
of Southwark, and the parifties of Rotherhithe, Newing¬
ton, and Lambeth. It has its name from London-
bridge, with the addition of the vtovA without, becaufe
the bridge muft be pafled in order to come at it. Wejl-
mwjler is generally reckoned a part of London, tfto’
that are exempt. It extends alfo from Colneyditch,
above Staines-bridge in the weft, to Yeudale, or
Yenflete, and the mouth of the river Medway, and up
that river to Upnor-caftle, in the eaft: by which he
exercifes the power of punifhing or corredting all
perfons that fhall annoy the ftreams, banks, or fifii.
For which purpofe his lordfhip holds feveral courts of
confervancy in the counties adjacent to the faid river,
for its confervation, and for the punifiiment of offen¬
ders. See the article MayorV-Ccw/. 35
The title of dignity, alderman, is of Saxon original, Aldermen,
and of the greateft honour, anfwering to that of earl;
under a diflindt government; and has long been famous though now it is nowhere to be found but in charter-
Govern-
ment of
London.
for the palaces of our kings, the feat of our law tri¬
bunals, and of the high court of parliament 5 all which
{hall be deferibed in their order.
The city and liberties of London are under an eccle-
fiaftical, a civil, and a military government.
As to its eccleftajlical government, London is a bi-
fhop’s fee, the diocefe of which comprehends not only
Middkfex, EfTex, and part of Hertfordlhire, but the
Rritilh plantations in America. The biftiop of Lon¬
don takes precedency next to the archbifhops of Can¬
ed focieties. And from hence we may account for the
reafon why the aldermen and commonalty of London
were called barons after the conqueft. Thefe magi-
ftrates are properly the fubordinate governors of their
refpedlive wards under the lord-mayor’s jurifdi&iou :
and they originally held their aldermanries either by
inheritance or purchafe ; at which time the alderman¬
ries or wards changed their names as often as their
governors or aldermen. The oppreffions, to which the
citizens were fubjeft from fuch a government, put them
terbury and York ; but the following parilhes of this upon means to abolilh the perpetuity of that office ; and
city are exempt from his jurifdi&ion, being peculiars they brought it to an annual ele&ion. But that man-
under the immediate government of the archbHhop of ner of ele&ion being attended with many inconvenien-
Canterbury; wz. All-hallows in Bread-ftreet, All¬
hallows Lombard-ftreet; St Dionys Back-church,
St Dunftan in the Eaft, St John Baptift, St Leonard
Eaftcheap, St Mary Aldermary, St Mary Bothaw,
and becoming a continual bone of contention
amongft the citizens, the parliament, 17 Richard II,
A. 1). ‘1394, enadted, That the aldermen of London
iliould continue in their feveral offices during life or
Lord-
mayor.
returned by the lord-mayor (or other returning officer
in his ftead, duly qualified to hold a court of wardmote)
to the court of lord-mayor and aldermen, by whom the
perfon fo returned muft be admitted and fworn into the
St Mary le Bow, St Michael Crooked-lane, St Michael good behaviour. And fo it ftill continues: though
Royal, St Pancras Soper-lane, and StVedaft Fofter-lane. the manner of electing has'feveral tiroes varied. At
The c'.v l government of London divides it into wards prefent it is regulated by an aft of parliament, pafled
andprecinfts, under a lord-mayor, aldermen, and com- in the year 1724-5 : and the perfon fo elefted is to be
mon-council.
The mayor, or lord-mayor, is the fupreme magi¬
ftrate, chofen annually by the citizens, purfuant to a
charter of King John. The prefent manner of eleft-
ing a lord-mayor is by the liverymen of the feveral office of alderman before he can aft. If the perfon
companies, affembled in Guildhall annually on Michael- chofen refufeth to ferve the office of alderman, he is
mas-day, according to an aft of common council in finable 5001.
A, D. 1476, where, and when, the liverymen choofe,. Thefe high officers conftitute a fecond part of the
or rather nominate, two aldermen below the chair, city legiflature when affembled in a corporate capacity,
who have ferved the office of fheriff, to be returned to andexercife an executive power in their refpeftive wards,
the court of aldermen, who may choofe either of the The aldermen who have paffed the chair, or ferved the
two ; but generally declare the fenior of the two, fo high office of lord-mayor, are juftices of the quorum ;
returned, to be lord-mayor eleft. The eleftion be- and all the other aldermen are not only juftices of the
ing over, the lord-mayor eleft, accompanied by the peace, but by the ftatute of 43 Eliz. intitled, An acl
recorder and divers aldermen, isfoon after prefented to for the relief of the poor, “ every alderman of the city
the lord-chancellor (as his majefty’s reprefeiitative in of London, within his ward, Hi all and may do and
the city of London) for his approbation; and on the execute, in every refpeft, fo much as is appointed and
9th of November following is {worn into the office of allowed by the faid aft to be done or executed by one
mayor at Guildhall; arid on the day after, before the or two juftices of peace of any county within this
barons of the exchequer at Weftminfter; the pro- realm.” They every one keep their 'wardmote, or
ceffion on which occafion is exceedingly grand and court, for chooiing n urd-officers and fettling the affairs
magnificent. of the ward, to redrefs grievances, and to prefent all
The lord-mayor fits every morning at the manfion- defaults found within their refpeftive wards,
houfe, or place where he keeps his mayoralty, to de~ The next branch of the legiflative power in this
H h 2 city
LON L 244 ] LON
London, city is the common-council. The many inconveniences
“ that attended popular aflemblies, which were called
Confmon- f°^motei determined the commonalty of London to
council. choofe reprefentatives to aft in their name and. for their
intereft, with the lord-mayor and aldermen, in all
affairs relating to the city. At firft thefe reprefehta-
tives were chofen out of the feveral companies: but
that not being found fatisfaftory, nor properly the
reprefentatives of the whole body of the inhabitants, it
was agreed to choofe a certain number of difcreet men
©ut of each ward : which number has from time to
time increafed according to the dimenfions of each
ward : and at prefent the 25 wards, into which Lon¬
don is divided, being fubdivided into 236 precinft»,
each preeinft fends a reprefentative to the common-
council, who are elefted after the fame manner .as an
alderman, only with this difference, that as the lord-
mayor prefides in the wardmote, and is judge of the
poll at the eleftion of an alderman, fo the alderman
of each ward is judge of the poll at the eleftion of a
common-council man.
Thus the lord-mayor, aldermen, and common-
council, when aflembled, may be deemed the city par¬
liament, refembling the great council of the nation.
For it confifts of two houfes; one for the lord-mayor
and aldermen, or the upper-houfe j another for the
commoners or reprefentatives of the people, commonly
called the common-council men. And they have power
in their incorporate capacity to make and repeal bye¬
laws ; and the citizens are bound to obey or fubmit to
thofe laws. When they meet in their incorporate ca¬
pacity, they wear deep-blue filk gowns: and their
affemblie* are called the court of common-council, and
their ordinances a£h of common council. No aft can
be performed in the name of the city of London with¬
out their concurrence. But they cannot affemble with¬
out a fummons from the lord-mayor; who, neverthelefs,
is obliged to call a common-council, whenever it (hall
be demanded, upon extraordinary occafions, by fix
37 reputable citizens and members of that court.
Sheriffs. This corporation is alfifted by two (heriffs and a
recorder. The (heriffs are chartered officers, to perform
certain fuits and fervices, in the king's name, within
the city of London and county of Middlefex, chofen
by the liverymen of the feveral companies on Midfum-
mer day. Their office, according to Cambden, in ge¬
neral, is to colleft the public revenues within their fe¬
veral jurifdiftions; to gather into the exchequer all
fines belonging to the crown ; to ferve the king’s writs
of procefs; to attend the judges, and execute their or¬
ders ; to impannel juries ; to compel headftrong and
obftinate men by the pojfe comitatus to fubmit to the
decifions of the law; and to take care that all condemned
criminals be duly punifljed and executed. In particu¬
lar, in London, they are to. execute the orders of the
common-council, when they have refolved to addrefs
his majefty, or to petition parliament.
The (heriffs, by virtue of their office, hold a court at
Gu Idhall every Wednefday and Friday, for aftions
entered at Wood-ftreet Compter; and on Thurfdays,
and Saturdays for thofe entered at the Poultry Comp¬
ter : of which the (heriffs being judges, each has his
affiftant, or deputy, who are called the judges of thofe
courts ; before whom are tried aftions of debt, tref-
y>afs,. covenant, &c, and where the teftimony of any
abfent witnefs in writing is allowed to be good evi- London.
dence. To each of thefe courts belong four attor.iies,  v—
who, upon their being admitted by the court of a'der-
men, have an oath adminiftered to them.
To each of thefe courts like wife belong a feeondary,
a clerk of the papers, a prothonotary, and four clerks-
fitters. The fecondary’s office is to allow and return
all writs brought to remove clerks out of the faid
courts; the clerk of the papers files and copies all
declarations upon aftions ; the prothonotary draws and
ingroffes all declarations; the clerk-fitters enter ac¬
tions and attachments, and take bail and verdifts. To
each of the compters, or prifons belonging to thefe
courts, appertain 16 ferjeants at mace, with a yeo¬
man to each, befides inferior officers, and the prifon-
keeper.
In the (heriffs court may be tried aftions of debt,
cafe, trefpafs, account, covenant, and all perfonal ac¬
tions, attachments, and fequeftrations. When an er¬
roneous judgment is given in either of the (heriffs
courts of the city, the writ of error to reverfe this
judgment muff be brought in the court of buffings be¬
fore the lord mayor; for that- is the fuperior court.
The (heriffs of London may make arrefts and ferve
executions on the river Thames.
We do not read of a recorder till the 1304, who, Re-‘)rdcr.
by the nature of his office, feems to have been intended
as an affiffant to, or affeffor with, the lord-mayor, in
the execution of his high office, in matters of juft ice
and law. He is chofen by the lord-mayor and aider-
men only; and takes place in all courts, and in the
common-council, before any one that hath not been
mayor. Of whom we have the following defeription
in one of the books of the chamber. “ He (hall be,
and is wont to be, one of the moft (kilful and virtuous
apprentices of the law of the whole kingdom ; whofe
office is always to fit on the right hand of the mayor,
in recording pleas, and palling judgments ; and by
whom records" and proceffes, had before the lord-
mayor and aldermen at Great St Martin’s, ought to be
recorded by word of mouth before the judges affigned
there to correft errors. The mayor and aldermen have
therefore ufed commonly to let forth all other bufi-
neffes, touching the city, before the king and his
council, as alfo in certain of the king’s courts, by Mr
Recorder, as a chief man, endued with wifdom, and
eminent for eloquence.”—Mr Recorder is looked up¬
on to be the mouth of the city, to deliver alladdreffes
to the king, &c. from the corporation ; and he is the
firff officer in order of precedence that is paid a
falary, which originally was no more than lol. Ster¬
ling per annum, with fome few perquifites ; but it has
from time to time been augmented to 10001. per an¬
num, and become the road to preferment in the law.
This office has fometimes been executed by a deputy. ^
The next chartered officer of this corporation is the Chamber-
chamberlain ; an office of great repute and truft, and lain,
is in the choice of the livery annually.. This officer,
though chofen annually on Midfummer-day, is never
difplaced during his life, except fome very great crime
can be made out againft him. He has the keeping of
the moneys, lands, and goods, of the city-orphans, or
takes good fecurity for the payment thereof when the
parties come to age. And to that end he is deemed,
in the law a foie corporation, to him and his fucccf-
{•rs*
LON [ 245 1 LON
London* fors, for orphans ; and therefore a bond or a recog-
-v nizance made to him and his fucceflbrs, is recoverable
by his fucceffors. This officer hath a court peculiarly
belonging to him. His office may be termed a public
treafury, colle&ing the cuftoms, moneys, and yearly
revenues, and all other payments belonging to the cor¬
poration of the city. It was cuftomary for government
to appoint the chamberlain' receiver of the land tax ;
but this has been difcontinued for feveral years pail.
Othcfof- The other officers under the lord-mayor are, x, The
fleers. common ferjeant. He is to attend the lord-mayor and
court of aldermen on court-days, and to be in council
with them on all occafions, within or without thepre-
cinfts or liberties of the city. He is to take care of
orphans eftates, either by taking account of them, or
to fign their indentures, before their paffing the lord-
mayor and court of aldermen. And likewife he is to
let, fet, and manage the orphans eftates, according to
his judgment, to the beft advantage. 2. The town-
clerk ; who keeps the original charter of the city, the
books, rolls, and other records, wherein are regiftered
the adts and proceedings of the city ; fo that he may
not be improperly termed the city-regifter: he is to
attend the lord-mayor and aldermen at their courts,
andfigns all public inftruments. 3. The city-remem¬
brancer; who is to attend the lord-mayoron certain days,
his bufinefs being to put his lordfhip in mind of the fe-
ledt days he is to go abroad with the aldermen, &c.
He is to attend daily at the parliament-houfe, during
the feffions, and to report to the lord-mayor their tranf-
adtions. 4. The fword-bearer; who is to attend the-
lord-mayor at his going abroad, and to carry the fword
before him, being the emblem of juftice This is an
ancient and honourable office, reprefenting the ftate
and princely office of the king’s moft excellent majefty,
in his reprefentative the lord-mayor ; and, according to
the rule of armory, “ He muft carry the fword up¬
right, the hilts being holden under his bulk, and the
blade diredlly up the midft of his breaft, and fo forth
between the fword-bearer’s brows.” 5. The common-
hunt ; whofe bulincfs it is to take care of the pack of
hounds belonging to the lord-mayor and citizens, and
to attend them in hunting in thofe grounds to which
they are authorifed by charter. 6. The common-crier.
It belongs to him and the ferjeant at arms, to fummon
all executors and adminiftrators of freemen to appear,
and to bring in inventories of the perfonal eftates of
freemen, within two months after their deceafe : and
he is to have notice of the appraifements. He is alfo
to attend the lord-mayor on fet days, and at the courts
held weekly by the mayor and aldermen. 7. The
water-bailiff; whofe office is to look after the prefer-
vation of the river Thames againft all encroachments ;
and to look after the fiftiermen for the prefervation of
the young fry, to prevent the deftroying them by un¬
lawful nets. For that end, there are juries for each
county, that hath any part of it lying on the fides or
ftiores of the faid river ; which, juries, fummoned by
the water-bailiff at certain times, do make inquiry of
all offences relating to the river and the fiih,. and make
their prefentments accordingly. He is alfo bound to
attend the lord-mayor on fet days in the week.—Thefe
feven pyrehafe their places ; except the town-clerk,
who is chofen by the livery.
There are. alfo.three ferjeant-carvers; three ferjeants
of the chamber ; a ferjeant of the channel: four yeo- London';
men of the water-fide ; an under water-bailiff; two *~~~J
yeomen of the chamber; two meal-weighters; two yeo¬
men of the wood wharfs; a foreign taker; city-mar dials.
There are befides thefe, feven gentlemens men; as, the
fword-bearer’s man, the common-hunt’s two men, the
common crier’s man, and the carver’s three men.
Nine of the foregoing officers have liveries of the
lord-mayor, viz. the fword-bearer and his man, the
thx-ee carvers, and the four yeomen of the water-
fide. All the reft have liveries from the chamber of
London.
The following officers are likewife belonging to the
city ; farmer of the markets, auditor, clerk of the
chamber, clerk to the commiflioners of the fewers,
clerk of the court of confcience, beadle of the fame
court, clerk of the city-works, printer to the city,
juftice of the Bridge-yard, clerk-comptroller of the
Bridge-houfe, fteward of the Borough, bailiff of the
Borough.
There is alfo a coroner, called fo from corona, i. e.
a crown, becaufe he deals principally with the crown,
or in matters appertaining to the imperial crown of
England. See the article Coroner.
Befides thefe officers, there are feveral courts in this
city for the executing of juftice, vi%. the court of hu-
ftings, lord-mayor’s court, &c. , In the city there are
alfo two fubordinate kinds of government. One exe¬
cuted by the alderman, deputy, and common-council
men, and their inferior officers, in each ward ; under
which form are comprehended all the inhabitants, free
or not free of the city. Every ward is therefore like
a little free date, and at the fame time fubjedl to the
lord-mayor as chief magiftrate of the city. The
houfekeepers of each ward elecl their reprefentatives,
the common-council, who join in making bye-laws for
the government of the city. The officers and fervants
of- each ward manage the affairs belonging to it, with¬
out the affiftance of the reft ; and each has a court call¬
ed the wardmote, as has been already deferibed, for
the management of its own affairs. The other, by the
matter, wardens, and court of affiftants, of the incor¬
porate companies; whofe power reaches no further
than over the members of their refpe&ive guilds or fra¬
ternities ; except that in them is invefted the power to
choofe reprefentatives in parliament for the city,' and all
thofe magiftrates and officers elefted by a'common-
hall ; " which companies are invefted with diftimft
powers, according to the tenor of their refpeCtive
charters. 4i
The military government of the city'' is lodged^in <a MUitaryy
lieutenancy, "confitting of the lord-mayor, aldermen, 8ovenl'1
and other principal citizens, who receive their autho-ment'
rity by a commiffion from the king.- Thofe. have un¬
der their command the city trained bands, confifting
of fix regiments of foot, diltinguiihed by the names of
the white, orange, yellow, blue, green, and red, each con¬
taining eight companies of 1.50 men, amounting in all
to 7200. Befides.thefe fix regiments, there is a corps
called the artillery company, from its being, taught the
military exercife in. the artillery-ground. This com¬
pany is independent of the reft, and confifts of 700 or
800 volunteers. All thefe, with two regiments of foot
of 800 men each commanded by the lieutenant of the
TWer of London, make the whole militia of this city;-
which,-.
LON [ 246 ] LON
London whicli, exclufive of Weftminftcr ■and the borough of
 ^ Southwark, amounts to about lopoo men.
Trading The trading part of the city of London is divided
companies, into 89 companies.; though fome of them can hardly be
called fo, becaufe diey have neither charters, halls, nor
liveries. Of thefe 89 companies 55 have each a hall
for tranfacting the bufmefs of the corporation ; and
this confifts of a mailer ox prime warden, a court of af-
fiftants, and livery.—Twelve of thefe' companies are
fuperior to the reft both in antiquity and wealth ; and
of one of thofe 12 the lord mayors have generally made
themfelves free at their election. Thefe companies are
the mercers, grocers, drapers, filh-mongers, goldfauths,
fkinners, merchant-taylors, haberdalhers, falters, iron¬
mongers, vintners, and clothworkers.—.The principal
incorporated focieties of tire merchants of this city are,
the Hamburgh Company, the Hudfon’s Bay Com¬
pany, the Ruffia Company, the Turkey Company,
the Eaft India Company, the Royal African Compa¬
ny, tire South Sea Company, and fome Infurance
Companies. The moll of thefe companies have flately
houfes for tranfa&ihg their bufinefs, particularly the
Eaft India and South Sea companies. See Companv.
The ftreets and public buildings in London and its
liberties being far too numerous for a particular de-
fcription in this work, we ihall only feledt the moll
remarkable, beginning with Lotuhn-Bridgc as the molt
ancient, and proceeding in our furvey through the
43 wards into which the city is divided.
Remark- I. Remarkable buildings, &c. in the City.—The en¬
able ftrects ginal bridge, which Hands in Bridge-ward, was of
ir^s'with- wo°d» an<* aPPears t0 have Been firll built between the
years 993 and 1016; but being burnt down about the
City. year 1136, it was rebuilt of wood in 1163. The ex-
pences, however, of maintaining and repairing it be¬
came fo burdenfome to the inhabitants of the city,
that they refolved to build a Hone-bridge a little welt-
ward of the wooden one. This building was begun in
1176, and finilhed in 1209; and was 915 feet long,
44 feet high, and 73 feet wide ; but houfes being
built on each fide, the fpace between was only 23
44 fe€t‘
London This great work was founded on enormous piles’
bridge. driven as clofely as poffible together: on their tops
were laid long planks 10 inches thick, ftrongly bolted;
and on them were placed the bafe of the pier, the
lowermoft Hones of which were bedded in pitch, to
prevent the water from damaging the work : round
all were the piles which were called the Jerlings, de-
figned for the prefervation of the foundation piles.
Thefe contracted the fpace between the piers fo great¬
ly^ as to occalion at the retreat of every tide a fall of
five feet, or a number of temporary cataradls, < which
fmee the foundation of the bridge have occafioned the London.
lofs of many thoufand lives. The number of arches  v—
was 19, of unequal dimenfions, and greatly deformed
by the fterlings and the houfes on each fide, which
Overhung and leaned in a moll terrific manner. In
moft places they hid the arches, and tiothing appeared
but the rude piers. Within recollection, frequent
arches of ftrong timber croffed the ftreet from the tops
of the houfes to keep them together, and from falling
into the river (a). Nothing but ufe could preferve
the quiet of the inmates, who foon grew deaf to the
noife of the falling waters, the clamours of watermen,
or the frequent Ihrieks of drowning wretches. In
one part had been a drawbridge, ufefol either by way
of defence or for the admiflion of ftiips into the upper
part of the river. This was protected by a ftrong
tower. It ferved to repulfe Fauconbridge the Ballard
in his general affault on the city in 1471, with a let
of banditti, under pretence of refeuing the unfortunate
Henry, then confined in the Tower. Sixty houfes
were burnt on the bridge on the occafion. It alfo
ferved to check, and in the end annihilate, the ill-con-
ducted infurredtion of Sir Thomas Wyat, in the reign
of Queen Mary. The top of this tower, in the fad
and turbulent days of this kingdom, ufed to be the
lhambles of human flelh, and covered with heads or
quarters of unfortunate partizans. Even folate as the
year 1598, Hentzner, the German traveller, with Ger¬
man accuracy, counted on it above 30 heads. The
old map of the city in 1597 reprefents them in a moft
horrible duller.—An unparalleled calamity happened
on this bridge within four years after it was finilhed,
A fire began on it at the Southwark end ; multitudes
of people rulhed out of London to extinguilh it; while
they were engaged in this charitable defign, the fire
feized on the oppolite end, and hemmed in the crowd.
Above 3000 perfons perilhed in the flames, or were
drowned by overloading the velfels which were hardy
enough to attempt their relief.
The narrownefs of the paffage on this bridge having
occafioned the lofs of many lives from the number of
carriages continually palling ; and the llraitnefs of the
arches, with the enormous iize of the llerlings, which
occupied one-fourth part of the water-way, having alfo
occafioned frequent and fatal accidents, as already
mentioned; the magillrates of London in 1756 ob¬
tained an act of parliament for improving and widen-
iiig the paifage over and through the bridge, which
granted them a toll for every carriage and horfe pafiing
over it, and for every veffel with goodspafling through
it : but thefe tolls proving xnfufficient, were abolilhed
by an a6t made in 1758 for explaining, amending, and
rendering the former aft more effectual; and for grant¬
ing the city of London money towards carrying on
that
(a) The gallant aftion of Edmund Olborne, anceftor to the duke of Leeds, when he was apprentice to Sir
William Hewet cloth-worker, may not improperly be mentioned in this place. , About the year 1 ^36, when
his mailer lived in one-of thofe tremendous houfes, a fervant-maid was playing with his only daughter in her
arms in a window over the water, and accidentally dropt the child. Young Oiborne, who was witnefs to the.
misfortune, inllantly fprang into the river, and, beyond all expectation, brought her fare to the terrified fa¬
mily ! Several perfons of rank paid their addreifes to her when the was marriageable, among others the earl of
Shrewlbury ; but Sir William gratefully decided in favour of Oiborne : OJborne, fays he, faved her, and OJborne
Jhall enjoy her. In her right he pofleffed a great fortune. He became flieriif of London in 1575, and lord-
mayor in 1582.
LON L 247 J LON'
London, that work. In confequence of thefe a£ts of parliament,
Wi.. a teiT1p0rary wooden bridge was built, and the houfes
on the old bridge were taken down. Inllead of a
narrow ftreet 2 3 feet wide, there is now a paflage of
31 feet for carriages, with a raifed. pavement of Hone
on each fide 7 feet broad for the ufe of foot paffen-
gers. The fides are fecured by ftone baluftrades, en¬
lightened in the night with lamps. The paffage thro’
the bridge is enlarged by throwing the two middle
arches into one, and by other alterations and improve¬
ments ; notwithftanding which, however, it is ftill
greatly fubject to its former inconveniences.—Under
the firft,. fecond, and fourth arches, from the north
fide of the bridge, and now likewile towards the fou-
thern extremity, there are engines worked by the flux
and reflux of. the river, the water of which they raife to
fuch a height as to fupply many parts of the city.
Thofe engines were contrived in 1582 by one Peter
Morice a Dutchman, and are called Landon-briclge
4S mater works.
The Mo. Near the north fide of London bridge Hands the
numei.c. Monument, a beautiful and magnificent fluted column
of the Doric order, built with Portland Hone, and e-
re&ed in memory of the conflagration' 1666. It was
begun by Sir ChriHopher Wren in 1671, and finifli-
ed by him in 1677. Its height from the pavement is
202 feet; the diameter of. the fhaft, or body of the
column, is 15 feet; the ground-plinth, or loweH part
of the pedeHal, is 28 feet fquare ; and the pedeHal is
40 feet high. Over the capital is an iron balcony en-
compafiing a cone 32 feet high, which fupports a bla*
zing urn of gilt brafs. Within is a large Hraircafe of
black marble, containing 345 Heps, each 10 inches
and a half broad, and fix inches thick. ,The wefi fide
is adorned with a curious emblem in alt-relief, denoting
the defiru&ion and reHoration of the city. The firH
female figure reprefents London fitting in ruins, in a
languifhing poHure, with her head dejected, her hair
difhevelled, and her hand carelefsly lying on her fwerd.
Behind is Time, gradually raifing her up: at her fide
is a woman touching her with one hand, whillt a wing¬
ed fceptre in the other direfts her to regard the god-
deffes in the clouds; one with a cornucopia, deno¬
ting Plenty; the other with a palm branch, the emblem
of Peace. At her feet is a bee-hive, ihowing, that by
indufiryand application the greateil misfortunes are to
be overcome. Behind the figure of Time are citizens
exulting at his endeavours to refiore her; and beneath,
in the midfi of the ruins, is a dragon, who, as the
fupporter of the city arms, with his paw endeavours to
preferve the fame. Oppofite to the city, on an ele¬
vated pavement, Hands the king, in a Roman habit,
with a laurel on his head, and a truncheon, in hi?
hand; and. approaching her, commands three of his
attendants to defcend to her relief. The firH repre¬
fents the Sciences with a winged head and circle of
naked boys dancing thereon; and holding Nature in
her hand, with her numerous breaHs, ready to give
afliHaaice to all. The fecond is ArchiteSure, with a
plan in one hand, and i'quare and a pair of compaffes
in the other; and the third is Liberty, waving a hat in
the air, fliowing her joy at the pleafing profpect of the
city’s fpeedy recovery. Behind the king Hands his
brother the duke of York, with a garland in one hand
to crown the riling city, and a fword in the other for
her defence. The two figures behind are JuJlice and London.,
Fortitude; the former with a coronet, and the latter
with a reined lion ; and under the royal pavement lies
Envy, gnawing a heart, and inceflantly emitting pefli-
ferous fumes from her mouth. On the plinth the re-
conliruction of the city is reprefeirt-ed by builders and
labourers at work upon houfes. On the. north, fouth,
, and eafi fides, are inferiptions relating to the defiruc-
tion occafioned by the conflagration, the regulations
about rebuilding the city, and creeling the monument;
and round it is the following one :—“ This pillar was
fet up in perpetual remembrance of the moH dreadful
burning of this ProteHant dty, begun and carried on
by the treachery and malice of the Popilh faction, in
the beginning of September, in the year of our Lord
1666, in order to their carrying on their horrid plot
for extirpating the ProteHant 'religion and old. Englifb
liberty, and introducing Popery and flavery.” Dr
Wendeborn, in his account of Loudon, obferves, that
the monument, though not much above 100 years old,
bears vifible marks of decay already ; and it wall not
probably be long before it mud be pulled down. Some
are of opinion that this is occaiioned by the fault of
the architect, others by the continual (baking of the
ground by coaches; but the Dotftor inclines to the
latter opinion.
EaHward of the bridge and monument Hands tlieTheTovjpl
Tower, which gives name to another ward. It is thr
chief fortrefs of the city, anc^fuppofed to have been
originally built by William the Conqueror. It ap¬
pears, however, to have been raifed upon the remains
of a, more ancient fortrefs, ere£ted probably by the Ro¬
mans : for in 1720, in. digging on; the fouth fide of
what is called C/rfar’s Chapel,, there were difeovered
fome old foundations of Hone,.three yards broad, a»d
fo flrongly cemented that it was with the utmoH dif¬
ficulty they were forced up. The firH work (accord¬
ing to Mr Pennant) feems to have.been fuddenly flung
up in ic66 by the Conqueror, on his taking poflefllon
of the capital; and included in it a part of the ancient
wall.
The great fquare tower, called the White Tower, was
eiedted in the year 1078, when it arofe under the di¬
rections of Gundulph bifhop of Rochefler, who was a
great military architect. This building originally Hood
by itfelf. Fitzflrephen gives it the name, of Arx Pa~
latino, “ the Palatine Tower;” the commander of which
had the title of Palatine bellowed on him. Within
this tower is a very ancient chapel for the ufe of fuch
of our kings and queens who wiihed to pay their de-‘
votion here. In 1092 a violent tempell did great in¬
jury to the Tower; but it was repaired by William
Rufus and his fucceflbr. The firfl added another ca-
Hellated building on the fouth fide between it and the
Thames, which was afterwards called St Thomas’s
Tower.
The Tower was firft inclofed by William- Long-
champ, bilhop of Ely and chancellor of England, in
the reign of Richard I. This haughty prelate having
a quarrel with John, third brother to Richard, under
pretence of guarding againfi his, defigns, furrounded
the whole with walls embattled, and made on the out-
fide a vaft ditch, into which, in after times, the water
from the Thames was introduced. Different princes,
added other works. The prefent contents within the
walls
•LON [ 248 ] LON
London, walls arc 12 acres and 5 rods, the circuit on the out-
***“—n— fide of the ditch 1052 feet. It was again inclofed
with a mud-wall by Henry III. this was placed at a
diftance from the ditch, and occafioned the taking
down part of the city-wall, which was refented by the
citizens; who, pulling down this precinft of mud,
■were puniflied by the king with a fine of a thoufand
tnerks.
The Lions Tower was built by Edward IV. it was
originally called the Bulwark^ but received the former
name from its ufe. A menagery had very long been
a piece of regal ftate: Henry I. had his at his manor
of Woodftock, where he kept lions, leopards, lynxes,
porcupines, and feveral other uncommon beads. They
were afterwards removed to the Tower. Edward II.
commanded the flieriffs of London to pay the keepers
of the king’s leopards fixpence a day for the fufte-
nance of the leopards, and three halfpence a day for
the diet of the keeper out of the fee-farm of the city.
The royal menagery is to this day exceedingly well
fupplied.
In 1758 the Tower-ditch was railed all round. New
barracks were fome years ago erected on the Tower-
wharf, which parts it from the river; and upon the
wharf is a line of 61 pieces of cannon, which are fired
upon ftate holidays. On this fide of the Tower the
ditch is narrow, and over it is a draw-bridge. Parallel
to the wharf, within the walls, is a platform 70 yards
in length, called the Ladies Line, becaufe much fre¬
quented by the ladies in the fummer; it being fhaded
in the infide with a row of lofty trees, and without it "
is a delightful.profpeA of the ftiipping with boats paf-
fing and repafling on the river Thames. You afcend
this line by ftone fteps, and being once upon it you
may walk almoft round the walls of the Tower without
interruption.
The principal entrance into the Tower is by a gate
to the weft, large enough to admit coaches and heavy
carriages; but thefe are firft admitted through an out¬
ward gate, fituated without the ditch upon the hill,
and muft pafs a ftout ftone-bridge built over the ditch
before they can approach the main entrance. There
is, befides, an entrance near the very fouth-weft corner
of the Tower outward wall, for perfons on foot, over
the draw-bridge already mentioned to the wharf.
There is alfo a water-gate, commonly called Traitor's
gate, through which it has been cuftomary to convey
traitors and other ftate-prifoners to or from the Tower,
and which is feldom opened on any other occafion;
but the lords committed to the Tower in 1746 were
publicly admitted at the main entrance. Over this gate
is a regular building, terminated at each end by two
round towers, on which are embrafuces for pointing
cannon. In this building there are the infirmary, the
mill, and the water-works that fupply the Tower with
water.
In the Tower (the curiofities of which are more
particularly defcribed in the note (b), are a church,
the
(b) In examining the curiofities of the Tower of London, it will be proper to begin with thofe on the
outfide of the principal gate. The firft thing a ftranger ufuallygoes to vifit is the wild beafts; which, from their
fituation, firft prefent themfelves : for having entered the outer gate, and pafled what is called the fpur-guard,
the keeper’s houfe prefents itfelf before you, which is known by a painted lion on the wall, and another over
the door which leads to their dens. By ringing a bell, and paying fixpence each perfon, you may eafily gain
admittance.
The next place worthy of obfervation is the Mint, which comprehends near one-third of the Tower, and
contains houfes for all the officers belonging to the coinage. On paffing the principal gate you fee the White
Tower, built by William the Conqueror. This is a large, fquare, irregular ftone building, fituated almoft
In the centre, no one fide anfwering to another, nor any of its watch-towers, of which there are four at the
top, built alike. One of thefe towers is now converted into an obfervatory. In the firft ftory are two noble
rooms, one of which is a fmall armoury for the fea-fervice, it having various forts of arms, very eurioufly laid
up, for above 10,000 feamen. In the other room are many clofets and preffes, all filled with warlike engines
and inftruments of death. Over this are two other floors, one principally filled with arms ; the other with-
arms and other warlike inftruments, as fpades, fhovels, pick-axes, and chevaux de frize. In the upper ftory
are kept .match, fheep-fkins, tanned hides, &c. and in a little room called Julius Csefar’s chapel, are depofited
fome records, containing perhaps the ancient ufages and cuftoms of the place. In this building are alfo pre-
ferved the models of the new-invented engines of deftrudtion that have from time to time been prefented to
the government. Near the fouth-weft angle of the White Tower is the Spanifh armoury, in which are de¬
pofited the fpoils of what was vainly called the Invincible Armada ; in order to perpetuate to lateft pofterity
the memory of that fignal victory obtained by the Englifh over the whole naval power of Spain in the reign
fif Philip II.
You a^e now come to the grand ftore.-houfe, a noble building to the northward of the White Tower, that
extends 245 feet in length and 60 in breadth. It was begun by king James II. who built it to the firft floor ;
but it was finifhed by king William III. who erefted that magnificent room called the New or Small Ar¬
moury, in which that prince, with queen Mary his confort, dined m great form, having all the warrant work¬
men and labourers to attend them, drefled in white gloves and aprons, the ufual badges of the order of ma-
fonry. To this noble room you are led by a folding door, adjoining to the eaft end of the Tower chapel,
which leads to a grand ftair-cafe of 50 eafy fteps. On the left fide of the uppermoft landing-place is the
work-fhop, in which are conftantly employed about 14 furbifhers, in cleaning, repairing, and new-placing the
arms. On entering the armoury, you fee what they call a wildernefs of arms, fo artfully difpofed, that at
one view you behold arms for near 80,000 men, all bright, and fit for fervice ; a fight which it is impoflible
•to behold without afteniftunent; and befide thofe expofed to view, there were, before the late war, 16 chefts
N° 187. 1 &ut
LON [ 449 1 LON
London, the offices of ordnance and of the mint, thofe of the a conftable, a lieutenant, and a dcputy-lieutenitit. Be. i
in—'y 1 .i.- keepers of the records, of the jewel-office, of the longing to this fortrefs are eleven hamlets ; the militia v
Spaniffi armoury, the horfe armoury, and the new or of which, confiding of 400 men, are obliged, at the
fmall armoury; with barracks for the foldiers of the command of the conftable of the Tower, to repair
garrifon, and handfome houfes for feveral officers who hither, and reinforce the garrifon. 47
refide here. The principal officers of the Tower are, On Little Tower-hill is the Vidualling-ojfia for the Victualling
Vou X. Part I. li navy. Office.
fhut up, each cheft holding about 100c mullets. The arms were originally difpofed by Mr Harris, who con¬
trived to place them in this beautiful order, both here and in the guard chamber of Hampton-court. He wan
a common gunfmith ; but after he had performed this work, which is the admiration of people of all nations*
he was allowed a penfion from the crown for his ingenuity.
Upon the ground floor, under the fmall armoury, is a large room of equal dtmenfions with that, fupportcd
by 20 pillars, all hung round with implements of war. This room, which is 24 feet high, has a pafiage iu
the middle 16 feet wide. At the fight of fuch a variety of the moft dreadful engines of deftruCtion, before
whofe thunder the moft fuperb edifices, the nobleft works of art, and numbers of the human fpecies, fall to¬
gether in one common and undiftinguilhed ruin ; one cannot help wifhing that thofe homble inventions had
ftill lain, like a falfe conception, in the womb of nature, never to have been ripened into birth.
The horfe armoury is a plain brick-building, a little to the eaftward of the White Tower; and is an edi¬
fice rather convenient than elegant, where the fpeefator is entertained with a reprefentation of thofe kings and
heroes of our Own nation, with whofe gallant adlions it is to be fuppofed he is well acquainted ; fome of them
equipped and fitting on horfeback, in the fame bright and fhining armour they were ufed to wear when they
performed thoie glorious aftions which gave them a diftinguifhed place in the Britifti annals.
You now come to the line of kings, which your conductor begins by reverfing the order of chronology ;
fo that in following them we muft place the laft firft.
In a dark, ftrong ftone room, about 20 yards to the eaftward of the grand ftorehoufe, or new armoury,
the crown jewels are depofited. 1. The imperial crown, with which it is pretended that all the kings of
England have been crowned fince Edward the Confeflbr in 1040. It is of gold, enriched with diamonds,
rubies, emeralds, fapphires, and pearls: the cap within is of purple velvet, lined with white taffety, turned
tip with three rows of ermine. They are, however, miftaken in ftiowing this as the ancient imperial diadem
®f St Edward: for that, with the other moft ancient regalia of this kingdom, was kept in the‘arched room
in the cloifters in Weftminfter Abbey till the civil war; when, in 1642, Harry Martin, by order of the
parliament, broke open the iron cheft in which it was fecured, took it thence, and fold it, together with the
robes, fword, and feeptre, of St Edward. However, after the Reftoration, king Charles II. had one made
in imitation of it, which is that now ftiown. 2. The golden orb, or globe, put into the king’s right hand
before he is crowned ; and borne in his left hand, with the feeptre in his right, upon his return into Weftmin-
fter-hall after he is crowned. It is about fix inches in diameter, edged with pearl, and enriched with pre¬
cious ftones. On the top is an ametkyft, of a violet colour, near an inch and an half in height, fet with a
rich drofs of gold, adorned with diamonds, pearls, and precious ftones. The whole height of the ball and
cup is ix inches. 3. The golden feeptre, with its crofs fet upon a large amethyft of great value, garniftied
round with table diamonds. The handle of the feeptre is plain, but the pummel is fet round with rubies, eme¬
ralds, and fmall diamonds. The top rifes into a fleur de Its of fix leaves, all enriched with preciou . ftones,.
from whence iflues a mound or ball, made of the amethyft already mentioned. The crofs is quite covered
with precious ftones. 4. The feeptre, with the dove, the emblem of peace, perched on the top of a fmall
Jerufalem crofs, finely ornamented with table diamonds and jewels of great value. This emblem was firft ufed
by Edward the Confeflbr, as appears- by his feal; but the ancient feeptre and dove was fold with the reft of
the regalia, and this now in the Tower was made after the Reftoration. 5. St Edward’s ftaff, four feet fever*
inches and an half in length, and three inches three quarters in circumference, all of beaten gold, which is
carried before the king at his coronation. 6. The rich crown of ftate, worn by his. majefty in parliament *
in which is a large emerald feven inches round; a pearl efteemed the fineft in the world; and a ruby of inefti-
.mable value. 7. The crown belonging to his royal highnefs the prince of Wales. The king wears his crown
on his head when he fits upon the throne; but that of the prince of Wales is placed before him, to (how that
he is not yet come to it. 8. The late queen Mary’s crown, globe, and feeptre, with the diadem fhe wore
at her coronation with her confort king William III. 9. An ivory feeptre, with a dove on the top, made
for king James II.’s queen, whofe garniture is gold, and the dove on the top gold enamelled with white,
zo. The curtana, or fword of mercy, which has a blade of 32 -inches long, and near two broad, is without
a point, and is borne naked before the king at his coronation, between the two fwords of juftice, fpiritual
and temporal. 11. The golden fpurs, and the armillas, which are bracelet:- for the wrifts. Thefe, though
very antique, are worn at the coronation. 12. ampulla, or eagle of gold, finely engraved, which holds
the holy oil the kings and queens of England are anointed with ; and the golden fppon that the bifliop pours
the oil into. Thefe are two pieces of great antiquity. The golden eagle, including the pedeftal, is about
nine inches high, and the wings expand about feven inches. The whole weighs about ten ounces. The head
of the eagle ferews off about the middle of the neck, which is made hollow, for holding the holy oil; and
vrhen the king is anointed by the bifhop, the oil is poured into the fpoo* out of the bird’s bill. 13. A rich
*■ faltfeller
LON f 250 ] LON
I, an don. navy. It is feparated'from Tower-hilt by a wall and
* ' 1 gate, and contains houfes for the officers, flaughter-
houfes, ftore-rooms, a brew-houfe, a falting-houfe,
and a barrelling-houfe ; under the direction of feven
48 commiffioners and other inferior officers.
Cuftom- In Tower ward is alfo the Cujlom houfe, a large,
houfe^ handfome, and commodious building of brick and ftone.
It ftands upon the bank of the Thames, and is ac¬
commodated with large wharfs, keys, and ware-houfes.
On this fpot is the bufy concourfe of all nations, who
pay their tribute towards the fupport of Great Bri¬
tain. About the year 1559, the lofe to the revenue,
by collecting it in different parts of the city, was firft
difcovered, and an aft pafled to compel people to land
their goods in fuch places as were appointed by the
commiffioners of the revenue ; and this was the fpot
fixed on : A cuftom-houfe was erefted ; which, being
destroyed by the great fire, was rebuilt by Charles II.
In 1718 it underwent the fame fate, and was reftored
in its prefent form. Before the cuftom-houfe was
cftablifiied here, the principal place for receiving the
duties was at Biffingfgate. In 1268 the half year’s
euftoms for foreign merchandife in the city of London
came only to L.75; 6: JO; the annual produce of
the cuftoms, ending in April 1789, amounted to
49 L.3,711,126.
Trinity In Water-lane, a little to the north-weft of the
Houfe. cuftom-houfe, is the Trinity-houfe; a fociety founded in
1515, at a period in which the Britifh navy began to
affurne a fyftem. The founder was Sir Thomas Spert
comptroller of the navy, and commander of the
great ftip Henry Grace de Dieu. It is a corpora¬
tion, confifting of a matter, four wardens, eight af-
fiftants, and eighteen elder brethren; felefted from
commanders in the navy and the merchants fervice;
and now and then a compliment is paid to one or
two of our firft nobility. They may be confidered as
guardians of our (hips, military and commercial.
Their powers are very extenlive : they examine the ma¬
thematical children of Chrift’s hofpital, and the mafters London,
of his majefty’s fliips ; they appoint pilots for the river  v~—1
Thames ; fettle the general rates of pilotage ; ereft
light-houfes and fea-marks; grant licences to poor
feamen, not free of the city, to row on the Thames ;
prevent foreigners from ferving on board our ihips
without licence ; puniih feamen for mutiny and defer-
tion ; hear and determine complaints of officers and
men in the merchants fervice, but liable to appeal to
the judge of the court of admiralty , fuperintend the
deepening and cleanfing of the river Thames, and
have under their jurifdiftion the ballaft-office ; have
powers to buy lands, and receive donations for chari¬
table ufes ; and, in confequence, relieve annually many
thoufands of poor feamen, their widows, and orphans.
It is in this houfe the bufinefs of the inttitution is
carried on : but the mother-houfe is at Deptford, the
corporation being named, “ the matter, wardens, and
affiftants of the guild or fraternity of the moll glori¬
ous and undivided Trinity, and of St Clement, in
the parifh of Deptford Strond, in the county of
Kent.”
Between Aldgate and the Towner is the ftreet called The^M*.
the Mlnoriesy from fome poor ladies of the order ofnorks.
St Clare, or minorelfes. They had been invited to
London by Blanch queen, of Navarre, and wife to Ed¬
mund earl of Lancafter, who founded a convent for
them in 1293. On the fuppreffion of the monafteries,
it was converted into a dwelling-houfe for fome of the
nobility, and is now in the poffeffion of the Dartmouth
family. Till of late years, the Minories were but a
defpicable'ftreet; but have now been excellently re-,
built, and are as elegant as any in the city.
On the weft fide of the city-walls at this place, flood,
the houfe of the Crutched or Crojfed Friars, an order
inftituted at Bologna in 1169, and of which a branch
fettled in England in 1244, where they ware accom¬
modated with an houfe in this place by two citizens
named Ralph Hofier and William Sabernas, who became
members.
faltfeller of ftate, in form like the fquare White Tower, and fo exquifitely wrought, that the w'orkmanlhip
of modern times is in no degree equal to it. It is of gold, and ufed only on the king’s table at the corona¬
tion. 14. A noble filver font, double gilt, and elegantly wrought, in which the royal family are chriflened.
ty. A large filver fountain, prefented to king Charles II. by the town of Plymouth, very curioufly wrought;
but much inferior in beauty to the above. Befides thefe, which are commonly fhown, there are in the jewel office
all the crown jewels worn by the princes and princefles at coronations, and a great variety of curious old plate.
The record office confifts of three rooms, one above another, and a large round room, where the rolls are
kept. Thefe are all handfomely wainfcotted, the wainfcot being framed into preffes round each room,,
within which are ftielves and repofitories for the records; and for the eafier finding of them, the year of each
reign is infcribed on the infide of tbefe preffes, and the records placed accordingly. Within thefe preffef>
which amount to 56 in number, are depofited all the rolls, from the firft year of the reign of king John to the
beginning of the reign of Richard III. but thofe after this laft period are kept in the Rolls Chapel. The records
in the Tower, among other things, contain the foundation of abbeys and other religious houfes; the ancient
tenures of all the lands in England, with a furvey of the manorsthe original of laws and ftatutes ; proceed¬
ings of the courts of common law and equity ; the rights of England to the dominion of the Britifh feas;
leagues and treaties with foreign princes; the atchievements of England in foreign wars; the fettlement of
Ireland, as to law and dominion ; the forms of fubmiffion of fome Scottifh. kings for temtories held in Eng¬
land ; ancient, grants of our kings to their fubjefts ; privileges and immunities granted to cities and corpora¬
tions during the period above mentioned; inrolments of charters and deeds.made before the Conqucft;. the
bounds of all the- forefls in England, with the feyeral refpeftive fights of the inhabitants to common pafture*
and many other important records, all regularly difpofed, and referred to in near a thoufand folio indexes.
This office is kept open, and attendance conftantly given,, from feven o’clock till one, except in the months
of December,.'January, and February, when it. is open only from eight to one, Sundays and holidays ex?
cepted. A fearch here is half a. guinea, for which you may perufe any one fubjeft a year.
L O N
t;0hilot5. tjiemfcei's of their order. Henry VIII. granted their
^ ■> 1 houfe to Sir Whomas Wyatt the elder, who built a
Indif Com handfome manlion on part of the ground where it
pany’s ftood. This manfion became afterwards the refidence
watthoufes. of John Lord Lumley, a celebrated warrior in the
time of Henry VIII. In procefs of time, it was con¬
verted into a navy-office : but this office being remo¬
ved to Somerfet-houfe, the India Company have erec¬
ted in its place a moll magnificent warehoufe, in form
of an oblong fquare of about 250 feet by 160, inclo-
fing a court of 150 by 60 feet, the entrance to which
is by an arched gateway.
Billitigfgate Billingfgate ward is diftinguifhed by its market.
BiHingfgate was a fmall port for the reception of ffiip-
ping, and for a confiderable time the moll important
place for the landing of almolt every article of com¬
merce. In the time of King William, Billingfgate
began to be celebrated as a filh-market. In 1699 it
v as by a6t of parliament made a free port for fiffi to
be fold there every day except Sunday ; but Mr Pen¬
nant informs us, that the objeft of this has long been
fruftrated, and that filh are now no longer to be had
there in perfeftion. The fame author gives a lift of
the fifh which in the time of Edward III. were
brought to the London market; the monarch himfelf
having condefcended to regulate the prices, that his
fubje&s might not be impofed upon by thofe who
fold them. Among thefe were the conger-eel and
porpoife, neither of which is now admitted to any
table. A pike at that time coft 6s. 8d.; whence cur
author concludes, that it was an exotic fifh, and brought
over at a vaft expence. Some filhes are mentioned in
his lift with which this naturalift owns himfelf unac¬
quainted, viz., the barkey, bran, balrile, cropling, and
rumb. In Archbilhop Nevill’s great feaft is mention¬
ed alfo a fiih named thirle-poole, unknown at prefent.
Seals were formerly accounted a fifh ; and thefe, toge¬
ther with the fturgeon and porpoife, were the only frelh
filh permitted by the 33d of Henry VIII. to be bought
of any ft ranger at fea between England, France, Flan-
<3 derg, and Zealand.
'Leatienhall. Limeftreet ward is remarkable for a very large build-
ing, of great antiquity, called Leadenhall, with fiat
battlements leaded on the top, and a fpacious fquare
in the middle. In 1309 it was the houfe of Sir Hugh
Nevil knight; in 1384, of Humphry Bohun Earl
of Hereford; in 1408 it became the property of the
celebrated Whittington, who prefented it to the mayor
and commonalty of London ; and in 1419, a public
granary was eredted here by Sir Simon Eyre, a cf*
tizen and draper, who built it with ftone in its pre¬
fent form. This granary was defigned as a preferva-
tive againft famine, and to be kept always full of
corn which defign was for fome time happily anfwered.
The houfe came to be tried for many other purpofes be-
fides that of a granary ; as for keeping the artillery and
arms of the city. Preparations for any kind of pageantry
or triumph were alfo made here; and from its ftrength
the place was confidered as the chief fortrefs within ’
the city in cafe of any popular infurreftion, and was
likewife the place from whence alms were diftributed.
In this edifice are warehoufes for the fale of leather, Col-
L 0 N
chefter ba*ze, meal, and wool. Adjoining to Leaden * Bonds*.<
hall is a market, thence called LeaJenhafl market, con-
filling of five confiderable fquares or courts, and rec¬
koned one of the greateft markets in Europe for fie fit
and other provifions, as well as for leather, green hides,
and wool. A little to the eaftward js the India-houfe, The India-
built in 1726, on the fpot occupied by Sir William ^oufc*
Craven, mayor in 1610. According to Mr Pennant,
this houfe “ is not worthy of the lords of Indoftan.”
In Broadftreet is the Bank.of England, a ftone build- Bank or
ing, which occupies one fide of Three-needle ftreet. England.
The centre, and the building behind, were founded
in the year 1733 ; the architeft George Sampfon.
Before that time the bufinefs was tranfafted in Gro-
cers-hall. The front is a fort of veltibule ; the bafc
ruftic, the ornamental columns above Ionic. Within
is a court leading to a fecond elegant building, which
contains a hall and offices, where the debt of above
250 millions is punctually difcharged. Of late year:*
two wings of uncommon elegance, defigned by Sir
Robert Taylor, have been added, at the expence of
a few houfes, and of the church of St Chriftopher’s
le Stocks. “ The name of the projeftor of this national
glory (fays Mr Pennant), was Mr James Paterfon of
Scotland. This palladium of our country was 111
1780 faved from the fmy of an infamous banditti
by the virtue of its citizens, who formed fuddenly a
volunteer company, and over-awed the mifcreants;
while the chief magiftrate ikulked, trembling in his
manfion-houfe, and left his important charge to its
fate. This important building has ever fince been
very properly guarded by the military ; who, in paf-
fing through the city, have often given offence to
many bufy characters who would ftrive to preferve the
city rights at the expence of the national deftruCtion.
A lord mayor was the laft who interefted himfelf by-
applying to Mr Grenville, who gave him to under-
ftand, that if the guards were not quietly permitted
to difcharge their duty, the bank would be removed
to Somerfet-houfe.”
At the extremity of Three-needle ftreet is Mer- Merchant-
chant-Taylors Hall. In this ftreet alfo is the South-Sea
Houfe, firft eftablifhed in 1711 for the purpofe of an Ha ’ c*
exclufive trade to the South Sea, and for fupplying
Spanifh America with negroes.
Near the junCtion of Throgmorton ftreet with
Broad-ftreet ftood a magnificent houfe built by Crom¬
well earl of Effex ; after whole fall, the houfe and
gardens were bought by the Drapers company. The
houfe was deftroyed in the great fire, but rebuilt for
the ufe of the company in a magnificent manner.
Mr Pennant informs us, that St Giles's church in the St GilesV
fields, and a few houfes to the weft of it, in the year
1600, was barely feparated from Broad-ftreet. The
church is fuppofed to have belonged to an hpfpital for le¬
pers, founded about the year 1117, by Matilda queen to
Henry I. In ancient times it was cuftomary here to
prefent to malefaCtors, on their way to the gallows
(which, about the year 1413, was removed from
.Smithfield, and placed between St Giles’s high-ftreet
and Hog-lane (c), a great bowl of ale, as the laft re-
frelhment they were to receive in this life. On
I a 2 the
[ 25' 1
{•c) 1 his late place of execution, according to Mr Pennant, was called*in the time of Edward III. when
the
58 n
"Winchcfte:
iioufc.
LON [ 252 ] LON
tVie do»r t® the church-yard is a curious piece of tizens, in compliance with Sir Thomas’s defire, pur- London,
fculpture, reprefenting the lalt day, containing an chafed, for the fum of L. 35.32, 80 houfes in the two 1 » {.
amazing number of figures, fet up about the year alleys called Nanu St Chri/lopher’s, and Swan-alley, lead-
1686. This church was rebuilt in 1625. By the ing out of Cornhill into Three-needle ftreet. The
amazing raifing of the ground by filth and vari- materials of thofe houfes were fold for L. 478, and the
pus adventitious matter, the floor in the year 1730 ground, when cleared, was conveyed to Sir Thomas
was eight feet below the furface acquired in the Grefliam, who, accompanied by feveral aldermen, laid
intervening time. This alone made it neceffary the firfi: brick of the new building on the 7th of June
to rebuild the church in the prefent century. The that year. Each alderman alfo laid his brick, and
firft ftone was laid in 1730; it was finifhed in 1734, left a piece of gold for the workmen ; who fet about
at the expence of io,oool.—In the church-yard is a it with fuch afiiduity and refolution, that the whole
great fquare pit, with many rows of coffins piled one fabric was roofed by the month of November 1567,
upon the other, all expofedto fight and fmell, the lat- and was foon after completed under the name of the
ter of which is highly offenfive if not dangerous. Burfe. This building was totally deftroyed by the
On the weft fide of Broad-ftreef flood the houfe of fire in 1666 ; and in its place the prefent magnificent
the Auguftines, founded by Humphrey Bohun Earl ffrufture was erefted at the expence of L. 80,000,
of Somerfet in 1253, for friars and hermits of the which Hands upon a plat of ground 203 feet in length
' Auguftine order. On the diflblution of the mo- and 171 in breadth, containing an area in the middle,
nafteries, great part of the houfe was granted to of 61 fquare perches, furrounded with a fubftantial
William Lord -St John, afterwards Marquis of Win- and regular ftone building, wrought in ruftic. It has
chefter, and Lord Treafurer, who founded a mag- two fronts, north and fouth, each of which is a piaz-
nificent houfe named W'mchejler-houfe. The weft za ; and in the centre are the grand entrances into
end of the church was granted'in 1551 to John a the area, under a very lofty and noble arch. The
Lafco for the life of the Germans and other fugi- fouth front in Cornhill is the principal; on each fide
tive Proteftants, and afterwards to the Dutch as a of which are Corinthian demi-columns, fupporting a
place for preaching. A part of it was alfo converted, compafs pediment; and, in the intercolumniation on
into a glafs-houfe for Venice glafs, in which the ma- each fide, in the front next the ftceet, is a niche, with
nufa&ure was carried on by artifts from that city, the ftatues of King Charles I. and II. in Roman ha-
b;ts, and well executed. Over the aperture, on the
cornice between the two pediments, are the king’s
relievo : on each fide of this entrance is a
and patronifed by the Duke of Buckingham. The
place was afterwards converted into Pinners-hall, be¬
longing to the company of pin-makers.
C5rdham
College.
60
Excife-
©ffice.
Royal Ex-
ckange.
To the eaftward of Winchefter-llreet ftood the houfe range of windows placed between demi-columns, and
of that very' eminent merchant Sir Thomas Grefhham, pilafters of the compofite order, above which runs a
afterwards known by the name of Grejlaam college : (See baluftrade. This building is 56 feet high : and from
Gresham.) It has been pulled down not many years the celrtre, in this front, rifes a lanthorn and turret
ago ; and the Exafe Office, a moft magnificent and 178 feet high, on the top of which is a fane of gift
at the fame time fimple building, rofe in its place, brafs made in the ftiape of a grafshopper, the crelt
Mr Pennant informs us, that from the 5th of January of Sir Thomas Grefham’s arms. The north front in
J 786 tq January 5th 1787, the payments into this of- Three-needle-ftreet is adorned with pilafters of the
fice amounted to no lefs than L. 5,531,114 : 6 : 10L compofite order; but has neither columns nor ftatue*
The Royal Exchange, which is the meeting-place of on the outfide; and has triangular; inftead of com-
the merchants of London, Hands in the ward of pafs, pediments. The infide of the area is alfo fur-
Cornhill, and is the fineft and ftrongeft fabric of rounded with piazzas, forming ambulatories for mer-
the kind in Europe. It was founded in the year chants, Sec. to ftielter themfelves from the weather,
1566. Sir Thomas Grelham, merchant in London, when met there upon bufinefs. Above the arches
made an offer to the lord mayor and citizens, to build, of this piazza is an entablature with curious orna.
at his own cxpence, a commodious edifice for mer- ments; and on the cornice a range of pilafters with
chants to meet and tranfadl bufinefs, provided the city an entablature extending round, and a compafs pedi-
would find him a convenient fituation for the fame, ment in the middle of the cornice of each of the four
Mr Pennant informs us, that one Richard Clough a fides. Under the pediment on the north fide are the
Welfhman, originally Sir Thomas’s fervant, firft put king’s arms; and the fouth, the city’s arms; on the
him on this defign by a letter from Antwerp, in which eaft, Sir Thomas Grefham’s arms ; and on the weft,
he reproached the London merchants with having no the mercer’s arms, with their refpedlive enrichments^
place to tranfaft their bufmefs, but walking about in In thefe intercolumns are 24 niches, 20 of which are
the rain, more like pedlars than merchants. The ci- filled, with the ftatues of the kings and queens of Eng¬
land.
the gentle Mortimer finilhed his days here, the Elms: but the original as well as the prefent name was Tj"
bourne ; not from, tye and burn, as if it were called fo from the manner of capital punifhments ; but from bourne,
the Saxon word for a “ brook,” and Tye the name of that brook, which joined gave name to a manor before
the conqueft. Here was alfo a village and church denominated St John the Evangelijl, which fell to decay,,
and was fucceeded by that of Mary bourne, corrupted into Mary-la-bonne. In 1626, Queen Henrietta
Maria was compelled by her priefts to take a walk by way of penance to Tyburn. What her offence was
we are not told ; but Charles was $0 difgufted at this infolcnce, that he foon after fent them and all her ma?-
jefty's French fervants out of the kingdom.
LON t 2JJ ] LON
^aru’en. land. Under thcfe piazzas, within the area, are ?8 cut in relievo, refting his right hand on a fhield with
niches, all vacant but that in which Sir Thomas Gref- the arms of France and England quartered, and hold- '
ham’s ftatue is placed in the north-weft angle, and ing a rofe in his left hand. On the north fide is
that in the fouth-weft, where the ftatue of Sir John another cupid fupporting a fhield with the arms of
Barnard was placed in his lifetime by his fellow-citi- Ireland ; and on the eaft fide are the arms of Scot-
zens to exprefs their fenfe of his merit. The centre land, with a cupki holding a thiftle ; all done in re-
of this area alfo is ornamented with a ftatue of King lievo: the whole executed by that able ftatuary Mr
Charles II. in a Roman habit, Handing upon a marble Gibbon.
pedeftal about eight feet high, and encompalfed with In this area, merchants, and fuch as have bufinefs
iron rails ; which pedeftai is enriched on the fouth with them, meet every day at change hours; and for
fide with an imperial crown, a fceptre, fword, palm- the more regular^and readier difpatch of bufinefs, they
branches, and other decorations, with a very flattering difpofe of themfelves into feparate walks, according’
tafcription to the king. On the weft fide is a cupid to the following plan.
Eaft country
walk.
Threadneedle-ftreet.
Irifh
walk.
Silkmens
walk.
Turkey
walk.
Clothiers
walk.
Hamburgh
walk.
Scotch Dutch and
walk. Jewellers.
Salters
walk.
Grocers
and
Druggifts
walk.
Virginia
walk.
Jamaica
walk.
Brokers
of Stock,
&c. walk.
Italian
walk.
Spanifh
walk.
Jews
walk.
South.
Tii building this expenfive ftrufture there was an eye
Rot only to magnificence, and to accommodate the
merchant?, but alfo to reimburfe the expence. For
this reafon a gallery was built over the four fides of
the royal exchange. This was divided into 200 fhops,
which were let out to haierdalhers, milliners, See. and
which for feveral years were well occupied. But thefe
Ihops have now for a long time been deferted, and the
galleries are let out to the Royal Exchange Afiur&nce-
office, the Merchant-feamens office, the Marine So¬
ciety, and to auftioneers, ,&c. Under the whole area
there are the fineft dry vaults that can be found any
where, which are let out to the Eaft India company to
depofit their pepper. In the turret is a good clock
with four dials, which is well regulated ever day, fo
that it becomes a ftandard of time to all the mercan¬
tile part of the town ; and it goes with chimes at
three, fix, nine, and twelve o’clock, playing upon
twelve bells. The outfide of this grand fabric fuffers
very much in its elegance from the (hops that furround
it, and are built within its walls; and which are occur
pied by bookfellers, toymen, cutlers, hofiers, watchr
(jl makers. See.
General South of-the Royal-exchange, and near the weft
F&ft-Ofice. extremity of Lombard-ftreet, is the GeneralPojl OJke,
which is a handfome and commodious building.
In Walbrook ward is the Manjion-boufe, for the re-The Man*
fidence of the lord-mayor. This edifice was begun in Gon-houf^
1739, and finilhed in 1753. H 1® built of Portland
ftone, with a portico of fix fluted columns, of the
Corinthian order, in the front. The bafement ftory
Js very mafly, and confifts of ruftic work; in the centre
of it is the door, which leads to the kitchens, cellars,
and other offices. On each fide rifes a flight of fteps,
leading up to the portico, in the middle of which is
the principal entry. The ftone balutirade of the Hairs
is continued along the front of the portico, and the
columns fupport a large angular pediment, adorned
with a group of figures in bas relief, reprefenting
the dignity and opulence of the city of London. It
is an extreme heavy building, of an oblong form, and
its depth is the long fide, having feveral magnificent
apartments, which are not, However, well lighted, on
account of the houfes that furround it. 64
Behind the manfion-houfe is St Stephen's church, St Stephen'!
in Walbrook, juftly reputed the mafter-piece of the Cllurc^«
celebrated Sir Chriftopher Wren, and is faid to ex¬
ceed every modern, ftruclure in the world in propor¬
tion and elegance.
The manfibn-houfe, and many adjacent buildings.
Hand on the place where the Stocks market once
(flood. TJfis took its name from ?. pair of flocks erec¬
ted
LON C254] LON
f,or.(!6n. ted near the fpot in 1281 ; and v.-as the'great market
l~v‘*'i»-; of London for provilions during many centuries,
j^5 ln this ward is litiiated one of the moft remarkable
tlone°n" P>eces antiquity in London. It is a great ftone,
now Handing in a cafe on the north fide of Canon-
flreet, clofe under the fouth wall of St Swithin’s
church. It is called London-/}one; and was formerly
pitched edgeways on the other fide of theftreet, oppo¬
site to where it now Hands, fixed deeply in the ground,
and Hrongly fafiened with iron bars ; but for the con-
_veniency of wheel-carriages it was removed to its pre¬
sent fituation. This Hone is mentioned fo early as
the time of Athelfian, king of the Wefi Saxons, and
has been carefully preferred from age to age. Of the
original caufe of its ereftion no memorial remains ; but
it is conjeftured, that as London was a Roman city,
this Hone might be the centre, and might ferve as
an objeft from which the diftance was computed to
the other confiderable cities or Hations in the pro-
<■6 vince.
Merchant- in Dowgate ward is a noted academy, caled Mer-
Schocl* chant-taylors School, from its having been founded by
the merchant-taylors company, in the year 1561. It
was deHroyed by the fire of London in 1666, but was
rebuilt, and is a very large flrufture, with commodi¬
ous apartments for the maHers and ufhers, and a fine
library. Sir Thomas White, lord mayor of this city,
having founded St John’s college in Oxford in 1557,
appointed this fchool as a feminary for it, and eita-
bliihed at Oxford 46 fellowfiiips for fcholars elefted
from this fchool.
St Tvfir le The church of St Mary le Bow, in Cordwainers-
Hreet ward, is the moH eminent parochial church in
the city. It was originally built in the reign of Wil¬
liam the Conqueror; and being .the firfi church the
Heeple of which was embellished with Hone arches or
bows, took thence its denomination of le Bow. It
was burnt down in the fire of 1666, but foon after¬
wards rebuilt. The Heeple of this church is reckoned
48 the moH beautiful of its kind in Europe.
Guildhall. In Cheap ward is Guildhall, or the town-houfe of
London. This was originally built in 1411, but fo
damaged by the great fire already mentioned, as to
-be rebuilt in 1669. The front has a Gothic appear-
■ance; and this charafter is alfo due to the two gigan¬
tic effigies which Hand within the hall. The hall is
153 feet long, 50 broad, and 55 high, adorned with
the royal arms, and thofe of the city and its compa¬
nies, as well as with feveral portraits of Englilh fove-
reigns and judges. In this building are many apart¬
ments for tranfadling the bufinefs of the city, befides
■one for each of the judicial courts, namely, that of the
King’s-Bench, the Common-Pleas, and the Exche-
69 Huer-
Cheapfide. In the year 1246 Cheapfide was an open field,
named Crown-field, from an inn with the fign of the
crown. At that time, .and even for 200 years after¬
wards, none of the ffreets of London were paved ex¬
cepting Thames-Hreet, and from Ludgate-hill to Cha-
. ring-Crofs.
vOoldlmiths Goldfmiths Hall Hands in Fofler-lane, -which opens
Hall- into the weff end of Cheapfide.—In this lane alfo is
Martin’s Martin’s le Grand, which, though furrounded by
& Grand, the city, was yet fubjeft, near three centuries, to
Weffminffer-Abbey. A fine college was built here
in 700 by Wythred king of Kent; and, about the korinm
year 1056, rebuilt and chiefly endowed by Ingelric ’
and Edward, two noble brothers. In icgg, it was
confirmed and made independent of every other eccle-
fiaflical jurifdi&ion, even that of the pope himfelf not
excepted ; and its privileges were confirmed by fucceed-
ing monarchs. It was governed by a dean, and a
number of fecular canons. In this jurifdiHion a mag¬
nificent church was eredted, but pulled down in 1548',
when the college was furrendered; after which a ta¬
vern was eredled on the Ipot.
_ A little to the weffward of Mary-le-Bow church The Crofs
(in the adjoining ward), Hood the Crofs and Conduit'andConduit
in the middle of the Hreet. The former was built by
Edward I. in 1290, in memory of his queen Eleanor,
whofe body was relied on that fpot in its way to be
buried. Originally it had the Hatue of the queen at
full length, refembling exactly that at Northampton.
Having at length fallen to decay, it was rebuilt in
1441 by John Hutherby mayor of the city, at the ex¬
pence of feveral citizens, being now ornamented with
various images, as thofe of the Refurreftion, the Vir¬
gin Mary, See. As the magnificent proceflions took
this road, it was new-gilt at every public entry. After
the Reformation, the Imag^ gave fo much offence,
that it was thought proper to fubHitute that of Diana
in place of the Virgin Mgry. This, however, was
refented by Queen Elizabeth, who offered a reward
for the difeovefy of the offenders. As Ihe imagined
that a crofs, the fymbol of the Chrifiian religion,
could not juHly give offence to any profeffpr of that
religion, fhe ordered a crofs to be placed on the fum-
mit, and gilt; but in 1643, the parliament ordered the
demolition of all crofles and other marks of Romilh
fuperffition.
Splendid tournaments were held between the Crofs
and Sopers-lane in the year 1331 ; but as Queen Phi¬
lippa and a great number of other ladies, dr'effed in rich
attire, werefitting on the upper fcaffolding to behold the
fports, the feat gave way, arid they fuddenly fell down
among the knights and others who Hood below;
many of whom were grievoufly hurt. The carpenters
were faved from punifliment by the-interceflion of the
queen ; but the king, to prevent accidents of the like
nature, ordered a building of Hone to be eredted near
Bow-church, from whence the queen and other ladies
might behold fuch fpeftacles in fafety. This was
ufed for the fame purpofe till the year 1410, when
Henry IV. granted it to certain mercers, who con¬
verted it into (hops, warehoufes, and other places ae-
ceffary for their trade.
A fmall diffance eaffward from the Crofs flood tliC
Conduit, which ferved to fill the leffer ones with wa¬
ter brought by pipes from Paddirigton.—This' Hood
on the fpot where the old conduit was fituated, which
was founded in 1285, conffrudled of Hone lined with
lead, and rebuilt in 1479 by Thomas Ilan one of the
flieriffs. On fome grand occafions, thefe conduits
have been made to run with claret; as at the corona¬
tion of Anna Bullen.
On the north fide of Cheapfide Hood the Hofpital y[^:3
of St Thomas of Boon, founded by Fitz-Theobald de Hall.
Helles, and his wife Agnes, fifler to the famous Tho¬
mas a Becket. The holpital was built 20 years after
the murder of Thomas ; and fuch was his reputation
2 for
LON [ 255 } LON
l-endon. for fanfUty, that it was dedicated to him even before he
"V1" was canonized, and that in conjunction with the Vir¬
gin Mary herfelf. The whole was granted by king
Henry VIII. to the company of mercers. It was
deftroyed by the great lire in 1666; but rebuilt by
the mercers company, who have their hall here.—Im¬
mediately to the call is a narrow ftreet called the Old
©Id jewty. Jewry, which took its name from a great fynagogue
which ftood here till the Jews were expelled the king¬
dom in 1291. After them an order of friars named
Fratres de facea, or de penitent)a, took poffeffion of the
fynagogue ; and in 1305, Robert Fitzwalter, the great
banner-bearer of the city, requefted that the friars
might affign it to him ; the reafon of which probably
was, that it ftood near to his houfe, which was iitu-
ated in the neighbourhood of the prefent Grocers-hall.
The chapel was bought by the grocers from Fitz-
75 waiter in 1411 for 320 marks.
Bakewdl In Baflifliaw or Bafmg-hall ward, is Blackwell or
ttah* Bake well hall, which adjoins to Guildhall, and is the
greateft mart of woollen cloth in the world. It was
purchafedof King Richard II. by the city; and has ever
lince been ufed as a' weekly market for broad and nar¬
row woollen cloths, brought out of the country. For¬
merly proclamations were iffued to compel people to
bring their goods into the hall, to prevent deceit in
the manufaftures, which might be produdlive of dif-
.credit in foreign markets, and likewife be the means
©f defrauding the poor children of Chrift’s hofpital of
part of the revenue which arofe from the hallage of
this great magazine. It fuffered the general devafta-
tion in 1666 ; but was rebuilt in 1672, and is now
a fpacious edifice, with a ftone front adorned with co-
, lumns.
SionCullege Cripplegate-ward is remarkable for a college, called
Sion-college, founded in 1627, on the fite of Elfing-
hofpital (d) or priory, by Dr Thomas White vicar of
St Dunftan’s in the Weft, for the improvement of
the London clergy ; and with alms-houfes, under their
care, for 20 poor perfons, 10 men and 10 women. In
the year 1631, a charter was procured for incorporating
the clergy of London, by which they were conftituted
fellows of the college ; and out of the incumbents are
annually ele&ed, on Tuefday three weeks after Falter,
a prefident, two deans, and four afliftants, who are
to meet quarterly, to hear a Latin fermon, and after-
Wards be entertained at dinner in, the college-hall at
the expence of the foundation. John Simpfon rector
of St Olaves,, who fuperintended the building, added,
at his own expence, for the ufe of the ftudious part of.
the London clergy, alibrary i 20 feet long, and amply
filled with books.
Barbers In this ward is a hall which belonged to the com-
Jiali. pany of barber-furgeons, the profefiions of barber and
furgeon being formerly exercifed by the fame perfon.
It was built by the celebrated Inigo Jones, and the
upper end is formed out of one of the towers or, bar¬
bicans of London wall. The anatomical theatre is
elliptical, agd very finely contrived. This hall is now,
called Barbers Hall; the furgeons, who difdained to be
any longer afibciated with their ancient brethren, ha- LonJoife
ving obtained a feparate charter, and built themfelves *
a new hall in the Old Bailey. 7g
Farringdon-ward Within, is diftinguiftied by the St Paul’s-
moft magnificent Proteftant church in the world, the Cathedral,
cathedral of St Paul. The beft authority we have for
the origin of this church, is from its great reftorer Sir
Chriftopher Wren. His opinion that there had been
a church on this fpot, built by the Chriftiaas in the
time of the Romans, was confirmed : when he fearch-
ed for the foundations for his own defign, he met
with thofe of the original prejbyterium,. or femicircu-
lar chancel, of the old church. They confifted only
of Kentiih rubble-ftone, artfully worked, and confoli-
dated with exceedingly hard mortar, in the Roman
manner, much excelling the fuperftruflure. He ex¬
plodes the notion of there having been here a temple
of Diana, and the difeovery of the horns of animals,
ufed in the feerifices to that goddefs, on which the
opinion had been founded, no fuch having been dif-
covered in all his fearches.
The firft church is fuppoled to have been deftroyed-
in the Dioclefian perfecution, and to have been re-,
built in the reign of Conftantine. This was again,
demolilhed by the pagan Saxons; and reftored, in •
603, by Sebert, a petty prince, ruling in thefe parts,
under Ethelbert king of Kent, the firft Chriftian
monarch of the Saxon race ; who, at the inftance of-
St Auguftine, appointed Melitus the firft bilhop-of-
London. Erkenwald, the fon of king Offa, fourth
in fucceffion from Melitus, ornamented his cathedral
very highly, and improved the revenues with his own
patrimony. He was moft defervedly canonized : for
the very litter, in which he was carried in his laft ill-
nefs, continued many centuries to cure fevers by the-
touch ; and the very chips, carried to the fick, refto¬
red them to health!
When the city of London was deftroyed by fire, in-
1086, this church was built; the bilhop Mauritius,
began to rebuild it, and laid the foundations, which
remained till its fecond deftru&ion, from the fame
caufe, in the laft century. Notwithftanding Mauri¬
tius lived twenty years after he had begun this pious,
work, and bilhop Beauvages enjoyed the fee twenty
more, yet fuch was the grandeur of the defign, that
it remained unfinilhed. The firft had the ruins of
the Palatine Tower bellowed on him, as materials for
the building ; and Henry I. bellowed on Beauvagcs-
part of the ditch belonging to the Tower, which,
with purchafes made by himfelf, enabled him to in-
clofe the whole with a wall. The fame monarch
granted, befides, that every Ihip which brought ftone
lor the church, Ihould be exempted from toll ; he
gave him-alfo all the great filh taken in his precinfls^
except the tongues and, laftly, he fecured to him.
and his fucceffor the delicious tythes of all his venifon,
in the county of Effex.
The llyle of the ancient cathedral was a moft beau-,
tiful Gothic; over the call end was an elegant cir¬
cular windowalterations were made in the ends of*
the.
(d) This was founded by William Filing mercer in 1329 (on the fite of a decayed nunnery), for the fup^
port of 100 blind men. He afterwards changed it into a priory, and became himfdf the firil prior, who with-
tour canons-regular were to fuperintend the miferabk obje&s.
LON
■> tlit two tranfcpts, fo that their form is not delivered
- down to us in the ancient plans ; and from the central
tower rofe a lofty and molt graceful fpire. The dimen-
fions, as taken in 1309, were thefe : The length fix
hundred and ninety feet; the breadth a hundred and
twenty ; the height of the roof of the weft part, from
the floor, one hundred and two; of the eaft part, a
hundred and eighty-eight; of the tower, two hund¬
red and fixty ; of the fpire, which was made of wood
covered with lead, two hundred and feventy-four. The
whole fpace the church occupied was three acres and
a half, one rood and a half, and fix perches.
We may be aftoniihed at this amazing building, and
naturally inquire what fund could fupply money to
fupport fo vaft an expence. Bat monarch? refigned
their revenues refulting from the cuftoms due for the
materials, which were brought to the adjacent wharfs ;
they furnilhed wood from the royal forefts : prelates
gave up much of their revenues ; and, what was more
than all, by the pious bait of indulgences, and remif-
fions of penance, brought in from the good people of
this realm moft amazing iums. Pope Innocent III.
in 1252, gave a releafe of fixty days penance; the
archbilhop of Cologne gave, a few years before, a re¬
laxation of fifty days ; and Boniface, archbilhop of Can¬
terbury, forty days.
The high altar dazzled with gems and gold, the
gifts of its numerous votaries. John king of France,
“ 1  :r   • t? 1 1  : 1 •  
C 256 ]
LON
gave the dean and canons permiffion to inclofe the Londafc,
whole within a wall; and to have gates to be ihut v-—
every night, to exclude all diforderly people. Within
thefe walls, on the north-weft fide, was the biftiop’s
palace. Froiffart tells us, that after the great tour¬
nament in Smithfield, king1 Edward III. and his
queen lodged here, on occafion of their nuptials (e.)
—In 1561, the noble fpire was totally burnt by light¬
ning, and never reftored.
In confequence of the refolutions taken in 1620, by
James I. to repair the cathedral, the celebrated Inigo
Jones was appointed to the work. But it was not at¬
tempted till the year 1633, when fraud laid the firft
ftone, and Inigo the fourth. That great architedB
begun with a moft notorious impropriety, giving to
the weft end a portico of the Corinthian order, beau¬
tiful indeed, to this ancient gothic pile ; and to the
ends of the two tranfept gothic fronts in a moft hor¬
rible ftyle. The great fire made way for the reftoring
of this magnificent pile in its prefent noble form by
Sir Criftopher Wren, an architeA worthy of fo great
a defign.
It is built of fine Portland ftone, in form of a crofs..
On the outfide are two ranges of pilafters, confifting'
of an hundred and twenty each ; the lower range of
the Corinthian order, and the upper of the compofite.
The fpaces between the arches of the windows and
the architrave of the lower order, are filled with a
•hen prifoner in England, firft paying his refpe&s great variety of curious enrichments, as are alfo thofc
to St Erktnwald’s fhrine, offered four bafons of
gold : and the gifts at the ebfequies of princes, fo¬
reign and Britifh, were of immenfe value. On the
day of the converfion of the tutelar faint, the chari¬
ties were prodigious, firft to the fouls, when an in¬
dulgence of forty days pardon was given, verc pcnil-
tentibus, conlritu et tonjejjis \ and, by order of Hen¬
ry III. fifteen hundred tapers were placed in the
church, and fifteen thoufand poor people fed in the
church-yard.
The holinefs of this place did not prevent thieves
and profligates of all denominations from lurking within
the precindts, and committing, under the favour of the
night, murders and every fort of crime. Edward I.
N 187.
above. On the north fide is a portico, the afeent to
which is by twelve fteps of black marble, and its dome
fupported by fix very large columns. Over the dome
is a pediment, the face of which is engraved with the
royal arms, regalia, and other ornaments. On the
fouth is a portico, the afeent to which is by twenty-
five fteps, and its dome fupported by fix columns, cor-
refponding with thofe on the north fide. The weft
front is graced with a moft magnificent portico, fup¬
ported by twelve lofty Corinthian columns: over thefe
are eight columns of the compofite order, which fup¬
port a noble pediment, crowned with its acroteria, and
in this pediment is the hiilory of St Paid * converfion,
boldly carved in has relief. The afeent to this portico
3 «*
(e) Before this cathedral was the famous Paul's Crofs, a pulpit formed of wood, mounted upon fteps of
ftone, and covered with lead, in which the moft eminent divines were appointed to preach every Sunday in
the forenoon. To this place, the court, the mayor, and aldermen, and principal citizens, ufed to refort.
The greateft part of the congregation fat in the open air ; the king and his train had covered galleries ; and
the better fort of people were alfo protected from the injury of the weather ; but the far greater part Hood
expofed in the open air: for which reafon the preacher went in very bad weather to a place called the
Shrouds; a covered fpace on the fide of the church, to pro tec! the congregation, in inclement feafonsv Con-
fiderable contributions were raifed among the nobility and citizens, to, fupport fuch preachers as were (as was
often the cafe) called to town from either of the univcrfitics. In particular, the lord mayor and aldermen or¬
dered that every preacher, who came from a diftance, fliould be freely accommodated, during five days, with
fweet and convenient lodgings, fire, candle, and all neceffarios. And notice' was given by* the bifhop of Lon¬
don, to the preacher appointed by him, of the place he was to repair to.
We hear of this being in ufe as early as the year 1259. It was ufed, as Mr Pennant obferves, not only for
the inftruftion of mankind by the doctrine of the preacher, but for every purpofe political or ecclefiaftical; for
giving force to oaths, for promulging of laws, or rather the royal pleafnre, for the ■emiffion of papal bulls,
for anathematizing finners, for benedUftions, for expofirig of penitents tinder cenfure of the church, for recanta¬
tions, for the private ends of the ambitious, and for the defaming of thofe who had incurred the difpleafure of
crowned heads.
It was demolifiied in 1643 by order of parliament, executed by the willing hands of Haac Pennington, the
fanatieal lord mayor of that year, who died in the Tower a coavhfted regicide
LON [ 257 ] LON
London. 1$ by a flight of ftepts of, black marble, extending the
u“'”v whole length of the portico ; and over each corner of
the weft, front is a beautiful turret. A vaft dome, or
cupola, rifes in the centre of the building. Twenty
feet above the roof of the church is a circular range
of thirty-two columns with niches, placed exactly
againft others within. Thefe are terminated by their
entablature, wdiich fupoorts a handfome gallery, adorn¬
ed with a ftone balluftraae. Above the columns laft
mentioned is a range of pilafters, with windows be¬
tween them : and from the entablature of thefe, the
diameter of the dome gradually decreafes. On the
fummit of the dome is an elegant balcony, from the
centre of which runs a beautiful lanthorn, adorned
with Corinthian columns. The whole is clowned
with a copper ball, fupporting a crofs, both finely gift.
Within, the cupola ftands on eight ftupendous pillars,
curioufly adorned: the roof of the choir is fupported
by fix pillars, and that of the church by two ranges,
confifting of twenty more. The roof of the church
and choir is adorned with arches and fpacious periphe¬
ries of enrichments, admirably carved in ftone. Quite
round the infide of the cupola, there is a whifpering
iron balcony, or gallery, the top of which is richly
painted by Sir James Thornhill.
The firft ftone of this fuperb edifice was laid on
June 21, 1675 ; and the building was completed in
1710 ; but the'whole decorations were not finiftied till
1723. It was a moft Angular circumftance, that, not-
withftanding it was 35 years in building, it was begun
and finilhed by one architeft, and under one prelate
Henry Compton bilhop of London. The church of
'St Peter’s was 135 years in building, in the reigns of
19 popes, and went through the hands of twelve archi-
tedts. It is not, as often miftaken, built after the mo¬
del of that famous temple : it is the entire conception
of our great countryman , and has been preferred in
feme refpedts, by a judicious writer, to even the Ro¬
man Bafilica. Its dimenfions are lefs. The compa¬
rative view is given in the Parentalia, and copied in
London and its Environs. The height of St Peter’s,
to the top of the crofs, is 437 feet and an half; that
of St Paul’s 340 feet 5 fo that, from its fituation, it is
lofty enough to be feen from the fea. The length
of the firft is 729 feet; of the latter, 500. ' The great-
eft breadth of St Peter’s is 364; of St Paul’s, 180.
In the reigns of James I. and Charles I. the body
of this cathedral was the common refort of the poli¬
ticians, the news-mongers, and idle in general. It
was called Paul’s walk; and is mentioned in the old
plays and other books of the times.
Notwithftanding the magnificence of this noble pile,
however, it is remarked to have many defedts. Its
fituation is fuch, that it cannot be viewed at a diftance.
Theidivilion of the porticos, and the whole ftrudture
into two ftories on the outfide, certainly indicate a like
divifion within, which is acknowledged to be a fault.
The dome, it has alfo been obferved, bears too great a
proportion to the reft of the pile, and ought to have
been railed exadtly in the centre of the building ; be-
fides that, there ought to have been two fteeples at the
eaft end, to correfpond with thofe at the weft. On
entering this church, wre inftantly perceive an obvious
deficiency, not only of elt ation but length, to affilt
Vol. X. Part I.
the perfpedtive ; and the columns are heavy and clumfy, Lnnlan.
rather incumbering the profpedt than enriching it. w""v f
St Paul’s occupies an area of fix acres, and is
railed all round with iron baluftrades, each about
five feet and an half high, fixed on a dwarf wall of
hewn ftone. In the weft end of this area is a marble
ftatue of Queen Anne, holding a feeptre in one hand,
and a globe in the other, furrounded with four emble¬
matical figures reprefenting Great Britain, France,
Ireland, and America.
Befides very large contributions for carrying on this
edifice, the parliament granted a duty on fea-coal,
which, at a medium, produced 5000 1. a-year; and
the whole expence of the building is faid to have
amounted to 736,752!. 2 s. 3d.
On the eaft fide of the cathedral is St Paul’s School,
founded in 1509 by Dr John Collet dean of this
church, who endowed it for a principal-mafter, an un-
der-mafter, a chaplain, and 153 fcholars.
In Warwick-lane, in the fame ward, ftands the Col- CoiJge 0{
lege of Phyficians, erefted in 1682 by Sir Chriftopher Phyfieians.
Wren. It is built of brick, and has a fpacious ftone
frontifpiece. Near the fouth extremity of the Old
Bailey, on the eaft fide, is the hall of the Company of
Surgeons, with a theatre for difle&ion.
Adjoining to Chrift-church in Newgate-ftreet is 8°
Chrljl’s-Hofpital, which, before the dhTolution of mo- *.
nafteries by Henry VIII. w^ay a houfe of grey-friars. 0 pua '
The hofpital was founded by King Edward VI. for
fupporting and educating the fatherlefs children of
poor freemen of this city ; of whom 1000 of both
fexes are generally maintained in the houfe or out at
nurfe, and are likewife cloathed and educated. In
1673, a mathematical fchool was founded here by
Charles II. endowed with L. 3 20 a-year ; and a wri-
ting-fchool was added in 1694 by Sir John Moor, an
alderman of the city. After the boys have been feven
or eight years on the foundation, fome are fent to the
univerfity and others to fea; while the reft, at a pro¬
per age, are put apprentices to trades at the charge of
the hofpital. At firft their habit was a ruflet cotton,
but was foon after changed for blue, which has ever
fince continued to be their colour; and on this account
the foundation is frequently called the blue-coat hofpital.
The affairs of this charity are managed by a prefident
and about 300 governors, befides the lord-mayor and
aldermen. The fabric, which is partly Gothic and
partly modern, was much damaged by the fire of i 666,
but was foon repaired, and has been fince increafed
with feveral additions. The principal buildings,wvhich
form the four fides of an area, have a piazza round
them .with Gothic arches, and the walls are fupported
by abutments. The front is more modern, and has
Doric pilafters fupported on pedeftals.
In Callle-Baynard ward is a large ftructure called Sr,
DoElors-Commons. It confifts of feveral handfome paved Common*
courts, in which the judges of the court of admiralty,
thofe of the court of delegates, of the court of. arches,
and the prerogative court, with the doctors that plead
caufes, and the pro&ors of the place, all live in a col¬
legiate way; and from commoning together, as in .
other colleges, the name of Doftors-Commons is de¬
rived. Here courts are kept for the trial of civil and
ecclefiaftical caufes under the archbilhop of Canterbury
K k and
h
JBridewell.
I, O N
J.ondor. and the bifhop of London. The college has
v" lent library, every bilhop at his confecration giving
L. 20 or L. 50 towards purchafing.books for it.
Near Dotftors-Commons> on St Bennet’s Hill, is the
Co.lege of Q0iiege 0j~ Heralds, who were incorporated by King
^ Richard III. Befides the chief officer, who is the
earl-marfhal of England, here are three kings at arms,
vi-z,. Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy, with fix heralds,
four purfuivants, and eight pro&ors. Garter attends
the inftalments of knights of that order, carries the
garter to foreign princes, regulates the ceremonies at
coronations, and the funeral of the royal family and
nobility: Clarencieux directs the funeral ceremo¬
nies of thofe under the degree of peers fouth of Trent;
and Norroy performs the like office for thofe north of
Trent. This building was originally the houfe of the
earl of Derby. It is a fpacious quadrangle, built of
brick, and has convenient apartments. Here are kept
records of the coats of arms of all the families and
names in England, with an account when they were
granted, and on what occafion.
In Farringdon-ward Without is a large building
called Bridewell^ from a fpring formerly known by the
name of St Bridget’s or St Bride’s-Well. It was ori¬
ginally a royal palace, and occupied all the ground
from Fleet-ditch on the eaft to Water-lane on the weft.
That part of it now called ^RJbury-court was given to
the bi drops of Salilbury for their town-refidence ; and
the eaft part, which was rebuilt by King Henry VIII.
is the prefent Bridewell. It was granted to the city
by Edward VI. as an hofpital; and he endowed it for
the lodging of poor travellers, and for the correction
of vagabonds^ ftrumpets, and idle perfons, as well as
for finding them work. In one part of the building-
20 artificers have houfes; and about 150 boys, di-
ftinguiffied by white hats and blue doublets, are put
apprentices to glovers, flax dreflers, weavers, &c. and
when they have ferved their time are intitled to the
freedom of the city, with L. 10 towards carrying on
their refpedtive trades. Tbe other part of Bridewell
is a receptacle for diforderly perfons, who are kept at
beating hemp and other hard labour.
Near Bridewell is St Bride’s Church, a ftately fabric
Hi feet long, 57 broad, and 41 high, with a beautiful
fpire 234 feet in altitude, and has a ring of 12 bells
in its tower.
Oppofitc to Fleet-ditch, over this part of the river,
Bhckiriars ftands Blackfriars Bridge; a moft elegant ftrufture
Bridge. bnilt after the defign of Mr Robert Mylne. The fi-
tuation of the ground on the two fliores obliged the
architect to employ elliptical arches; which, however,
have a very fine effeCt. The number of arches is nine;
of which the centre one is 100 feet wide. The whole
length is 995 feet: the breadth of the carriage-way is
28 feet, and that of the two foot-ways 7 each. Over
each pier is a recefs; an apology for the beautiful
Ionic pillars which fupport them, and which have a
moft beautiful effeCt from the river. This bridge was
begun in 1760; and finifhed in 1768,31 the expence
ofL.i ~   
84.
152,840, to be difeharged by a toll upon the paf-
fengers. It is fituated almoft at an equal diftance be¬
tween thofe of Weftminfter and London, commands a
view of the Thames from the latter to Whitehall, and
difeovers the majefty of St Paul’s itt a very linking
feaaner.
[ 258 } LON
excel- IVeJl Smithfeld. In this ward is an area containing London.
three acres of ground, called in old records Smithjield- * 
Pond or Horfe-PooL it having been formerly a watering g5
place for horfes. A was in ancient times the common Sruithfield.
place of execution ; and at the fouth-weft corner there
was a gallows called the Elms, from a number of elm-
trees that grew in the neighbourhood. Ifwas like-
wife the feene of public jufts and tournaments, and has
been a market-place for cattle above 500 years.
On the fouth-fide of this area, and contiguous to 86
Chrift’s hofpital, is St Bartholomew’s Hofpital. It was St Bartho.
originally founded foon after the acceffion of Henry I. lomew s!
by Rahere the king’s jefter, as an infirmary for the HofPlta5"
priory of St Bartholomew the Great, which then ftood
near the fpot. But upon the diftblution of religious
houfes, Henry VIII. refounded it, and endowed it
with 500 merks a year, on condition that the citizens
Ihould pay the fame fum annually for the relief of loo
lame and infirm patients. The endowments of this
charity have fince been fo much enlarged, that it now
receives the diftreffed of all denominations. In 1702,
a beautiful frontifpiece was erected towards Smithfield,
adorned with pilallers, entablature, and a pediment of
the Ionic order, with a ftatue of King Henry VIIL
Handing in a niche in full proportion, and thole of two
cripples on the top of the pediment over it. In 1729,
a plan was formed for rebuilding the reft of this hol-
pital, in confequence of which a magnificent edifice
has been ere&ed.
Among many other privileges granted by Henry I.
to the prior and canons of the monaltery of St Bar¬
tholomew the Great, and to the poor of the infirmary,
was that of keeping a fair ia Smithfield on the eve,
day, and morrow, of St Bartholomew. This fair,
called Bartholomew-fair, has been held annually ever
fince; and by the indulgence of the magiftrates of
London, to whom the privilege of keeping it devolved,
upon the diflblution of the priory, it ufed to continue
a fortnight. A great number of booths was ereiled
in it by the attors of the theatres, for the exhibitioa
of dramatic performances of various kinds; and it be¬
came at length a feene of fo much licentioufnefs and
riot, that Sir John Barnard when lord-mayor of Lon¬
don reduced the time of the fair to its original dura¬
tion of three days. This laudable example has been
followed ever fince ; and the magiftrates have likewife
prohibited all public exhibitions which had been for¬
merly accompanied with fo much diforder.
In a ftreet in this ward, called the Old Bailey, is a 87
hall named JuJhce-hall, or the Seffton’s-houfe, where a Old Baj*
court is held eight times a year by the king’s com- lcy‘
miffion of oyer and, terminer for the trial of criminals
for offences committed within the city of London and
county of Middlefex. The judges of this court are
the lord-mayor, thofe of the aldermen that have ferved
that office, and the recorder, who are attended by the
(herift’s and by one or more of the natiorraljudges.
In this ftreet is affo the great criminal prifon, lately 88
built in a much more convenient fituation, and on a NewSate*
more enlarged plan than the former prifon, called
Newgate; by which name ft. is fti.ll diftinguiftied.
Here the unfortunate debtor will no longer be an¬
noyed by the dreadful rattle of chains, or by the more
horrid lounds iffuing from the lips of thofe wretched
beings whq fct defiaass W all laws divine and human-
§ UEsi
LON C 2^9 1 LON
Lotion. ai\(5 We alfo the offender, whofe crime is not capital,
-v—— may enjoy all the benefits of a free open air.
89 In this ward is likewife a prifon called the Fleet-
Pleet-pri- prifon, from a fmall river named the Fleet which for-
£mi. merly run by it: this building is large, and reckoned
the bell in the city for good rooms and other conve¬
niences. It has the benefij: of a large yard, which is
enclofed with a very high wall. This prifon is as an¬
cient as the reign of Richard I. and belongs to the
court of chancery, &c.
90 In Chancery-lane, in this ward, is an office confift-
The Rolls ing Gf a houfe and chapel, called the office and chapel
of the Rolh, from being the great repofitory of the
modern public rolls and records of the kingdom. This
building was originally the houfe of an eminent Jew;
but being forfeited to the crown, King Henry III. in
the year 1223 converted ft into an hofpital for the
reception and accommodation of Jewifh and other pro-
felytes. In 1377, Edward III. granted this hofpital
and its chapel to William Burftall mafter of the rolls,
to whofe fucceffors in that office it has ever fince be¬
longed. Round this office there is a fmall diftritt
confifting of about 200 houfes, called the Liberty of
the Rolls, over Which the magiftrates of London have
no authority, it being uhdter the government of the
mafter of the rolls.
In this ward are feveral Infjs df court and chancery,
particularly the Inner and Middle-Temple, Searjeaht’s-
Ir,n, Clifford’s-Inn, Barhard’s-Inn, Staples-Inn, and
FtirnivaPs-Ihn.
The Temple received its name from being originally
iTheTem- founded by the Knight’s-Templars, who fettled here
pie. in 1185. It was at firft called the New Temple, to
diftinguiffi it from the former houfe of the Knight’s-
Templars, which ftood in Holborn near Chancery-
'lane.
The original building was divided into three parts ;
the Inner, the Middle, and the Outer Temple. The
Inner and the Outer Temple were fo called, becaufe
one was within and the other was without the Bar ;
and .the Middle derived its name from being fituated
between them. Upon the diffolution of the order of
Knights-Templars, the New Temple devolved to the
Knights-Hofpitallers of St John of Jerufalem, who
granted a leafe of it to the ftudents of the common
law, and converted that pdrt of it called Inner and
Middle Temple into two inns of court for the ftudy
and practice of the common law. The Outer Temple
became a houfe for the earl of Effex.
The buildings of the Temple efcaped the lire in
1666, but were inoft of them deftroyed by fubfequent
fires, and have fince been rebuilt. The two Temples
are each divided into feveral courts, and have pleafant
gardens on the banks of the Thames. They ar.e ap¬
propriated to diftindt focieties, and have feparate halls,
where the members dine in common during term-tilne.
The Inner-Temple hall is faid to have been built in
the reign of Edward III. and the Middle-Temple hall,
which is a magnificent edifice, was rebuilt in 1572 in
form of a college-hall. The Middle-Temple gate,
Mr Pennant informs us, was created by SifAmias
Powlet on a lingular occafion. It feems that Sir A-
tnias, about the year 1501, thought fit to put Cardi¬
nal Wolfey, then parfon of Lymington, into the ftocks.
In IJiJ* being fent for to London by the cardinal on
account of that ancient grudge* he was commanded Land*!*
not to quit town till farther orders. In confequence,  v i
he lodged five or fix years in this gateway, which he
rebuilt; and to pacify his eminence, adorned the front
with the cardinal’s cap, badges, cognifance, and other
devices of this butcher’s fon : fo low were the great
men obliged to ftoop to that meteof of the times !
Each temple has a good library, adorned with paint¬
ings and well furnilhed with books. An affembly,
called a parliament, in which the affairs of the fociety
of the Inner-Temple are managed, is held there every
term. Both Temples have one church, firft founded
in 1185 ^7 the Knights-Templars; but the prefent
edifice is fuppofed to have been built in 1420. It is
fupported by neat llender pillars of Suffex marble, and
is one of the moll beautiful Gothic ftrudtures in Eng¬
land. In this church are many monuments, particu¬
larly of nine Knights-Templars cut in marble in full
proportion, feme of them feven feet and a half long;
fix are crofs-legged, and therefore fuppofed to have
been engaged in the crufades. The minifter of this
church, who is ufually called the mcfltr of the Temple^
is appointed by the benchers or fenlor members of both
focieties, and prefented by a patent from the crown.
Shakefpeare (whether from tradition or hiftory) makes
the Temple garden the place in which the badge of the
wffiite and red rofe originated; the diftinclive badge of
the houfes of York and Lancafter, under which the
refpedlive partizans of each arranged themfelves in the
fatal quarrel which caufed fuch torrents ef Englifh
blood to flow.
Near the Temple-bar is the Devil Tavern, fo called
from its fign of St Dunftan feizing the evil fpirit by
the nofe with a pair of hot tongs. Ben Jonfon has
immortalized it by his Leges Conviviales, which he
wrote for the regulation of a club of wits held here in
a room he dedicated to Apollo; over the chimney-
piece of which they are preferved. The tavern was in
his days kept by Simon Wadloe; whom, in a copy of
verfes over the door of the Apollo, he dignified with
the title uf King of SkinLers.
Serjeant’s-Inn is a fmall inn in Chancery-lane, where 9s-
the judges and ferjeants have chambers, but not houfes, Chancer -
as they had in another inn of this name in Fleet-ftreet, anC
-which they abandoned in 1730; but in each of them
there is a hall and a chapel. Clifford’s-Inn is an inn of
chancery belonging to the Inner-Temple, It was ori¬
ginally a houfe granted by Edward II. to the family
of the Cliffords, from which it derived its name ; but
was aftenvards let upon leafe to the ftudents of the
law', and in the reign of Edward III. fold to the mem¬
bers of this fociety. Bernard's-Inn is likewife an inn
of Chancery belonging to Cray’s-Inn. It Hands in
Holborn, and w'as the houfe of John Mackworth dean
of Lincoln, who gave it to the profeflbrs of the law.
Staple’s-Inn belongs alfo to Gray’s-Inn, and is fituated
in Holborn. It was once a hall for the merchants of
the ftaple for wool, whence it derives its name ; but
it wras purchafed by the benchers of Gray’s-Inn, and
has been an inn of chancery fince the year 1415.
Furnivql’s-Inn is an inn of chancery belonging to Lin-
coln’s-Inn, and was once the houfe of the family of
the Furnivals, by whom it w'as let out to the profef-
fors of the law. It is a large old building, with a hall
and a pleafant garden.
K k 2
In
LON [ 260 1 LON
London. In Colman-ftreet ward, on the fouth-fide of a large
tr" ^ fquare called Mootjields, ftandi Bethlehem-hofpital, found-
9t ed in 1675 by the lord-mayor and citizens of London
for t]-ie reception and cure of poor lunatics. It is a
' noble edifice, built with brick and ftone, and adorned
with pilafters, entablatures, and fculpture; particularly
with the figures of two lunatics over the grand gate,
which are well executed. This- building is 540 feet
long and 40 broad, exclufive of two wings of a later
eredtion, intended for the reception of fuch lunatics as
are deemed incurable. This hofpital contains a great
number of convenient‘cells or apartments, where the
patients are maintained and receive all medical affift-
ance without any other expence to their friends than
that of bedding. The ftru&ure is divided into two
ftories, through each of which runs a long gallery from
one end of the houfe to the other. On the fouth fide
are the cells, and on the north the windows that give
light to the galleries, which are divided in the middle
by handfome iron-gates, to keep the men and women
feparate. This hoipital being united to that of Bride¬
well, both are managed by the fame prefident, gover¬
nors, treafurer, clerk, phyiician, furgeon, and apothe¬
cary; but each has a lie ward and inferior officers pecu¬
liar to itfelf.
94 ( Oppofite to Bethlehem-hofpital Hood that of St
Ho^kal* Lukty a l°ng plain building, till of late appropiated to
0 ^K“ ‘ the fame purpofes, but wholly independent of the for¬
mer. It was founded on the humane confideration
that Bethlehem was incapable of receiving all the mi-
ferable objects which were offered. Of late years the
patients were removed from the old hofpital to a new
one erefted under the fame name in Old-ftreet, on the
plan of the former, extending in front 393 feet. The
old hofpital is now pulled down, and replaced by a
handfome row of houfes. Uncured patients may be
taken in again, by a very liberal regulation, on the
payment of five IhiUings a week : fo that their friends
may, if they cboofe, try a fecond time the force of me¬
dicine on their unhappy relations or acquaintances.
95 Beiides the three markets already mentioned at
Different Snfithfield for cattle and hay,atLeadenhall for butcher’s
ar et''" meat, wool, hides, and Colchefter baize, and at Bil-
lingfgate for filh ; there are in this city the following
other markets, which are all very confiderable, -viz.
Honey-lane, Newgate, and Fleet-market, chiefly for
flefli, thought with feparate divifions for filh, butter,
eggs, poultry, herbs, and fruit; and the Three-Cranes
market, for apples and other fruit. The principal corn-
market is held in a neat exchange fituated in Mark-
lane, and that for flour at Queenhithe. In Thames-
ftreet, near Billingfgate, there is an exchange for deal¬
ers in coals and mailers of veflels in that trade to tran-
fa£l their bufinefs.
II. The Borough of Southwark. It was called by
the Saxons Suthy or the “Southwork,” in refpeft
to feme fort or fortification bearing that afpe£l from
London. It was aifo called the Borough, or Burg,
probably from the fame reafon. It was long inde¬
pendent of the city of London : but, in confideration London,
of the inconveniences arifing from the efcape of ma- "• s—J
lefaclors from the great capital into this place , it was
in 1327 granted by Edward III. to the city on pay-2i Borough
ment of L. 10 annually. It was then called the •village of South-
of Southwark; it was afterwards llyledthe bailiwick of wark, it*
Southwark, and the mayor and commonalty of Lon-
don appointed the bailiff. This power, however, notti0n’
being fufficient to remedy the evil, a more intimate
conneftion w’as thought neceflary ; and in the reign of
Edward VI. on a valuable confideration paid to the
crown, it was formed into a 26th ward, by the title of
Bridge-Ward Without; with a refervation of certain
privileges enjoyed there by the archbifliop of Canter¬
bury and fome other eccleiiaftics. In confequence of
this, it was fubjecled to the lord-mayor of London,
with the lleward and bailiff. But Southwark being
divided into two parts, this is to be underftood of the
divifion called the Borough Liberty, which confifts of
three of the pariflies belonging to the town, with the
greater part of a fourth parifh. For the city divifion,
the lord-mayor by his fteward holds a court of record
every Monday at the feffions-houfe on St Margaret’s
Hill in this borough for all debts, damages, and tref-
pafles, within the limits of his jurifdidlion.-—The other
divifion is called the Clink, or the Manor of Southwark,
and is fubdivided into the Great Liberty, the Guild¬
hall, and the King’s Manor; for each of which fubdr-
vifions a court-leet is held, where the conftables, ale¬
conners, and flelh-tafters, are chofen, and other bufi¬
nefs of this kind tranfa&ed. A court-houfe, called 9^
Union-Hall, has lately been built in the new llreet Court*,
called Union-Jlreet, which leads in a direct line from
the high-ftreet in the Borough to Great Surry-ftreet
Blackfriars-road. The Clink liberty is under the ju-
rifdiftion of the bifhop of Wincheller, who, befides a
court-leet, keeps here a court of record on the Bank-
fide near St Saviour’s church by his fteward or bailiff*
for pleas of debt, damages, and trefpaffes. Court-
leets are alfo kept at Lambeth, Bermondfey, and Ro-
therhithe, three fmall diftritls adjoining to the Borough,
—There is a counter for the imprifonment of offen- ^
ders in the bailiwick, and another for the Clink liberty; prifons,
to which may be added the Surry workhoufe for va¬
grants. Beiides there, there is the Marihalfea-prifon,
which is the county-gaol for felons, and the admiralty-
gaol for pirates ( g ); in which is a court firft eredted
for trials of caufes between the king’s domeitics or me¬
nial fervants, of which the knight-marihal is prefident,
and his fteward judge, to whom belong four counfellors
and fix attorneys ; and the court is held every Friday
by him or his deputy, for debt, damages, and tref¬
paffes, in caufes for 10 miles round Whitehall, except¬
ing London.:—In this quarter is alfo the King’s-bench
prifon, the rules of which are above two miles in cir¬
cuit, and comprife the greateft part of St George’s
Fields. Here was committed Henry prince of Wales,
afterwards King Henry V. by the fpirited and honeft
judge Gafcoigne, for linking or infuking him on the
bench.
(g) In 1377 this prifon was broke open by a mob of failors, who murdered a gentleman confined in it for
killing one of their comrades, and who had been pardoned by the court. It was again broke open by Wat
Tyler and his followers in 1381. It efcaped in the infamous riots of 1780; while the King’s-Bench, the
Jlorough-prifon, and the Clink-prifon, were nearly at the fame inftant facrificed to their fury.
ION r 261 ! LON
London, bench. In this prifon the allowance is fomewhat bet-
'-“'V ter than that of the commons prifons ; for which rea-
fon, many debtors remove themfelves hither by habeas
corpus. It is properly a place of confinement in all
cafes triable in the King s-bench court.—The firft
time that Southwark is mentioned in hiltory is on oc-
caiion of Earl Goodwin’s failing up the river to at¬
tack the royal navy of 50 /hips lying before the palace
of Weftminfter: this was in 1052, when we are told
he went all Suthweorce, and ftayed there till the re¬
turn of the tide.
99 Southwark confifts of the parifhes of St Olave,
Panfhes, gt Saviour, St George, and St Thomas; the parilh of
' ’ Chrill-church, though contiguous to the borough, is in
the county of Surry.
The principal church in Southwark is that of St
Saviour, which was formerly a priory of regular ca¬
nons. Being dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and fi-
tuated near the bank of the Thames, it was called
St Alary Over Ree, or Overy, by which appellation it is
commonly known. This church is built in the man¬
ner of a cathedral, with three aides from eaft to well,
and a^crofs aifle. It is reckoned the largeft parifh-
church in England, the three aides firlt mentioned
meafuring 269 feet in length, and the crofs aide 109
feet. The height within is 47 feet, and it has a tower
with four fpires 150 feet high.
Not far from St George’s church flood the magni¬
ficent palace of Charles Brandon duke of SuiFolk, the
deferved favourite of Henry VIII. After his death, in
1545, it came into the king s hands, who eftabliihed
here a royal mint. It at that time was called South-
ivark Place, and in great meafure preferred its dig¬
nity. Edward VI. once dined in it. His fitter and
fucctffor prefented it to Heath archbifhop of York,
as an inn or refidence for him and his fucceffors when¬
ever they repaired to London. As to the mint, it
became a fanCtuary for infolvent debtors; at length
becoming the peft of the neighbourhood, by giving
flicker to villains of every fpecies that awakened the
attention of parliament; which, by the ftatutes 8 and
9 Will. III. 9 George I. and 11 George I. entirely
took away its abufive privileges,
too It* the parilh of Chrifl-church, near the water on
Ancient Bankfide, flood Paris-garden, one of the ancient play-
hl)des of our metropolis. Ben Jonfon is reproached
ei 10 ’* by one Decker, an envious critic, with his ill fucysefs
on the ftage, and in particular with having performed
the part of Ziiliman at Paris-garden. It feems to
have been much frequented on Sundays. This pro¬
fanation (Mr Pennant obferves) was at length fully
puniflied by the dire accident which befel the fpedta-
tors'in 1582, when the fcaffolding fuddenly fell, and
multitudes of people were killed or miferably maimed.
The omen feems to have been accepted ; for in the
next century the manor of Paris-garden was eredled
into a parifti, and a church founded under the namb of
Chrift’s.
Beyond this place of amufement were the Bear-gar¬
den and place for baiting of bulls, the Britijh circi:
“Herein (fays Stow) were kept fceares, bulls, and
other beafts to be bay ted; as alfo rnaftives in -feveral ken¬
nels nourifhed to bayt them. Thefe beares and other
beafls are there kept in plots of ground fcaffolded
about, for the beholders to lland lafe.” This was then
an amufement for perfons of the firft rank : our great, London-,
if not good, Elizabeth caufed the French ambalfadors v 'J
to be carried to this theatre, to divert them with thefe
bloody fpe&acles. . Iit
Not far from thefe feenes of cruel paftime was theThe grews.
Bordello or Stews, permitted and openly licenfed by
government, nnder certain laws or regulations. They
were farmed out. Even a lord-mayor did not difdain
to own them ; but rented them to the Frues, that is
“ the bawds,” of Flanders. Among other Angular
regulation-, no ftewholder was to admit married wo¬
men ; nor -were they to keep open their houfes on
Sundays; nor were they to admit any women who had
on them the perilous infirmity of burning. Thefe in¬
famous houfes were very properly fuppreffed in the
reign of Henry VIII.
The bifhop of Winchefter had formerly a palace
here with a park (the fame that is now called South-
wark-park), which is fince converted into warehoufes
and tenements, held by leafe. from the bilhops of that
fee.
Befides feveral aim s-houfes, there are here StThomas’s its
and Guy’s hofpilals, two of the nobleft endowments in ^ Thomas's
England. The former was firft eredled in 1215 by °Plta
Peter de Rupibus biftiop of Winchefter, who endowed
it with land to the amount of L.343 a year; from
which time it was held of the abbots of Bermondfey,
one of wliom in 1428 granted ariglrt to the mafter of
the hofpital to hold all the lands it was then in pofief-
fion of belonging to the faid abbot and convent, the
whole revenue of which did not exceed L..266 : 17:6
per annum. In the year 1551, after the citizens of
London had purchafed of Edward VI. the manor of
Southwark and its appurtenances, of which this hof-
pital wasa part, they expended L.x 100 in repairing
and enlarging the edifice, and immediately received
into it 260 patients; upon which the king in 1553
incorporated this hofpital with thofe. of Chrift-church
and Bridewell in the city of London. The building
being much decayed, three beautiful fquares adorned
with colonades were erected by voluntary fubfeription
in 1693, to which in 1732 the governors added a mag¬
nificent building, confifting of feveral wards with pro¬
per offices. The annual difburfements of this hofpital
have for many years amounted to L.8000. The houfe
is divided into iq wards, and is faid to contain 474
beds.
Adjoining to St Thomas’s Hands Guy's hofphal, per- 113
haps the moft extenfive charitable foundation that evetGra>)’s
was eftabliihed by one man in private life. The foun- A u ’
der of this hofpital was Thomas Guy, a bookfeller in
Lombard-ftreet, London, who lived to fee the edifice
roofed in; and at his death, in 1724, left L. 238,292,
16s. including the expence of the building, to finiftt 4
and endow it. This hofpital confifts of. two capacious
fquares, containing 12 wards and 435 .beds. It was.
incorporated by charter from parliament, .and the firit
• governors were appointed in 1725.
In St George’s Fields, weftward of the King’s-bench
prifon, is the Magdalen hofpital for the reception of pe¬
nitent proftitutes ; a little farther is fituated the Aiy-
lum for orphan girls ; Snd not far diftant is the Weft¬
minfter Lying-in hofpital: Inftitutions, of which the
following feeling and animated account is given by-
Mr Pennant.
4.
TU-
•The Mag-
fialen Ho-
%ital.
I/ying-in
Hofpital.
LON [ ^62 J LON
“ The yffyhm is an inftitution of a moil heavenly recommend. And of both defcriptions upwards of London
nature, calculated to fave from perdition of foul and 4000 have experienced its falutary effett.” 'J.
body the brighter part of the creation; fuch on whom St George’s Fields are now almoft covered with r,^
Providence hath beftowed angelic faces and elegant new-erefted buildings, from the ditch at the end of St George1*
forms, defigned as bleflings to mankind, but too often Great Surry-ftreet, or Burrow’s buildings, to the Fiih- fields,
debafed to the vileft ufes. The hazard that thefe in- mongers almflioufes, in one direftion ; and from the
nocents conftantly are liable to from a thoufand temp- Marfhalfea-prifon to the Dog and Duck, in the other
rations, from poverty, from death of parents, from the direction ; with feveral irregular indentions -in its cir-
diabolical procurefs, and often from the itupendous cumference : And where the principal roads meet an
wickednefs of parents themfelves, who have been known obelilk has been erefted, pointing out the diftance it
to fell their beauteous girls for the purpofe of profti- Hands from different parts of London, Weftminfter,
tution, induced a ^worthy band to found ia the year and Blackfriars bridges. Among the buildings which
1758 the Afylum or Houle of Refuge. Long may ferve to embellifh and improve this entrance to Lon-
it flouriih, and eternal be the reward of thofe into don, Chatham fqnare and Bridgeflreet Blackfriars may
whofe minds fo amiable a conception entered! be particularly fpecified.
“ To afford means of falvation to thofe unhappy At Lambeth, the archbifhops of Canterbury have
beings who had the ill fortune to lofe the benefits of had a palace. According to Mr Pennant, it was in Lambetk
this divine inftitution, the Magdalen Hofpital was in- the earlier times a manor, poffibly a royal one; for Palace,
flituted for the reception of the penitent proftitutes. the great Hardiknut died here in 1042, in the midft
To fave from vice, is one great merit. To reclaim of the jollity of a wedding dinner; and here, without
and reftore to the dignity of honeft rank in life, is any formality, the ufurper Harold is faid to have
certainly not lef meritorious. The joy at the return fnatched the crown and placed it on his own head.
<of one finner to repentance is efteemed by the higheft At that period it was part of the eflate of Goda, wife
authority worthy of the heavenly hoft. That eeftafy, to Walter Earl of Mantes, and Euftace Earl of Bou-
I truft, this inflitution has often occafioned. Since its logne l who prdented it to the church of Rochefterj
foundation in the fame year with the former, to De- but referved to herfelf the patronage of the church,
cember 25th, 1786, not fewer than 2471 have been It became in 1197 the property of the fee of Can-
admitted. Of thefe (it is not to be wondered that terbury, by exchange tranhidted between Glanville
long and evil habits are often incurable) 300 have beati Bihop of Rochefter, and the Archbifhop Hubert
difeharged, tineafy under conftraint; 45 proved luna- Walter. The building was improved by Langton
tics, and afflicted with incurable fits; 60 have died ; the fuccefTor of Walter ; but it was afterwards neglect-
52 never returned from hofpitals they were fent to; ed and became ruinous. “No pious zeal (fays Mr Pen-
338 difeharged for faults and irregularities. How to nant) reftored the place, but the madnefs of prieftly
be dreaded is the entrance into the bounds of vice, pride. Boniface, a wrathful and turbulent primate,
fmee the retreat from its paths is fo difficult! Finally, defied in 1244, took it into his head to become a vi-
1608 prodigals have been returned to their rejoicing fitor of the priory of St Bartholomew, to which he,
parents ; or placed in reputable fervices, or to honeft had no right. The monks met him with reverential
trades, banes to idlenefs^ and fecurities againft a future refpefl, but affured him the office did not belong to
relapfe.”—Into this charity,ever}’woman who has been the bifhep. The meek prelate rufhed on the fub-
feduced (and is not pregnant or difeafed), whether re- prior, knocked him down, kicked, beat, and buffet-
commended or not, may apply for admiffion to the ed him, tore the cope off his back, and ftamped on
committee, who meet for that purpofe on the firft it like @ne poffeffed, while his attendants paid the
Tuefday in every month. fame compliments to all the poor monks The people
Akin to thofe charities is that of the Lying-in Ho* enraged at his unprieftly conduft would have tom
fpital; which is not intended merely for the reception him to pieces; when he retired to Lambeth, and, by
of “ the honeft matron who can depofit her burden way of expiation, rebuilt it with great magnificence,
with the confcioufnefs of lawful love ; but alfo for —At a fubfequent period it was very highly improved
the unhappy Wretches whom fome- villain in the un- by the munificent Henry Chichely, who enjoyed the
guarded moment has feduced, and then left a prey primacy from 1414 to 1443. I lament to find fo
to defertion of friends, to poverty, want, and guilt, worthy a man to have been the founder of a building
Left fiuh ‘ may be driven to defpair by fuch compli- fo reproachful to bis memory as the Lollards tower,
cated mifery, and be tempted to deftroy themfelves at the expence of near L. 280. Neither Proteftants
and murder their infants,’ here was founded in 1763 or Catholics (hould omit vifiting this tower, the cruel
this humane preventative the Weftininfter New Lying- prifon of the unhappy followers of Wickliffe. The
in Hofpital, in which every affiftance and accommo- vail ftaples and rings to which they were chained be-'
elation requifite in fuch fituatiorts are provided in the fore they were brought to the flake, ought to make
moft attentive and liberal manner. To obviate all ob- Proteftants blefs the hour which freed them from fo
jeflion to its being an encouragement to vice, no one is bloody a religion.” During the civil wars of the laft
(h) In deferibing this church, Mr Pennant takes occafion to mention the fad example of fallen majefty in
the perfon of Mary d’Efte, the unhappy queen of James II.; who flying with her infant prince from the
LON [2
London, diilanc; from the palace, has a plain tower; and the
’ archite&ure is of the gothic of the time of Edward IV.
It has very little remarkable in it, except the figure
andYhurch a Pec^ar atl(i his dog, painted in one of the^win-
‘dows ; and tradition fays, that the parifh was obliged
to this man for the bequeft of a piece of land, which
bears the name of the Pedlar's Acre. In the church¬
yard is. the tomb of old Tradefcant. Both father and
fon were great travellers; and the former is fuppofed
to have vifited Rufiia and moft parts of Europe, Tur-
key, Greece, many of the eaftern countries, Egypt,
and Barbary ; out of which he introduced multitudes
of plants and flowers, unknown before in our gardens.
The monument is an altar tomb ; embellifhed with
emblematical fculptures; and bearing the following
infeription, which is both Angular and hiftorical:
Know, ftranger, ere thou pafs, beneath this ftone
I.ye John Tradefcant, grandfire, father, fon ;
The lad dy’d in bis tyring; the other two
I.iv’d til! they had travch’d Art ai d Nature through.
As by their choice collections may appear,
Of what is rare, in land, in fci, in air;
WhiM they (as Homer’s Iliad in a nut)
A w> rid of wonder* in one clofet (hut:
Thefe famous Antiquarian*, that had been
Both gardeners to the Rofe and Lily Queen,
Tranlplanted now themi'elve.*, fleep hr re; and when
Angels dial! with their trumpets wake men,
And fire (hall purge the world, thefc hence lhall rife,
And change this garden for a paradife.
no From Lambeth, eaftward along the river fide, was
Lambeth- once a long tra& of dreary marfli, and ftill in parts
tnarfii, called Lambeth-marjh ; about the year 1560, there was
not a houfe’on it from Lambeth palace as far as
Southwark. In a ftreet called Narrow-wall (from
one of the ancient embankments) is Mrs Conde’s noted
63 ] LON
manufa&ory of artificial Hone (1): And at a fmall London,
dtftance, MdT. Beaufoy’s great work for making wines ——
(k), and that for making vinegar (l).
This ground, fo profitable to the proprietors, and 111
fo productive of revenue to the ftate, was within me- nufadorijs.
mory the feenc of low diflipation. Here flood Cuper’s
garden, noted for its fire-works, and the great refort
of the profligate of both fexes. This place was orna¬
mented with feveral of the mutilated flatues belonging
to Thomas Earl of Arundel, which had-been for that
purpofe begged from his lordfhip by one Boyder Cu-
per, a gardener in the family. The great timber-
yards beneath which thefe antiquities were found, are
very well worthy of a viiit. One would fear that the
forefts of Norway and the Baltic would be exhauiled,
to fupply the want of our overgrown capital, were
we not affured that the refources will fucceflively be
increafing equal to the demand of fucceeding ages.—
In this parifli are alfo the vaft diftilleries, till of late
the property of Sir Jofeph Mawbey ; where are fel-
dom lefs than 2000 hogs conftantly grunting, and
kept entirely on the grains.
III. City and Liberties of Westminster. The city na
of Weftminfter derives its name from a
bey, and weft, on account of its fituation with refpeft \yeftm:n~-
to St Paul’s cathedral, which was formerly called Eajl- fter.
minjler. In ancient times this dillriil flood upwards
of a mile from the city of London, and contained only
two parifhes, which were thofe of St Margaret and
St John, with two chapels of eafe, but at prefent it
has feven other parochial churches, viz. St Clement’s
Danes, St Paul’s Covent-garden, St Mary’s-le-Strand,
St Martin’s in the Fields, St Anne’s, St James’s, and
St George’s Hanover-fquare.
Weftminfter
ruin impending over their houfe, after crofling the Thames from the abdicated Whitehall, took ftielter be¬
neath the ancient walls of this church a whole hour, frdm the rain of the inclement night of December 6th,
1688. Here (he waited with aggravated mifery, till a common coach, procured from the next inn, arrived,
and conveyed her to Gravefend, from whence (he failed, and bid an eternal adieu to thefe kingdoms.
(1) Her repofitory confifts of feveral very large rooms filled with every ornament which can be ufed in
archite&ure. The ftatue, the vafe, the urn, the rich chimney-pieces, and, in a few words, every thing
which could be produced out of natural ftone or marble by the moft elegant chifcl, is here to be obtained at
an eafy rate.
(k.) “ Where (fays Mr Pennant) the foreign wines are moft admirably mimicked. Sucfr is the prodi¬
gality and luxury of the age, that the demand for many forts exceeds in a great degree the produce of the
native vineyards. We have fkilful fabricators, who kindly fupply our wants. It has been eftimated, that
half of the port, and five-fixths of the white wines confutned in our capital, have been the produce of our
home wine prefles. The product of duty to the ftate from a Angle houfe was in one year, from July 5th
1785, to July 5th 17.86, not lefs than L. : 9 : 8^. The genial banks of the Thames oppofite to*
our capital, yield almoft every fpecies of white wine ; and by a wondrous magic, MefT. Beaufoy pour forth
the materials for the rich Frontiniac, to the more elegant tables; the Maderia, the Calcavella, and the Lif-
bon, into every part of the kingdom.”
(l) “ There is a magnificence of bufiriefs (our author remarks) in this ocean of fweets and fours, that
cannot fail exciting the greateft admiration : whether we coniider the number of veffels or their fize. The
boafted tun at Heydelberg does not furpafs them. On firft entering the yard, two rife before you,,
covered at the top with a thatched dome ; between them is a circular turret, including a winding ftaircafe,
which brings you to their fummits, which are above 24 feet in diameter. One of thefe confervatories is full.,
of fweet wine, and contains 58,109 gallons, or 1,815 barrels of Winchefter meafure. Its fuperb affociate..
is full of vinegar, to the amount of 56,799 gallons, or 1,774 barrels of the fame ftandard as the former..
The famous German veflel yields even to the laft by the quantity of 40 barrels.— Befides thefe, is an avenue
of lefler veffels, which hold from 32,500 to 16,974 gallons each. After quitting this Brobdignagian feenq*
we pafs to the acres covered with common barrels: we cannot diminifti our ideas fo fuddenly, but at firl\
we imagined we could quaff them off ss as Gulliver did the little hogftieads of the kingdom of Lilligut*”
LON [ 264 ] LON
'London. Weftminfter was anciently called Thorny-ifland, quently repeated the bounty fince that time. The London.
from its having been covered with thorn-bulhes, and form of the abbey is that of a long crofs: i ts greateft ——y—
Govern encompalTed by a branch of the Thames, which is faid length is 489 feet, and the breadth of the well front
ment of t0 ^avc run through the ground now called St James’s- 66 feet; the length of the crofs aile is 189 feet, and
Weftmin- park, from weft to eaft, and to have rejoined the river the height of the roof 92 feet. At the weft end are
at Whitehall.
Till the general difiblution of religious houfes, Weft-
minfter was fubjeift to the arbitrary rule of its abbot
and monks; but in 1541, upon the furrender of Wil¬
liam Benfon the laft abbot, Henry VIII. not only
turned it into an honour, but created it the fee of a
bifhop, and appointed for a diocefe the whole coun¬
ty of Middlefex, except Fulham, which belonged
to the bifhop of London. This bifhoprick, how¬
ever, foon after its inftitution, was diffolved by Ed¬
ward VI.
The city of Weftminfter is governed by a high
fteward, an officer of great dignity, who is ufually one
of the firft peers in the realm ; and is chofen for life
by the dean and chapter of the collegiate church of
St Peter. There is alfo a deputy fteward and a high
bailiff, who alfo hold their offices for life ; being no¬
minated by the dean and chapter, and confirmed by
the high fteward.
The dean and chapter are invefted with an ecclefia-
ftical and civil jurifdiftion within the liberties of Weft¬
minfter, St Martin’s-le-Grand, near Cheapfide, in the
city of London, and fome towns in Effex, which are
exempted from the jurifdiftion of the bifhop of Lon¬
don and the archbifhop of Canterbury.
134 St Margaret’s church was founded by Edward' the
Churches. Confeffor, fince which time it has been frequently re¬
built. In the eaft end Of this church is a window cu-
rioufly painted, with the hiftory of the crucifixion,'
and with the figures of feveral apoftles and faints fine¬
ly executed. It formerly belonged to a private cha¬
pel at Copt-hall, near Epping in Effex, and was
purchafed by the officers of this parifh fome years
ago for 400 guineas. In this church the houfe of
commons attends divine fervice bn ftate holidays.
The church of St John the Evangelift was erecled in
1718, and having funk confiderably whilft it was
■ building, occafioned an alteration of the plan. On
-the north and fouth fides are magnificent porticoes,
fupported by vail ftone pillars, as is alfo the roof of
the church ; at each of the four corners is a beautiful
ftone tower apd pinnacle, which were added with the
view of making the whole ftrufture fink equally. The
parts of this building are held together by iron bars,
which run acrofs even the ailes.
135 The moll remarkable ftructure in Weftminfter is
Weftmin- the ahbey-church of St Peter. On its fite flood once a
and*it«be5 ’ temP'e °f Apollo, which according to tradition was
chapels. thrown down by an earthquake in the time of Anto¬
ninus Pius ; and from the ruins of which, Sebert king
of the Weft S'axoas railed a Chriftian church, which
was ruined by the Danes. It was repaired by Ed¬
ward the Confeffor, and given to a few monks; and
this fpot he chofe for his burial-place. Henry III.
160 years after, took down this fabric of Edward’s,
and erefled a new church, which was 50 years in
building. It fuffered much by fire in 17.74, but was
repaired by Edward I. Edward II. and the abbots.
In 1700 this church being much decayed, the parlia¬
ment granted money for repairing it, and has fre-
NJ187.
two towers: the nave and crofs aile are fupported by
50 flender pillars of Suffex marble, exclufive of pila-
fters. In the upper and lower ranges there are 94
windows, all which, with the arches, roofs, and doorsT
are in the Gothic tafte. The infide of this church
is much better executed than the outfide : and the
perfpedliye is good, particularly that of the grand aile.
The choir, from which there is an afeent by feveral
fteps to a fine altar-piece, is paved with black and
white marble •, having 28 flails on the north, the fame
number on th- fouth, and eight at the weft end. The
altar is made of a beautiful piece of marble, the gift
of Queen Anne, inclofed by a curious baluftrade, and
upon a pavement of porphyry, jafper, Lydian, and
ferpentine Hones, laid in the Mofaic ftyle, at the ex¬
pence of abbot Ware, A. D. 1272 ; and is faid to be
one of the moll beautiful of its kind in the world.
On each fide, of this altar a door opens into St Ed¬
ward’s chapel ; round which are 10 other chapels,
ranging from the north to the fouth crofs ailes, and are
dedicated, 1. To St Andrew. 2. To St Michael.
3. To St John Evangelift. 4 Iflip’s chapel. 5. To
St John Baptill. 6, To St Paul. 7. Henry V.’s cha¬
pel. 8. To St Nicholas. 9. To St Edmund. 10. To
St Benedifl.
In St Edward's chapel are Hill to be feen the remains
of his Ihrine; which, though now in obfeurity, and
robbed of all its riches and luftre, was once elteemed
the glory of England, fo far as art and riches could
make it. Here are the tombs of King Edward I. and fe¬
veral other kings and queens of England; and here alfo
is ffiown the famous chair in which the kings of Scot¬
land ufed to be crowned at Scoon. Henry V.’s chapel
is divided from St Edward's by an iron fereen, on each
fide of which are ftatues as big as life.—St Andrew’s
chapel, which is next the north crofs, and the others
which furround the choir, are crowded with the mo¬
numents of noble perfonages, worthy the attention of
the curious.—At the corner of St Benedift’s chapel,
an iron gate opens into the fouth crofs aile; which
from the number of monuments ereded thereinto cele¬
brated Englilh poets, has obtained the name of the
Poets corner: though here we find a moll magnificent
monument erefted at the fouth end in memory of the
late John duke of Argyle and Greenwich ; another to
William Camden the antiquarian ; and others to the
celebrated divine #r Ifaac Barrow, to Thomas Parr
who died at the age of 152 years, &c.—The fouth
aile is adorned with 19 curious monuments of the pi*
ous, the brave, and the learned; and turning north¬
ward from the weft door, we view a great number
more.
On the eaft of the abbey, and which, though fepa- 146
rate from the other chapels in the choir, feems to Henry’s
be one and the fame building with the abbey, Hands c*ialie**
the chapel of King Henry VII. which that king foun¬
ded in the year 1502, and was at that time ftyled the
•wonder of the •world, and is now one of the moft ex-
penfive remains of the ancient Englilh tafte and mag¬
nificence. There is no looking upon it without ad¬
miration .
LON t ] LON
f*ndon, miration : it conveys an idea of the fine tafte of Go-
v ' thic architefture in that age : and the infide is fo
noble, majeftic, and of fuch curious workmanihip,
that it would take a volume to defcribe each part with
juftice and propriety.
Its original intention Was to be a dormitory for the
royal blood : and fo far the will of the founder has
been obferved, that none have been interred therein
but fuch as have traced their defcent from, ancient
kings. The tomb of King Henry VII. is moft magni¬
ficent, inclofed with a fcreen of call brafs, moft admi¬
rably defigned, and as well executed. Within the rails
are the figures of that king and his royal eonfort, in
their robes of ftate, on a tomb of black marble : and
at the head of this tomb lie the remains of Edward VI.
In different parts of this chapel are the monuments of
Lewis Stuart duke of Richmond, George Villars duke
of Buckingham, John Sheffield duke of Buckingham,
Charles Montague marquis of Hallifax, Edward V. and
his brother Richard ; the vault of James I. and his
queen Anne and daughter Mary, on Which is a fmall
tomb adorned with the figure of a child ; a lofty mo¬
nument of Queen Elizabeth, and another of Mary
Queen of Scots; the monuments for Margaret Douglas
daughter of Margaret queen of Scots, Margaret couri-
tefs of Richmond mother to Henry VII. the vault of
King Charles II. and William III. Queen Mary his
confort, Queen Anne, and Prince George. Over thefe
royal perfonages are their effigies (except that of
prince George) in wainfcot preffes, made of wax to
referable life, and dreffed in their coronation robes.
And at the corner of the great eafl window, in another
wainfcot prefs, ftands the effigy of Mary duchefs of
Richmond daughter to James duke of Richmond and
Lenox, dreffed in the very robes fhe wore at the coro¬
nation of Queen Anne. On leaving the aide, you are
{hown another prefs, containing the effigy of general
Monk, who, on account of his loyalty, and the part he
took in the reftoration of King Charles II. had a vault
appropriated to him and his family amOngft the royal
blood.
In a fine vault under Henry the VII.’s chapel, is
the burying-place of the prefent royal family, erected
by his late majefty king George II. Adjoining to
the abbey are the cloyfters, built in a quadrangular
form, with piazzas towards the court, where feveral
of the prebendaries have their houfes.
127 Near the abbey church is the King’s fchool, ufually
Weft min- called Wejlmwjler School. It was originally founded in
fter School. I0y0> and a fecond time by Queen Elizabeth in 1560,
whence it is fometimes called the .Queen’s College ; and
is at prefent one of the greateft fchools in the king¬
dom. The learned antiquary Mr Cambden was once
mafter of it, and Ben Jonfon one of his fcholars.
Dr Bulky, who was mafter upwards of 50 years,
greatly contributed to keep up its reputation, formed
its mufeum, and improved both the mafter’s and his
prebendal houfe.—This fchool, inftead of one mafter
and one ufher as at firft, has now an upper and under
mafter, and five ufters, who have about 400 youths
under their tuition. A plan was fet on foot when
the prefent archbilhop of York was mafter, for build¬
ing a college for the ufe of the ftudents, but this did
hot fucceed.
Vot.X. Part I. •
On the north-eaft fide of the abbey is an old Go- bftadoM.
thic building called IVtjiminjler-hall, firft built by Wil-
liam Rufus as an addition to a royal palace, and after- Weftmin-
wards rebuilt by Richard II. in the year 1397. Itfter-hall,
is reckoned one of the largeft rooms in Europe, be¬
ing 200 feet long, 70 broad, and 90 high, fup-
ported only by buttreffes. The roof is of timber,
and was fome years ago Hated, the old covering of lead
being reckoned too heavy. It is paved with ftone.
In this fpacious room the kings of England have ge¬
nerally held their coronation and other folemn feafts;
and it is ufed for the trial of peers. Since the reign
of Henry III. the three great courts of Chancery,
King’s Bench, and Common Pleas, have been held in
feparate apartments of this hall; and the court of Ex¬
chequer above flairs;
Adjoining to the fouth-eaft angle of Weftminfter- Houfe of
hall is a building formerly called St Stephen's Chapel-, Common^
from its having been dedicated to that faint. It was
founded by King Stephen ; and in 1347 was rebuilt
by King Edward III. who converted it to a colle¬
giate church ; but fince it was furrCndered to Ed¬
ward VI. it has been ufed for the affembly of the re-
prefentatives of the commons of England, and is now
generally called the Houfe of Commons. The benches,
which afeend behind one another is in a theatre, are
covered with green cloth ; the floor is matted ; and
round the rqom are wainfcot galleries, fupported by
cantilevers adorned with carved work, in which ftran-
gers are often permitted to fit and hear the debates. t3<, .
On the fouth fide of the hall is the Houfe of Lords, Houfe of
fo called from being the place where the peers of^10^8.
Great Britain affemble in parliament. It is an oblong
room, not quite fo large as the houfe of commons ;
and is hung with fine old tapeftry, reprefenting the
defeat of the Spaniih Armada in 1588. The defign
was drawn by Cornelius Vroom, and the tapeftry exe¬
cuted by Francis Spiering. It was not put up till
the year 1650, two years after the extin&iop of mo¬
narchy, when the houfe- of lords was ufed as a com¬
mittee-room for the houfe of commons. The heads
of the naval heroes who commanded on the glorious
day form a matchlefs border round the work, anima-
ting pofterity to emulate their illuftrious example.
Here is a throne for the king, wdth feats on the right
and left for fuch peers of the realm as are of the
blood royal. Before the throne are three broad feats ;
on the firft of which, next the throne, fits the Lord
Chancellor, or keeper of the great feal, who is fpcaker
of the houfe of peers ; and on the other two fit the
judges, the mafter of the rolls, or the matters in chan¬
cery, who attend occafionally to give their opinions
on points of law. The two archbilhops fit at fome
diftance from the throne on the right hand, and the
other bilhops in a row under them. All the benches
are covered with red cloth ftuffed with wool. Here
likewife, by a late order of the houfe, a gallery for
ftrangers has been eredled. »131
Adjoining to the houfe of lords is the Prince's Pence’s
Chamber, where the king is robed when he comes to e 3
the parliament. On the other fide is the Painted
Chamber, which is faid to have been Edward the Con-
feffor’s bed-chamber, and the room in which the par¬
liaments were anciently opened. Here conferences
L 1 ate
LON r 266 1 LON
London. are often held between the two houfes, or their com-
i|"Tr—'' " 11 ’ mittees. Contiguous to thofe is an apartment called
the Court of Requejls, where fuch as have bufinefs in
either houfe may attend.
We'huir- N.ar thefe buildings is a bridge over the Thames,
-fttr bru’ge. called IVeJlminjier-bridge, accounted one of the moft
complete and elegant ftru&ures of the kind in *the
known world. It is built entirely of done, and ex¬
tends over the river at a place where it is 1223 feet
. broad ; which is above 300 feet broader than at Lon¬
don bridge. On each fide is a fine balluftrade of
Hone, with places of Ihelter from the rain. The width
of the bridge is 44 feet, having on each fide a fine
Toot-way for paflengers. It confifts of 14 piers, and
13 large and two fmall arches, all femicircular, that
in the centre being 76 feet wide, and the red decrea-
fing four feet each from the other, fo that tire two
lead arches of the 13 great ones are each 52 feet.
It is computed that the value of 40,000!. in done
and other materials is always under water. This
magnificent dru&ure was begun in 1739, and finifhed
in 1750, at the ^xpence of 389,000!. defrayed by
the parliament. It was built after the defign of
Monf. Labelye, an ingenious architeft, a native of
J22 France.
Whiteiiall. On the bank of the Thames, at the ead confines of
St Margaret’s parilh, was a palace called Whitehall,
originally built by Hubert de Burgh earl of Kent, be¬
fore the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards
devolved to the archbilhop of York, whence it recei¬
ved the name of Turk Place, and continued to be the
city fefidence of the archbifliops till it was purchafed
by Henry VIII.'of cardinal Wolfey in 1530. At
this period it became the reiidence of the court; but
in 1697 was dedroyed by accidental fire, all except
the banqueting-houfe, which had been added to the
palace of Whitehall by James I. according to a defign
of Inigo Jones. This is an elegant and magnificent
ilrufture of hewn done, adorned with an upper and
lower range of pillars, of the Ionic and Compofite or¬
ders ; the capitals are enriched with fruit and foliages,
and between the .columns of the windows. The roof
is covered with lead, and furrounded with a baludrade.
The budding chiefly confids of one room of an oblong
form, 40 feet high, and a proportionable length and
breadth.. The cieling is painted by the celebrated Sir
Peter Paul Rubens. It is now ufed only as a chapel-
royal, and the other part of the houfe is occupied
I34 with date-offices.
Ilorfe- Oppofite to the banqueting-houfe dands the Horfe-
guards guard., . j .called from being the dation where that
part oflfis majedy’s troops ufually do duty. It is a
drong’ building, of hewn done, confiding of a centre
and two wings. In the former is an arched pafiage
into St James’s Park; and over it, in the middle,
rifes a cupola. In a part of the building is the War-
office. Near the Horfe-guards is the Treafury ; a
large building, which fronts the Parade in St James’s
>35 Park ; and where the board of treafury is kept.
Admiralty- Eadward of the Horfe-guards is the Admiralty-Office,
©nice. a ]arge p,je> built with brick and done. The front
towards Whitehall has two deep wings, and a lofty
portico fupported by four large done pillars. A
piazza, confiding of beautiful columns, runs almod
from one end to the other.. The wall before the London,
court has Been lately built in an elegant manner, and  v—
each fide of the gate is ornamented with naval em¬
blems. Befides a hall, and other public apartments,
here are fpacious houfes for feven commiffioners of the
admiralty. 136
At a littls didance from the admiralty, where three Cbaring-
capital dreets terminate, is a large opening calledcro^’
Cbaring-crofs, from one of the erodes which king Ed¬
ward I. caufed to be erefted in memory of his queen
Eleanor, and Charing the name of a village in which
it was built. The crofs remained till the civil wars in
the reign of Charles I. when it was dedroyed by the
fanatics, as a monument of popiffi fuperdition ; but
after the Redoration, an equedrian ftatue of Charles 1.
was fet up in its dead. This, which is of brafs, and
finely executed, continues to be an ornament to the
place. It was made in 1633, at the expence of the
Howard-Arundel family. The parliament fold it to
a brazier in Holborn, with drift orders to break, it
to pieces; but he concealed it under ground till the
Redoration, when it was fet up in 1678. T^
At the wed end of the Mall, in St James’s Park, Queen’s
which begins near Charing-crofs, dands the Queen’s fa.ace..
Palace. It was originally known by the name of Ar-
lington-hoiife ; but being purchafed by the late duke of
Buckingham’s father, who rebuilt it from the ground
in 1703, it was called Buckingham-houfe, till the year
1762, when it was purchafed by his majedy for a
royal refidence. It is built of brick, and done, having
in the front two ranges of piladers of the Corinthian ■
and Tufcan orders. It has a fpacious court-yard, in-
clofed with iron rails, fronting St James's Park, with
offices on each fide, with two pavilions, feparated from
the manfion-houfe by colonades of the Tufcan, Do¬
ric, and Ionic orders. His majedy has here built a
fine library, in an oftagonal form, hefides feveral other
additions. 138'
Eadward of the queen’s palace dands St James’s, St JunesV
an old building, which, till the former was purchafed
by the crown, had been the town-refidence of the roy¬
al family fince the burning of Whitehall in 1697.
This palace was built by Henry VIII. and obtained
its name from an hofpital which formerly dood on the
fpot. It is an irregular building, of a mean appearance
without, but contains feveral magnificent apartments. ^
Here the court and levees are dill kept, and mod of
the perfons belonging to the houfhold have their refi¬
dence. The chapel of the hofpital was converted to
the ufe of the royal family, as it now remains, and is
a royal peculiar, exempted from all epifcopal jurifdic-The Park
tion. When this palace was built, it abutted in the and Mali,
fouth-wed upon an uncultivated fwampy traft of
ground, which the king inclofed and converted into
a park, called from the palace St James’s Park. He
alib laid it out into walks, and collefted the water into
one body. It was afterwards much enlarged and im¬
proved by king Charles II. who planted it with lime
trees, and formed a beautiful vida, near half a mile in
length, called the Mall, from its being adapted to a
play at bowls diltinguifhed by that name. He alfo
formed the water into a canal 100 feet broad and
2800 feet long ; and furniffied the park with a decoy,
and other pond for water-fowl} but thofe have lately
4 been
■
'
LON [ 267 J LON
Jaendcm. been ddtroyed, on account of the unwholefome va-
1—-v— pours which they excited.
In a line with St James’s palace, -on the eaft fide,
is Marlborough Houfe, which belongs to the duke of
Marlborough, and. is a large brick edifice, ornamented
The/trand w*t^1 ft°ne>
-When firll ’ Eaftward from Charing-crofs, runs that fine ftreet
lormed. the Strand, which teiminates at Temple-bar. In the
year 1353 the whole of it was an open highway, with
gardens to the water-fide. In that year it was fo
ruinous, that Edward III. by an ordinance dire&ed a
tax to be railed upon wool, leather, wine, and goods
carried to the ftaple at Weftminfter, from Temple-bar
to Weftminiter abbey, for the repair of the road ; and
that all owners of houfes adjacent to the highway
fhould repair as much as lay before their doors.
Before the above period, it entirely cut off Weftmin¬
iter from London ; nothing intervened except the
Scattered houfes, and a village which afterwards gave
name to the whole; and St Martin’s flood literally in the
fields. But about the year 1560 a ftreet was formed,
loofely built; for all the houfes on the fouth fide had
great gardens to the river, were called by their own¬
ers names, and in after-times gave name to the feve-
ral ftreets that fucceeded them, pointing down to the
Thames; each of them had flairs for the convenien-
xy of taking boat, of which many to this day b?ar the
names of the houfes. As the court was for centuries
cither at the palace of Weftminfter or Whitehall, a
boat was the cuftomary conveyance of the great to the
prefence of their fovereign. The north fide was a mere
line of houfes from Charing-crofs to Temple-bar;
all beyond was country. The gardens which occu¬
pied part of the fiteof Convent-garden were bounded by
fields, and St Giles’s was a diftant country village.
Our capital found itfelf fo fecure in the vigorous govern¬
ment of queen Elizabeth, that, by the year 1600, moft
confiderable additions were made to the north of the
long line of ttreet juft deferibed. St Martin’s-lane
was built on both fides. St Giles’s church was ftill
infulated : but Broad-ftreet and Holburn were com¬
pletely formed into ftreets with houfes all the way to
Snow-hill. Convent-garden and Lincoln’s inn fields
were built, but in an irregular manner. Drury-lane,
Clare-ftreet, and Long-acre, arofe in the fame pe-
141 riod.
, Northum- Almoft contiguous to Charing-crofs, and upon the
Houfe f°uth fide of the Strand, is that noble palace called
Northumberland-houfe, which ftands on the fite of
the hofpital of St Mary Rouncevah Henry VIII.
granted it to Sir Thomas Caverden. It was after¬
wards transferred to Henry Howard earl of Northamp-
• ton ; who, in the time of James' I. built here a houfe,
and called it after his own name. He left it to his
kinfman the earl of Suffolk, lord treafurer ; and by the
marriage of Algernoon Percy earl of Northumber¬
land, with Elifabeth daughter of Theophilus earl of
Suffolk, it paffed into the houfe of the prefent noble
owner. The greater part of the houfe was built by
Bernard Janfcn, an a rehit eft in the reign of James I.
The front next the ftreet was begun by Algernoon in
1748, and finilhed by the prefent duke, who married
his daughter. Two additional wings to the front next
the Thames, and a variety of other improvements both
in building and furniture, have contributed to render London,
this houfe the largeft and moft magnificent in. Lon- —
don. It contains a gallery of 106 feet long by 26
wide moft fuperbly furnilhed. j47(
A Ihort way eaftward, on the fame fide, flood iJur-Durtiam
ham Tard, which took its name from a place built ori-Yard-
ginally by the illuftrious Thomas de Hatfield, elefted-
bilhop of Durham in 1345 ; defigned by him for the
town refidence of him and his fucceffors. At this place,,
in 1540, was held a moft magnificent feaft, given by
the challengers of England, who had caufed to be
proclaimed, in France, Flanders, Scotland, and Spain,
a great and triumphant jufting to be hclden at Weft¬
minfter, for all comers that would undertake them
But both the challengers and defendants were Englifti.
After the gallant fpoits of each day, the challengers
. rode, unto this Durham-houfe, where they kept open
houfehold, and feafted the king and queen (Anne of
Cleves) with her ladies, and all the court. In the
reign of Edward VI. the mint was eftablilhed in this
houfe, under the mahagement of Sir William Shar-
rington, and the influence of the afpiring Thomas
Seymour, lord admiral. Durham-houfe was reckon¬
ed one of the royal palaces belonging to queen Eliza¬
beth ; who gave the ufe of it to the great Sir Walter
Raleigh. _. .143
Durham-yard is now filled with a moft magnificentThe Adel-
mafs of building, called the jide^phi, in honour of phi.
two brothers, the ingenious Adams, its architefts.
Befides its fine lodgings, it is celebrated for its en¬
chanting profpeft, the utility of its wharfs, and its
fubterraneous apartments anfwering a variety of pur-
pofes of general benefit. 144
Farther on Hand the ruins of the Savoy. HenryThe S«voy,
III. had granted to Peter of Savoy, uncle to his queen
Eleanor, daughter of Berrrenger of Provence, all the
houfes upon the Thames where this building now
ftands, to hold to him and his heirs, yielding yearly
at the Exchequer three barbed arrows for all fervices.
This prince founded the Savoyr, and bellowed it on
the foreign hofpital of Montjoy. Queen Eleanor pur-
chafed it, and bellowed it on her fon Edmund earl
of Lancaiter. It was rebuilt in a moft magnificent
manner byjiis fon Henry. It was made the place of
confinement of John king of France in 1356, after
he was taken prifoner at the battle of Poitiers. In
1381 it was entirely deftroyed by Wat Tyler, out of
fpleen to the great owner John of Gaunt. Henry VII.
began to rebuild it, with a defign of forming it into
an hofpital for a hundred diftreffed people, and Hen¬
ry VIII. completed the defign. The rever s,jat the
fuppreffion by Edward VI. amounted to VfyyvJjfQO 1.
a year. Queen Mary reftored it ; and her maids of
honour, with exemplary piety, furnilhed it with all ne-
ceffaries. It was again fupprefted by Queen Elifabeth ;
and at prefent part ferves as lodgings for private peo¬
ple, for barracks, and a fcandalous infeftious prifon for
the fokliery and for tranfport-convifts.
A little to the eaftward flood Somerfet houft, a Pa"Somerfet-
lace built by Somerfet the Proteftor in the time of houfe!
Edward VI.; and to make way for which he demoli-
fhed a great number of buildings without making ary
recompence to the owners. Part of the church of St
John of Jerufalem and the Tower were blown up for
L 1 2 the
LON [ 268 ] LON
London, the fake of the materials ; and the cloifters on the north
fide of St Paul’s, with the charnel-houfe and chapel,
underwent the fame fate ; the tombs being deftroyed,
and the bones thrown into Finfbury-fields. This hap¬
pened in 1549 ; but it is probable that he did not live
to inhabit the palace he built, as he was executed in
the year 1552. After his death the palace fell to the
crown ; and it became an occafional place of refidence,
firft to Queen Elizabeth, and afterwards to Catherine
queen to king Charles II. It was built in a Ityle of
architedlure compounded of the Grecian and Gothic;
and the back, front, and water-gate, were done from
a defign of Inigo Jones, about the year 1623. A
chapel was begun the fame year by that architect, and
finilhed fome time after. The whole of this llrudlure
was demolifhed in 1775, in confequence of an a£t of
parliament; and a moil magnificent edifice, from a
defign by Sir William Chambers, has been eredled
for the accommodation of all the public offices,—thofe
of the Treafury, the Secretary of State, the Admi¬
ralty, the War, and the Excife, excepted. The
Royal Society, and the Society of Antiquarians, hold
their meetings here, in apartments which have been
allotted to them by royal munificence ; and here alfo
are annually exhibited the works of the Britiih painters
and fculptors. The terrace on the fouth fide is a walk
bounded by the Thames, and unparalleled for gran-
^ g dear and beauty of view.
St Martin’s church of St Martin is diftinguiflied by the
and other name of St Martin's in the Fields> from its fituation,
churches, which was formerly a field, with only a few fcattered
houfes. The church being decayed, was rebuilt by
Henry VIII. and again by James I. but not being
large enough to accommodate the inhabitants of the
parifh, it was augmented in 1607, at the chaige of
Trince Henry, eldeft fon of James I. and feveral of
the nobility. After many expenfive reparations, how¬
ever, it was entirely taken down in 1720, and a
new church began, which was finifhed in 1726. This
is an elegant edifice, built of flone. On the weft
front is a noble portico of Corinthian columns, fup-
porting a pediment, in which are reprefented the royal
arms in bas relief. The afcent to the portico is by a
flight of very long fteps. The length of this church
is about 140 feet, the breadth 60, and height 45. It
has a fine arched roof fuftained by ftone columns of
the Corinthian order. The fteeple has a beautiful
fpire, and one of the beft rings of bells in London.
St James's Church was*built in the reign of Charles
II. at the expence of Henry earl of St Alban’s, and
other neighbouring inhabitants. The building is of
brick and ftone, about 85. feet long, 60 broad, and
45 feet high, with a handfome fteeple 150 feet in
height.
St George's Church, near Hanover-fquare, is a beau¬
tiful ftru&ure. This was one of the fifty new church¬
es ere died within the bills of mortality, by a cl of par-
lament, in the reign of Queen Anne. The ground
for the edifice was given by the late lieutenant-general
Stewart, who alfo left 40001. to the parifh, towards
eredling and endowing a charity fchool ; which, by
additional benefactions and fubfcriptions, is become
■vcery confiderable.
The greater part of the parifh of St Paul's Covent-
garden, was anciently a garden, belonging to the ab- London,
bot and convent of Weftminfter, and was then called —v—«
Convent-garden, a name corrupted into Covent, and
more generally Common-garden. In 1552, Edward Garden.
VI. gave it to the earl of Bedford, with an adjoining
field, formerly called the Seven Acres, but now, being
turned into a long ftreet, called Long-acre. The
church of St Paul’s, Covent-garden, was built by
Jones, and is eftcemed one of the moft fimple
and perfedt pieces of architedture in England. In the
front i; a plain portico of the Tufcan order, with
mafiy columns. Before the church ii a fquare area,
containing about three acres of ground, called Covent-
garden market, and is the beft in England for herbs,
fruit, and flowers. On the north, and part of the eaft
fide, is a magnificent piazza, defigned by Inigo Jones. I4g
Next to the parifh of St Paul, Covent-garden, is Marf
that of St Mary le Strand. This is alfo one of the fifty le Strand,
new churches built in the reign of Queen Anne, and^11,
is a handfome piece of architedlure, though not very
extenfive. At the entrance, on the weft fide, is an
afcent by' a flight of fteps, in a circular form, which
leads to a fimilarly fhaped portico of Ionic columns,
covered with a dome, that is crowned with a vafe.
The columns are continued along the body of the
church, with pilafters of the fame order at the corners;
and in the intercolumniations are niches handfomely
ornamented. Over the dome is a pediment fupported
by Corinthian columns, which are alfo continued round
the body of the ftrudlure, over thofe of the Ionic order.
A handfome baluftrade is carried round the top of the
church, and adorned with vafes.
A little eaftward from the preceding church is that
of St Clement's Danes, fituated likevvife in the Strand.
A church is faid to have flood in this place fince about
the year 700 •, but the prefent ftrudlure was begun in
1680, defigned by Sir Criftopher Wren. It is built
of ftone, with two rows of windows, the lower plain,
but the upper ornamented ; and the termination is by
an attic, the pilafters of which are covered with vafes.
On the fouth fide is a portico, covered with a dome,,
fupported by Ionic columns ; and oppofite to this is
another. The fteeple is beautiful, and of a great
height.
The church of St George, Bloomfbury, is alfo one of
the fifty new churches eredled by adl of parliament.
It is diftinguifhed from all the reft by Handing fouth
and north, and by the ftatue of King George I. at the
top of its pyramidal fteeple.
In Lamb’s Conduit-fields, on the north fide of the Foundling,
town, is a large and commodious ftrudture called the fl1’1 °thfr
Foundling-hofpital, for the reception of expofed and ^ a,s“
deferted children. This laudable charity was. project¬
ed by feveral eminent merchants in the reign of queen
Anne ; but was not carried into execution till many
years afterwards, when a charter for its eftablifhment
was obtained, through the indefatigable afliduity of
Mr Thomas Coram, the commander of a merchant
vefiel, who fpent the remainder of his life in promoting
this defign. From the time of its inftitution, the
parliament has occafionally granted confiderable fums
lor its fupport; and in fome years upwards of 6000
infants have been received.
Not far from hence is an Hofpitalfor the Small-pox;
and'
LON
[ 269 ]
LON
London, and in different parts of the town there are others,
U.—v -- > cither for the lick of all kinds, or thofe in particular
circumltances. Of the latter are feveral Lying-in hof-
pitahy and the LocLhofpiial for female patients in the
venereal difeafe. Of the former are St George's and
, j0 the Middlefex hofpitals, belides feveral infirmaries.
Gray’s Inn. Gray’s Inn is one of the four principal inns of court;
which, though lituated within the limits of the parilh
of St Andrew, Holborn, is yet without the liberties
of the city of London. It took its name from, an
ancient family of the name of Gray, which formerly
refided here, and in the reign of Edward III. demifed
it to fome lludents in the law ; but it is faid to have
been afterwards conveyed to the monks of Shene, near
the recommendation of the latter that all penfioners London,
and youths are received into the hofpital. They con- * "J.
fift of 16, of which number the king is always one,
and the others are generally noblemen of the firft rank.
To this hofpital belong a mailer, a preacher, two
fchoolmafters, a phyfician, a regiller, a receiver, a
treafurer, a fteward, an auditor, and other officers;
and the annual revenues of it being now increafed to
upwards of L. 6000, five men and four boys have been
added to the original number.
In the parilh of St Luke Hands the Haberdalhers Alkok
alms-houfe, or /IJkds Hofpita!, fo called from having Hofpital.
been eredted by the company of haberdalhers, purfuant
to the will of Robert Alke, Efq; one of their mem-
Richmond in Surry, who leafed it to the fociety of bers, who left L. 30,0:0 for the building and the re-
Lir.cpLn’s
lau.
the Inn. It was held by this tenure till the diffolution
of the monafteries, when Henry VIII, granted it to
the fociety in fee-farm. This inn confills chiefly of two
quadrangles, and has an old hall well built of timber,
with a chapel in the Gothic ftyle. Here is alfo a good
library, and the Inn is accommodated with a fpacious
garden,
Charter-
houfe.
lief of 20 poor members of the company ; befides the
maintenance and education of 20 boys, ions of decay¬
ed freemen of the fame company. This is a large
edifice of brick and Hone, 400 feet long, with a piazza
in front 340 feet in length, confiiting of Hone co¬
lumns of the Tufcan order. In the middle of the
building is a chapel, adorned with columns, entabla-
Lincoln’s-Inn, another of the four principal inns of tures, and pediment, of the Ionic order; and under
court, was originally the palace of Ralph Neville bilhop
of Chichefter, and chancellor of England about the
year 1226. It afterwards devolved to the earl of Lin¬
coln, who converted it into a court for the Undents of
law about the year 1310. From him it received the
name of Lincoln’s-inn, and conliited only of what is
now called the old fquare, which is entered from Chan¬
cery-lane. At prefent this fquare contains, befides
buildings for the lawyers, a large hall where the lord
chancellor hears caufes in the fittings after term. To
this inn belongs likewife a fine garden, which has late¬
ly been diminilhed by the building of fome Large and
commodious offices, for the ufe of the fix clerks in
the court of Chancery, &c.
In the pariffi of St James, Clerkenwell, is an hofpi¬
tal called the Charter-houfe, which is a corruption of
the word chartreux, a name formerly ufed for a convent
or priory of the Carthufians, which this place for¬
merly was. After the diflblution of monafteries it
fell to the earl of Suffolk, who difpofed of it to- Tho¬
mas Sutton, Efq; a citizen of London, in the time of
king James I. for L. 13,000. The purchafer intend¬
ing it for an hofpital, applied to the king for a patent,
which he obtained in 16n, and the grant was con¬
firmed by parliament in 1623. Mr Sutton having ex¬
pended L.yoOo in fitting up the buildings, gave it
the name of king James's hofpital, and endowed it
with lands to the amount of near L. 4500 a-year, for
the maintenance of 80 gentlemen, merchants of fol-
diers, who ffiouldbe reduced to indigent circumftances;
and 40 boys, to be inftrudted in claffical learning. The
men are provided with handfome apartments, and all
the necelfaries of life except clothes ; inftead of which
each of them is allowed a gown, and L. 7 a-year. Of
the boys, 29 are at a proper time fent to the univer-
fity, where each has an allowance of L.20 a-year for
eight years. Others, who are judged more fit for
trade, are put out apprentices, and the fum of L.40
is given with each of them. As a farther encourage¬
ment to the fcholars, there are nine ecclefiaftical pre-
ferments in the gift of the governors. It is alfo by
the pediment is a niche, with a ftatue of the founder.
In the fame parilh is the Iron-mongers hofpital, like¬
wife a large buildiug.
In the parilh of St Mary, Whitechapel, Hands the
London Id of pital, for the reception of the lick. It is
a large building, and was ereCled a few years fince by
voluntary contribution. Here are alfo fome confi-
derable alms-houfes. _ r^,
Within the precintls of Weftminfter are feveral Houles of
ftately houfes belonging to the nobility, fome of which.'he N-bili*-
have been already mentioned. Of the others, the ^’
moft remarkakable at prefent are, Burlington-houfe,
Devonlhire-houfe, Egremont-houfe, and Bedford-houfe;
Carleton-houfe, the magnificent abode of the prince of
Wales, and the fuperb refidence erected by the duke
of York between the Treafury and the Horfe-guards.
To thefe’may be added, Montagu-boufe (now the Br;t^
Britilh Mufeum); which was built on a French plan Muleum,
by the firft duke of Montagu, who had been ambaf-
fador in France. The ftaircafe and ceilings were paint¬
ed by Rouffeau and La Foffe : the apotheolis of Iris,
and the affembly of the gods, are by the laft. It was
purchafed of the duke’s heirs by parliament, for uniting
together the Royal, Cottonian, Harleian, Sloanian,
and other colledtions of books, MSS. coins, antiqui¬
ties, fubjedts in natural hiltory, See. See. for the public,
ufe, for which it is excellently adapted. The firft of
thefe libraries contains the books and MSS. of our
princes from Henry VII. to Charles II. ; the fecond
the MSS. colle&ed by Sir Robert Cotton, his fon,
and grandfon Sir John, which laft gave it to the public
by a<ft 12 and 13 William III. c. 7. The Harleian
colledtion of MSS. was formed by Edward earl of Ox¬
ford, and purchafed by government in 1753, at the
fame time with the library, MSS. and natural curioli-
ties of Sir Hans Sloane. This laft colt Sir Hans
L. 5;.o,cqo ; and he left it, by will, to the ufe of the
public, on condition that the parliament would pay
L.20,000 to his executors. It comprehends an ama¬
zing number of curiofities : among which are, the
library, including books of drawings,. MSS. and prints*,
amounting;.
L O N
• amounting to about 50,000 volumes ; medals and coins,
ancient and modern, 20,000 ; cameos and intaglios,
about 700; feals, 268 } veffels, &c. of agate, jafper,
&c. 542; antiquities, 1125; precious ftones, agates,
jafper, See. 2256 ; metals, minerals, ores, &c. 2725 ;
eryftal, fpars. See. 18645 fofTds, flints. Hones, 1275;
earths, fands, falls, 1035 ; bitumens, fulphurs, ambers,
&c. 399 ; talcs, micae, &c. 388 ; corals, fpunges, See.
1421 ; teftacea, orihells, See. 58434 echini, echinilse,
See. 659 ; afteriaei trochi, entrochi. Sic. 241 ; crufta-
cese, crabs, lobfters, &c. 363 ; Hellas marinas, Har-fiflies,
Sic. 173 ; fifli, and their parts, &c. 1555; birds, and
their parts, eggs, and nefls, of difl’erent fpecies, 1172;
quadrupeds, &c. 1886:; vipers, ferpents, &c. 521 ; in-
fedts, &c. 5439; vegetables, 12,506; hortus ficcus,
or volumes of dried plants, 334 ; humani, as calculi,
anatomical preparations, 756 ; mifcellaneous things,
natural, 2098 ; mathematical inHruments, 55. A ca-
[ 27O ]
LON
univerie, and of Confequence muH, from the prodigious I^ndou,
refort of foreigners of dillinction and talle who would
have vifited it, have become an inexhauHible fund of
riches to this nation. But as the deplorable blindnefs of
that age has deprived us of fo valuable an acquiiition,
it is become ahfolutely neceflary that fome efforts
fltould be made to render the prefent plan in a greater
degree anfwerable to the character of the richelt and
moll powerful people in the world.
The plan of London, in its prefent Hate, will in It' plan ftisl
many inHances appear to very moderate judges to be defective,
as injudicious ,a difpofition as can eafily be conceived
for a city of trade and commerce, on the borders of
fo noble a river as the Thames. The wharfs and quays
on its banks are extremely mean and inconvenient;
and the want of regularity and uniformity in the
flreets of the eity of London, and the mean avenues
to many parts of it, are alfo circumHances that greatly
talogue of all the above is written in a number of leffen the grandeur of its appearance. Many of the
156
^Principal
Squares, &c.
*57
London
anciently
inconveni¬
ent and un
healthy.
large volumes. It is a large and magnificent building ;
and has "behind it a garden, confuting nearly of nine
acres.
Te Tides .a great number'of fpacious Hreets, which
" are daily increaiing, this part of the metropolis is or¬
namented with feveral magnificent fquares, viz. Grof-
venor-fquare, Berkeley-fquare, Portman-fquare, Ca-
vendifh-fquare, Hanover-fquare, St James’s-fquare, So-
ho-fquare, Bloomfbmy-fquare, Queen’s-fquare, Lin-
coin’s-lnn-fields, Leiceffer-fquare, Red-Lion-fquare,
fome of which have been particularly deferibed; not
to mention others that are at prefent building. In
general, the new buildings in the liberty of Wefimin-
Her have increafed to a prodigious degree ; infomuch
that they reach as far as Mary bone to the north, Pic¬
cadilly to the fouth, and Hyde-Park-wall to the
weff.
Before the conflagration in 1666, London (which,
like moll other great cities, had arifen from fmall be¬
ginnings) was totally inelegant, inconvenient, and un¬
healthy, of which latter misfortune many melancholy
proofs are authenticated in hiHory, and which, with¬
out doubt, proceeded from the narrownefs of the
Hreets, and the unaccountable projections of the
buildings, that confined the putrid air, and joined
with other circumHances, fuch as the want of water,
churches and other public buildings are likewife thrull
up in corners, in fuch a manner as might tempt fo¬
reigners to believe that they were defigned to be con¬
cealed. The improvements of the city of London for
fome years pail have, however,, been very great; and
the new Hreets, which are numerous, are in general
more fpacious, and built with greater regularity and
elegance. _ 159
The very elegant and neceffary method of paving Great inl¬
and enlightening the Hreets is alfo felt in the moll fen-Pj^j
fible manner by all ranks and degrees of people. The
roads are continued for feveral miles around upon the
fame model; and, exclufive of lamps regularly placed
on each fide, at Ihort dillances, are rendered more fe-
cure by watchmen Hationed within call of each other.
Nothing can appear more brilliant than thofe lights
when viewed at a diHance, efpecially where the roads
run acrofs ; and even the principal Hreets, fuch as Pall
Mall, New Bond-Hreet, Oxford-flreet, Sic. convey an
idea of elegance and grandeur. rg0
London, then, in its large fenfe, including Well- Wealth ini
minller, Southwark, and part of Middlefex, forms ^mndeiuof
one great metropolis, of yafi extent and of prodi-^J ^
gious wealth. When, conhdered with all its advan¬
tages, it is now what ancient Rome once was; the
feat of liberty, the encourager of ar s, and the admi-
rendered the city feldom free from peHilential devafia- ration of the whole world. It is the centre of trade ;
tion. The fire which confumed the greatell part of has an intimate connedtion with all the counties in the
.the city, dreadful as it was to .the inhabitants at that
time, was produdlive of ccfnfequences which made
ample amends for the Ioffes fuffained by individuals ;
a new city arofe on the ruins of the old; but, though
more regular, open, convenient, and healthful, than the
kingdom; and is the grand mart of the nation, to
which all parts fend their commodities, from whence
they are again fent back into every town in the nation
and to every part of the world. From hence innu¬
merable carriages fey land and water are conffantly em-
former, yet it by no means anfwered to the charadlers ployed : and from hence arifes that circulation in the
of magnificence or elegance, in many particulars; and it national body which renders every part healthful, vi-
is ever to be lamented (fuch was the infatuation of gorous, and in a profperous condition; a circulation
thofe times), that the magnificent, elegant, "and ufeful
plan .of the great Sir Chrillopher Wren, was totally
difregarded, and facrifictd to the mean and felfifh
views of private property ; views which did irreparable
injury to the citizens themfelves and to the nation in
general: for had that great architect’s plan been follow¬
ed, what has often been afferted muff have been the re-
fult; the metropolis of this kingdom would incontellably
have been the mofr.magnificent and elegant city in the
that is equally beneficial to the head and the moH
diilant members. Merchants are here as rich as noble¬
men ; witnefs their incredible, loans to government:
and there is no place in the world where the fhops of
tradefmen make fuch a noble and elegant appearance,
or are better Hocked. * 161
The Thames, on the banks of which London is fi-jM excelleat
tuated, is a river which, though not the largeff, is
the richell and mofi commodious for commerce of any merce.
LON [ 27 r ] LON
London in the world. It is continually filled with fleets, fail-
'' """v jng to or from the moll diftant climates: and its banks,
from London-bridge to Blackwall, fopn almoll one
continued great magazine of naval ftores ; containing
three large wet-docks, 3 2 dry-docks, and 3 3 yards
for the building of (hips for the ufe of the merchants;
befides the places allotted for the building of boats and
lighters, and the king’s yards lower down the river
for the building of men of war. As the city is about
6o miles diitant frpm the fea, it enjoys,, by means of
this beautiful river, all the benefits of navigation, with¬
out the danger of being furprifed by foreign fleets, or
of being annoyed-by the moilfc vapours of the fea.
It rifes regularly from the water-fide, and, extending
itfelf on both fides along its banks, reaches a prodi¬
gious, length from call to weft in a kind of amphi¬
theatre towards the north, and is continued for near
2J miles on all fides, in a fucceflion of magnificent
villas and populous villages, the country-feats of gentle¬
men and tradefmen ; whither the latter retire.for the.
benefit of frefli air,., and to relax their minds from the
Hurry of bufinefs. The regard paid by the legiflature
to the property of the fubjeft, has hitherto prevented
any bounds being fixed for its extenfion.
The irregular form of London makes it difficult to
afcertain its extent*. However, its length from eaft to
weft is generally allowed to be. above feven miles from
Hyde-park. corner to Poplar ; and its breadth in fome
places three, in others two,, and. in others again not
much above half a mile. Hence the circumference of
the whole is almoft 18 miles; or, according to a later
meafurement, the extent of continued buildings is 35
miles two furlongs and 39, roods.. But it is much eafier
to-form an idea of the large extent of a city fo irre¬
gularly built by the number of the people,, who are
computed to be near a million ; and from the number
of edifices devoted to the fervice of religion.-,
Of thefe, befide St Paul's cathedral and the colle¬
giate church at Weftminfter,. here' are 102 parifh-
churches, and 69 chapels, of the eftablifhed religion :
chapeis,&c. 21 French proteftant chapels; 11 chapels belonging
to the Germans, Dutch, Danes, &c. ; 26 independent
meetings; 34-prefbyterian meetings; 20 baptift meet¬
ings ; 19 popifh chapels, and meeting-hpufes for the
ufe of foreign ambaffadofs and people of variou-fefts;
and three Jews fynagogues. So that there are 305
places devoted to religious worfhip in the compafs of
this vaft pile of buildings, without reckoning the 21
out-parifhes ufually included in the bills of mortality,
1($4 and a great number of methodift tabernacles.
Hofpitals, There are alfo in and near this city 100 alms-houfes,
fchools, about 20 hofpitals and infirmaries, 3 colleges, 10 public
cues, c prifonS) 13 flefh-markets ; one market for live cattle ;
two other markets more particularly for herbs ; and 23
other markets for corn, coals, hay, &c.; 15 inns of
court, 27 public fquares, befides thofe within fingle
buildings, as the Temple, &c. ; 3 bridges,. 55 hSls
for companies, 8 public fchools, called free-fchools;
and 131 charity-fchools, which provide education for
5034 poor children ; 207 inns, 447 taverns, yy 1 cof-
feehoufes,. 5975 alehoufes; 1000 hackney-coaches;
jgj 400 ditto chairs ; 7000 ftreets, lanes, courts, and al-
Number of leys> and 150,000 dwelling-houfes, containing, as has
inhabitants been already obfer.vcd, about 1^000,000 inhabitants;
163
General
enumera-
O 6
r3 2
o o
5 O'
who, according to a moderate eftimate, are fuppofed .London*
to confume the following provifions weekly : » f
L. x. J.
1 coo Bullocks, at 61. a-piece - 6000 o o
6000 Sheep, at 12 s. a-piece - 3600 o o
200© Calves, at 11. 4s. a-piece - 2400 o o
3000 Lambs, at 8 s. a-piece, for fix
months - - 1200 O Q
1500 Hogs in pprlt and bacon, at 20s.
for fix months - - , - 1500 o o
2000 Pigs, at 2s. 6d. a-piece - 250 o o
1000 Turkies, at 3 s- 6d. a-piece, for
fix months - - - 175 .0 O
rood Geefe, at 2 s. 6d. a-piece, for fix
months - - - 125
2000 Capons, at is. 8d. a-piece - 166
500 Dozens of Chickens at 9 s. per
dozen - - - - 225
4300 Ducks, at 9d. a.piece * - 161
1500 Dozen of rabbits, at 7 s. per do¬
zen, for eight months - 525 o o
2000 Dozen of pigeons, at 2 s. per
dozen, for eight months • 200 o Q
700 Dozen of wild-fowl,, of feveral forts,
for fix months - - 250 o o
in fait and frefli filh, at 1 d. a-day, for
half a million of people for one w.eek 14,583 6 8
In bread of all forts, white and brown
at id. a-day, for one million of peo¬
ple for a week
300 Tons of wine, of all forts, at 50I.
a ton, one fort with another, for one
week
In milk, butter, cheefe, &c. at id. a-
day, for a million of people for <
week . _ -
In fruit of all forts, at one farthing a-
day, for a million of people for a
week -
In eggs of hens, ducks, geefe, &c. at
half a farthing a-day, for a million
of people for a week - - 1 3645 164
In beer and ale, ftrong and fmall, at 2 d.
a-day, for a million of people for a
week - - - - - 58,333 6 8
In fugar, plums, and fpice, and all
forts of grocery, at a halfpenny a-
day, for a million of people for a
week - ... 14,583 6 8
In wheat-flour, for pies and puddings,
oatmeal and rice, &c. at half a far¬
thing a-day, for a million of people
for a week . - - 3645 16 8
In fait, oil, vinegar, capers, olives, and
other fauces, at half a farthing a-
day, for. a million of people for a
week - - . 3645 16 8
In roots and herbs of all forts, both for:
food and phyfic, at half a farthing
a-day, for a million of people for a
week 3645 11 8*
In fea-coal, charcoal, candles, and fire¬
wood, of all forts, at 1 d. a-day, for
a million of people for a week 29,166 13 4
Lo-
29,166 13 4
15,000 O o . I.00
Weekly
confumpt*
of provi-
29,166 13 4 fione.
7291 IJ 4
„ .i67
Firing,
porter, 3tc,
LON
In paper of all forts (a great quantity
being ufed in printing) quills, pens,
ink, and wax, at a farthing a-day,
for amillion of people for a week
In tobacco, pipes, and fnuff, at half a
farthing a-day, for a million of people
for a week -
In cloathing, as linen and woollen,
for men, women, and children,
fhoes, ftockings, &c. at 3 s. 6d. per
week, for a million of people for
a week - - -
Expences for horfe-meat, in hay, oats,
beans, 1000 load of hay a-week, at
40 s. a-load, comes to 20001. in
oats and beans the like value, 2000I.
which is in all, for one week
Cyder, mum, brandy, ftrong waters,
coffee, chocolate, tea, See. at id.
a-day, for a million of people for one
week
Places of
diverfion.
Sec.
[ 272 1 LON
by Antrim on the eaft, from which it is parted hy the Landed
river Bann ; by Donegal on the weft; and that county dcri>
and the Deucaledonian ocean on the north. Its
'jieji 13 4 greateft length is about 36 miles, its breadth 30, con¬
taining about 251,510 acres. The bogs and heaths
of this county are manured with fea-lhells, as thofe
3645 16 8 of Donegal. Like that, too, it is pretty champaign,
and not unfruitful. It is particularly noted for a very
clear river called the Bann, abounding with falmon, a
fiih faid to delight in limpid ftreams. This river, to
diftinguilh it from a leffer of the fame name, is called
175>oc® ® O the Greater or Lower Bann. In order to cultivate,
fettle, and civilize this county, king James I. granted
it, by letters-patent, to a fociety, by the name of the
Governor and Ajjijlants at London of the new plantation
of Ulfter in the realm of Ireland. It Contains fix ba-
40c® O o ronies ; and, befides the two knights of the (hire, fends
to parliament two members for the city of London¬
derry, and two each for Coleraine and Newton-Lima-
vady or Lamnevady.
29,166 13 4 Londonderry, or Z)er;y, the capital of the county,
The common firing is pit-coal, commonly called and the fee of a bHhop, ftands at the bottom of Lough-
fea~coal, of which there are confumed upwards of Foyle. This city has a very good port, to which ihips
766,880 chaldrons every year. The annual confump- of the greateft burden have accefs, and a confiderablc
tion of oil in X.ondon and Weftminfter for lamps, a- trade. It will be ever famous for the gallantry and
mounts to 400,000!. In 1787-, the quantity of por- perfeverance with which it defended itfelf in three
ter brewed in London for hbme-confumption and fo- memorable fieges, in defiance of the greateft hardfhips
reign exportation, amounted to 1,176,856 barrels. and difeouragements, namely, ift, In 1641, when the
This great and populous city is happily fupplied ' rebels could not reduce it either by fraud or forc».
with abundance of frefh water from the Thames and 2dly, In 1649, when it was befieged by the Lord Ardes,
the New River ; which is not only of inconceivable and reduced almoft to extremity by famine, till at laft
fervice to every family, but by means of fire-plugs relieved by troops fent from England. 3dly, When
every where difperfed, the keys of which are depofited it held out againft the French and Irifh from the 7th
with the pariih-officers, the city is in a great meafure of December 1688 to the laft day of July 1689,
fecured from the fpreading of fire ; for thefe plugs are though it was neither well fortified nor provided with
no fooner opened, than there are vaft quantities of wa- a garrifon or ftores of provifion and ammunition, and
ter to fupply the engines. This plenty of water has hardly any attempt made to relieve it during fo long a
been attended with another advantage, it has given time. Though the city is 20 miles up the river, yet
rife to feveral companies, who infure houfes and very large fhips can come up to the quay, where there
. goods from fire ; an advantage that is not to be are four or five fathoms of water. It is now well forti-
met with in any other nation on earth: the premium fied with a ftrong wall, befides outworks ; and along
•is fmall, and the recovery in cafe of lofs is cafy and the banks of the river are feveral caftles and a fort,
certain. Every one of thefe offices keep a fet of This city is of no great antiquity, having been built
men in pay, who are ready at all hom-s to give their and planted in the reign of James I. by a colony fent
affiftance in cafe of fire ; and who are on all occafions by the fociety abovementioned. The trade of the?
extremely bold, dexterous, and diligent: but though town is very eonfiderable, having not only a large
all their labours fhould prove unfuccefsful, the perfon ihare in the herring-fifliery, but fending ffiips alfo to
who fuffers by this devouring element has the com- the Weft-Indies, New-England, and Newfoundland,
fort that muft arife from a certainty of being paid for which they are fo advantageoufly fituated, that a
the value (upon oath) of what he has infured. veffel bound from thence to America often arrives
The places for diverfion are, Vauxhall, Ranelagh- there before a London fhip can get clear of the found-
gardens, the two play-houfes, one of them rebuilding, ings, or arrive in the latitude of Londonderry. Tho’
the Pantheon lately burnt down ; and the little theatre there are a great many fhallows in Lough-Foyle,
in the Hay-market, with Sadlers-wells, Hughes’s Cir- which ferve it inftead of a road; yet they are eafily
cus, and Aftley’s Royal-Grove, &c. The fineft repo- avoided, as there are deep channels between them,
fitories of rarities and natural hiftory, are Sir Hans Thofe points called Enitftone, RuJhrhuU, or Caldy-head,
Sloane’s, in the Britifh Mufeum, already deferibed ; which lie a little to the weft of the mouth of the har-
and another colle&edby the late Sir Affiton Lever, now hour, are counted the moft northerly of Ireland, lying
the private property of Mr Parkinfon, and depofited in in lat. 55. 20. The inhabitants of this city are al-
proper apartments for public infpettion, near the fouth moft all Proteftants. It gave title of earl and baron
end of Blackfriars bridge. to a branch of the family of Pitt, which became ex-
LONDONDERRY, or Colerain, a county of tin£l in 1764; but part of the title was revived in
Ireland, in the province of Ulfter. It is bounded on Robert Stewart, who was created Baron Londonder-
the fouth and fouth-weft by the county of Tyronne ; ry in 1789. A late traveller fays, “ Derry is, per-
'N°i87. 6 haps.
LON l 273 ] LON
- Long, haps, the cleaneft, beft built, and moft beautifully fitu-
ated town in Ireland ; and, excepting Corke, as con¬
venient as any for commerce, foreign and domeftic.”
The lake almoft furrounds it; and the whole ground-
plot both of it and its liberties belongs to the i? great
companies of London. Great quantities of falmon,
failed and barrelled, are exported from hence to Ame¬
rica.
LONG, an epithet given to whatever exceeds the
.ufual ftandard of length.
,LoNG-Boat,- the largeft and ftrongeft boat be¬
longing to any ihip. It is principally employed to
carry great burdens, as anchors, cables, ballait, &c.
See Boat.
LONG (Roger), D. D. mailer of Pembroke-hall
in Cambridge, Lowndes's profeflbr of aftronomy in that
univerfity, rector of Cherryhinton in Huntingdonlhire,
and of BradwellyWa mare in Elfex, was author of a
Nvell-known and much approved treatife of aftronomy,
and the inventor of a remarkably curious aftronomical
machine, thus defcribed by himfelf. “ 1 have, in a
room lately built in Pembroke-hall, eredted a fphere
of 18 feet diameter, wherein above 30 perfons may fit
conveniently ; the entrance into it is over the fouth pole
by fix fteps ; the frame of the fphere confifts of a num¬
ber of iron meridians, not complete femicircles, the
northern ends of which are fcrewed to a large round
plate of brafs, with.an hole in the centre of it; thro’
this hole, from a beam in the cieling, comes the north
pole, a round iron rod, about three inches long, and
fupports the upper parts of the fphere to its proper
elevation for the latitude of Cambridge; the lower
part of the fphere, fo much of it as is invifible in Eng¬
land, is cut off; and the lower or fouthern ends of the
meridians, or truncated femicircles, terminate on, and
are fcrewed down to, a ftrong circle of oak, of about
13 feet diameter; which, when the fphere is put
into motion, runs upon large rollers of lignum vitas, in
the manner that the tops of fome windmills are
made to turn round. Upon the iron meridians is fix¬
ed a zodiac of tin painted blue, whereon the ecliptic
and heliocentric orbits of the planets are drawn, and
the conftellationsand ftarstraced: the Great and Little
Bear and Draco are already painted in their places
round the north pole ; the reft of the conftellations are
propofed to follow: the whole is turned round with a
fmall winch, with as little labour as it takes to wind
up a jack, though the weight of the iron, tin, and
wooden circle, is about 1000 pounds. When it is
made ufe of, a planetarium will be placed in the middle
thereof. The whole, with the floor, is well fupported
by a frame of large timber.” Thus far Dr Long,
before this curious piece of mechanifm was perfected.
Since the above was written, the fphere has been com¬
pletely finifhed; all the conftellations and ftars of the
northern hemifphere, vifible at Cambridge, are paint¬
ed in their proper places upon plates of iron joined
' together, which form one concave furface. Dr Long
publiflied a Commencement Sermon 1728 ; and an an-
fwer to Dr Galley’s pamphlet on Greek Accents ; and
died December 16th 1770, at the age of 91. As the
materialsfor this article are fcanty,we ftiall fubjoin, from
t For 1783,^ Gentleman’s Magazine f, a few traits of him, as
p.pSj. defineated in 1769 by Mr Jones. “ He is now in
the 88th year of his age, and for his years vegcte and
Vot.X. Parti.
a&ive. He was lately (in Odlober) put in nomina-Longevity'.
tion for the office of vice-chancellor. He executed ~w
that truft once before, I think in the year 1737 ; a
very ingenious perfon, and fometimes very facetious.
At the public commencement in the year 1713, Dr
Greene (mafter of Bcnnet college, and afterwards bi«
(hop of Ely' being then vice chancellor, Mr Long
was pitched upon for the tripos-performance ; it Was
witty and humorous, and has paffed through divers
editions. Some that remembered the delivery of it,
told me, that in addreffing the vice-chancellor (whom
the univerfity wags ufually ftyled Mi/s Greene), the
tripos-orator, being a native of Norfolk, and affuming
the Norfolk dialed, inftead of faying, Dominc Vice-
Cancellarie, did very archly pronounce the words thus.
Homing. Vice-Cancellarm; which occafioned a general
fmile in that great auditory. His friend the late Mr
Bonfoy of Ripton told me this little incident, ‘ That
he and Dr Long walking together in Cambridge in a
dulky evening, and coming to a fhort pqjl fixed in the
pavement, which Mr B. in the midft of chat and inat¬
tention, took to be a boy Handing in his way, he faid
in a hurry, 4 Get out of my way, boy.’ 4 That boy.
Sir,' faid the Dodor very calmly and flily, is a poft-
boy, who turns out of his way for nobody.'—I could re¬
coiled feveral other ingenious repartees if there were oc-
cafion. One thing is remarkable, he never was ahale and
hearty man, always of a tender and delicate conftitu-
tion, yet took great care of it. His common drink
water; he always'dines with the fellows in the hall.
Of late years he has left off eating fleili-meats^ in the
room thereof, puddings, vegetables, &c. fometimes a
glafs or two of wine.”
LONGEVITY, length of life.
From the different longevities of men in the begin¬
ning of the world, after the flood, and in thefe age%
Mr Derham draws an argument for the interpofition
of a divine Providence.
Immediately after the creation, when the world was
to be peopled by one man and one woman, the ordi¬
nary age was 900 and upwards.—Immediately after
the flood, when there were three perfons to ftock -the
world, their age was cut ftiorter, and none of thoi'e
patriarchs, but Shem, arrived at 500. In the fecond
century we find none that reached 240 : in the third,
none but Terah that came to 2co years; the world,
at leaft a part of it, by that time being fo well
peopled, that they had built cities, and were canton¬
ed out into diftant nations.—By degrees, as the
number of people increafed, their longevity dwindled,
till it came down at length to 70 or 80 years: and
there it flood, and has continued to ftand ever fince
the time of Mofies.—This Is found a good medium,
and by means hereof the world is neither overftocked,
nor kept too thin ; but fife and death keep a pretty'
equal pace.
That the common duration of man’s life has been
the fame in all ages fince the above period, is plain
both from facred and profane hiftqry. To pafs by
others, Plato lived to 81, and was accounted an old
man ; and the inftances of longevity produced by Pliny
L. vii. c. 48. as very extraordinary, may moft of them
be matched in modern hiftories.—-In the following
Tables are collected into one point of view the moft
memorable inftances of long-lived perfqna of whofg age
M m we
LON t *74. 1 LON
longevity. We have any authentic records. The fir ft and fecond gill; who inferted them, accompanied by a third* toge-L-mgevi'y.*
r » ' ■ ax-e extracted from Mr Whitehurjl's Inquiry into the Origin ther with a number of ufeful obfervations, in the firft vo- ——v—«*
gndStrata sf the Earth, with feme additionsbyDrFother- lumeofthe Memoirs of the Manchcfler Literary Society.
Names of the perfons.
Ages
Thomas Parre
Henry Jenkins
Robert Montgomery
James Sands
His Wife
Countefs of Defmond
-Eclefton
J. Sagar
—Laurence
•Simon Sack
Col. Thomas Winflow
Francis Confift
Chrift. J. Drakenberg
Margaret. Forfter
 'her daughter
Francis Eons
John Brookey
James Bowels
John Tice
John Mount
A. Goldfmith
Mary Yates
John Bales
William Ellis
Louifa Truxo, a Negrefs
Margaret Patten
Janet Taylor
Richard Lloyd
Sufannah Hilliar
Ann Cockbolt
James Hayley
Places of Abode.
William Walker, aged x
Shropfhix-e
Yorkfhire
Ditto
Staffordfhire
Ditto
Ireland
Ditto
Lancafhire
Scotland
Trionia
Ireland
Yorkfhire
Norway
Cumberland
Ditto
France
Devonfhire
Killingworth
Worceiterfhire
Scotland
France
Shropfhire
Northampton
Liverpool
Tucomea, S. America
Lockneugh near Paifley
Fintray, Scotland
Montgomery
Piddington, Northampfh.
Stoke-Bruerne, lb.
Middlewich, Cheflxire
12, not mentioned above,
battle of Edge-hill.
Living or Dead.
Died November 16. 1635.
Phil. Tranf. NJ 44.
Died December 8. 1670.
Phil. Tranf. N^ 221.
Died in — — 1670.
) Do Fuller’s Worthies
5 P- 47-
Raleigh’s Hifl. p. 166.
Died — — 1691. (a)
  — — 1668. (b)
Living — — (t)
Died May 30. 1764.
  Aug. 26. 1766.
  Jan. — 1768.
  June 24. 1770. (d)
^ Both living
Died Feb. 6.
1771,
Living
Died
1769.
I777* (e)
Aug. 15. 1656 (f)
   March, 1774.(0)
  Feb. 27. 1766. (h)
  June — 1776.(1)
    1776.(k)
  April 5. 1766.(1.)
  Aug. 16. 1780. (m)
Living O&. 5. 1780. (n)
Lynche’s Guide to Health
Died Oft. 10. 1780.
Lynche’s Guide to Health
Died Feb. 19. 1781 (o)
I"  April 5. 1775 (p)
I   March 17. 1781 (qJ
who was a foldier at the
If we look back to an early period of the Chriftian
mra, we fhall find that Italy has been, at lead about:
that time, peculiarly propitious to longevity. Lord
Bacon obferves that the year of our Lord 76, in the In Parma
reign of Vefpafian, was memorable ; for in that year
was a taxing which afforded the moft authentic method" In Bruffels
of knowing the ages of men. From it, there were In Placentia
found in that part of Italy lying between.the Apennine In Faventia
mountains and the river Po 124 perfons who either
equalled or exceeded 1 co years of age, namely :
54 perfons of 100 Years.each.. In Rimino
57 - - 110
2 - - 125
4 perfons of 130 Years.
136
140
120
130
125
131
132
no
120.
150 Years, viz,
Marcus Aponiu.v
Mr
(a) Fuller’s Worthies, p. 140;
(b) Phil. Tranf. abridged by Lowthorp, VoL III.
p. 30, 6.
c) Derham’s Phyfico-Theology, p. 173.
d) Annual Regifier.
(e) Daily Advertifer, Nov. 18, 1777.
(f) Warwickfhire.
(g) Daily Advertifer, March 1774;
(h Morning Poll, Feb. 29. 1776.
(1) Daily Adyertifer, June 24. 1776^
(k) Daily Advertifer, Aug. 22. 1776.
( l ) See Infcription in the portico of All-Saints
churchi
(m) London Even. Poll, Aug. 22. 1780.,
(n) London Chronicle, Oft. 5. 1780.
(o) Northamp. Mercury, Feb. 19. 1781.
(p i Well known to, perfens of credit of. North¬
ampton.
(qJ Gen. Evening Poll, March 24- 1781.
LON C 275 j LON
&M9gevitj'. Mr Carew, in his furvey of Cornwall, allures us, ly prevails more in certain diftrifts than in others, yet Longevity
that it is no unufual thing with the inhabitants of that -it is by no means confined to any particular nation or ''-"'v-”*'
County to reach go years of age and upwards, and climate ; nor arc there wanting inftances of it, in al-
even to retain their ilrength of body and perfect ufe moft every quarter of the globe, as appears from the
of their fenfes. Befides Brown, the Cornilh beggar, preceding as well as the fubfequerit Tables ; which
who lived to 120, and one Po’ezew to 130 years of might have been confiderably enlarged, had it appear •
age, he remembered the deceafe of fbur perfons in his ed necefiary ; but we have only added, in the laft,
own parifh, the fum of whofe years, taken collectively, three recent inllances that are peculiarly remark*
amounted to 340. Now, although longevity evident- able.
Names of the Perfons.
Hippocrates, Phyfician
Democritus, Philofopher
Galen, Phyfician
Albuna, Marc
J Dumitur Raduly
Titus Fullonius
Abraham Paiba
L. Tertulla
Lewis Gornaro
Robert Blakeney, Efq.
Margaret Scott
W. Gulftone
J. Bright
William Poltell
j Jane Reeves
W. Paulet, Marquis of
Winchefter
| John Wilfon
j Patrick Wian
| M. Laurence
Evan Williams
John Jacobs (r)
Matthew Tait(s)
Donald Macleod (r )
Places of Abode.
Ifiand of Cos
Abdera
PergamuS
Ethiopia
Haromfzeck, Tranfyl-
vania
Bononia
Charleftown, South-Car.
Arminium
Venice
Armagh, Ireland
Dalkeith, Scotland
Ireland
Ludlow
France
Effex
Hampfliirfi
Suffolk
Lefbury, Northumberd.
Orcades
Caermarthen work-houfe,
Hill alive
Mount Jura
Auchinleck, Airfhire.
Ifle of Sky. Alive Jan.
T792- 
Where recorded.
Lynche on Health, chap. 3.
Bacon’s Hiftory, 1095.
Voff. Inft. or lib. 3.
Hakewell’s Ap. lib. 1.
Died Jan. id, 1782. Gen.
Gazetteer, April i 8th.
Fulgofus, lib. 8.
General Gazetteer
Bulgofus lib. 8.
Bacon’s Hill, of Life, p. 1341
General Gazetteer.
Infcrip. on her Tomb there.
Fuller’s Worthies.
Lynche on Health.
Bacori’s Hiftory, p. 134.
StJ. Chron. June 14, 1781.
Baker’s Chron. p. 502.
Gen. Gaz. 0<ft. 29, 1782.
Plemp. Fundammed, $ 4. c. 8.
Buchanan’s Hift. of Scot.
Gen. Gazetteer, O&. 12,
1782.
Allthepublicprints, Jan. 1790.
Died Feb. 19. 1792. Edin.
Even. Cour. Mar. 8. 1792.
All the public prints at the end
of 17 90} and Memoirs> &c.
Mm2
(r) This man, in 1789, at the age of 120, quitted his native hills, and from the fmtimit of Mount Jura under¬
took a journey toVerfailles, to behold and return thanks to the National Affembly for the vote which had freed him
and his poor countrymen from the feudal yoke. In the early part of his life, he was a fervant in the family
of the prince de Beaufremont. His memory continued good to the laft; day of his life ; and the principal in¬
conveniences which he felt from his great age were, that his fight was weakened, and the natural heat of hi*
body was fo diminifhed, that he fhivered with cold in the middle of the dog-days if he was not fitting by a
good fire. This old man was received in the body of the houfe by the National Affembly, indulged with a
chair, and direfted to keep on his hat left he fhould catch cold if he was to fit uncovered. A colle&ioa
was made for him by, the members, which exceeded 5 col. Sterling ; but he lived not to return to Mount Jura.
He was buried on Saturday the 31ft of January 1790, with great funeral pomp, in the parilh-church of St
Euftace at Paris.
( s) He ferved as a private at the taking of Gibraltai* in 1704.
(t) Memoirs of the Life and gallant Exploits of the Old Highlander Sef'jeant Donald Macleod, See. publifhed Jan.
1791, in the 103d year of his age.—This old gentleman, for it appears that he really is a gentleman both
by birth and by behaviour, was born in the year of the Revolution, in the parifh of Bracadill, in the ifle of
Sky and county of Invernefs, North Britain. He is a cadet of the family of Ulinifh in Sky; and defeended*
through his mother, from Macdonald 6f Slate, the anceftor of the prefent Lord Macdonald. The earlier
part of his life coincided with the famine of feven years in Scotland; which was fo great as to fuggeft, even
to the patriotic Mr Fletcher, the idea of the people felling themfelves as flaves for immediate fubfiftence. He
was bred in the midft of want and hardfhips, cold, hunger, and for the years of his apprenticefhip with a
Miafon and ftone-cutter in Invernefs, in inceflant fatigue. He inlifted, when a boy, in the Scottifh feryice,
in the town of Perth, in the laft year of the reign of King William. The regiment into which he enlifted
2 was
LON [ 276 ] LON
Longevity. The Antediluvians are purpofely omitted, as bearing
too little reference to the prefent race of mortals, to af¬
ford any fatisfaftory conclufions; and as they have been
already taken notice of in a feparate article ; (fee An¬
tediluvians). As the improbable ftories of fome
perfons who have almoft rivalled them in modern
times, border too much upon the marvellous to find
a place in thefe tables, the prefent examples are a-
bundantly fufficient to prove, that longevity does not
depend, fo much as has been fuppofed, on any parti-
ticular climate, frtuation, or occupation in life : for
we fee, that it often prevails in places where all
thefe are extremely diflimilar; and it would, moreover,
be very difficult, in the hillories of the feveral perfons
above mentioned, to find any circumftance common to
them all, except, perhaps, that of being born of heal¬
thy parents, and of being inured to daily labour, tem¬
perance, and fimplicity of diet. Among the inferior
ranks of mankind, therefore, rather than among the
fons of eafe and luxury, (hall we find the moft nume¬
rous inflances of longevity; even frequently, when
other external circumltances feem extremely unfavour¬
able : as in the cafe of the poor fexton at Peterbo¬
rough, who, notwithftanding his unpromifing occupa¬
tion among dead bodies, lived long enough to bury two
crowned heads, and to furvive two complete genera¬
tions. The livelihood of Henry Jenkins and old
Parre, is faid to have confifted chiefly of the coarfeft
fare, as they depended on precarious alms. To which
may be added the remarkable inftance of Agnes Mil-
bourne, who, after bringing forth a numerous off-
fpring, and being obliged, through extreme indigence,
to pafs the latter part of her life in St Luke’s work-
houfe, yet reached her 106th year in that fordid and
unfriendly fituation. The plain diet and invigorating
employments of a country life are acknowledged on
all hands to be highly conducive to health and longe¬
vity, while the luxury and refinements of large cities
are allowed to be equally deftru&ive to the human fpe-
eies; and this confideration alone, perhaps, more than
counterbalances all the boafted privileges of fuperier Longevity,
elegance and civilization refulting from a city life. y ■—'«>
From country villages, and not from crowded ci¬
ties, have the preceding inftances of longevity been
chiefly fupplied. Accordingly it appears, from the
London bills of mortality, during a period of 30 years,
viz. from the year 1728 to 1758, the fum of the
deaths amounted to 750,322, and that, in all this
prodigious number, only 242 perfons furvived the
icoth year of their age! This overgrown metro¬
polis is computed by Dr Price to contain a ninth
part of the inhabitants of England, and to con-
fume annually 7000 perfons, who remove into it
from the country every year, without increafing it.
He moreover obferves, that the number of inhabitants
in England and Wales has diminifhed about one-fourth
part fince the Revolution ; and fo rapidly of late, tlrat
in 1 r years, near 200,000 of our common people
have been loft. If the calculation be juft, however
alarming it may appear in a national view, there is
this confolation, when confidered in a philofophical
light, that without partial evil, there can be no gene¬
ral good; and that what a nation lofes in the fcale of
population at one period, it gains at another; and
thus probably, the average number of inhabitants on
the furface of the globe continues at all times nearly
the fame. By this medium, the world is neither over-
ftocked with inhabitants nor kept too thin, but life
and death keep a tolerably equal pace. The inhabi¬
tants of this illand, comparatively (peaking, are but as
the dull of the balance ; yet inftead of being diminifh-
ed, we are affured by other writers, that within thefe
30 yeans they are greatly increafed.
The defire of felf-prefervation, and of protrafting
the (hort fpan of life, is fo intimately interwoven with
our conftitution, that it is juftly efteemed one of the
firft principles of our nature, and, in fpite even of pain
and mifery, feldom quits us to the laft moments of
our exiftence. It feems, therefore, to be no lefs our
duty than our intereft, to examine minutely into the
various
was the Scots Royals, commanded by the earl of Orkney. That old military corps, at that time, ufed bows and
arrows as well as (words, and wore fteel caps. He ferved in Germany and Flanders under the duke of Marlborough,
under the duke of Argyle in the rebellion 1715, in the Highland Watch, or companies railed for enforcing
the laws in the Highlands; in the fame companies when, under the name of the qad regiment, they were
fent abroad to Flanders, to join the army under the duke of Cumberland ; in the fame regiment in Ireland,
and on the breaking out of the French war, 1757, in America. From the 42ft he was draughted to aft as-
a.drill ferjeant in the 78th regiment, in which he ferved at the reduftion of Louifburg.and Quebec: After
this he became an out-penfioner of Chelfea Hofpital. But fuch was the fpirit of this brave and hardy ve¬
teran, that he ferved in 1761 as a volunteer in Germany under the marquis of Granby ; and offered his
' fervices in the American war to Sir Henry Clinton; who, though he declined to employ the old man in
the fatigues and dangers of war, treated him with great kindnefs, allowed him a liberal weekly penfion out of his
©wn pocket, and fent him home in a (hip charged with difpatches to government.—The ferjeant, “ as his
memory, according to the obfervation of his biographer, is impaired, does not pretend to make an exaft
enumeration of all his offspring: but he knows of 16 fons now living, 14 of whom are in the army and navy,
befides daughters; the eldeft of whom by his prefent wife is a mantuamaker in Newcaftle.—His eldeft fon
is now 83 years old, and the youngeft only nine. Nor, in all probability, would this lad clofe the rear of
his immediate progeny, if his prefent wife, the boy’s mother, had not attained to the 49th year of her age.’*
■—In his prime, he did not exceed five feet and feven inches. He is now inclined through age to five feet
five inches. He has an interefting phyfiognomy expreffive of fincerity, fenfibility, and manly courage. His .
"biographer very properly fubmits it to the confideration of the Polygraphic Society, whether they might
not do a thing worthy of themfelves and their ingenious art, if they (hould multiply likneffes of this living
antiquity, and circulate them at an eafy rate throughout Britain and Europe. They would thus gratify a
very general curiofity; a curiofity cot confined to the prefent age.
LON [5
Longevity various means that have been confidered a4 conducive
to health and long life ; and, if poffible, to diftinguifh
fuch circumftances as are effential to that great end
from thofe which are merely accidental. But here it
is much to he regretted, that an accurate hiftory of
the lives of all the remarkable perfons in the above
table, fo far as relates to the diet, regimen, and the
ufe of the non-naturals, has not been faithfully handed
down to us ; without which it is impoffible to draw
the neceflary inferences. Is it not then a matter of
aftonifliment, that hiftorians and philofophers have hi¬
therto paid fo little-attention to longevity ? If the pre-
fent imperfect lilt Ihould excite others, of more leifure
and better abilities, to undertake a full inveftigation
of fo interelling a fubjeit, the inquiry might prOve not
only curious but highly ufeful to mankind. In or¬
der to furnilh materials for a future hiftory of longe¬
vity, the bills of mortality throughput the kingdom
ought firft to be revifed, and put on a better footing,
agreeable to the fcheme of which Manchefter and Che-
fter have already given a fpecimen highly worthy of
imitation. The plan, however, might be further im¬
proved with very little trouble, by adding a particular
account of the diet and regimen of every perfon who
dies at 80 years of age or upwards; and mention¬
ing whether his parents were healthy, long-lived peo¬
ple, &c. An accurate regifter, thus eftablilhed
throughout the Britilh dominions, would be produc¬
tive of many'important advantages to fociety, not
only in a medical and philofophical, but alfo in a po¬
litical and moral view.
All the circumftances that are moft effentially ne-
ceflary to life, may be compromifed under the fix fol¬
lowing heads: i. Air and climate; 2. Meat and drink;
3. Motion and reft; 4. The fecretions and excretions;
5. Sleep and watching; 6. Affections of the mind.
Thefe, though all perfectly natural to the conftitu-
tion, have by writers been ftyled the non-naturals, by
a ftrange perverfion of language; and have been all
copioufly handled under that improper term. How¬
ever, it may not be amifs to offer a few ftiort obferva-
tions on each, as they are fo immediately connected
with the prefent fubjeCt.
1. dir, &c. It has long been known that frefh air is
more immediately neceflary to life than food ; for a man
may live two or three days without the latter, but not
many minutes without the former. The vivifying
principle contained in the atmofphere, fo efiential to
the fupport of flame, as well'as animal life, concern¬
ing which authors have propofed fo many conjectures,
appears now to be nothing elfe but that pure dephlo-
gifticated fluid lately difeovered by that ingenious phi-
lofopher Dr Prieftley. The common atmofphere may
well be fuppofed to be more or lefs healthy in propor¬
tion as it abounds with this animating principle. As
this exhales in copious ftreams from the green leaves
of all kinds of vegetables, even from thofe of the moft:
poifonous kind, may we not, in feme meafure, ac¬
count why inftances of longevity are fo much more
frequent in the country than in large cities ; where the
air, in dead of partaking fo largely of, this falutary im¬
pregnation, is daily contaminated with noxious animal
effluvia and phlogifton ?
With refpeCt to climate, various obfervations con-
fpire to prove, that thofe regions which lie within the
3
77 ] L o n
temperate zones are beft calculated to promote long Longevity,
life. Hence, perhaps, may be explained, why Italy
has produced fo many long livers, and why iflands in
general are more falutary than continents; of which
Bermudas and fome others afford examples. And it
is a pleafing circumftance that our own ifland ap¬
pears from the above table (notwithftanding the hid¬
den vieiflitudes to which it is liable) to contain far
more inftances of longevity than could well be imagi¬
ned. 1 The ingenious Mr Whitehurft affures us, from
certain facts, that Englilhmen are in general longer
lived than North Americans; and that a Britilh con-
ftitution will laft longer, even in that climate, than a
native one. But it muft be allowed in general, that
the human conftitution is adapted to the peculiar ftate
and temperature of each refpedtive climate, fo that n®
part of the habitable globe can be pronounced too hot
or too cold for its inhabitants. Yet, in order to pro¬
mote a friendly intercourfe between the moft remote
regions, the Author of nature has wifely enabled the
inhabitants to endure great and furprifing changes of
temperature with impunity.
2. Foods and drink. Though foods and drink of
the moft Ample kinds are allowed to be the beft cal¬
culated for fupporting the body in health, yet it can
hardly be doubted but variety may be fafely indulged
occafionally, provided men would reftrain their appe¬
tites within the bounds of temperance ; for bounti¬
ful Nature cannot be fuppofed to have poured forth
fuch a rich profulion of provifions, merely to tantalize
the human fpecies, without attributing to her the part
of a cruel ftep-dame, inftead of that of the kind and
indulgent parent. Befides, we find, that by the won¬
derful powers of the digeftive organs, a variety of ani¬
mal and vegetable fubftances, of very difeordant prin¬
ciples, are happily afllmilated into one bland homoge¬
neous chyle ; therefore it feems natural to diftruft thofe
cynical writers, who would rigidly confine mankind to
one Ample difli, and their drink to the mere water of
the brook. Nature, it is true, has pointed out that mild
infipid fluid as the univerfal diluent, and therefore moft
admirably adapted for our daily beverage. But expe¬
rience has equally proved, that vinous and fpirituous
liquors, on certain occafions, are no lefs falutary and
beneficial, whether it be to fupport ftfength againft'
ficknefs or bodily fatigue, or to exhilerate the mind’
under the preffure of heavy misfortunes. But, alas S
what Nature meant for innocent and ufeful cordials,
to be ufed only occafionally, and according to the di¬
rection of reafon, cuftom and caprice have, by degrees,
rendered habitual to the human* frame, and liable to
the moft'enormous and deftru&fve abufes. Hence it.
may be juftly doubted,. whether gluttony and intem¬
perance have not depopulated the world more than
even the fword, peftilence, and famine. True, there¬
fore, is. the old maxim, “ Modus utendi ex veneno facit
medicamentum, ex medicamento venerium.’*
3; and 4. Motion and ref, Jlcep and watching It
is allowed on all hands, that alternate motion and reft,
and fleep and watching, are neceffary conditions to
health and longevity ; and that they ought to be adapt¬
ed to age, temperament; conftitution, temperature of
the climate, &c.; but the errors which mankind daily
commit in thefe refpe&s become a fruitful fource of ‘
difeafts. While fome are bloated and relaxed with
cafe.
ION [ 278 1 LON
Siowevity, Cafe and indolence, others are emaciated, and become
Lontrfo it, through hard labour, watching, and fatigue
5. Secretions and excretions. Where the animal
funftions are duly performed, the fecretions go on re¬
gularly ; and the different evacuations fo exactly cor-
refpoqd to the quantity of aliment taken in, in a given
time, that the body is found to return daily to nearly
the fame weight. If any particular evacuation happen
to be preternaturally diminifhed, fome other evacua¬
tion is proportionally augmented, and the equilibrium
is commonly preferved ; but continued irregularities,
in thefe important fun&ions, cannot but terminate in
difeafe.
6. AffeBions of the mind. The due regulation pf
'the pafiions, perhaps, contributes more to health and
'longevity than that of any other of the non-naturals.
The animating pafiions, fuch as joy, hope, love, &c.
when kept within proper bounds, gently excite the
• nervous influence, promote an equable circulation, and
are highly conducive to health ; vvlxile the depreffing
affections, fuch as fear, grief, and defpair, produce the
-contrary effeft, and lay the foundation of the moft foi-
midable difeafes.
From the light which hiftory affords us, as well as
From fome initances in the above table, there is great
meafon to believe, that longevity is in a great meafure
-hereditary ; and that healthy long-lived parents would
commonly tranfmit the fame to their children, were it
}not for the frequent errors in the non-naturals, which
fo evidently tend to the abbreviation of human life.
Where is it, but from thefe caufes, and the unnatu-
-ral modes of living, that, of all the children which are
-born in the capital cities of Europe, nearly one half
tdie in early infancy ? To what elfe can we attribute
4his extraordinary mortality l Such an amazing pro¬
portion of premature deaths is a circumftance unheard
of among favage nations, or among the young of other
animals! In the earlieft ages, we are informed, that
-human life was protrafted to a very extraordinary
length ; yet how few perfons, in thefe latter times,
arrive at that period which nature feems to have de-
figned! Man is by nature a field-animal, and feems. de-
ftined to rife with the fun, and to fpend a large por¬
tion of his time in the open air, to ihure his body to
robuft exercifes and the inclemency of the feafons,
and to make a plain homely repaff only when hunger
diftates. But art has ftudioufly defeated the kind
intentions of nature ; and by enflaving him to all the
blandifhments of fenfe, has left him, alas ! an eafy vic¬
tim to folly and caprice. To enumerate the various
abufes which take place from the earlieft infancy, and
which are continued through the fucqeeding ftages of
tnodifh life, would carry us far beyond our prefent
intention. Suffice it to obferve, that they prevail more
particularly among people who are the moft highly
polifiled and refined. To compare their artificial
mode of life with that of nature, or even with the
long-livers in the lift, would probably afford a very
ftriking contrail; and at the fame time fupply an ad¬
ditional reafon why, in the very large cities, inftances
of longevity are fo very rare.
LONGFORD, a county of Ireland, in the pro-
•vince of Leinfter, bounded by the county of Leitrim
fend Caven on the north, Meath on the call and fouth,
and Rolcommon on the weft. It contains 134,700
Irifh plantation acres, 24 parifhes, 6 baronies, and 4 Longford
boroughs ; and returns 10 members to parliament. It jl
la fmall, and. much encumbered with bog, Intermixed on^ n^*.
with a tolerable good foil j and is about 25 miles long
and i5 broad.
Longford, a town of Ireland, fituated on the ri¬
ver Cromlin, in the county of Longford and province
of Leinfter, 64 miles from Dublin ; which river falls
fe few miles below this place into the Shannon. It is
% borough, poft, market, and fair town ; and returns
two members to parliament; patron, Lord Longford.
It gave title of earl to the family of Aungier; of vif-
couut, to the family of Micklethwaite ; and now gives
that of baron to the family of Packenham. Within a
mile and a half of the town is a charter-fchool for
above 40 children. This place has a barrack for a
troop of horfe. It is large and well built; and in a
very early age an abbey was founded here, of which,
St Idus,. one of St Patrick’s difciples, was abbot. In
the year 1400, a fine monaftery was founded to the
honour of the Virgin Mary, for Dominican friars, by
0‘Ferral princC of Annaly. This monaftery being de-
ftroyed by fire. Pope Martin V. by a bull in the year
1429, granted an indulgence to all who ffiould contri¬
bute to the rebuilding of it. In 1433, Pope Eu¬
gene IV. granted a bull to the fame pilrpofe ; and in
1438 he granted another to the like effeft. The
church of this friary, now the pariffi-church, is in the
diocefe of Ardagh. The fairs are four in the yean
LONG-jsland, Is an ifland of North America,
belonging to the ttate of New-York, which is fepara-
ted from the continent by a narrow channel. It ex¬
tends from the city of New-York eaft 140 miles, ter¬
minating with Montauk point; and is not more than 10
miles in breadth on a medium. It is divided into
three counties. King’s, Queen’s, and Suffolk. The
fouth fide of the ifland is flat land, of a light fandy
foil, bordered on the fea-coaft with large trails of fait,
meadow, extending from the weft point of the ifland
to Southampton. This foil, however, is well calcu¬
lated for railing grain, efpecially Indian corn. The
north fide of the ifland is hilly, and of a ftrong foil,
adapted to the culture of grain, hay, and fruit. A
ridge of hills extends from Jamaica to South-hold.
Large herds of cattle feed upon Hampftead plain and
on the fait marlhes upon the fouth fide of the ifland.
Hampftead plain in Queen’s county is a curiofity. It
is 16 miles in length, eaft and weft, and 7 or 8 miles
wide. The foil is black, and to appearance rich and
yet it was never known to have any natural growth*
but a kind of wild grafs and a few Ihrubs. It is fre¬
quented by vaft numbers of plover. Rye grows tole¬
rably well on fome parts of the plain. The moft of
it lies common for cattle, horfes, and flieep. As there
is nothing to impede the profpedl in the whole length
of this plain, it has a curious but tirefome «ffe<ft upon
the eye, not unlike that of the ocean. The ifland
contains 30,863 inhabitants.
LONGIMETRY, the art of meafuring lengths,
both acceffible and inacceffible. See Geometry and
Trigonomf-Trv.
LONGING, Is a preternatural appetite in pregnant
women, and in fome fick perfons when about to recover.
It is called pica, from the bird of that name, which is
faid to be fubjecl to the fame difoyder. The diforder
con-
LON [ 279 1 LON
Jvnnirinieo, confifts of both a defire of Uftttfual things to eat and
Longinus. an(l in being foon tired of one and wanting ano-
" * ther. It is called malaria, from “ weaknefs.”
In pregnant women it is fomewhat relieved by bleed¬
ing, and in about the fourth month of their pregnancy
it leaves them. Chlorotic girls, and men who labour
under fupprefled-hemorrlioids, are very fubjeft to this
fcomplaint, and are relieved by promoting the refpec-
tive evacuations. In general, whether this diforder is
obfefved in pregnant women, in perfons recovering
from an acute fever, or in tkofe who labour under ob-
ftruftions of the natural evacuations, this craving of
the appetite fliould be indulged.
LONGINICO, a town of Turky in Europe, in
the Morea, anciently called Olympia, famous for being
the place where the Olympic games were celebrated,
and for the temple of Jupiter Olympus, about a mile
diilant. It is now but a fmall place, feated on the
river Alpheus, id miles from its mouth, and 50 fouth
of Lepanto. E. Long. 22. o. N. Lat. 37. 30.
LONGINUS (Uionyfius), a celebrated Greek cri¬
tic of the thfrd century, was probably an Athenian.
His father’s name is unknown, but by his mother he
was allied to the celebrated Plutarch. His youth was
Ipent in travelling with his parents, which gave him an
opportunity th increafe his knowledge, and improve
his mind. After his travels, he fixed his refidence at
Athens, and with the greateft affiduity applied to ftudy.
Here he publifhed his Treatife on the Sublime ; which
railed his reputation to fuch a height, and gave the
Athenians fuch an opinion of his judgment and tafte,
that they made him fovereign judge of all authors, and
every thing was received and rejected by the public
according to his decifions. He feems to have ftaid at
Athens a long time ; here he taught the academic phi-
lofophy, and among others had the famous Porphyry
for his pupil. But it was at length his fortune to be
drawn from Athens, and to mix in more aftive fcenes;
to train up young princes to virtue and'glory; to guide
the bufy paffions of the great to noble objefts ; to
ftruggle for, and at laft to die, in the caufe of liberty.
Zenobia, queen of the Eaft, prevailed on him to un¬
dertake the education of her fonsj and he foon gained
an uncommon fhare in her.efteem : ftie fpent the vacant
hours of her life in his converfation, and modelled her
fentiments and conduft by his inftruftions. That prin-
cefs was at war with Aurelian ; and being defeated by
him near Antioch, was compelled to ihut herfelf up in
Palmyra, her capital city. Tlie emperor wrote her a
letter, in which he ordered her to furrender; to which
fhe returned an anfwer, dj;awn up by Longinus, which
filled him with refentment. The emperor laid fiege to
the city; and' the Palmyrians were at length obliged
to open their, gates and receive the conqueror. The
Queen and Longinus endeavoured to fly into Perfia;
but were unhappily overtaken and made prifoners when
they were on the point of eroflingthe Euphrates. The
Queen, intimidated, weakly laid the blame of vindica¬
ting the liberty of her country on its true author ; and
the brave Longinus, to the difgrace of the conqueror,
was carried away to, immediate execution. The wri¬
tings of Longinus were numerous, fome on philofophi-
cal, but the greater part on critical fubjefts. Ur
Pearce has colle&ed the titles of 25 treatifes, none of
which, excepting: that on the Sublime, have efcaped
the depredations of time and barbarians. On this im- LongSIi-
perfe& piece the great fame of Longinus is raifed, irm,>
who, as Pope exprefles it—“ is himfelf the great fa-Longltude^
blime he draws.” The belt edition of his works is ’ -
that by Tollius, printed at Utrecht in 1694, cum notis
•variorum. It has been tranilated into Engliih by Mr
Smith.
LONGISSIMUS dorsi. See Anatomy, Tails
of the Mufcles.
LONGITUDE, in geography and navigation, is-
the dittance of any place from another eaft:ward or weft-
ward, counted in degrees upon the equator ; but
when the diftance is reckoned by leagues or miles and
not in degrees, or in degrees on the meridian, and not
of the parallel of latitude, in which cafe it include*-
both latitude and longitude, it is called departure.
To find the longitude at fea, is a problem to which
the attention of navigators and mathematicians has
been drawn ever fince. navigation began to be impro¬
ved.—The importance of this problem foon became fo -
well known, that, in 1598, Philip III. of Spain of¬
fered a reward of 1000 crowns for the folution ; and
his example was foon followed by the States General,
who offered io,oqo florins. In 1714 an act was paf-
fed in the Britifh parliament, impowering certain com*
miflioners to make out a bill for a fum not exceeding
20001. for defraying the neceflary expences of expe¬
riments for afcertaining this point; and likewife grant¬
ing a reward to the perfon who made any progrefs in
the folution, proportionable to the degree of accuracy
with which the folution was performed : ID,0001. was
granted if the longitude fhould be determined to one
degree of a great circle, or 60 geographical miles;
15,000 if to two thirds of that diftance j and 20,000
if to the half the diftance.
In confequence of thefe proffered rewards, innume¬
rable attempts were made to dlfcover this important
fecret. The firft was that of John Morin profeffor of-
mathematics at Paris, who propofed it. to Cardinal
Richelieu.; and though it was. judged infuffieient on
account of the imperfedtion of the lunar tables, a pen-
fion of 2QOO livres per annum was procured for him in
1645 by Cardinal Mazarine, Gemma Frifius had
indeed, in 1530, projedled a method of finding the lon¬
gitude by means of watches, which at that time were
newly invented: but the ftru&ure of thefe machines
was then by far too imperfecft to admit of any at¬
tempt ; nor even in 1631, when Metiys made an .at¬
tempt to this purpofe, were they advanced in any cou-
fiderable degree. About the year 1664, Dr Hooke
and Mr Huygens made a very great improvement in
watchmaking, by the application of the pendulum
fpriiig. Dr Hooke having quarreiled with the miniftry,
no experiment was made with any of his machines; but
many were made with thofe ofMr Huygens.- One exp: •
rfment, particularly, made by Major Holmes, in a voy¬
age from the Coaft of Guinea in 1665, anfwered fo
well, that Mr Huygens was encouraged to improve
the ftrudhire of his watches; : but it was found that
the variations of heat and cold produced fuch altera¬
tions in the rate of going, of the watch, that unlefs tluV
could be remedied, the watches could be of little ufe in
determining the longitude.
In 1714 Henry Sully, an Englifhman, printed 3
fmall tfaft at Vienna upon the fubjeft of watch¬
making, ,
LON [ 280 ] LON
■Longitude, making. Having afterwards removed to Paris, ,he ap-
plied himfelf to the improvement of time-keepers for
the difeovery of the longitude. He taught the fa¬
mous Julian de Roy; and this gentleman, with his
fon, and M. Berthottd, are the only perfons who,
fince the days of Sully, have turned their thoughts
this way. But though experiments have been made at
fea with fome of their watches, it does not appear that
they have been able to accompliih any thing of im¬
portance with regard to the main point. The firft who
lucceeded in any confiderable degree was Mr John
Harrifon ; who, in 1726, produced a watch which
went fo exa&ly, that for ten years together it did
not err above one fecond in a month. In 1736 it
was tried in a voyage to Lifbon and back again, on
board one of his Majefty’s Ihips ; during which it cor¬
rected an error of a degree and an half in the compu¬
tation of the fltip’s reckoning. In coufequence of this
be received public encouragement to go on; and by
the year 1761 had finiihed three time-keepers, each of
them more accurate than the former. The laft turned
out fo much to his fatisfaCtion, that he now applied
to the commiffioners of longitude for leave to make an
experiment with his watch in a voyage to the. Welt In¬
dies. Permiffion being granted, his fon Mr William
Harrifon fet out in his MajeHy’s fhip the Deptford
for Jamaica in the month of November 1761. This
trial was attended with all imaginable fuccefs. The
longitude of the idand, as determined by the time¬
keeper, differed from that found by allronomical ob-
fervations only one minute mid a quarter of the
equator ; the longitudes of places feen by the way
being alfo determined with great exa&nefs. On the
fhip's return to England, it was found to have erred no
more during the whole voyage than 1' 54^" in time,
which is little more than 28 miles in diltance; which
beingwithin thelimits prefcribed by the adt, the inventor
claimed the whole L. 20,000 offered by government.
Objections to this, however, were foon flarted. Doubts
were pretended about the real longitude of Jamaica,
as well as the manner in which the time had been
found both there and at Portfmouth. It was alleged
alfo, that although the time-keeper happened to be
right at Jamaica, and after its return to England, this
was by no means a proof that it had always been fo
in the intermediate times; in confequence of which al¬
legations, another trial was appointed in a voyage to
Barbadoes. Precautions were now taken to obviate as
many of thefe objections as poffible. The commif¬
fioners fent out proper perfons to make aftronomical
Obfervations at that ifland ; which, when compared
with others in England, would afcertain beyond a doubt
its true fituation. In 1764 then, Mr Harrifon junior
fet fail for Barbadoes ; and the refult of the experi¬
ment was, that the difference of longitude betwixt
Portfmouth and Barbadoes was fhovvn by the time¬
keeper to be 3b. 55' 3"; an4 by aftronomical obfer-
vations to be 3h. 54' 20' ; the error being now only
43" of time, or 10' 45' of longitude. In confrquence
of this and the former trials, Mr Harrifon received one
half of the reward promiied, upon making a difeovery
of the principles upon which his time-keepers were con-
ftrufted. He was likewife promifed the other half of
the reward as foon as time-keepers fhould be conflruft-
«d by other artifts which fhould anfwer the purpofe as
N° 187
well as thofe of Mr Harrifon himfelf. At this time he Longitude;
delivered up all his tfme-keepers, the lafl of which was •• v—
fent to Greenwich to he tried by Mr Nevil Mafkelyne
the-aftronomer-royal. On trial, however, it was found
to go with much lefs regularity than had been expeft-
ed; but Mr Harrifon attributed this to his having
made fome experiments with it which he had not time
to finifh when he was ordered to deliver up the watch.
Soon after this, an agreement was made by the com¬
miffioners with Mr Kendall to conftruCt a watch upon
Mr Harrifon’s principles; and this upon trial was found
to anfwer the purpofe even better than any that Har¬
rifon himfelf had conftruded. This watch was fent
out with Captain Cook in 1772; and during all the
time of his voyage round the world in 1772, 1773
1774, and 1775, never erred quite iqj- feconds per
day: in confequence of which, the houfe of commons,
in 1774, ordered the other L, 10,000 to be paid to
Mr Harrifon. Still greater accuracy, however, has
been attained. A watch was lately conftru&ed by
Mr Arnold, which, during a trial of 13 months, from
February 1779 to February 1780, varied no more
than 6.69' during any two days; and the greatefl
difference between its rates of going on any day and
the next to it was ■ • r 1The greateft error it would
have committed therefore in the longitude during any
Angle day Would have been very little more than one
minute of longitude; and thus might the longitude be
determined with as great exadlnefs as the latitude ge¬
nerally can.—This watch, however, has not yet been
tried at fea. •
Thus the method of conftru&ing time-keepers for
difeovering the longitude feems to be brought to as
great a degree of perfection as can well be expected.
Still, however, as thefe watches are fubjeft to acci¬
dents, and may thus alter the rate of their going with¬
out any poffibility of a difeovery, it is neceffary that
fome other method Ihould be fallen upon, in order to
correct from time to time thofe errors which may arife
either from the natural going of the watch, or frorrj
any accident which may happen to it. Methods of
this kind are all founded upon cexeftial obfervations of
fome kind or other; and for thefe methods, or even
for an improvement in time-keepers, rewards are itill
held out by government. After the difeoveries made
by Mr Harrifon, the a& concerning the longitude
was repealed, excepting fo much of it as related to th*
conftrufting, printing, publiffiing, See. of nautical al¬
manacks and other ufeful tables. It was enafted alfo,
that any perfon who ihall difeover a method for find¬
ing the longitude by means of a time-keeper, the prin¬
ciples of which have not hitherto been made public,
(hall be intitled to a reward of L. .5000, if, after cer¬
tain trials made by the commiffioners, the faid method
(hall enable a (hip to keep her longitude during a voy¬
age of fix months within 60 geographical miles or a
degree of a great circle. If the (hip keeps her longi¬
tude within 40 geographical miles for that time, the
inventor is intitled to a reward of L. 7500> and
L. 10,000 if the longitude is kept within half a de¬
gree. If the method is by improved aftronomical
tables, the author is intitled to L.5000 when they
(how the diftance of the moon from the fun and liars
within 15 feconds of a degree, anfwering to about 7
•minutes of longitude, after allowing half a degree for
LON [ 281 1 LON
Longitude, errors of obfervation, and under certain reftriftions,
w—y—- and after comparifon with aftronomical obfervations
•for a period of i8x years, during which the lunar ir¬
regularities are fuppofed to be completed. The fame
rewards are offered to the perfon who fliall with the
•like accuracy difcover any other method of finding the
longitude.
Thefe methods require celeftial obfervations; and
any of the phenomena, fuch as the different apparent
places of flars with regard to the moon, the beginning
and ending of eclipfes, &c. will anfwer the purpofe :
only it is abfolutely neceffary that fome variation fhould
be perceptible in the phenomenon in the fpace of two
minutes ; for even this fhort fpace of time will pro¬
duce an error of 30 miles in longitude. The moft
proper phenomena therefore for determining the lon¬
gitude in this manner are the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fa-
tellites. Tables of their motions have been conftruct-
ed, and carefully corrcfted from time to time, as the
mutual attractions of thefe bodies are found greatly to
difturb the regularity of their motions. The difficul¬
ty here, however, is to obferve thefe eclipfes at fea;
and this difficulty has been found fo great, that no
perfon feems able tofurmount it. The difficulty arifes
from the violent agitation of a (hip in the ocean, for
which no adequate remedy has ever yet been found,
nor probably will ever be found. Mr Chriftopher
Irwin indeed invented a machine which he called a
marine chair, with a view to prevent the effefts of this
agitation; but on trying it in a voyage to Barbadoes,
it was found to be totally ufelefs.
A whimfical method of finding the longitude was
propofed by Meffis Whifton and Ditton from the re¬
port and flaffi of great guns. The motion of found is
known to be nearly equable, from whatever body it pro¬
ceeds or whatever be the medium. Suppofing there¬
fore a mortar to be fired at any place the longitude of
which is known, the difference between the moment
that the flaffi is feen and the report heard will give
the diftance between the tWo places; whence, if we
know the latitudes of thefe places, their longitudes
muff alfo be known. If the exadt time of the explo¬
sion be known at the place where it happens, the
difference of time at the place where it is heard will
likewife give the difference of longitude. Let us next
fuppofe the mortar to be loaded-with an iron ffiell
filled with combuflible matter, and fired perpendicu¬
larly upward into the air, the ffiell will be carried to
the height of a mile, and will be feen at the diftance of
near too; whence; fuppofir.g neither the flaffi of the
mortar fhould be feen nor the report heard, Hill the
longitude might be determined by the altitude of the
ffiell above the horizon.
According to this plan, mortars were to be fired at
certain times and at proper ftations along all fre¬
quented coafts for the diredtion of mariners. Thisin-
• deed might be qf ufe,’and in ftormy weather might be
a kind of improvement in light-houfe's, or a proper
addition to them; but with regard to the determina¬
tion of longitudes, is evidently ridiculous. .
We ffiall now proceed to give fome pradfical direc¬
tions for finding the longitude at fea by proper ce-
kllial obfervations; exclufive of thofe from Jupiter’s
Satellites, which, for reafons juft mentioned, cannot
Te pradlifed at fea. In the firft place, however, it will be
Voi. X. Part I.
neceffary to point out fome of thofe difficulties which Lonplfude;
ftand in the way, and which render even this method of ——v—“J
finding the longitude precarious and uncertain. Thefe
lie principally in theredudtion of the obfervat ions of the
heavenly bodies made on the furface of the earth to
fimilar obfervations fuppofed to be made at the centre;
which is the only place where the celeftial bodies ap¬
pear in their proper fituation. It is alfo very difficult
to make proper allowances for the refradtion of the
atmofphere, by which all objedts appear higher than
they really are; and another difficulty arifes from their
parallaxes, which qiakes them, particularly the moon,
appear lower than they would otherwife do, excepting
when they are in the very zenith. It is alfo well
known, that the nearer the horizon any celeftial body
is, the greater its parallax will be ; and as the parallax
and refradtion adt in oppofite ways to one another, the
former depreffing and the latter railing the objedt, it is
plain, that great difficulties muft arife from this cir-
cumftance. The fun, for inftance, whofe parallax is
lefs than the refradtion, muft always appear higher
than he really is; but the moon, whofe parallax is
greater than her refradtion, muft always appear lower.
To render obfervations of the celeftial bodies more
eafy, the commiffioners of longitude have caufed an
Ephemeris or Nautical Almanack to be publiffied an¬
nually, containing every requifite for folving this im¬
portant problem which can be put into the form of
tables. But whatever may be done in this way, it
will be neceffary to make the neceffary preparations
concerning the dip of the horizon, the refradtion, feme-
diameters, parallax, &c; in order to reduce the apparent
to the true altitudes and diftances; for which we ffiall
here fubjoin two general rules.
The principal obfervation for finding the longitude
at fea is that of the moon from the fun, or from
fome remarkable ftar near the zodiac. To do this,
the operator muft be Jurniffied with a watch which
can be depended upon for keeping time within a mi¬
nute for fix hours ; and with- a good Hadley’s qua¬
drant, or, which is preferable, a fextant: and this laft ffi-
ftrument will ftill be more fit for the purpofe if it be
furniffied with a ferew for moving the index gradually;
likewife an additional dark glafs, but not fo dark as
the common kind, for taking off the glare of the moon’s
light in obferving her diftance. from a ftar. A fmall
telefcope, which may magnify three or four times, is
alfo neceffary to' render the contatt of a ftar with
the moon’s limb more difcernihle. A magnifying
glafs of 1 i or 2 inches focus will likewife affift the ope¬
rator in riding off his obfervations with the greater
facility.
1. To make the olfervation. Having examined and ad-
jufted his inftrument as well as poffible, the obferveris
next to proceed in the following manner: If the diftance
of the moon from the fun is to be obferved, turn down
one of the fereens; look at the moon direftly through
the tranfparent part of the horizon-glafs ; and keeping
her in view, gently move the index till the fun’s image be
brought into the filvered part of that glafs. Bring the
neareft limbs of both objefts into contadt, and let the qua¬
drant librate a little on the lunar ray; by which means the
fun will appear to rife and fall by the fide of the moon.; in
which motion the neareft limbs muft be made to touch
one another exactly by moving the index. The ob-
N a fervatioa
LON 582 1 LON
Longitude, femtion is then made ; and the divifion coinciding
T—- with that on the Vernier fcale, will {how the diftance
of the neared limbs of the obje&s.
When the diilance of the moon from a tor is to be
obferved when the moon is verf bright, turn down the
lighted fcreen, or ufe a dark glai's lighter than the
fcreens, and defigned for this particular purpofe ; look
at the dar direftlv through the tranfparent part of the
horizon-glafs ; and keeping it there, move the index
till the moon’s image is brought into the filvered part
ef the fame glafs. Make the quadrant librate gently
on the dar’s ray, and the moon will appear to rife and
fall by the dar: move the index between the librations,
until the moon’s enlightened limb is exactly touched
by the dar, and then the obfervation is made. In
thefe operations, the plane of the quadrant mud always
pafs through the two objefts, the didance of which is
to be obferved ; and for this purpofe it mud be placed
in various politions according to the fituation of the
objects, which will foon be rendered eafy by practice.
The obfervation being made, fomebody at th every
indant that the operator calls mud obferve by the
watch the exaft hour, minute, and quarter minute, if
there be no fecond hand, in order to find the apparent
time ; and at the fame indant, or as quick as poflible,
two affidants mud take the altitudes of thofe objects
the didance of which is obferved; after which, the
obfervations neceflary for finding the longitude are
completed.
The ephemeris fhows the moon’s didance from, the
fun, and likewife from proper dars, to every three
hours of apparent time for the meridian of Greenwich;
and that the greater number of opportunities of ob-
ferving this luminary may be given, her didance is
generally fet down from at lead one objeft on each
fide of her. Her didance from the fun is fet down
while it is between 40 and 120 degrees ; fo that, by
means of a fextant, it may be obferved for two or three
days after her fird and before her lad quarter. When
the moon is between 40 and 90 degrees from the fun,
her didance is fet down both from the fun and from a
dar on the contrary fide ; and, ladly, when the di¬
dance is above 120 degrees, the didance is fet down
from two dars, one on each fide of her. The didance
of the moon from obje&s On tjie ead fide of her is
found in the ephemeris in the 8th and 9th pages of
the month ; and her didance from obje&s on the wed
is found in the 10th and 1 ith pages of the month.
When the ephemeris is ufed, the didance of the
moon mud only be obferved from thofe dars the di¬
ftance of which is fet down there ; and thefe afford a
ready means of knowing the dar from which her di¬
dance ought to be obferved. The obferver has then
nothing more to do than to fet his index to the di¬
dance rougldy computed at the apparent time, edi-
mated nearly for the meridian at Greenwich; after
which he is to look to the ead or wed of the moon,
according as the didance of the dar is found in the
8th or 9th, or in the loth or nth, pages of the
month ; and having found the moon upon the hori-
aon-glad, the dar will eafily be found by fweeping
wi/’Ji the quadrant to the right or left, provided the
air be clear and the dar be in the line of the moon’s
fltorfed axis produced: The time at Greenwich is
edimated by turning into time the fuppofed longitude
from that place, and adding it to the apparent time at Longitude.
the fhip, or fubtrafting it from it as occafion requires.f
The didance of the moon from the fun, or a ftar, is
roughly found at this time, by faying, As 180 minutes
(the number contained in three hours) is to the diffe¬
rence in minutes between this nearly edimated time
and the next preceding time fet down in the epheme-
ris; fo is the difference in minutes between the di¬
dances in the ephemeris for the next preceding and
next following times, to a number of minutes; which
being added to the next preceding didance, or fub-
tradted from it, according as it is increafing or de-
creafing, will give the didance nearly at the time the
obfervation is to be made, and to which the index mud
be fet.
An eafier method of finding the angular didance is
by bringing the objetris nearly into contatri in the
common way, and then fixing the index tight to a
certain degree and minute; waiting until the objects
are nearly in contact, giving notice to the affidants to
get ready with the altitudes, and when the objetris are
exaftly in contairi to call for the altitudes and the ex-
a(ri time by the watch. The obferver may then pre¬
pare for taking another didance, by fetting his index
three or four minutes backwards or fonvards, as the
objects happen to be receding from or approaching to
each other; thus proceeding to take the didance, alti¬
tude's, and time by the watch, as before. Thus the
obferver may take as many didances as he thinks pro¬
per ; but four at the didance of three minutes, or
three at the didance of four minutes, will at all times
be fufficient. Thus not only the eye of the obferver
will be lefs fatigued, but he will likewife be enabled
to manage his indrument with much greater facility
in every direction, a vertical one only excepted. If
in taking the didances the middle one can be taken at
any even divifion on the arch, fuch as a degree, or a
degree and 20 or 40 minutes, that didance will be in¬
dependent of the Nonius divifion, and confequently
free of tjiofc errors which frequently arife from the in¬
equality of that divifion in feveral parts of the gra¬
duated arch. The obfervation ought always to be
made about two hours before or after noon ; and the
true time may be found by the altitude of the fun ta¬
ken at the precife time of the didance. If three di¬
dances are taken, then find the time by the altitude
correfponding with the middle didance ; and thus the
obfervation will be fecured from any error arifing from
the irregularity of the going of the watch. As the
time, however, found by the altitude of a dar cannot
be depended upon, becaufe of the uncertainty of the
horizon in the night, the bed way of determining the-
time for a night obfervation will be by two altitudes of
the fun ; one taken on the preceding afternoon, before
he is within fix degrees of the horizon ; and the other
on the next morning, when he is more than fix de¬
grees high. It mud be obferved, however, that in
order to follow thefe direftions, it is neceffary that the
atmofphere fhould be pretty free from clouds; other-
wife the obferver mud take the obfervations at fuch
times as he can bed obtain them.
2. To reduce the olferved Dijlance of the Sun or a
Star from the moon to the true Diftance. 1. Turn the
longitude into time, and add it to the time at the Ihip
if the longitude he wed, hut fubtratri it. if it be eaft,,
which
LON [ 283 ] L 0 N
X.*ngltude which will give the ftippofed time at Greenwich; and rlthmic cotangent of the fun ar f’ar’j apparent aJti- Longitude*
v*—■ this we may call reduced time. 2. Find the neareft noon tude, and the logarithmic tangent of the apparent —
or midnight both before and after the reduced time difiance of the moon from the Tun or ftar. The fum
in the feventh page of the month in the ephemem. of thefe, reje&ing 20 in the index, will be the pro-
3. Take out the moon’s femidiameter and horizontal portional logarithm of the fecond angle. 3. Take
parallaxes correfponding to thefe noons and midnights, the difference between the fivft and fecond angles,
and find their differences. Then fay, As 12 hours is adding it to the apparent diftance if it be lefs than
to the moon’s femidiameter in 12 hours, fo is the re- 90, and the. firfl angle be greater than the fecond ;
duced time to a number of feconds; which, either add- but fubtraCling it if the fecond be greater than the
ed to or fubtrafted from the moon’s femidiameter at firft. If the diftance be greater than 90, the fum of
the noon or midnight juft mentioned, according as it the angles mull be added to the apparent diftance,
is increafing or decreafing, will give her apparent fe- which will give the diftance corrected for the refrae-
midiameter ; to which add the correction from Table tion of the iun or ftar. 4. To the proportional la-
VIII. of the ephemeris, and the fum will be her true ganthm of the correction of the moon’s altitude add
femidiameter at the reduced time. And as 12 hours the logarithmic cofme of her apparent altitude ; the
is to the difference of the moon’s horizontal parallax in logarithmic filie of the diftance corrected for the fun
12 hours, fo is the reduced time to a fourth number; or ftar’s refraCtion,- and the logarithmic co-fecant of*
which, being added to or fubtraCted from the moon’s the fun or ftar’s apparent altitude. The fum, rejeCt-
horizontal parallax at the noon or midnight before the dig 30 in the index, will be the proportional loga-
reduced time, according as it is increafing or decrea- ritlun of the third angle. 5. To the proportional
ling, the fum or difference will be the moon’s horizon- logarithm of the correction of the moon’s apparent
tal parallax at the reduced time. 4. If the reduced altitude,, add the logarithmic co-tangent of her appa-
time be nearly any even part of 12 hours, wz 4-th,-Jth, rei)t altitude, and the tangent of the diftance cor-
&c. thefe parts of the difference may be taken, and reCted for the fun or ftar’s refraCtion ; their fum, re-
either added or fubtraCted according to the directions jeCting 20 in the index, will be the proportional lo-
.already given, without being at the trouble of working ganthm of the fourth angle. 6. Take the difference
Tby the rule of proportion. 5. To the obferved alti- between the third and fourth angles, and fubtraCt it
tude of the fun’s lower limb add the difference betwixt from the. diftauce corrected for the fun or ftar’s re-
his femidiameter and dip ; and that fum will be his fraCtion if lefs than 90, and the third angle be great-
apparent altitude. 6. From tne fun’s refraCtion take er than the fourth; or add it to the diftance if the fourth
his parallax in altitude, and the remainder will be the angle begreater than the third: but if the diftancebemore
correction of the fun’s altitude. 7. From the ftar’s than 90, the fum of the angles mull be fubtraCted from
obferved altitude take the dip of the horizon, and the it, to give the diftance corrected for the fun or ftar’s re¬
remainder will be the apparent altitude. 8. The re- fraction, and the principal effeCts of the moon’s pa-
fraCtion of a ftar will be the correction of its altitude, rallax. 7. In I able XX. of the ephemeris, look for
9. Take the difference between the moon’s femidia- the diftance corrected for the fun and ftar’s refraCtion
meter and dip, and add it to the obferved altitude if an^ the moon’s parallax in the top column, and the
her lower limb was taken, or fubtraCt it if her upper correction of her altitude in the left-hand fide column {
limb was taken ; and the fum or difference will be the take out the number of feconds that ftand under the
apparent altitude of her centre. 10. From the pro- former, and oppofite to the latter. Look again in
portional logaiithm of the moon’s horizontal parallax, the fame table for the corrected diftance in the top
taken out of the nautical almanack (increafing its in- column, and the correction of the moon’s altitude is
dex by 10), take the logarithmic coftne of the moon’s the left-hand fide column ; take out the number of
apparent altitude, the remainder will be the proper- feconds that ftand under the former and oppofite to
tional logarithm of her parallax in altitude; from which the latter. Look again in the fame table for the
take her refraCtion, and the remainder will be the cor- corrected diftance in the top-column, and the correction
reCtion of the moon’s altitude. 11. To the obferved °* the moon’s altitude in the left-hand fide column •
diftance of the moon from a ftar add her femidiameter . take out the number of feconds that ftand under the
if the neareft limb be taken, but fubtraCt it if- the former, and oppofite to the latter. Look again in
fartheft limb was taken, and the fum or difference will the lame table for the corrected diftance in the top-
be the apparent diftance. 12. To the obferved di- column, and the principal effedts of the moon’s parallax
fiance of the fun and moon add both their femidiame- i11 the left-hand tide column, and take out the number
ters, and the fum will be the apparent diftance of their feconds. The difference between thefe two num-
centres. bers mult be added to the corre&ed diftance if lefs than
3. To- find the true Difiance of the Olfiat. having 9°’. fubtraCted from it if greater; and the fum or
their apparent Altitudes and Difiances. 1. To the pro- difference will be the true diftance.
portional logarithm of the correction of the fun or 4- T'e determine the Longitude after having obtain-
ftar’s altitude, add the logarithmic cofine of the fun eci the true Difiame. Look in the ephemeris among
or ftar’s apparent altitude ; the logarithmic fine of the the diftances of the objeCts for the computed diftam^
apparent diftance of the moon from the fun or ftar; betwixt the moon and the other objeCl obferved on
and the logarithmic co-fecant of the moon’s apparent the given day. If it be found there the time at
altitude. . The fum of thefe, rejecting 30 from the Greenwich will be at the top of the column; but' if
index, will be the proportional logarithm of the firft it falls between two diftances in the ephemeris which-
angle. 2. To the proportional logarithm of the cor- ftand immediately before and after it, and alfo the
redion of the fun or ftar’s altitude, add the loga- difference between the diftance {landing before and
N n z the
LON
I.engitucfcrtHe computed diftance; then take the proportional
’■ logarithms of the firft and fecond differences, and the
difference between thefe _two logarithms will be the
proportional logarithm of a number of hours, mi-
jmtes, and feconds; which beinsj added to the time
Handing over the firft diftance, will give the true time
at Greenwich. Or it may be found by faying, As
the firft difference is to three hours* fo is the fecond
difference to a proportional part of time ; which be-
[ 284 1 LON
eftimate of its drift and courfe. Then with the ftt- Longitude,
ting and drift, as a courfe and diftance, find the dif- *—v——-
ference o£ latitude and departure; with which the
dead reckoning is to be increafed or diminiihed : and
if the latitude thus corredled agrees with that by ob-
fervation, the departure thus correfted may be fafely
taken as true, and thus the fhip’s place with regard
to the longitude determined.
Exam. Suppofe a fhip in 24 hours finds, by her
ing added as above direfted, will give the time at dead reckoning, that (he has made 96 miles of dif-
Greenwich. The difference between Greenwich time
and that at the fhip, turned into longitude, will be that
at the time the obfervations were made ; and will be eaft
if the time at the fhip is greateft, but weft if it is leaft.
Having given thefe general directions, we lhall
next proceed to fhow fome particular examples of
.finding the longitude at fea by all the different me-
.thods in which it is ufually tried.
I. To find the Longitude by Computation from the Ship’s
Courfe.—-Were it poffible to keep an accurate account
of .the diftance the fhip has run, and to meafure it ex-
gee aftly by the log f or any other means, then both lati-
(perpetufl) tude and longitude would eafily be found by fettling
the fhip’s account to that time. For the courfe and
diftance being known, the difference of latitude and
ference of latitude north and 38 miles of departure
weft ; but by obfervation finds her difference of lati¬
tude 112, and on trial that there is a current which
in 24 hours makes a difference of 16 miles latitude
north and 10 miles of departure eaft : Required the
fhip’s departure.
miles.
Diff. lat. by account 96 N.
Diff. lat. by current 16 N.
True diff. lat.
Departure by ? miles.
account 3 38 W.
Departure by 7 jo
current 3
28 W.
Here the dead reckoning corefted by the current
gives the difference of latitude 112 miles, which is
the fame as that found by obfervation; whence the
departure is readily found by the Traverfe I able ; and departure 28 is taken as the true
the difference of longitude being known, the true
longitude and latitude will alfo be known. A variety
of caufes, however, concur to render this computa¬
tion inaccurate ; particularly the fhip’s continual de¬
flexion from the courfe fet by her playing to the
right and left round her centre of gravity ; the un¬
equal care of thofe at the helm, and the diftance fup-
When the error is fuppofed to arife from the courfes
and diftances, we muft obferve, that if the difference
of latitude is much more than the departure, or the
direfl courfe has been within three points of the me¬
ridian, the error is moft probably in the diftance. But
if the departure be much greater than the difference
of latitude, or the direft courfe be within three points
pofed to be failed being erroneous, on account. of 0f ^ parallel} or more than five points from the me-
itormy feas, unfteady winds, currents, &c. for which
it feems impoflible t6 make any allowance. The
place of the fhip, however, is judged of by finding
the latitude every day, if poffible, by obfervations; and
if the latitude found by obfervation agrees with that
by the reckoning, it is prefumed that the fhip’s place
is properly determined; but if they difagree, it is
concluded that the account of the longitude ftands in
need of correXion, as the latitude by obfervation is
always to be depended upon.
Currents very often occafion errors in the compu¬
tation of a fhip’s place. The caufes of thefe in the
great depths of the ocean are not well known, though
ridian, the error is probably to be aferibed to the
courfe. But if the courfes in general are near the
middle of the quadrant, the error may be either in
the courfe, or in the diftance, or both. This method
admits of three cafes.
1. When, by the dead reckoning, the difference of
latitude is more than once and an half the departure j
or when the eourfe is lefs than three points : Find
the courfe to the difference of latitude and departure.
With this courfe and the meridional difference of la¬
titude by obfervation, find the difference of longi¬
tude. 1
2. When the dead reckoning is more than once
many of the motions near the fhore can be accounted an4 an half the difference of latitude; or when the
tor. It is fuppofed that fome of thofe in the great courfe is more than five points t Find the courfe and
oceans are owing to the tide following the moon, diftance with the difference of latitude by obfervation,
and a certain libration of the waters arifing from and departure by account ; then with the co-middle
thence; likewife that the unfettled nature of thefe latitude by obfervation, and departure by account,
currents may be owing to the changes in the moon’s the difference of longitude.
declination. In the torrid zone, however, a confi- g. When the difference of latitude and departure
derable current is occafioned by the trade-wihds, the by account is nearly equal, or the direX courfe is
motion being conft^ntly to the weft, at the rate of between three and five points of the meridian : Find
eight or ten miles per day. At the extremities of the the courfe with the difference of latitude and depar-
trade-winds or near the 30th degree of north or fouth ture by account fince the laft obfervation. With this
latitude, the currents are probably compounded of COurfe and the difference of latitude by obfervation
this motion to the weftward, and of one towards the
equator; whence all (hips failing within thefe limits
ight to allow a courfe each day for the current,
When the error is fuppofed to have been, occafioned
by a current, it ought if poffible to be tried whether
the cafe is fo or not; or we muft make a reafonable
find another departure. Take half the fum of thefe
departures for the true one. With the true departure:
and difference of latitude by obfervation- find the true
courfe ; then with the true courfe and meridional
difference of latitude find the difference of longitude.
2. To find the Longitude at. Sea by a Variation-chart 
5 Dr
I- O N T 285 ] LON
:• Dr Halley having colle&ed a great number of obfer-
vations on the variation of the needle in many parts
of the world ; by that' means was enabled to draw
certain lines on Mercator’s chart, fliowing the varia¬
tion in all the places over which they paffed in the
year 1700, at which time he firft publifhed the chart;
whenct the longitude of thofe places might be found
by the chart provided its latitude and variation was
given. The rule is, Draw a parallel of latitude on the
chart through the latitude found by obfervation ; and
the point where it cuts- the curved line marked with
the variation that was obferved willbe the /hip’s place.
Exam. A fhip finds by obfervation the latitude to
be 18° 20* north; and the, variation of the compafs
to be 40 weft. Required the /hipls place.—Lay a
ruler over 18J 20' north parallel to the equator; and
the point where its edge cuts the curve of 40 weft va¬
riation gives the /hip’s place, which will be found
in about 27’ 10' weft from London.
This method of finding the longitude, however, is
attended with two inconveniences. 1. That when
the variation lines run eaft or weft, or nearly fo, it
cannot be applied; though as this happens only in
certain parts of the world, a variationGchart may be of
great ufe for the reft. Even in thofe places indeed
where the variation curves do run eaft or weft, they
may be of confiderable ufe in corre&ing the latitude
when meridian obfervations cannot be had; which
frequently happens on the northern coafts of America,
the Weftern Ocean, and about Newfoundland; for
if the variation can be found exa&ly, the eaft and
weft curve anfwering to it will /how the latitude. But,
2. The variation itfelf is fubjeft to continual change;
whence a chart, though ever fo perfeft at firft, muft in
time become totally ufelefs; and hence the charts con-
ftrufted by Dr Halley, though of great utility at their
firft publication, became at length almoft entirely ufe¬
lefs. A new one was publi/hed in 1746 by Mefirs Moun-
taine and Dodfon, which was fo well received, that
in 1756 they again drew variation lines fof that year,
and publi/hed a third chart the year following. They
alfo prefented to the Royal Society a curious paper
concerning the variation of the magnetic needle, with
a fet of tables annexed, containing the refult of more
than 50,000 obfervations, in fix periodical reviews
from the year 1700' to 1756 inclufive, adapted to
every five degrees of latitude and longitude in the
more frequented oceans; all of which were publi/hed
in the Philofophica! Tranfactions for 1757.
3. To Jitid the Longitude by the Sun’s Declination.—
Having made fuch obfervations on the fun as may
enable us to find his declination at the place, take the
difference between ^lis computed declination and that
fhown at London by the ephemeris ; from which take
alfo the daily difference of declination at that time
then fay, as the daily difference of declination is to
the above found difference, fo is 360 degrees to the
difference of longitude. In this method, however, a
fmall error in the declination will make a great one in
longitude,
4, To find the Longitude by the Moon's culminating*
—Seek in the ephemeris for the time of her coming
to the meridian on the given day and on the day
following, and take their difference ; alfo take the dif¬
ference betwixt the times of culminating on the fame
day as found in the ephemeris, and as obferved; then Longitude,
fay, as the daily difference in the ephemeris is to the
difference between the ephemeris and obfervation ; fo
is 360 degrees to the difference of longitude. In this
method alfo a fmall difference in the culmination will
occafion a great one in tire longitude.
5. By Eclipfes of the Moon.—This is done much in
the fame manner as by the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fa-
tellites: For if, in two or more diftant places where
an eclipfe of the moon is vifible, we carefully obferve
the times of the beginning and ending, the number
of digits edipfed, or the time when the /hadow touches
fome remarkable fpot, of when it leaves any particular
fpot on the moon, the difference of the times when
the obfervations were made will give the difference of
longitude. Phenomena of this kind, however, occur
too feldom to be of much ufe.
6. In the 76th volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
actions, Mr Edward Pigot gives a very particular ac¬
count of his method of determining the longitude
and latitude of York; in which he alfo recommends
the method of determining the longitude of places by
obfervations of the moon’s tranfot over the meridiany
The inftruments ufed in his obfervations'were a gridiron
pendulum-clock, a two feet and an half refleftor, an
eighteen inch quadrant made by Mr Bird, and a tran-
fit inftrument made by Mr Siffon.
By thefe inftruments an obfervation was made, on
the 10th of September 1783, of the occultation of a
liar of the ninth magnitude by the moon, during an
eclipfe of that planet, at York and Paris. Belides
this, there were obfervations made of the immerfions
of v Aquarii and ^ Pifctum ; the refult of all which
was, that between Greenwich and York the difference
of meridians was 4' 27".
In 1783, Mr Pigot informs usr that he thought of
finding the difference of meridians by obferving the
meridian right afceniions of the moon’s limb. This he
thought had been quite original: but he found it after¬
wards in the Nautical Almanack for 17,69, and in
1784 read a pamphlet on the fame fubjeft by the Abbe
Toaldo ; but ftill found that the great exactnefs of
this method was not fufpedled ; though he is con¬
vinced that it muft foon be urriverfally adopted in pre¬
ference to that from the firft fatellite of Jupiter.
After giving a number of obfervations on the fatel-
lites of Jupiter, he concludes, that the exaftnefs ex¬
pelled from obfervations, even on the firft fatellite, is
much over-rated. “ Among the various objections
(fays he), there is one 1 have often.experienced, and
which proceeds fdlely from the difpolltion of the eye,
that of feeing more diftindtly at one time than ano¬
ther. It may hot be improper alfo to mention, that
the obfervation I ftiould have relied on as the heft,
that of Aug. 30. 1785, marked excellent, is one of
thofe moft diftant from the truth.*’
After giving a number of obfervatiohs on the eclipfe
of the moon Sept. 10. 1783, our author concludes,
that the eclipfes of the moon’s fpots are in general too
much- neglefted, and that it might be relied upon much
more were the following circumftances attended to :
r. To be particular in fpecifying the clearnefs of the
/ky. 2. To choofe fuch fpots as are well defined, and
leave no hefitation as to the part eclipfed. 3. That
every obferver /hould ufe, as far as pofiible, telefcopes
equally
LON [
Longitude, pqvially powerful, or at leaft let the magnifying powers
u.—y—— jje tjlc fame, " A principal objeftion (fays he) may
ftill be urged, viz. the difficulty of diitinguiihing the
true ihadow from the penumbra. Was this obviated,
I believe the refults would be more exaft than from
Jupiter’s firft fatellite : Undoubtedly the Ihadow ap¬
pears better defined if magnified little ; but I am much
inclined to think, that, with high magnifying powers,
there is greater certainty of choofing the fame part
of the Ihadow, which perhaps is more than a fufficient
compenfation for the lofs of diftin&nefs.”
The following rule for meridian obfervations of the
moon’s limb is next laid down : “ The increafe of the
moon’s right afcenfion in twelve hours (or any given
time found by computation), is to 12 hours as the
increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion between two
places found by obfervation is to the difference of me¬
ridians.
Example.
Nov. 30. 1782.
h. ' "
J3 12 57.62 Meridian tranfit of moon’s^ By clock
fecopd limb > at Green-
13 13 29.08 Ditto of a 1JZ j wich.
286 1
LON
31.46 Difference of right afcenfion.
13 14 8.05 Meridian tranfit of moon’s^
fecond limb
1.3 14 30.13 Ditto of x in’
22.08 Difference at York.
31.46 Difference at Greenwich.
The clocks
xoing near¬
ly fidereal
time.nocor-
redtion i»re-
quired.
9.38 Increafe of the moon’s ap- )>
parent right afcenfion be¬
tween Greenwich and
York, by obfervation.
141'' in feconds of a degree, ditto, ditto, ditto.
The increafe of the moon’s right afcenfion for 12 hours,
by computation, is 23,340 feconds; and 12 hours
reduced into feconds is 43,200. Therefore, ac-
as the fight is fubjeft to vary. 6. A principal error Longitude,
proceeds from the obfervation of the moon’s limb, ’•‘■"V"*"*
which may be confiderably leffened, if certain little
round fpots near each limb were alfo obferved in fettled
obfervatories; in which cafe the libration of the moon
will perhaps oe a confideration. 7. When the dif¬
ference of meridians, or of the latitudes of places, is
very confiderable, the change of the moon’s diameter
becomes an equation.
“ Though fuch are the requifites to ufe this me¬
thod with advantage, only one or two of them have
been employed in the obfervations that I have redu¬
ced. Two-thirds of thefe obfervations had not even
the fame ftars obferved at Greenwich and York ; and.
yet none of the refults, except a doubtful one, differ
15" from the mean ; therefore I think we may expect
a ftill greater exa&nefs, perhaps within to" if the a-
bove particulars be attended to.
“ When the fame ftara are not obferved, it is necef-
fary for .the obfervers at both places to compute their
right afcenfion from tables, in order to get the appa¬
rent right of afcenfion of the moon’s limb. Though
this is not fo fatisfa&ory as by aftual obfervation, ftill
the difference will be trifling, provided the ftar’s right
afeenfions are accurately fettled. I am alfo of opi¬
nion, that the fame method can be put in practice by
travellers with little trouble, and a tranfit inftrurnent,
conftrufted fo as to fix up with facility in any place.
It is not neceffary, perhaps, that the inftrument Ihould
be perfectly in the meridian for a few feconds of time,
provided ftars, nearly in the fame parallel of declina¬
tion with the moon, are obferved ; nay, I am inclined
to think, that if the inftrument deviates even a quarter
or half a degree, or more, fufficient exaftnefs can be
attained ; as a table might be computed, (bowing the
moon’s parallax and motion for fuch deviation ; which
laft may eafily be found by the well known method
of obferving ftars whofe difference of declination is
conliderable.
“ As travellers very feldom meet with fituations to
obferve ftars near the pole, or find a proper object for
determining the error of the line of collimation, I
(hall recommend the following method as original.—-
Having computed the apparent right afcenfion ot
four, fix, or more ftars, which have nearly the fame
cording to the rule ftated above,
23,340" : 43,200" : diff. of merid. =261".
“ Thefe eafy obfervations and (hort reduftion (fays     ^   
Mr Pigott) are the whole of the bufinefs. Inftead of parallel of declination, obferve half of them with the
computing the moon’s right afcenfion for 12 hours, inftrument inverted, and the other half when in its
1 have conftantly taken it from the Nautical Alma- right pofition. If the difference of right afeenfions
nacks, which give it fufficiently exa<ft, provided fome between each fet by obfervation agrees with the corn-
attention be paid to the increafe or decreafe of the - - -- -- -’    u... .t .1— a:c..—
moon’s motion. Were the following circumftances
attended to, the refults would be undoubtedly much
more exaft.
“ x. Compare the obfervations with the fame made
in feveral other places. 2. Let feveral and the fame
ftars be obferved at thefe places. 3. Such ftars as are
neareft in right afcenfion and declination to the moon
e infinitely preferable. 4. It cannot be too ftrongly
putation, there is no error; but if they difagree, half
that difagreement is the error of the line of collima¬
tion. The fame obfervations may alfo ferve to deter¬
mine, whether the diftance of the gprrefponding wires
are equal. In cafe of neceffity, each limb of the fun
might be obferved in the fame manner, though proba¬
bly with lefs precifion. By a Angle trial I made a-
bove two years ago, the refult was much more exadt
than I expefted. Mayor’s catalogue of. ftars will -
urged to get, as near as poffible, an equal number of prove Gf great ufe to thofe that adopt the above me-
obfervations of each limb, to take a mean of each fet,
and then a mean of both means. This will in a great
meafure correft the error of telefcopes and fight.
5. The adjuftment of the telefcopes to the eye of the
©blerver before the obfervation is alfo very neceffary,,
thod—I am rather furprifed that the immerfions of'
known ftars of the fixth and feventh magnitude, be¬
hind the dark limb of the moon, are not conftantly ob¬
ferved in fixed .obfervatories, as they would frequently
be of great ufe.”
The
LON [ 287 ] LON
Longhudfl. The annexed rule for finding the Chip's place, with
the mifcellaneous obfervations on different methods, we
have been favoured with by Mr John M‘Ijean of the
Obfervatory, Edinburgh. The rule was examined and
approved of by Sir Jofeph Banks prefident of the
Royal Society.
1. With regard to determining the Chip’s place by the
help of the courfe and diftance failed, the following rule
may be applied.—It will be found as expedit ious as any
of the common methods by the middle latitude or meri¬
dional parts ; and is in fome refpedts preferable, as the
common tables of fines and tangents only are requi-
fite in applying it.—Let a and b be the diftances of
twojfiaces from the fame pole in degrees, or their com¬
plete latitudes ; c the angle which a meridian makes
with the rhumb line pafiing through the places ; and I.
the angle formed by their meridians, or the difference
of longitude in minutes: then A and B being the lo¬
garithmic tangents oi ^ a and 4-i, S the fine of C, and
5 the fine of (C+i'}, we fhall have the following e-
quation L = (a). Alfo, from a well known
s —s
property of the rhumb line, we have the following e-
quation :
S+E=R-fD, where S is the logarithmic cofine of
C, E the logarithm of the length of the rhumb-line,
or diftance, D the logarithm of the minute’s difference
of latitude, and R the logarithm of the radius.
By the help of thefe two equations, we fhall have
an eafy folution of the feveral cafes to which the
middle latitude, or meridional parts, are commonly ap¬
plied.
Example. A fhip from a port, in latitude 56"
N. fails SW. by W. till fhe arrives at the latitude of
40° N : Required the difference of longitude.
Here £=34°, ^=50°, rreyfi’ 15", A=9.48534,
6 = 9.56107, 8 =9.9199308, 8=9.9198464 ; there¬
fore, L = ^ —Zih..30.?— 897 the minutes diffe-
S'—8 844
rence oflongitude. Alfo, 8 = 9.74474, 0 = 2.98227;
therefore E = R-}-D—8 = 3.23753, to which the na¬
tural number is 1728, the miles in the rhumb-line fail¬
ed over.
2. The common method of finding the difference
of longitude made good upon feveral courfes and di¬
ftances, by means of the difference of latitude and de¬
parture made good upon the feveral courfes, is not ac¬
curately true.
For example : If a fhip fhould fail due fouth 600
miles, from a port in 60“ north latitude, and then due
weft 600 miles, the difference oflongitude found by the
common methods of folution would be 1053 » whereas
the true difference of longitude is only 933, lefs than
the former by 120 miles, which is more than ^ of the
whole. Indeed every confiderable alteration in the
courfe will produce a very fenfible error in the diffe¬
rence oflongitude. Though, when the feveral rhumb
hues failed over are nearly in the fame direction, the
error in longitude will be but fmall.
The reafon of this will eafily appear from the annexed
figure, in which the fhip is fuppofed to fail from Z to
A, along the rhumb lines ZB, BA ; for if the meri-Longitude,
dians PZ,PkoeBL be drawn ; and very near the latter ——v,““J
other two meridians PhD, Pmn ; and likewife the pa¬
rallels of latitude Bn, De, mo, hk; then it is plain
that De is greater than hk (for De is to hk as the
fine of DP to the fine of hP) : and fince this is the
cafe every where, the departure correfponding to the
diftance BZ and courfe BZC, will be greater tha.t
the departure to the diftance oZ and courfe oZC.
And in the fame manner, we prove that nB is great¬
er than mo; and confequently, the departure corref¬
ponding to the diftance AB, and courfe ABL, is
greater than the departure to the diftance Ao, and
courfe AoL : Wherefore, the fum of the two depar-
tujes correfponding to the courfes ABE and BZC,
and to the diftances AB and BZ, is greater than the
departure correfponding to the diftance AZ and
courfe AZC : therefore the courfe anfwering to this
fum as a departure, and CZ as a difference of latitude,
(AC being the parallel of latitudes pafiing through
A), will be greater than the true courfe AZC made
good upon the whole. And hence the difference of
longitude found by the common rules will be greater
than the true difference of longitudes ; and the error
will be greater or lefs according as BA deviates more
or lefs from the direction of BZ-
P
3. Of determining the /hip’s longitude by lunar obi
fervations. -
Several rules for this purpofe have been lately pub-
lifhed, the principal objeCt -of which feems to have
been to abbreviate the computations requifite for de¬
termining the true diftance of the fun or a ftar from the
moon’seentre. This, however, fhotfid have certainly been-
lefs attended to than the inveftigation of a folution, in
which confiderable errors in the data may produce a-
fmall error in the required diftance. When either of
the luminaries has a fmall elevation, its altitude ' will
be affedted by the variablenefs of the atmofphere
likewife the altitude, as given by the quadrant, will
be affefted by the inaccuracy of 'the inftrument, and
the uncertainty neceffarily attending all obfervations
made-
(a) A coB fignifies the. difference between-A. and B,
LON
Longitude, made at fea. The fum of thcfe errors, when they all
 tend the fame way, may be fuppofed to amount to at
leaft one minute in altitude ; which, in many eafes, ac¬
cording to the common rules for computing the true
diflance,' will produce an error of about 30 minutes in
the longitude. Thus, in the example given by Monf.
Callet, in the Tables Portatives, if we fuppofe an error
of one minute in the fun’s altitude, of call it 6° 26'
34', in he ad of 6° 27' 34''; we (hall find the alteration
in dihance according to his rule to be 54'', producing
an error of about 27 minutes in the longitude : for
the angle at the fun will be found, in the fpherical
triangle whofe fides are the complement of the fun’s
altitude, complement of the moon’s altitude, and obfer-
ved dihance, to be about 26°; and as radius is to the
cofine of 26°, fo is 6o'' the fuppofed error in altitude,
to 54" the alteration in dihance. Perhaps the only
method of determining the dihance, fo as not to be
affedted by the errors of altitude, is that by firh find¬
ing the angles at the fun and moon, and by the help
of them the correftions of dihance for parallax and re-
fradlion. The rule is as follows:
Add together the complement of the moon’s appa¬
rent altitude, the complement of the fun’s apparent al¬
titude, and the apparent dihance of centres ; from half
the fum of thefe fubtract the complement of the fun’s
altitude, and add together the logarithmic co-fecant
of the complement of the moon’s altitude, the loga¬
rithmic co-fecant of the apparent diftance of centres,
the logarithmic fine of the half fum, and the logarith¬
mic fine of the remainder; and half the fum of thefe
Four logarithms, after reje&ing 20 from the index, ■
is the logarithmic, cofine of half the angle at the
moon.
As radius is to the cofine of the angle at the moon;
fo is the difference between the moon’s parallax and
refraftion in altitude to a correction of diftance; which
LON
is to be added to the apparent diftance of centres Longicu***/
when the angle at the moon is obtufe; but to be fub- ,
traded when that angle is acute, in order to have the
diftance once corrected.
In the above formula, if the word^/«« be changed
for moon, and vice verfa> wherever thefe terms occur,
we fhall find a fecond correction of diftance to be ap¬
plied to the diftance, once corrected by fub tract ion
when the angle at the fun is obtufe, but by addition
when that angle is acute, and the remainder or fum is
the true diftance nearly. v
In applying this rule, it will be fufficient to ufe the
complement, altitudes, and apparent diftances of cen¬
tres, true to the neareft minute only, as a fmall error
in the angles at the fun and moon will very little af-
feCl the corrections of diftances.
If D be the computed diftance in feconds, d the
difference between the moon’s parallax and refraCtion
in altitude, S the fine of the angle at the moon, and
R the radius: then — will be a third correction
2DR
of diftance, to be added to the diftance twice correc¬
ted : But it is plain, from the nature of this correc¬
tion, that it may be always rejected, except when the
diftance I) is very fmall, and the angle at the moon
nearly equal to 90°.
This folution is likewife of ufe in finding the
true diftance of a ftar from the moon, by changing the,
word fun intofar, and uling the refraCtion of the ftar, in-
ftead of the difference between the refraCtion and pa¬
rallax in altitude of the fun, in finding the fecond cor¬
rection of diftance.
Ex. Given the obferved diftance of a ftar from the
centre of the moon, 50° 8' 4J"; the moon’s altitude,
55° 5#' 5"; the ftar’s altitude, 19° 18' £ ' ;*and the
moon’s "horizontal parallax, 1 o' 5': Required the true
diftance.
L 288 ]
Cofec. 0.02512 *’s co. alt -70° 42/
D’s co. alt. 34 4—   —Cofec. 0.25169
Cofec. o. 11479 obf. dift. 50 9 Cofec. ^0.11479
2)I54 55
Sine 9.98950     77 27 — — Sine -9.9895O
Rem. 6 45 Sine 9.07018
/ Sine 9.83688 " — Rem. 43 23 2)19.42616
 ——Cofec. 9.71308 58° 54'
.5’*'  —- .
2 117 48 =r T)’s angle.
31 48 = #’s angle.
Rad. : Cofec. 117° 48’ : : ])’diff. parall. & tefraCt. 1986'' i 923''— I ft corfeCt. of diftance.
Rad. • Cofec. 310 48' : ftar’s refraCt. 161" s 138"= 2d correCt. of diftance.
Here the firft Correction of diftance is additive, diftance of the ftar from the moon’s centre, gives
fince the angle .at the moon is obtufe ; and the fe- 5oJ 26' 21'' for the true diftance. of centres nearly;—.
cond correction is alfo additive, fmee the angle at the and 2XL (d-f-S)—L (2 L R+L 2-fL D) = L 8",
ftar is acute : therefore their fum 923"-!-138"= 1061'' which, being added to the diftance twice corrected,
S=i7' ft1"* being added to 50° 8 41", the apparant gives 50° 26' 29'' for the true diftance. By compa-
N° 188. ring
2)19.96629
Cofec.   9.98314  
LON [ 289 ] LON
: Longitu'li-ring this diftance with the computed diftances in the
nal ephemeris, the time at Greenwich correfpondirfg to
I ” that of obferving the diftance will be known ; and the
, 0”gU“ difference of thofe times being converted into degrees
and minutes, at the rate of 15 degrees to the hour,
will give the longitude of the place of obfervation ;
which will be eaft if the time at the place be greater
than that at Greenwich, but weft if it be lefs.
LONGITUDINAL, in general,denotes fomething
placed lengthwife: thus fome of the fibres in the vef-
fels of the human body are placed longitudinally, others
tranfverfely or acrofs.
LONGOBARDI. See Langobardi.
LONGOMONTANUS (Chriftian), a learned a-
ftronomer, born in a village of Denmark in 156?. He
was the fon of a ploughman ; and was obliged to fuffer
during his ftudies all the hardfhips to which he could
be expofed, dividing his time, like the philofopher Cle-
anthes, between the cultivation of the earth and the
leflbns he received from the minifter of the place. At
laft, when he was 15, he ftole away from his family,
and went to Wiburg, where there was a college, in
which he fpent 11 year *; and though he was obliged
to earn a livelihood, he applied himfelf to ftudy with
fuch ardour, that among other fcience; he learned the
mathematics in great perfection. He afterwards went
to' Copenhagen ; where the profefibrs of that univerfity
in a fhort time conceived fo high an opinion of him,
that they recommended him to the celebrated Tycho
Brahe. Longomontanus lived eight years with that
femous aftronomer, and wa of great fervice to him in
his obfervations and calculations. At length, being
extremely defirous of obtaining a profeffor’s chair in
Denmark, Tycho Brahe confented, though with fome
difficulty, to deprive himfelf of his fervice ; gave him
a difcharge, filled with the higheft teftimonies of his
efteem ; andfurniffied him with money for the expence
of his long journey. He obtained a profeflbrftiip of
mathematics in the univerfity of Copenhagen in 1605 ;
and difcharged the duty of it worthily till his death,
which happened in 1647. He wrote many learned
works ; amufed himfelf with endeavouring to fquare the
circle, and pretended that he had made that difcovery ;
. but Dr John Pell, an Englifli mathematician, attack¬
ed him warmly on that fubjeft, and proved that he
was miftaken.
LONGTOWN,a town of Cumberland, on the Scots
borders, near the conflux of the Elk and Kirkfop, fe-
ven miles from Carlifle, and 313 miles from London ;
it has a market on Thurfday, and a charity-fchool for
60 children, with two fairs in the year.
LONGUEVILLE, a town of France, in Upper
Normandy, and in the territory of Caux, feated on the
fmall river Lee, 17 miles north of Rouen. It has the
title of a duchy. E. Long. 1. 10. N. Lat. 49. 46.
LONGWY, a town of France, on the frontiers of
the duchy of Luxemburg, with a caftle, divided into
the old and new towns. This laft was built and for¬
tified by Louis XIV. It is feated on am eminence.
E. Long. 5. 51. N. Lat. 40. 32.
LONGUS, a Greek fophift, author of a book in-
titled no.i/ vi^, or Paftorals, and a romance containing
the loves of Daphnis and Chloe. Huetius, bilhop of
Avranches, fpeaks very advantageoufly of this work ;
but he cenfures the obfcene touches with which it is
Vol. X. Part I.
inte. iperfed. None of the ancient authors mention him, Lome
fo the time when he lived cannot be certainly fixed. '*—"v"
There is an Englilh tranllaiion of this author-, which
is aferibed to the late J. Craggs, Efq; fecretary of
ftate.
LONICERA, Honeysuckle, in botany : A ge¬
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs of plants. The corolla is monopetalous
and irregular; the berry polyfpermous, bilocular, and
inferior.
Species. 1. The alpigena, or upright red-berried
honeyfuckle, rifeswitha fhrubby, ffiort, thick, upright
Item, branching ftrong and eredtly' four or five feet
high ; largilh, fpear-lhaped leaves, in pairs oppofite;
and from the fides of the branches many red flowers by
two’s on long, footftalks, each fucceeded by two red
berries joined together at their bafe ; it flowers in Au-
guft, and the berries ripen in autumn. 2. The casru-
lea, or blue-berried upright honeyfuckle, rifes with a
Ihrubby upright Item, branching moderately three or
four feet high, with many white flowers proceeding
from the fides of the branches ; appearing in May, and
fucceeded by blue berries joined together at their bafe.
3. The nigra, or black-berried upright honeyfuckle,
rifes with a ihrubby ftem branching three or four feet
high, with white flowers fucceeded by Angle and di-
ftindt black-berries. 4. The tartarica, or Tartarian
honeyfuckle, rifes with a ftirubby upright ftem, branch¬
ing ereiftly three or four feet high ; heart-(haped, op¬
pofite leaves, and whitifli erefl; flowers fucceeded by
red berries, fometimes diftinft, and fometimes double.
5. The diervilla, or yellow-flowered Arcadian honey¬
fuckle, rifes with ffirubby upright ftalks, branching
ereft to the height of three or four feet; the branches
terminated by clufters of pale yellow flowers, appear¬
ing in May and June, and fometimes continuing till au-
tuipn i but rarely ripening feeds here. 6. The xylo-
fteum, or fly honeyfuckle rifes with a ftrong ftirubby
ftem, branching erect to the height of feven or eight
feet; with erect white flowers proceeding from the fides
of the branches ; each fucceeded by large double red
berries, joined together at their bafe. The flowers ap¬
pear in June,and the berries ripen in September. 7.The
fymphoricarpos, or ftirubby St Petcr’s-wort, rifes with
a ftirubby, rough ftem, branching eredt four or five feet
high, with fmall greenifti flowers appearing round the
ftalk in Auguft. 8. The periclymenum, or common
climbing honeyfuckle, hath two principal varieties, viz.
The Englifti wild honeyfuckle, or woodbine of our
woods and hedges, and the Dutch or German honey¬
fuckle. The former rifes with ftirubby, weak, very
long flender ftalks, and branches trailing on the ground,
or climbing round any fupport; all terminated by oval
imbricated heads, furniftiing fmallifti flowers of white
or red colours, and appearing from June or July till
autumn. The Dutch honeyfuckle rifes With a Ihrubby
decimated ftalk, and long trailing purplifti branches,
terminated by oval imbricated heads, furnifliing large
beautiful red flowers of a fragrant odour, appearing in
June and July. 9. The caprifolium, or Italian honey¬
fuckle, rifes with ftirubby decliflated ftalks, fending out
long flender trailing branches, terminated by verticil-
late or whorled buncjie of clofe-fitting flowers, very
fragrant, and white, red, and yellow colours. 10. The
fempervirens, or evergreen trumpet-flowered honey-
O o fuckk,
LOO [290] LOP
I.onf’ate facklc. rifes with a fiirubby decimated ftalk, fending
II out long flender trailing branches, terminated by naked
ooni‘ verticillate fpikes, of long, unreflexed, deep fcarlet
flowers, very beautiful, but of little fragrance.
Culture. The moft eafy method of propagating
thefe plants is by layers or cuttings, efpecially the lat¬
ter; both of thefe readily emit roots, and form plants
in one year fit for tranfplantation. Some forts are al-
fo propagated by fuckers and feed.
LONSDALE, or Kirkby Lonsdale, a town of
Weftmoreland, feated on the river Lon, in a pleafant
and rich valley of the fame name. It is a large well-
built town, has a handfome church, and a fine ftone-
bridge over the river. It is well inhabited ; and is the
belt town in the county except Kendal. It gives title
of Earl to the Lowther family. W. Long. 2. 27.
N. Lat. 54. jo.
LOO, a town of the United Provinces, in Guelder-
fcmd, eight miles weft of Deventer, where the prince
of Orange has a fine palace. E. Long. 6. o. N. Eat.
52. 18.
LOOF, the after part of a {hip’s bow ; or that part
of her fide forward where the planks begin to be incur-
vated into an arch as they approach the ftem.
Loop, or Luff. See Luff.
LOOK-OUT, in the fea-language, a watchful at¬
tention to fome important objeft or event which is ex-
pefted to arife from the prefent fituation of a ftn'p, &c.
It is principally ufed in navigation when there is a
probability of danger from the real or fuppofed proxi¬
mity of land, rocks, enemies, and, in fhort, whatever
peril fhe may encounter through inattention, which
might otherwife have been avoided by a prudent and
neceflary vigilance.
There is always a look-out kept on a (hip’s fore-
caftle at fea, to watch for any dangerous obje&s lying
near her track, and to which (he makes a gradual ap¬
proach as file advances: the mate of the watch accord¬
ingly calls often from the quarter-deck, “Look outafore
there ! ” to' the perfons appointed for thisfervice.
LOOKING-glasses, are nothing but plain mir¬
rors. of glafs ; which, being impervious to the light,
refleft the images of things placed before them. See
* the articles Mirror and Optics.
• For the calling, grinding, and polilhing of looking-
glaffes, fee the article Glass.
For foliating of looking-glaffes. See the article
Foliating.
LOOL, in metallurgy, a vefiel made to receive the
wafhings of ores of metals. The heavier or more me¬
talline part of the ores remain in the trough in which
they are wafhed ; the lighter and more earthy run off
with the water, but fettle in the look
LOOM, the weaver’s frame; a machine whereby
■feveral diftinft threads are woven into one piece.
Looms are of various ftructures, accommodated to
the various kinds of materials to be woven, and the
various manner of weaving them; v'vx.. for woollens,
filks, linens, cottons, cloths of gold : and other works,
as tapeftry, ribbands, Hackings, &c. divers of which
will be found under their proper heads. See Weaving-.
The weaver’s loom-engine, otherwife called the
Dutch loom-engine, was brought into ufe from Hol¬
land to London, in or about the year 1676.
Heir-LooMi in law. See Ham-Loom,
Loom, at fea. If a Ihip appears big, when at a Loom
diftance, they fay fire looms, or*appears a great fail: H
the term is alfo ufed to denote the indiicinit appear- Loph"19'.
ance of any other dillant objects. * *
LooM-gale, at fea, a gentle eafy gale of wind, in
which a (hip can carry her top-fails a-trip.
LOOP, in the iron works, is a part of a fow or
block of caft iron broken or melted off from the reft,
and prepared for the forge or hammer. The ufual
method is, to break off the loop of about three quar¬
ters of a hundred weight. This loop they take up
with their flinging-tongs, and beat it with iron fledges
upon an iron plate near the fire, that fo it may not
fall to pieces, but be ‘in a condition to be carried un¬
der the hammer. It is then place-d under the hammer,
and a little water being drawn to make the hammer
move but foftly, it is beat very gently, and by this
means the drofs and foulnefs are forced off, and after
this they draw more and more water by degrees, and
beat it more and more till they bring it to a four-fquare
mafs, of about two feet long, which they call a bloom.
LOOPING, in metallurgy, a woul ufed by the
’miners of fome counties of England, to exprefs'the
running together of the matter pf an ore into a mafs,
in the roafting or firft burning, intended only to cal¬
cine it fo far as to make it fit for powdering. This
accident, which gives the miners fome trouble, is ge¬
nerally owing to the continuing the fire too long in
this procefs.
LOOSE-strife. See Lysimachia.
LOOSA, in botany: A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants. The
calyx is pentaphyllous, fuperior ; there are five fub-
ovate, cucullated, and large petals ; the nedtarium con-
lifts of five leaves, gathered into a conical figure, each
terminated by two filaments ; the capfule is turbinated,
unilocular, and trivalved at top; the feeds are very
numerous ; and there are three linear and longitudinal
finufes.
LOPES le vega. See Vega.
LOPEZ, or Indian, Root, in the materia medica.
The plant to which this article belongs is unknown-
Neither the woody nor cortical part of the root has
any remarkable fenfible quality. A flight bitternefs
is perceptible ; and it is recommended, like fimurouba,.
in diarrhoeas even of the colliquative kind, in half¬
dram dofes four times a-day. Little of this root has
been brought to Europe : but fome of thofe who have
had an opportunity of employing it, fpeak in very high
terms of the effe&s obtained from it.
LOPHIUS,Fishing-frog, Toad-ffh, or Sea-devil;
a genus of the hranchioftegious order of fifties, whole
head is in fize equal to all the reft of the body. There
are three fpecies ; the moft remarkable of which is the
pifeatorius, or common fiftiing-frog, an inhabitant of
the Britifti feas. This Angular fifti was known to the
ancients by the name of and rana; and to
us by that of the Ji/hing-frog, for it is of a figure re-
fembling that animal in a tadpole ftate. Pliny takes-
notice of the artifice ufed by it to take its prey 1
Eminentia fub oculis cornicula turbato limo exerit, affultan-
tes pifciculot attrahens, donee turn prope accedunt, ut affiliat.
“ It puts forth the flender horns it has beneath its
eyes, enticing by that means the little fifti to play
round, till they come within reach, when it fpringo- ,
LOR C 291 ] LOR
Loih'm* on tliem.” The hflung-frog growg to a large fize,
I! fome being between four and five feet in length; and Mr
I out Pennant mentions one taken near Scarborough, whofe
~ T mouth was a yard wide. The fiihermen on that coaft
have a great regard for this fifh, from a fuppofition
that it is a great enemy to the dog»fi{h ; and whenever
they take it with their lines, fet it at liberty.
It is a fifh of very great deformity : the head is
much bigger than the whole body; is round at the
circumference, and fiat above ; the mouth of a pro¬
digious widenefs. The under jaw is much longer
than the upper: the jaws are full of {lender fharp
teeth : in the roof of the mouth are two or three rows
■of the fame : at the root of the tongue, oppofite each
other, are two bones of an elliptical form, thick fet,
with very ftrong {harp teeth. The noftrils do not
appear externally, but in the upper part of the mouth
are two large orifices that ferve inilead of them. On
each fide the upper-jaw are two {harp fpines, and others
are fcattered about the upper part of the head. Imme-
diately above the nofe are two long tough filaments,
and on the back three others; thefe are what Pliny
calls cornkula, and fays it makes ufe of to attradl the
little fifh.. They feem to be like lines flung out for
that end. Along the edges of the head and body are
a multitude of fhort fringed Ikins, placed at equal di-
llances. The aperture to the gills is placed behind ;
each of thefe is very wide, fo that fome writers have
imagined it to be a receptacle for the young in time
of danger. The body grows flender near the tail, the
end of which is quite even. The colour of the upper
part of this fifh is dulky, the lower part white 5 the
{kin fmooth.
LORANTHUS, in botany : A genus of the mo-
tiogynia order,belonging to the hexandria clafsof plants;
•and in the natural method ranking under the 48th or¬
der, Aggregate. The germen is inferior ; there is no
oalyx ; the corolla is fexfid and revoluted ; the ftamina
arC at the tops of the petals ; the berry is monofpermous.
There i - only one fpecies, a nalive of America, dif-
covered by Father Plumier, and found growing natu¬
rally at La Vera Cruz by Dr Houfton. It rifes with
a ihrubby {talk, eight or ten feet high, dividing into
feveral branches, having at their ends clutters of fmall
fcarletfcoloured flowers, fucceeded by oval berries with
a pulpy covering, and a hard fliell with one cell, in-
clofing feveral comprefied feeds. It is propagated by
-feeds, which fhould be fown foon after they are ripe ;
otherwife they are very apt to mifcarry, or lie a year in
the ground without germinating. The plants require
always to be kept in a bark-ftove.
LORARII, among the Romans, officers whofe
b u fine is it was, with whips and fcourges, 'to compel
the gladiators to engage. The lorar'ii alfo punifhed
(laves who difobeyed their matters.
LORD, a title of honour given to thofe who are
noble either by birth or creation. In this fenfe, it
amounts to much the fame as peer of the realm, or
lord of parliament. The title is by cotirtefy alfo given
to all the fons of dukes and marquifes, and to the
eldeft fons of earls : and it is alfo a title of honour be¬
llowed on thofe who are honourable by their employ¬
ments ; as lord advocate, lord chamlerlain, lord chan-
cillor, SsV. The word is Saxon, but abbreviated from
-two fyliables-into one ; for -it was originally Illaford,
which by dropping the afpiration becartve Laford, Ford,
and afterwards by contraftion Lord. “ The etymo- -v—*
logy of the word (fays J. Coates) is well worth ob-
ferving; for it was compofed of illaf “ a loaf of
bread,” and ford “ to give or afford fo that///a-
ford, now Lord, implies “ a giver of breadbecaufe,
in thofe ages, fuch great men kept extraordinary
houfes, and fed all the poor; for which reafon they
were called givers of bread, a thing now much outer
date, great men being fond of retaining the title*
but few regarding the pra&ice for which it was firtt
given. See Lady.
Houfe of Lords, one of the three eftates of parlia¬
ment, and compofed of the Lords Spiritual and Tem¬
poral.
1. The Spiritual Lords confift of 2 archbifliops and
24 biffiops; and, at the diffolution of monatteries by
Henry VIII.' confifted likewife of 26 mitred abbot*
and two priors: a very confiderable body, and in
thofe times equal in number to the temporal nobility.
All thefe hold, or are fuppofed to hold, certain ancient
baronies under the king : for William the Conqueror
thought proper to change the fpiritual tenure of frank¬
almoign or free-alms, under which the bifhops held
their lands during the Saxon government, into the
feodal or Norman tenure by barony ; which fubje&ed
their eftates to all civil charges and affeffments, from
which they were before exempt; and irt right of fuc-
ceffion to thofe baronies, which were unalienable from
their refpeftive dignities, the biffiops and abbots were
allowed their feats in the houfe of lords. But though
thefe lords fpiritual are in the eye of the law a diftinct
eftate from the lords temporal, and are fo diftinguiffied
in moft of our afts of parliament; yet in pradlice they
are ufually blended together under the name o£the lords;
they intermix in their votes, and the majority of fuch
intermixture joins both eftates. And from this want
of a feparate affembly, arid feparate negative of the
prelates, fome writers have argued very cogently, that
the lords fpiritual and temporal are now in reality only-
one eftate : which is unqueftionably true in every ef-
fedftual fenfe, though the ancient diftinftion between
them ttill nominally continues. For if a bill ffiould
pafs their houfe, there is no doubt of its validity, tho'
every lord fpiritual ffiould vote againft it; of which
Selden and Sir Edward Coke give many inftances : as,
on thf other hand, doubtlefs fit would be equally good,
if the lords temporal prefent were inferior to the bi-
fliops in number, and every one of thofe temporal lords
gave his vote to rejeft the bill; though this Sir Edward
Coke feems to doubt of.
2. The Temporal Lords Confift of all the peers of the
realm, {the bifliops not being in ftri&nefs held to be
fuch, but merely lords of parliament), by whatever
title of nobility diftinguiffied ; dukes, marquifes, earls,
vifeounts, or barons f. Some of thefe fit by defeent, tSee AV
as do all ancient peers ; fome by creation, as do all4'^*
new-made ones; others, fmee the union with Scotland,
by elerition, which is the cafe of the 16 peers, who
reprefent the body of the Scots nobility. Their num¬
ber is indefinite, and may be increafed, at will by the
power of the crown 4 and once, in the reign of Queen
Anne, there was an inftance of creating no lefs than
12 together; in contemplation of which, in the reign
of King George I. a bill paffed the houfe of lords, and
LOR [ 292 ] LOR
I.ord. was countenanced by the then minlflry, for limiting
the number of the peerage. This was thought by
fome to promife a great acquifition to the conftitution,
by reftraining the prerogative from gaining the afcen-
dant in that augufl affembly, by pouring in at plea-
fure an unlimited number of new-created lords. But
the bill was ill relifhed, and mifearried in the houfe of
commons, whofe leading members were then defirous
to keep the avenues to the other houfe as open and eafy
as peffible.
The diftin&ion of ranks and honours is necefiary in
every well-governed ftate: in order to reward fuch as
are eminent for their fervices to the public, in a manner
the moll defirable to individuals,andyetwithoutburthen
to the community ; exciting thereby an ambitious yet
laudable ardour and generous emulation in others. And
emulation, or virtuous ambition, is a fpring of adlion
wdiich, however'dangerous or invidious in a mere repu¬
blic or under a defpotic fway, will certainly be attended
with good effedls under a free monarchy ; where, with¬
out deilroying its exillence, its excefles may be conti¬
nually reftrained by that fuperior power from which
all honour is derived. Such a fpirit, when nationally
diffufed, gives life and vigour to the community; it
fets all the wheels of government in motion, which,-
under a wife regulator, may be diredled to any bene¬
ficial purpofe ; and thereby every individual may be
made fubfervient to the public good, while he prin¬
cipally means to promote his own particular views.
A body -of nobility is alfo more partictilarly neceffary
in our mixed and compounded conftitution, in order to
fupport the rights of both the crown and the people,
by forming a barrier to withftand the encroachments
of both. It creates and preferves that gradual fcale
of dignity which proceeds from the peafant to the
prince ; rifing like a pyramid from a broad founda¬
tion, and diminilhing to a point as it rifes. It is this
afcerding and contrafting proportion that adds liabi¬
lity to any government; for when the departure is
fudden from one extreme to another, we may pro¬
nounce that ftate to be precarious. The nobility
therefore are the pillars, which are reared from
among the people, more immediately to fupport the
throne ; and, if that falls, they mull alfo be buried
under its ruins. Accordingly, when in the laft cen¬
tury the commons had determined to extirpate mo¬
narchy, they alfo voted the houfe of lords to be ufelefs
and dangerous. And fince titles of nobility are thus
expedient in the ftate, it is alfo expedient that their
owners Ihould form an independent and feparate
branch of the legiflature. If they were confounded
with the mafs of the people, and like them had only a
vote in electing reprefentatives, their privileges would
foon be borne down and overwhelmed by the popular
torrent, which would effedtually level all diftindlions.
It is therefore highly neceffary that the body of nobles
flrould have a diftinil affembly, diftinft deliberations,
and diftinft powers from the commons. See alfo
K.ing,Nobility, Earliament,Commons,aWCom-
MONALTY.
As to the peculiar laws and cufloms relating to the
houfe of lords: One very ancient privilege is that de¬
clared by the charter of the foreft, confirmed in parlia¬
ment 9 Hen. III.; viz. that every lord fpiritual or
Icmooralfummoned to parliament, and paflxng through
the king’s forefts, may, both in going and returning, Lord
kill one or two of the king’s deer without warrant; H
in view of the forefter if he be prefent, or on blowing oretto>
a horn if he be abfent; that he may not feem to take y
the king’s venifon by Health.
In the next place, they have a right to be attended,
and conftantly are, by the judges of the court of
king’s-bench and common-pleas, and fuch of the
barons of the exchequer as are of the degree of the
coif, or have been made ferjeants at law; as likewife
by the king’s learned cOunfel, being ferjeants, and by
the mafters of the court of chancery ; for their ad¬
vice in point of law, and for the greater dignity of
their proceedings. The fecretaries of ftate, with the
attorney and folicitor genefal, were alfo ufed to attend
the houfe of peers, and have to this day {.together
with the judges, &c.) their regular writs of fummons
iffued out at the beginning of every parliament, ad
traciandum et conjilium impendendum, though not ad
confcntiendum : but, whenever of late years they have
been members of the houfe of commons, their at¬
tendance here hath fallen into difufe.
Another privilege is, that every peer, by licence
obtained from the king, may make another lord of
parliament his proxy, to vote for him in his abfence i
A privilege, which a member of the other houfe can
by no means have, as he is himfelf but a proxy for a
multitude of other people.
Each peer has alfo a right, by leave of the houfe,
when a vote paffes contrary to his fentiments, to en¬
ter his diffent on the journals of the houfe, with the
reafons for fuch diffent; which is ufually ftyled his
proteft.
All bills likewife, that may in their confequences
any way affedl the rights of the peerage, are by ths
cuilom of parliament to have their firit rife and be¬
ginning in the houfe of peers, and to fuffer no changes
or amendments in tire houfe of commons.
There is alfo one ftatute peculiarly relative to the
houfe of lords; 6 Ann. c. 23. which regulates the
election of . the 16 reprefentative peers of North
Britain, in confequence of the zzd and 23d articles of
the union : and for that purpofe prefcribes the oaths,
&c. to be taken by the electors; diredts the mode of
balloting; prohibits the peers electing from being at¬
tended in an unufual manner ; and exprefsly provides,
that no other matter Ihall be treated ©f in that affembly,,
fave only the election, on pain of incurring a praemu¬
nire. See alfo the articles Nobility and Peers.
LORDOSIS, (of MfSoc, bent inwards), in the me¬
dical writings, a name given to a diftempered ftate of
the fpine, in which it is bent inwards, or toward the
anterior parts. It is ufed in oppofition to gibbous, or
hump-backed. See Surgery-
LORETTO, a town of Italy, in the Marca or
Marche of Ancona, with a bifhop’s fee. It is fmall,
but fortified; and contains the famous caja fanta, or
holy chapel, fo much vifited by pilgrims. This cha¬
pel, according to the legend, was originally a fmall
houfe in Nazareth, inhabited by the virgin Mary, in
which flie was faluted by the angel, and where (he
bred our Saviour. After their deaths, it was held in
great veneration by all believers in Jefus, and at length
confecrated into a chapel, and dedicated to the virgin;
upon which occafion St Luke made that identical
image* .
LOR [ 293 T LOR
I*oretto. image, which is ftill preferved here,'and dignified with
“"■■'V""” the name of our Lady of Loretto. This fandtifted
edifice was allowed to fojourn in Galilee as long as that
diftridf was inhabited by Chriftians; but when infidels
got poffelfion of the country, a band of angels, to fave
it from pollution, took it in their arms, and conveyed
it from Nazareth to a caftle in Dalmatia. This fact
might have been called in queftion by incredulous
people, had it been performed in a fecret manner;
but, that it might be manifeft to the moft fhort-fighted
fpeclator, and evident to all who were not perfedtly
deaf as well as blind, a blaze of celeftial light, and a
' concert of divine mufic, accompanied it during the
whole journey ; befides, when the angels, to reft them-
felves, fet it down in a little wood near the road, all
the trees of the foreft bowed their heads to the ground,
and continued in that refpeftful pofture as long as the
facred chapel remained among them. But, not having
been entertained with fuitable refpedl at the caftle above
mentioned, the fame indefatigable angels carried it.©ver
the fea, and placed it in a field belonging to a noble
lady called Lauretta, from whom the chapel takes its
name. This field happened unfortunately to be fre¬
quented at that time by highwaymen and murderers :
a circumftance with which the angels undoubtedly were
not acquainted when they placed it there. After they
were better informed, they removed it to the top of a
hill belonging to two brothers, where they imagined
it would be perfectly fecure from the dangers of rob¬
bery or aflaffination; but the two brothers, the pro¬
prietors of the ground, being equally enamoured of
their new vifitor, became jealous of each other, quar¬
relled, fought, and fell by mutual wounds. After
this fatal cataftrophe, the angels in waiting finally
moved the holy chapel to the eminence where it now
Hands, and has flood thefe 400 years, having loft all
reliih for travelling.
The facred chapel Hands due eaft and weft, at the
farther end of a large church of the moft durable ftone
of Iftria, which has been built around it. This may
be confidered as the external covering, or as a kind
of great coat to the cafa fanta, which has a fmaller
coat of more precious materials and workmanftup
nearer its body. This internal covering or cafe is of
the choiceft marble, after a plan of San -Savino’s, and
ornamented with baffb relievos, the workmanlhip of
the beft fculptors which Italy could furnifti in the reign
of Leo X. The fubjeft of thofe balfo relievos are,
the hiftory of the bleffed virgin, and other parts of
the Bible. The whole cafe is about 50 feet long, 30
in breadth, and the fame in height ; ,but the real houfe
itfelf is no more than 32 feet in length, 14 in breadth,
and at the fides about 1.8 feet in height; the centre
of the roof is four or five feet higher. The walls of
this little holy chapel are compofed of pieces of a
reddilh fubftance, of an oblong-fquaxe ihape, laid one
upon another, in the manner of brick. At firft fight, on
a fuperficial view, thefe red-coloured oblong fubftances
appear to be nothing elfe than common Italian bricks ;;
and, which is ftill more extraordinary, on a fecond and
third view, with all pofiible attention, they ftill have the
fame appearance. Travellers, however, are affured,
with great earneftnefs, that there is not a fingle par¬
ticle of brick in their whole compofition, being en¬
tirely of a ftone, which, though it cannot now be
found in Paleftine, was formerly very common, parti- I-oretto,
cularly in the neighbourhood of Nazareth. v
The holy houfe is divided within into two unequal
portions, by a kind of grate-work of lilver. The di-
vifion towards the weft is about three-fourths of the
whole ; that to the eaft is called the Sanctuary. In
the larger divifion, which may be confidered as the
main body of the houfe, the walls are left bare, to
£how the true original fabric of Nazareth ftone; for
they mull not be fuppofed to be bricks. At the
lower or weftern wall there is a window, the fame
through which the angel Gabriel entered at the An¬
nunciation. The architraves of this window are co¬
vered with filver. There are a great number of gol¬
den and filver lamps in this chapel: one of the former,
a prefent from the republic of Venice, isfaid to weigh
37 pounds, and fome of the filver. lamps weigh from
120 to 130 pounds. At the upper end of the largeit
room is an altar, but fo low, that from it you may-
fee the famous image which Hands over the chimney
in the fmall room or fanctuary. Golden and filver
angels, of conliderable fize, kneel around her, fome.
offering hearts of gold, enriched with diamonds, and
one an infant of pure gold. The wall of the fanc¬
tuary is plated with filver, and adorned with cruci¬
fixes, precious Hones, and votive gifts of various kinds^
The figure of the Virgin herfelf by no means corre-
fponds with the fine furniture of her houfe : She is a
little woman, about four feet in height, with the fea¬
tures and complexion of a negro. Of all the fculp¬
tors that ever exifted, afluredly St Luke, by whom
this figure, is faid to have been made, is the leaft of a
flatterer; and nothing can be a ftronger proof of the
blefled Virgin’s contempt for external beauty, than
her being fatisfied with this reprefentation of her.
The figure of the infant Jefus, by St Luke, is of a piece
with that of the Virgin.: he holds a large golden globe
in one hand, and the other is extended in the act of
blefling. Both figures have crowns on their heads,.
enriched with diamonds : thefe were prefents from
Ann of Auftria queen of France. Both arms of the
Virgin are inclofed within her robes, and no part but
her face is to be feen ; her drefs is moil magnificent, but
in, a wretched bad tafte : this is not furprifing, for flic
has no female attendant. She has particular clothes
for the different feafts held in honour of her, and,
which is not quite, fo decent, is always dreffed and
undreffed by the priefts belonging to the chapel; her
robes are ornamented with all kinds of precious Hones
down to the hem of her garment.
There, is a fmall place behind the fandtuary, in
which are fhown the chimney, and fome other furni¬
ture, which they pretend belonged to the Virgin when
(he lived at Nazareth; particularly a little earthen
porringer, out of which the infant ufed.to eat. The
pilgrims bring rofaries,. little crucifixes, and Agnus
Dei’s, which the obliging prieft ftiakes for half a mi¬
nute in this dilh ; after which it is believed they ac¬
quire the virtue of- curing various difeafes, and prove
an. excellent preventative of .all, temptations of Satan.
The gown which the image had on when the chapgl
arrived from Nazarethis of red camblet, and carefully
kept in a glafs ftirine.
Above 100 maffes are daily faid in this chapel, and
in the church in which it Hands. The jewels and
riches..;
1 OR [ 294 ] LOR
r «reth> riches to tw feen at any one time in the holy chapel
1 '—v ‘ are 0f fmall value in comparifon of thofe in the trea-
fury, which is a large room adjoining to the veftry of
(he great church. In the prefles of this room are
kept thofe prefents which royal, noble, and rich bigots
of all ranks, have, by opprefiing their fubjefts and
injuring their families, lent to this place. To enume¬
rate every particular would fill volumes. They confift
of various utenfils and other things in filver and gold ;
as lamps, candlefticks, goblets, crowns, and crucifixes ;
lambs, eagles, faints, apoftles, angels, virgins, and
infants: then there are cameos, pearls, gem's, and pre-
•cious ftones, of all kinds and in great numbers. What is
valued above all the other jewels is, the miraculous pearl,
wherein they affert that Nature has given a faithful de¬
lineation of the Virgin fitting on a cloud with the in¬
fant Jefus in her arms. There was not room in the
prefles of the treafury to hold all the filver pieces which
have been prefented to the Virgin. Several other
prefles in the veftry are completely full. It is faid
that thofe pieces are occafionaliy melted down by his
holinefs for the ufe of the ftate ; and alfo that the
moft precious of the jewels are picked out and.fold
for the fame pufpofe, falfe ftones being fubftkuted in
thoiv room.
Pilgrimages to Loretto are not fo frequent with fo-
•Teigners, or with Italians of fortune and diftinftion,
as formerly ; nineteen out of twenty of thofe who
make this journey now are poor people, who depend
for their maintenance on the charity they receive on
the road. To thofe who are of fuch a rank in life as
precludes them from availing themfelves of the cha¬
ritable, inftitutions for the maintenance of pilgrims,
fuch journeys are attended with expence and inconve-
niency ; and fathers and hufbands, in moderate or con¬
fined circumftances, are frequently brought to difagree-
able dilemmas, by the rafh vows of going to Loretto
which their wives or daughters are apt to make on any
fuppofed deliverance from danger. To refufe, is con-
fidered by the whole neighbourhood as cruel, and even
impious ; and to grant, is often highly diftrefling, par¬
ticularly to fuch hulbands as, from affedtion or any
other motive, do not choofe that their wives Ihould
be long out of their fight. But the poor, who are
maintained during their whole journey, and have no¬
thing more than a bare maintenance to expeft from
their labour at home, to them a journey to Loretto
is a party of pleafure as well as devotion, and by much
the moft agreeable road they can take to heaven. The
greateft concourfe of pilgrims is at the feafons of Eafter
and Whitfuntiite. The rich travel in their carriages :
A greater number come on horfcback or on mules;
or, what is ftill more common, on affes. Great num¬
bers of females come in this manner, with a male
friend walking by them as their guide and prote&or ;
but the greateft number of both fexes are on foot.
The pilgrims on foot, as foon as they enter the fuburbs,
begin a hymn in honour of the Virgin, which they
continue till they reach the church. The poorer fort
are received into an hofpital, where they have bed and
"board for three days.
The only trade of Loretto confifts of rofaries, cru¬
cifixes, little Madonas, Agnus Dei’s, and medals,
which are manufactured here, and fold to pilgrims.
There are great numbers of Ihqps full of thefe com¬
modities, fome of them of a high price } but infinite- borettO-
ly the greater part are adapted to the purfes of the 
buyers, and fold for a mere trifle. The evident po^
yerty .of thofe manufa&urers and trader*, and of the
inhabitants of this town in general, is'a fufficient proof
that the reputation of our Lady of Loretto is greatly
on the decline.
In the great church which contains the holy chapel
are confeflionals, where the penitents from every coun¬
try of Europe may be don felled in their ertvn language,
priefts being always in waiting for that purpofe : each
of them has a long white rod in his hand, with which
he touches the heads of thofe to whom he thinks it
proper to give abfolution. They plaee themfelves on
their knees in groupes around the confefiional chair ;
and when the holy father has touched their heads with
the expiatory rod, they retire, freed from the burden
of their fins, and with renewed courage to begin a
frefh account.
In the fpacious area before this church there is an
elegant marble fountain, fupplied with water from an
adjoining hill by an aquedudt. Few even of the moil
inconfiderable towns of Italy are without the ufeful
ornament of a public fountain. The embellilhments
of fculpture and architecture are employed with great
propriety on fuch works, which are continually in the
people’s view ; the air is refrelhedand the eye delight¬
ed by the ftreams of water they pour forth; a fight
peculiarly agreeable in a warm climate. In this area
there is alio a ftatue of Sixtus V. in bronze. Over
the portal of the church itfelf is a ftatue of the Vir¬
gin ; and above the middle gate is a Latin infeription,
importing, that within is the houfe of the mother of
God, in which the Word was made flelh. The gates
of the church are likewife of bronze, embelliftied with
baflb relievos of admirable wbrkmanlhip ; the fubjeCts
taken partly from the 01:1 and partly from the New
Teftament, and divided into different compartments.
As the gates of this church are Ihut at noon, the pil¬
grims who arrive after that time can get no nearer the
fanla cafa than thefe gates, which Are by this means
fometimes expofed to the firft violence of that holy
ardour which was deligned for the chapel itfelf. All
the fculpture upon the gates which is within reach of
the mouths of thofe zealots, is in fome degree'effaced
by their kiffes.
There are alfo feveral paintings to be feen here,
fome of which are highly efteemed, particularly two
in the treafury. The fubjeCt of one of thefe is the
Virgin’s Nativity, by Annibal Carracci ; and of the
other, a Holy Family, by Raphael. There are fome
others of confiderable merit which ornament the altars
of the great church. Thefe altars, or little chapels,
of which this fabric contains a great number, are lined
with marble and embelliihed by fculpture ;.but nothing
within this church interefts a traveller of fenfibility fo
much as the iron grates before thofe chapels, which
were made of the fetters and chains of the Chriftian
flaves, who were freed from bondage by the glorious
vidlory of Lepanto.
The place where the governor reftdes ftands near
the church, and the eccleiiaftics who are employed in
it lodge in the fame palace, where they receive the
pilgrims of high diftin&ion. The environs of this
town are very agreeable, and in fine weather the high
mountains
LOR [ 295 ] LOR
iarka mountains of Croatia may be feen from hence. It is
it feated on a mountain, in E. Long. 13. 50. N. Lat.
Jfrr.e. 43. 24.
LORICA, was a cuirafs, brigantine, or coat of
mail, in ufe among the Roman foldiers. It was ge¬
nerally made of leather, and is fuppofed to be derived
from lorum.—The loricae were fet with plates of metal
in various forms ; fometimes in hooks or rings like a
chain, fometimes like feathers, and fometimes like the
fcales of ferpents or fifhes, to which plates of gold
were often added. There were other lighter cuiraffes
confifting only of many folds of linen cloth, or of flax
made ftrong enough to refill weapons. Such foldiers
as were rated under 1000 drachms, inflead of the lo-
rica now defcribed, wore a pectorale.—The Roman lo-
rica was made like a. lhirt> and defended the wearer
'both before and behind, but was fo contrived that the
back part could be occafionally feparated from the
front. Some of the lories were made of cords of
hemp or flax, clofe fet together; whence they are
called thoraces, lilices, trilites. See. from the number of
the cords fixed one upon another ; but thefe were ufed
rather in hunting than in the field of battle.
LORICATION, or coating* in chemiliry, is
the covering a glafs or earthen vefiel with a coat or
cruft of a matter able to refill the fire, to prevent its
breaking in the performing an operation that requires
great violence of fire. See Chemistry.
LORIS, in zoology. See Lemur.
LORIMERS, one of the companies of London,
that make bits for bridles, fpurs, and fuch like fmall
iron ware. They are mentioned in llatute 1 Rich. II.
c. 12.—The word feems derived from the Latin word
lorum, “ a thong.”
LORME (Philibert de), one of the moll celebra¬
ted architedls in the 16th century, was born at Lyons.
Queen Catherine de Medicis gave him the fuperinten-
dance of buildings; and he had the diredlion of thofe
of the Louvre, the Thuilleries, the caftle of St Anet,
St Germains, and other edifices ere£led by her orders.
Pie wrote feveral books of archite.dlure, which are e-
fteemed ; and died about the year 1.577.
LORNE, a divifion of Argylefliire in Scotland,
which gives the title of marquis to the duke of Argyle.
It extends above 30 miles in length from north to
fouth, and about nine at its utmoft breadth ; bounded
on the call by Braidalbin ;. on the weft, by the illands ;
on the north, by Lochaber; and is divided from Knap-
dale on the fouth by Loch Etive, on the banks of
which Hands the caftle of Bergomarn, wherein the
courts of juftice were anciently held. This diftricl,
abounding with lakes, is the moll pleafant and fertile
part of Argylelhire, producing plenty of oats and
barley. It once belonged to the ancient family of
Macdougal, Hill refiding on the fpot; but devolved
to the lords of Argyle in confequence of a marriage
with the heirefs, at that time a branch of the Stuart,
family. The chief place of note in this di ft rift-is the.
caftle of Dunftaffnage, a feat of the Scottifti kings
previous to the conqueft of the Pi6l? in 843 by Ken¬
neth II. In this place was long preferved the famous
ftone, the palladium of North Britain ; brought, fays
legend, out of Spain, where it was firft ufed as a feat
of juftice by Gathelus, coeval with Mofes. It con¬
tinued here as the coronation-chair till the reign of
Kenneth II. who removed it to Scone, in order to fe-
enre his reign j for, according to the infeription,
Ni Jail at fittum, Scoti juocunque locatum
Invcnient lapidem, regnart tei.iimtur ibidem.
Some of the ancient regalia were preferved till the pre¬
fen t century, when the keeper’s fervants, during his
infirm years, embezzled them for the filver ornaments y
and left only a battle-axe, nine feet long, of beautiful
workmanfhip, and ornamented with filver.
The caftle is fquare ; the infide only 87 feet 5 partly
ruinous, partly habitable. At three of the corners
are round towers ; one of them projects very little.
The entrance is towards the fea at prefent by a ftair-
cafe, in old times probably by a draw-bridge, which
fell from a little gate-way. The mafonry appears very
ancient; the tops battlemented. This pile is feated on
a rock at the mouth of Loch Etive, whofe waters
expand within to a beautiful bay, where ftiips may
fafely ride in all weather. Of this building, the foun¬
der of which is unknown, nothing remains except the
outer walls, which, though rooflefs, are ftill in good-
order ; and within which feme buildings have been
ere£led, which ferve as the refidence of the laird.
The duke of Argyle is hereditary keeper under the
Crown.—At a fmall diftance from the caftle is a ruined
chapel, once an elegant building; and at one end an
inclofure, a family-cemetery. Qppofite to thefe is a
high precipice, ending abrupt and turning fuddenly
toward the fouth-eaft. A perfon concealed in the re-
cels of the rock, a little beyond the angle, furprifes
friends ftationed at fome diftance beneath the precipice
with a very remarkable echo of any word, or even :
fentence, he pronounces; which- reaches the laft di-
ftin6l and unbroken. The repetition is fingle, but re¬
markably clear.
In 1307, this caffle was poftefled by Alexander
Macdougal lofd of Argyle, a friend to the Englilh ; -
but was that year reduced by Robert Bruce, when
Macdougal fued for peace with that prince, and was-
received into favour.
We find, aboi4 the year X475, this to have been a
refidence of the lords of the ifles; for here James kill
earl of Douglas, after his defeat in Annandale, fled to
Donald, the regulus of the time, and prevailed on him
to take arms and carry on a plundering war againft
his monarch James II.
The fituation of this regal feat was calculated for
pleafure as well as ftrength.. The views of mountains,
valleys, waters, and illands, are delightful. On the
north fide of Loch Etive Hood the town of Berego-
mum, fuppofed to have been the capital of the Well
Highlands. It feems, from certain mounds, excava¬
tions, and other appearances, to have been a ftrong
fort re fr., to prevent invafron, or to fecure a retreat, as
occafions might require. On the bank of the fame
loch is the iite of Ardchattan, a priory of monks of
Vallifcaullium in Burgundy, founded in 1230-by Do¬
nald Maccoul, aneeftcr of the Macdougals of Lorn.
Here Robert Bruce* who remained mailer of this
country before he got entire pofieftlon of Scotland,
held a parliament- or council.—The country abounds
in Druidical,. Danilh, and other monuments.
LORRAIN, a fovereign Hate of Europe, bounded,
on the north byLuxemburg and the archbilhoprick of;
Treves, on the call by Alface and the duchy of Deur.
Pouts*
LOT [ 296 ] LOT
I.orrain, Fonts, on the fonth by Franche Comte, and on the
. vveft by Champagne and the duchy of Bar. It is about
' * 100 miles in length, and 75 in breadth; and abounds
in all forts of corn, wine, hemp, flax, rape-feed, game,
and filh, with which it carries on fome trade, and in
general all the neceflaries of life. There are fine mea¬
dows and large forefts, with mines of iron, filver, and
copper, as alfo falt-pits. There are a great number
of rivers ; of which the principal are the Maefe or
Meufe, the Mofelle, the Seille, the Meure, and the
Sarre. It is .divided into three parts; the duchy of
Terrain, properly .fo called, which was heretofore a
fovereign ftate ; the duchy of Barr, which formerly be¬
longed to the dukes of Lorrain, but afterwards came
under the government of France; and the third com¬
prehends the three bifhoprics of Metz, Toul, and
Verdun, which have belonged to France ever fince the
year 1552. In 173?, the emperor of Germany being
at war with France, this laft got pofieffion of the duchy
of Lorrain; and when there was a peace made in 1735,
it was agreed, that Staniflaus king of Poland, father-
in-law to the king of France, ftiould poflefs thefe du¬
chies, and that after his death they fliould be united
for ever to the crown of France. It was alfo then
agreed, that Francis Stephen, duke of Lorrain, and
-the emperor’s fon-in-law, ftiould have the grand duchy
of Tufcany as an equivalent for Lorrain. After the
death of the great duke of Tufcany, in 1737, King
Staniflaus and the duke of Lorrain took pofleflion of
their refpeftive dominions, and the ceffation was con¬
firmed and guarantied by a treaty in 1738. The inha¬
bitants are laborious and valiant, and their religion is
the Roman Catholic. They have but little trade with
Grangers, becaufe they have no navigable rivers, and
becaufe they have all neceflaries within themfelves ;
but what little trade they have confifts of corn and
linen cloth. Nanci is the capital town.
Lorrain (Robert le), an eminent fculptor, born
at Paris in 1666. From his infancy, he made fo ra¬
pid a progrefs in the art of defrgning, that at the age
of 18 the celebrated Girardon intrufted him with the
* care of teaching his children and corre&ing his difei-
ples.' He committed to him alfo, in conjunttion with
Nouliflbn, the execution of the famous tomb of Car¬
dinal Richelieu in the Sorbonne, and his own tomb at St
Landres in Paris. On his return from Rome, he finifh-
ed ieveral pieces at Marfeilles, which had been left im-
perfeft by the death of Mr Puget. He was received
into the academy of fculpture in 1701. His chief
d'allure is Galatea, a work univerfally admired. Lor¬
rain afterwards made a Bacchus for the gardens at
Verfailles, a Faun for thofe of Marly; and feveral
bronzes, among which is an Andromeda ; all in an
excellent tafte. This artift fucceeded chiefly in heads;
and more particularly in that of young girls, which he
performed with incomparable delicacy and truth.
Lorrain (Claude.) See Claude.
LOTEN (John), a good landfcape painter of the
Englifli fchool; though a native of Switzerland. His
tafte led him to folemn and dreary feenes, as land-
ftorms accompanied with ftiowers of rain, &c. and he
feldom omitted to introduce oak-trees in his profpeCts:
his landfcapes are generally large ; and he painted with
nature, truth, and force. But the effect of his com-
pofition had been much greater if he had been lets cold
N° 188. '3
in his colouring: for the judicious eye is not pleafed
with the darkiih tint that predominates in it. He *
died in London about 1681.
LOTHIAN, a name given to three counties of
Scotland, viz. Haddington-lhire, EdinbUrgh-fhire, and
Linlithgow-fhire; otherwife called Eajl, Mid, and Wejl
Lothians.
1. Eaft Lothian, or Haddington-ftnre, is bounded
on the north-weft by the Frith of Forth ; and on the
eaft by the German Sea; on the fouth-eaft by Ber-
wickfhire; and on the weft by the county of Edin-.
burgh. It extends about 25 miles from eaft to weft,
and where broadeft, nearly 15 from north to fouth.
The coaft, advancing northward into the Frith, forms
an irregular curve.—This is one of the moft fruitful
counties in Scotland, producing great quantities of
wheat and all forts of grain, welLwatered, and plen¬
tifully fupplied with fifh, fowl, fuel, and all the ne¬
ceflaries of life. It abounds with towns, villages,
and farms, interfperfed with a great number of agree¬
able houfes belonging to perfons of rank and fortune.
For cultivation, populoufnefs, and fertility, this {hire
may vie with any trail of land in the ifland of Great.
Britain. Over and above the farming, which turns
out to great account, the people towards the fea-coaft
employ themfelves in the fiftiery, falt-making, and in
foreign trade; and fome of the more inland inhabitants
engage in the linen and woollen manufactures. Lime-
ftone and coal are found in moft parts of the country,
and great numbers of (beep are fed on the hills of
Lammermuir.
2. Edinburgh-lhire, or Mid-Lothian, is about
miles long, but varies in its breadth in different places,
from five to 16 miles. It is bounded on the eaft by
Haddington-fhire ; on the weft by the {hire of Lin¬
lithgow ; on the fouth, by Tweeddale or Peebles-lhire ;
and on the north, by part of Weft-Lothian and the
Frith of Forth. The afpedl of the country is in ge¬
neral level and pleafant, interfperfed with a few
hills, that help to exhibit agreeable profpedls. It is
well watered with rivers, and {haded with woods. It
produces plenty of coal, lime-ftone, a foft black
marble, and fome copper ore. The foil, of itfelf fer¬
tile, is finely cultivated, and yields as plentiful harvefts
of excellent wheat as are found in any part of Great
Britain. The whole {hire is interfperfed with noble
houfes and plantations belonging to noblemen and
gentlemen of fortune. The farmers are matter of the
fcience of agriculture ; and wealthy in confequence of
their .{kill, fome of them paying 5001. of yearly rent.
The country is Well inhabited, and prefents us with a
good number of towns and populous villages. Along
the fea-coaft the common people fubfift by filhing, and
traffic in coals and fait, and fome few carry on a
fmuggling commerce. Thofe in the inland are em¬
ployed in farming, and fome branches of the weaving
manufadture. The fheriffalty of this {hire is in the
gift of the crown ; and Edinburgh is a county in it¬
felf.
3. The {hire of Linlithgow, or Weft Lothian, is
bounded on the north by the Frith of Forth. The
fmall river Almond divides it from Edinburghihire on
the eaft. On the fouth-weft it joins the county of
Lanerk ; and on the weft it is parted from Stirling-
fture by Avon, a fmall river. Its form, though ir¬
regular.
LOT [ 297 ] LOT
l,otion regular, approaches to a parallelogram. It meafures in the years 1567 and 1568. It was at firft intended
l! from porth-eaft to fonth-weft, nearly 20 miles. Its to haVe been drawn at the houfe of Mr Dericke, her
t Lottery- breadth, except on the (here of the Frith, does not ex- majefty’s fervant (/. c. her jeweller), but was afterwards
v "L ceed.12.—The country is pleafant and fertile, abound- drawn as above mentioned.
ing with com and palhirage. Here is found plenty Dr Rawlinfon fliowed the Antiquary Society, 1748,
of coal, limeftone, and lead ore ; nay, in the reign “ A propofal for a very rich lottery, general without
of James VI. it produced a rich mine of filver. any blankes, contayning a great number of good prizes,
LOTION, is, llriclly fpeaking, fuch walking as as well of redy money as of plate and certain forts of
concerns beautifying the Ikin, by cleanfing it of thofe merchandizes, having been valued and prifed by the
deformities which a diftempered blood throws upon commandment of the queene’s moll excellent majeftie’s
it. Medicines of this kind, however, are for the moll order, to the entent that fuch commodities as may
part infignificant, and fometimes very dangerous; the chance to arife thereof after the charges borne may be
only proper method of treating thefe diforders is, by converted towards the raparations of the havens and
admhiillering fuch medicines as tend to corredi the ftrength of the realme, and towards fuch other public
taorbid Hate of the conftitution from whence they arife. good workes. The number of lotts lhall be foure
Lotiom, in pharmacy, denotes a preparation of hundred thoufand, and no more ; and every lott lhall
medicines, by walking them in fome liquid, either be the fum of tenne Ihillings llerling, and no more,
tnade very light, fo as to take away only the dregs; To be filled by the feall of St Bartholomew. The
or lharp, fo as to penetrate them, in order to clear Ihew of prifes are to be feen in Cheapfide, at the fign of
them of foibe fait, 'or corrofive fpirit as is done to an- the Queene’s Armes, the houle of Mr Dericke, gold-
timony, precipitates, magilleries, &c. or intended to fmith, fervant to the queene. Some other orders about
take away fome foulnefs or ill quality, or to com- it in 1567-8. Printed by Hen. Bynneyman.”
municate fome good one.. “ In the year 1612, king James, in fpecial favour
LOTAPHAG1 (anc. geog.), a people of the Re- for the prefent plantation of Englilh colonies in Vir-
gio Syrtica (fo called from their living on the lotus); ginia, granted a lottery, to be heldut the well end of
inhabiting between the two Syrtes, from the Ciny- St Paul’s ; whereof one Thomas Sharplys, a taylor of
phus to the Triton. The lotus was faid to be a food London, had the chief prize, which was 4000 crowns
fo lufcious, as to make ftrangers forget their native in fair plate.” Baker’s Chronicle,
country. A fvveet wine was exprefied from it, which In the reign of queen Anne, it was thought necef-
did not keep above'ten days, (Pliny). Lotophagi of fary to fupprefs lotteries^ as nuifances to the public.
Homer. See Meninx. Since that time, however, they have been licenfed by an
LOTTERY, a kind of public game at hazard, ad of parliament, under various regulations. The ad
frequent in Britain, France, and Holland, in order to palled in 1778 reftrains anyperfon from keeping an of-
raife money for the fervice of the Hate; being ap- fice for the fale of tickets, lhares, or chances, or far buy-
pointed with us by the authority of parliament, and ing, felling, infuring, or regillering, without a licence
managed by commiffioners appointed by the lords of for which licence each office-keeper mull pay 50I. to con-
the tfeafury for that purpofe. It confilts of feveral tinue in force for one y'ear, and the produce to be
numbers of blanks and prizes, which are drawn out of applied towards defraying the expences of the lottery,
wheels, one of which contains the numbers, and the And no perfon is allowed to fell any (hare or chance
other the correfponding blanks or prizes. lefs than a fixteenth, on the penalty of 50I. All
The Romans invented lotteries to enliven their Sa- tickets divided into lhares or chances are to be depo-
turnalia. This feftival began , by the diftribution of filed in an office, to be eltablilhed in London by tire
tickets which-gained fome prize. Augullus made commiffioners 'of the treafury, who are to appoint a
potteries \vhich confilted of things of little value; perfon to condudl the bufinefs thereof; and all fhares
Tut Nero eftablilhed fome for the people, in which are to be ftamped by the faid officer, who is to give
toco tickets were diltributed daily, and feveral of a receipt for every ticket depdfited with him. The
thofe who were favoured by Fortune got rich by them, numbers of all tickets fo depofited are to be entered
Heliogabalus invented fome very fingular: the prizes in a book, with the names of the owners, and the
were either of great value or of none at all; one gain- number of /hares into which they are divided ; and
ed a prize of fix /laves, and Another of fix flies ; fome twopence for each /hare is to be paid to the officer on
got valuable vafes, and others vafes of common earth, depoiiting- fuch tickets, who is therewith to pay all
A lottery of this kind exhibited an excellent picture expences incident to the office. All tickets depofited
of the inequality with which Fortune dillributes her ip the, office are to remain there three days after the
favours. drawing. And any perfon keeping an office, or fell-
The fit ft Englifti lottery we find mentioned in hi- ipg /hares, or who/hall publilh any fcheme for receiving
ftory was drawn A. D. 1569. It confifted of 40,000 moneys in confideration of any intereft to be granted,
lots, at 1 os. each lot: the prizes were plate; and. the in any ticket in the faid lottery', &c. without being in
profits were to go towards repairing the havens of pofle/fion of fuch ticket, /hall forfeit 500I. and fuSer
this kingdom. It was drawn at the Weft door of St three months imprifonment. And no bufihefsis to be
Paul’s cathedral. The-drawing began on-the nth of tranfafted at any of the offices after eight in the even-
January 1569, and continued inceflantly drawing, day ing, except on the evening of the Saturday preceding
and nighty till the 6th of May following ; as Mait- the drawing. No perfon is to keep any office for the
land, from.Stowe, informs us in his Hi/lory, Vol. I. fale of tickets, &c. in Oxford or Cambridge, on pe-.
p. 2 57. There were then only three lottery-offices in nalty of 20I. Before this regulating ftatute took
London. The propofals for this lottery were publi/hed place, there were upwards of 400 lottery offices in
Vol. X. Part i. Pp and
Lotus.
LOT
and about London only ; but the whole number after-
wards, for all Britain, as appeared by the lift publiih-
ed by authority, amounted to no more than 51.
LOTUS, or bird’s-foot trefoil, in botany : A
genus of the decandria order, belonging to the diadtl-
phia clafs of plants; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 32d order, Papillonace*. The legumen
is cylindrical, and very ereft; the aloe doling upwards
longitudinally; the calyx is tubulated. There are
many fpecies, but only five or fix are ufually cultiva¬
ted in our gardens. 1. The tetragonolobus, or- wing¬
ed pea, hath trailing, flender, branchy ftalks, about a
foot long, garnilhed with trifoliate oval leaves; and,
from the axillas of the brandies, large, papilionaceous
red flowers, one on each footftalk; fucceeded by te-
tragonous folitary pods, having a membranous wing or
lobe, running longitudinally at each corner. It flowers
in June and July, and the feeds ripen in autumn.
2. The creticus, or Cretan filvery lotus, hath a flender
under fhrubby ftalk, riling by fupport three or four
feet high, ornamented with trifoliate, bright, filvery
leaves ; and branches terminated by feveral yellow
flowers fucceeded by fubternate pods. 3. The Jaco-
bseus, or lotus of St James’s ifland, hath upright her¬
baceous ftalks branching two or three feet high, and,
from the upper part of the branches, long llender
footftalks, terminated each by three or five yellowifli
purple flowers, appearing moil part of the fummer and
autumn, and fucceeded by fubternate pods filled with
plenty - of feeds. 4. The hirfutus, or hairy Italian lo¬
tus, hath upright hairy ftalks branching a yard high ;
and terminated by heads ofwhitifh hoary-cupped flowers
appearing in June, which are fucceeded by oval pods
full of feed, which ripens in autumn. 5. The dorcy-
nium, white Auftrian lotus, or fhrub-trefoil of Mont¬
pelier, has underfhrubby fmooth ftalks, branching three
or four feet high, and the branches terminated by a-
phyllous heads of fmall white flowers appearing in
June, fucceeded by fhort pods. 6. The edulis, fends
forth feveral trailing ftalks about a foot long, furnifhed
at their joints with trifoliate, roundifh, fmooth leaves,
having oval flipulae. The flowers come fingly from
the Tides of the ftalks, on long peduncles, with three
oval floral leaves, the length of the flower: the latter
is fmall, yellow’; and is fucceeded by a thick arched
pod, having a deep furrow on its outfide.
Culture, See. The firft fpecies is a hardy annual,
and is eafily raifed from feed fown any time from the
month of February to May ; the plants requiring no
ether culture than to be kept free from w’eeds. It was
formerly cultivated as an efculent; for-its young green
feed-pods may be drefled and eat like peafe, or in the
manner of kidney-beans. The other fpecies may be
propagated either by feeds or cuttings, but require to
be kept in pots in the green-hooife during the winter-
feafon. The fixth fpecies is an annual, and a native
of feveral parts of Italy, where the inhabitants eat the
young pods as we do kidney beans. The green pods of
the firft fpecies were formerly gathered in this country,
and drdled in the manner of kidney beans,and are ufed
. L o V
fo ftill in feme of the northern counties of England ; but Lovs^e,
they are coarfe, and not very agreeable to fuch as have LnVc-
been accuftomed to feed upon better fare. ‘ ’ J
Lo'ius tf Homer. See Diospyros.
Egyptian Lotus. See Nymphjea,
Libyan Lotus. See Rhamnus.
LOVAGE, in botany. See Ligusticum.
LOVE, in a large fenfe of the word, denotes all
thofe affections of the pleafing kind which objects and
incidents raife in us: thus w’e are faid to love not only
intelligent agents of morally good difpofitions, but ai-
fo fenfual pleafures, riches, and honours. But
Love, in its ufual and more appropriate fignifica-
tion, may be defined, “that affeCtion which, being
compounded of animal defire, efteem, and benevolence,
becomes the bond of attachment and union between in¬
dividuals of the different fexes; and makes them feel
in the fociety of each other a fpecies of happinefs which
they experience no where elfe.” We call it an affec¬
tion rather than a paffwn, becaufe it involves a defire of
the happinefs of its objeft : And that its conftituent
parts are thofe which have been juft enumerated, we
ftiall firft endeavour to prove, and then proceed to
trace its rife and progrefs from a felfifli appetite to a
generous fentiment
Animal ftefire is the aCtual energy of the fenfual ap¬
petite : and that it is an effential part of the complex
affeCtion, which is properly called love, is apparent
from this confideration, that though a man may have
fentiments of efteem and benevolence towards women
who are both old and ugly, he never fuppofes himfelf
to be in love of any woman, to whom he feels not the
fenfual appetite to have a llronger tendency than to
other individuals of her fex. On ,the other hand, that - ’
animal defire alone cannot be called the affeCtion of love
is evident; becaufe hs who gratifies fuch a defire with¬
out efteeming its objeCt, and vyifhing to communicate
at the fame time that he receives enjoyment, loves not
the woman,but himfelf. Mere animal defire has nothing
in view but the fpecies and the fex of its objeCt; and
before it make a feleCtion, it muft be combined with
fentiments very different from itfelf. The firft fenti¬
ment with which it is combined, and by which a man
is induced to prefer one woman to another, feems to
be that by which we are delighted with gracefulnefs
t>f perfon, regularity of features, and beauty of com¬
plexion. It is not Indeed to be denied that there ia
fomething irrdiftible in female beauty. The molt fe-
vere will not pretend, that they.do not feel an imme¬
diate prepoffeffion in favour of a handfome woman ;
but this prepoffefiion, even when combined with ani¬
mal defire, does not conftitute the whole of that af¬
feCtion which is called love. Savages feel the influ¬
ence of the fenfual appetite, and it is extremely pro¬
bable that they have fome ideas of beauty; but among
favages the afieCtion of love is feldom felt. Even among
the lower orders in civil fociety it feems to be a very
grofs paffion, and to have in it more of the felfifhnefs of
appetite than of the generofity of efteem. To thefe ob-
fervationa many exceptions will no doubt be found (a):.
[ 298 ]
but.
(a) Such as the negroes whofe {lory is fo pathetically told by Addifon in N° 215 ef the Spectator; the
two lovers who were killed by lightning at Staunton Haicourt, Auguit 9thv 1718, (ite Popes Letters) ; ami
many others, which, will occur to every reader..
L O V [ 299 1 L O V
Lore, but we fpeak of farages in general, and of the great
body of the labouring poor, who in the choice of their
mates do not ftudy—who indeed are incapable of ftu-
dying, that reftitude of mind" and thofe delicacies of
ferument, without which neither man nor woman can
deferve to be efteemed.
In the favage ftate, and even in the firft ftages of
refinement, the bond of union between the fexes feems
to confift of nothing more than mere animal defire
and inftinftive tendernefs for their infant progeny.
The former impels them to unite for the propagation
of the fpecies; and the latter preferves the union till
the children, who are the fruit of it, be able to pro¬
vide for their own fubfiftence. That in fuch unions,
whether cafual or permanent, there is no mutual efteem
and benevolence, is apparent from the ftate of fubjec-
tion in which women are held in rude and uncultiva¬
ted nations, as well as from the manner in which mar¬
riages are in fuch nations contrarited.
Sweetnefs of temper, a capital article with us in the
female chara&er, difplays itfelf externally in mild looks
and gentle manners, and is the firft and perhaps the
moft powerful inducement to love in a cultivated
mind. “ But fuch graces (fays an ingenious writer*)
* Hifiorlare fcarce difcernible in a female favage; and even
Maa.y in the moft polilhed woman would not be perceived
by a male favage. Among favages, ftrength and bold-
nefs are the only valuable qualities. In thefe, females
are miferably deficient; for which rcafoti they are
contemned by the males as beings of an inferior order.
The North American tribes glory in idlenefs : the
drudgery of labour degrades a wan in their opinion,
and is proper for 'women only. To join young perfons
in marriage is accordingly the bufinefs of the parents;
and it would be unpardonable meannefs in the bride¬
groom to fhow any fondnefs for the bride. In Guiana
a woman never eats with -her hujband, but after every
meal attends him with water for walhing ; and in the
Caribbee iflands Ihe is not permitted to eat even in the
prefence of her hufband. Dampier obferyes in general,
that among all the wild nations with which he was ac¬
quainted, the women carry the burdens, while the men
walk before and carry nothing but their arms; and
that women even of the higheft rank are not better
treated. In Siberia, and even in Ruffia, the capital
excepted, men till very lately treated their wives in
every refpeft like Daves. It might indeed be thought,
that animal defire, were there nothing elfe, ftiould have
raifed women to fome degree of eftimation among men;
but male favages, utter ftrangers to decency and re¬
finement, gratify animal defire with as little ceremony
as they do hunger or thirft.
“ Hence it was that in the early ages of fociety a
man purchafed a woman to be his wife as one purchafes
an ox or a flieep to be food ; and valued her only as
file contributed to his fenfual gratification. Intlance* Love.
innumerable might be colle&ed from every nation of /—J,
which we are acquainted with the early hiftory; but
we ftiall content ourfelves with mentioning a few. A-
braham bought Rebekah and gave her to his fon IfaSc
for a wife J. Jacob having nothing elfe to give, ferved 1 Gen. xxi.
Laban tq years for two wivesf. To David, demand-fGen. xxixs
ing Saul’s daughter in marriage, it was faid, “ The
king defireth not any dowry, but an hundred forelkins
of the Philiftines J.” In the Iliad Agamemnon offers j t c;arn<
his daughter to Achilles for a wife; and fays that he xviii. 28,
would not demand for her any price §. By the laws § Lib. ix.
of Ethelbert king of England, a man who committed
adultery with his neighbour’s wife was obliged to pay
the hulband a fine, and to buy him another <wi/e.|j” But Sedl. 3?.
it is needlefs to multiply inftances; the practice has
prevailed univerfally among nations emerging from the
favage ftate, or in the rudeft ftage of fociety : and
wherever it prevailed, men could not poflibly have for the
fair fex any of that tender regard and efteem which con-
ftitute fo effential a part of the complex affedion of
love.
Accordingly we find the magnanimous Achilles an
abfolute ftranger to that generous affedion, though his
heart was fufceptible of the warmelt and pureft friend-
Ihip. His attachm'ent to Patroclus was fo heroically
dilinterefted, that he willingly facrificed his own life to
revenge the death of his friend ; but when Agamem¬
non threatened to rob him of his favourite female cap¬
tive, though he felt the infult offered to his pride, he
never fpoke of the 'woman but as a fave whom he was
concerned to preferve in point of honour, and as a tef-
timony of his glory. Hence it is that we never hear
him mention her but as his fpoil, the reward of war, or
the gift which the Grecians gave him.
“ And dar’ft thou threat to {hatch my prize away,
“ Due to the deeds of many a dreadful day ?
“ A prize as /mail, O tyrant! match’d with thine,
“ As thy own adHons if compar’d with mine.
“ Thine in each conqueft is the •wealthy prey,
“ Tho’ mine the fweat and danger of the day.
“ Some trivial prefent to my {hips I bear,
“ Or barren praifes pay the wounds of war.”
And again, after upbraiding the general with his ty¬
ranny and want of regard to merit, he adds, with the
greateft indifference as to the charms of the •woman,
“ Seize on Brifeis, whom the Grecians doom’d
“ My prize of -war, yet tamely fee refum'J;
“ And feize fecure ; no more Achilles draws
“ His conquering fword in any woman’s caufe.
“ The goes command me to forgive the paft;
“ But let this firft inva/ton he theiall :
“ For know, thy blood, when next thou dar’ft invade,
“ Shall ftream in vengeance on my reeking blade.”
Pope has made the language of this rough warrior lefs
inconfiftent with the peculiar refentment natural to aa
injured lover than it is in the original(b); but frora
P P 2 the
(b) The original paffages are :
Kai In poi yipae tivhc afccipn<rs<r6ai arjrnXfir,
Hr in xok\' (fioynaa, Soaitr Je /t0i viff A^aiuv.
Ou /uiv <ro< noli icroe yipae, orrxroT Agatot
■ Ipuav imripaua tuvccic/aw *1oki(6p»v.
A xxa to /ofv nkuov xokvaiKOC xo\tH°i°
Xriqic i/xai fiinovo- atap nr oroh Sua/zoc mrixi,
S01 to ytpaf orokv yv-nfov, lya t'okeyor rt <pikor re
i.pgojA »*«» otj v»af (7r>iY*tv,afW noAipi‘ioir.
And, AkXo it TOI ipia, <rv i\n ipptai fhockkto antre
Xtpai '‘VT1 tyuyt HO-XyaoHO-i, tiriKa xoypnf,
Ovrt <roi, ov TO ak\o, txn fz oeptktirQt yt iorUf.
Tav J’aXXais, a /ten tali ion irapctmi /zt^ourn,
Ei i'oLyt /K»», rupnaai, iva yruuai xcci oiit
A'P* toi ai/tior ntxaivct tponau rrtpi ioupt.
In this latter paflage the hero fays exprefsly, “ I will not fight
with you or with any other man for the fake of ngirl; but you
ihall not rob me of any other part of my propertywhich is
furely the language of a man to whofe heart love mult have been
an utter ftranger.
L O V
the lail quoted paffage, even as tranflated by him, it is
apparent that Achilles would have been equally hurt
had Agamemnon threatened to deprive him of any
other part of his plunder. Accordingly he yields up
Brifeis, not in grief for a miftrefs whom he lofes, but
in fullennefs for an injury that is done him. Nor let it
be imagined, that this coldnefs proceeded from the
pride of the hero, which would not permit him to ac¬
knowledge his love of a captive. With the generous
affe&ion of love captives and princefles were equally
incapable of infpiring him. He repeatedly affirmed
indeed that he delighted in his fair Lyrneffian Have,
but it was only as an inilrument of fenfual gratifica¬
tion ; for as to every thing elfe in a woman, he was fo
totally indifferent, that he declared he would not, when
he fljould be dil’pofed to marry, give himfelf the trouble
to make a choice, but leave the whole matter to his
father.
“ If heav’n reftore me to my realms with life,
“ 1 he rev’rend Pelem fhail eletft my wife.”
Even Agamemnon, of whom Pope and Madam Da-
cier think more favourably as a lover, fpeaks the very
fame language when mentioning his favourite captive
Chryfeis. In his furious debate with Achilles he calls
her indeed
“ A maid, unmatch’d in manners as in face,
« Skill’d in each art, and crown’d with ev’ry grace.”
And adds.
Not half fo dear were Clytemneftra’s charms,
“ When firft her blooming beauties bleft my arms.”
But this was faid merely to enhance the value of the
prize, which for the public good he was about to re-
. fign ; for that fhe was dear to him only as miniftring
to his pleafure, is paft difpute from4the language which
he had previoufly held with her father, as well as from
his requiring grateful Greece to pay a juft equivalent,
and to repair his private lofs. A man who really loved
would have thought nothing an equivalent for the ob¬
ject of his love ; much lefs would he have infinuated
to her father a poffibility of his difmiffing from his
embrace a woman whom he efteemed, when time fhould
'have robbed her of every youthful grace.
Since, then, it is fo apparent, that in the heroic age
of Greece even princes and kings were ftrangers to
fhe generous affection of love, it needs not occafion
much furprife that the fame affection has very little
influence upon mankind in the loweft ranks of the moft
polifhed focieties of modern Europe. That this is
actually the cafe, that among the generality of une¬
ducated men and women there is no other bond of at¬
tachment than the fenfual appetite, every year furnilhes
multiplied proofs. We daily fee youths, rejeCted by
their miftreffes, paying their addreffes without delay
to girls who, in looks, temper, and difpofition, are
diametrically oppofite to thofe whom fq lately they
pretended to love : We daily fee maidens, flighted by
their lovers, receiving the addreffes of men, who, in
nothing but their fex, refemble thofe to whom a week
before they wifhed to be married: and we believe it
is not very uncommon to find a girl entertaining feveral
lovers together, that if one or more of them fhouid prove
falfe, fhe may ftill have a chance not to be totally de-
ferted. Did efteem and benevolence, placed on man¬
ners and charafter, conftitute any part of vulgar love,
thefe people would a£t very differently j for they would
5
L O V
find it impoffible to change their lovers and their mi¬
ftreffes with the fame eafe that they change their
cloaths
To this account of love, as it appears in favage
nations, fome one may perhaps oppoi'e the paintings
of the fofter paffion in the poems of Offian. That
bard deferibes the female character as commanding re-
fpeCt and efteem, and the Caledonian heroes as cherifh-
ing for their miftreffes a flame fo pure and elevated as
never was furpaffed, and has feldom been equalled,
in thofe ages which we commonly call moft enlightened.
This is indeed true : and it is one of the many reafbns
which have induced Johnfon and others to pronounce
the whole a modern fiClion. Into that debate we do not
enter. We may admit the authenticity of the poems,
without acknowledging that they fumifh any exception
to our general theory. Theyfurnifhindeedinthemanners
which they deferibe a wonderful anomaly in the gene¬
ral hillory of man. All other nations of which we read
were in the hunter-ftate favage and cruel. The Cale¬
donian?, as exhibited by Offian, are gentle and mag¬
nanimous. The heroes of Homer fought for plunder,
and felt no clemency for a vanquifhed foe. The heroes
of Offian fought for fame; and when their enemies
were fubdued, they took them to their bofoms. The
firft of Greeks committed a mean infult on fhe dead
body of the firft of Trojans. Among the Caledonians
infults offered to the dead, as well as cruelty to the
living, were condemned as infamous. The heroes of
Offian appear in no inftance as favages. How they
came to be poliflied' and refined before they were ac¬
quainted with agriculture and the moft ufeful arts of
life, it is not our bufinefs to enquire ; but fince they
unqueftionably were fo, their treatment of the female
fex, inftead of oppofing, confirms our theory ; for we
never conceived rich cloaths, fuperb houfes, highly-
dreffed food, or even the knowledge of foreign tongues,
to be neceffary to the acquifition of a generous fenti-
ment. Luxury indeed appears to be as inimical to love
as barbarifm : and we believe, that in modern nations
the tender and exalted affeftion which deferves that
name is as little known among the higheft orders of life
as among the loweft. Perhaps the Caledonian ladies
of Offian refembled in their manners the German ladies
of Tacitus, who accompanied their hulbands to the
chace, fought by their fides in battle, and partook
with them of every danger. If fo> they could not fail
to be refpe&ed by a race of heroes among whom
courage took place of all other virtues : and this Angle
circumftance, from whatever caufe it might proceed,
will fufficiently account for the eftimation of the female
chara&er among the ancient Germans and Caledonians,
fo different from that in which it has been held in al-
moft every other barbarous nation.
But if among favages and the vulgar, love be un¬
known, it cannot poffibly be an inftinCtive affeeftion :
and therefore it may be alked, How it gets poffeffion
of the human heart; and by what means we can judge
whether in any particular inftance it be real or imagi¬
nary ? Thefe queftions are of importance, and deferve
to be fully anfwered j though many circumftances con-
fpire to render it no eafy talk to give to them fuch an-
fwers as (hall be perfe&ly fatisfadtory. Love can fub-
fift only between individuals of the different fexes.
A man can hardly love two women at the fame time ;
and
[ 300 T
L O V [ 301 3 L O V
t ^oVC- and we Lelieve that a woman is fl.il! left capable of lv- fare is combined with the gratification of the fenfual 5''ove-
v “ ving nt once more than one man. Love, therefore, has appetite, it is obvious that the fum of enjoyment muft 
a natural tendency to make men and women pair, or, be greatly increafed-. The perception of beaut r
in other words, it is the fource of marriage: but in therefore, neceifarily direfts the energy of the fenfual
polifhed fociety, where alone this affettion has any appetite to a particular object; but ifill this combina-
place, fo many things befides mutual attachment are tion is a mere fclfifh feeling, which regards its object:
neceffary to make the married life comfortable, that only as the bejl of many fumlar inftruments of pleafure
we rarely fee young perfons uniting from the impuife Before it can deferve the name of love, it mult be coml
of love, and have therefore but few opportunities of bmed with elteem, which is never bellowed but ud
tracing the rife, progrefs, and- confequences of the af-" moral character and internal worth ; for let a woman
feftion. We lhall, however, throw together fuch re- be ever fo beautiful, and of courfe ever fo defirable as
fledlions as have occurred to us on the fubjeii, not an inilrument of fenfual gratification, if fhe be not
without indulging a hope, that they may be ufeful to poffelfed of the virtues and difpofitions which are pe-
the younger part of our readers when forming the culiar to her fex, Ihe will infpire no man with a e- "
moll important connexion in life. rous affe6tion. With regard to the outlines indeed*
We have faid, that the perception of beauty, com- whether of internal difpolition or of external form*
bined with animal defire, is the firlt inducement which men and women are the fame ; but nature intend- *
a man can have to prefer one woman to another. It them for mates, has given them difpofitmns wlich*
- may be added, that elegance of figure, a placid maf- though concordant, are, however, different ’ fo as to
culine countenance, with a perfon which indicates produce together delicious harmony. “ The man0
ftrength and agility, are the qualities which firll tend more rebuff, is fitted for fevere labour, and for'field
to attach any woman to a particular man. Beauty exercifes ; the woman, more delicate, is fitted for
t By Pere has been definedt> “ That particular form, which is dentary occupations, and particularly’for nurfin/chffl
Buffier in the melt common of all particular'forms to be met dren. The man, bold and vigorous, is qualified fo"
his Firji. with in the fame fpecies of beings.” Let us apply being a protector | ; the woman, delicate4 and cn ,, i
‘Truths, ?n4this definition to our own fpecies, and try, by means requires protection. Hence it is, that a man ’ Man! * **
Reynolds* of it’ t0 afcerta':n ,what conftitutes the beauty of the admires a woman for poffeffmg bodffy ftreno-th o^Der-1"
human face. It is evident, that of countenances we fonal courage ; and women always defnife mon J P
s man never
courage ; and women always defpife mSi^who^
find a number almoft infinite of different forms, of totally dellitute of thefe qualities. The man as a
which forms one only conftitutes beauty, wliilft the tor>13 d‘re$eil by nature to govern the woman
reft, however numerous, conftitute what is not beauty, ous of inferiority,is difpofed to obey. Their intell Ct ^I
but deformity, or uglinefs. To an attentive obferver, powers correfpond to the deftination of natin^ eMal
however, it is evident, that of the numerous particular have penetration and folia judgment to fit the f^*
forms of uglinefs, there is not one which includes fo governing; women have fufficient underfta d-^
many faces as are formed after that particular call make a decent figure under good government ^ °
which conftitutes beauty. Every particular fpecies of er proportion would excite dangerous rival fhi' heU^''
the an;m:il as well as of the vegetable creation, may be the fexes, which nature has avoided by V - 6
d to have a fixed or determinate form, to which, as different talents. Women have more imawin1”/’ ^
a cefttre, nature is continually inclining. C>r it may fenlibility than men, which make all their en’ ^ ^
be compared to pendulums vibrating in different di-< more exquifite; at the fame time that they areT1 tt^
re&ions over one central point; and as they <?//crofs' qualified to communicate enjoyment. Add^n
the centre, though only one paffes through any other capital difference of difpofition : the'gentle and°' 1^
point; fo it will be found that perfect beauty is oftener nuating manners of the' female fex teiul to foft
produced by nature than deformity : we do not mean roughnefs of the other fex ; and wherever w° ^ S
than deformity in general, but than anyone kind and indulged with any freedom, they polifh fooner thTn a ^
degree of deformity. To inftance in a particular ,part _ “ Thefe are not the only particulars.that diftinsT^Ih
exes. With refpect to the ultimate end of love)
the
faid to
To inftance
of a human feature : the line which forms the ridge of the fexes. Ill
the nofe is deemed beautiful wften it hjlraight; but this it is the privilege of the male, as fuperior and ^rot'6*
is likewife the central form, which is oftener found tor, to make a choice : the female, preferred ^ias n^
than any one particular degree of concave, convex, or a- privilege but barely to confent or to refufe. W^th1*-
ny other irregular form that lhall be propofed. As we this diltindtjon be the immediate refult of the orifr- T
are then more accuftomed to beauty than deformity, ly different difpofitions of the fexes, or only th
we may conclude that to be the reafan why we approve of affociations inevitably formed, may be ouefb C n f
and admire it, juft as we approve and admire falhions but among all nations it is the practice f ’
of drefs for no other reafon than that we. are ufed to court, and for women to be courted : and°r h
them. 1 he fame thing may be faid of colour as of moil beautiful woman on earth to invert tl ‘ &
"     1 ■ • ' Ihe -f f»rff however
l I1 A Inn- PTace ihe mu* ht evrit^ .«
form ; it iscuftom alone which determines L-  ^ Ilowever b t
ence of the colour of the Europeans to that of the Ethior grace (he might excite the’delire of tL e
plans, and which makes them prefer their own colour Ihe addrelled. The great moral vhtues h i,'11’
; fo that though habit and cuitom cannot be the be comprehended under, the general term
foeantv i^ee Bf^a uxy . they airvKr oil ol^I,>  . , . . y
caSeHmmlL/ngit^^^^ ^ Certain!y the ^ t0
TW w/i 7gv v , r • , T- • tAnnfk’ bm to procureefteem to the female charac-
1 hat we do hie a canno, be denied. Every one is ter, the modelly peculiar to their fex is a very effentiaS
confcious of a pleafing emotion when contemplating cireumftance. Nature hath provided them with it at
beauty either m man or woman.; and when that plea- a defence againft the artful felicitations of the other’
L O V [ 302 1 L O V
fex before marriage, and alfo'as a fupport of conjugal
fidelity.”
A woman, therefore, whofe difpofitions are gentle,
delicate, and rather timid than bold, who is poffeffed
of a large fhare of fenfibility and modefty, and whofe
manners are foft and infinuating, mull, upon moral
principles (fee Moral Philosophy), command the
efteem and benevolence of every individual of the other
fex who is poffelfed of found underltanding; but if
her perfon be deformed, or not fuch as to excite fome
degree of animal defire, fhe will attract no man’s love.
In like manner, a man whofe moral character is good,
whofe underftanding is acute, and whofe converfation
is inftruttive, mult command the efteem of every fen-
fible and virtuous woman; but if his figure be difa-
greeable, his manners unpoliflred, his habits flovenly,
and above all, if he be deficient in perfonal couragg,
lie will hardly excite defire in the female breaft. It is
only when the qualities which command efteem are,
in the fame perfon, united with thofe which excite de-
iire, that the individual fo accompliftied can be an ob¬
ject of love to one of the other fex ; but when thefe
qualities are thus united, each of them increafes the
other in the imagination of the lover. The beauty of
bis miftrefs gives her, in his apprehenfion, a greater
{hare of gentlenefs, modefty, and every thing which
adorns the female character, than perhaps fixe really
poffeffes ; whilft his perfuafion of her internal worth
makes him, on the other hand, apprehend her beauty
to be abfolutely unrivalled.
To this theory an obje&ion readily offers itfelf,
which it is incumbent upon us to obviate. Men and
women fometimes fall in love at firft fight, and very
often before they have opportunities of forming a juft
cftimate of each other’s moral chara&er: How is this
circumftance to be reconciled with the progreffive ge¬
neration of love ? We anfwer, By an affociation of
ideas which is formed upon principles of phyfiogno-
my. Every paffion and habitual difpofition of mind
gives a particular caft to the conntenailce, and is apt
to difcover itfelf in fome feature of the face. This we
learn by experience; and in time, without any effort
of our own, the idea of each particular caft of counte¬
nance comes to be fo clofely affociated in our minds
with the internal difpofition which it indicates, that
the one can never afterwards be prefented to our view
without inftantly fuggefting the other to the imagi¬
nation. (See Metaphysics and Physiognomy).
Hence it is that every man, who has been accuftomed
to make obfervations, naturally forms to himfelf, from
the features and lineaments of a ftranger’s face, fome
opinion of his charafter and fortune. We are no
fooner prefented to a perfon for the firft time, than we
are immediately impreffed with the idea of a proud, a
referved, an affable, or a good-natured man ; and upon
our going into a company of abfolute ftrangers, our
benevolence or averfion, our awe or contempt, rifes
inftantly towards particular perfons, before we have
heard them fpeak a word, or know fo much as their
names or deiignations. The fame thing happens
when we are prefented to the fair fex. If a woman,
feen for the firft time, have that particular caft of
countenance, and that expreffion of features, to which
.we have affociated notions of gentlenefs, modejly, and
other female virtues, ihe inftantly commands our eflscm;
and if fhe have likewife fo much beauty as to make Love,
her an object of particular defire, efteem and defire be-
come fuddenly combined; and that combination con-
ftitutes the affe&ion of love. Such, too, is the nature
of all mental affociations, that each part of which they
are compofed adds ftrength and vividnefs to the other
parts; fo that, in the prefent inftance, delire makes us
imagine virtues in the woman which her countenance
perhaps does not indicate ; and the virtues which are
there actually vilible, make us apprehend her beau¬
ty as more perfect than it is.
The affection thus generated is more or lefs pure,
and will be more or lefs permanent, according as the
one or the other part of which it is compounded pre¬
dominates. “ Where defire of poffeffion || prevails over II Sketdet tf
our efteem of the perfon and merits of the defirable ^an'
object, love lofes its benevolent charadter : the ap¬
petite for gratification becomes ungovernable, and tends
violently to its end, regardlefs of the mifery that muft
follow. In that ftate love is no longer a fweet agree¬
able affedtion ; it becomes a felfifh, painful pallion,
which, like hunger and thirft, produceth no happi-
nefs but in the inftant of fruition ; and when fruition
is over, difguft and averfion generally fucceed to defire.
On the other hand, where efteem, founded on a virtu¬
ous character and gentle manners, prevails over animal
defire, the lover would not for the world gratify his
appetite at the expence of his miftrefs’s honour or
peace of mind. He wifhes, indeed, for enjoyment;
and to him enjoyment is more exquifite than to the mere
fenfual lover, becaufe it unites fentiment with the grati¬
fication of fenfe; at the fame time that,fo farfrom being
fucceeded by difguft or averfion, it increafes his bene¬
volence to the woman, whofe character and manners
he efteems, and who has contributed fo much to his
pleafure. Benevolence to an individual, having a ge¬
neral end, admits of acts without number, and is feldom
fully accomplifhed. -Hence mutual love, which is
compofed chiefly of efteem and benevolence, can hard¬
ly be of a fhorter duration than its objects. Frequent
enjoyment endears fuch lovers to each other, and makes
conftancy a pleafure t and when the days of fenfual en¬
joyment are over, efteem and benevolence will remain
in the mind, making fweet, even in old age, the fo-
ciety of that pair, in whom are collected the affections
of hufband, wife, lover, friend, the tendereft affeCtions
of human nature.”
From the whole of this inveftigation, we think it
appears, that the affection between the fexes which
deferves the name of love, is infeparably connected
with virtue and delicacy ; that a man of loofe morals
cannot be a faithful or a generous lover ; that in the
breaft of him who has ranged frnm woman to woman
for the mere gratification of his fenfual appetite, de¬
fire muft have effaced all efteem for the female charac¬
ter ; and that, therefore, the maxim too generally re¬
ceived, “ that a reformed rake makes the belt huf¬
band,” has very feldom a chance to be true. We
think it may likewife be inferred, that thoulands fan¬
cy themfelves in love who know not what love is, or how
it is generated in the human breaft : and therefore we
beg leave to advife fuch of our readers ; s may imagine
themfelves to be in that ftate, to examine their own
minds, with a view to difcover, whether, if the objeds
of their love were old or ugly, they would ftill efteem
x them
L O V [ -303 1 L O V
Love, them for the virtues of their chara&er, arul the pro-
priety of their manners. This is a queftion which
deferves to be well weighed by the young and the
amorous, who, in forming the matrimonial connetkion,
are too often blindly impelled by mere animal defire
f Elements inflamed by .beauty. “ It may indeed happen!, after
9/Criticifm. the pleafure of gratifying that defire is gone 'and if
not refined by efteem and benevolence, go it muft with
a fwift pace), that a new bond of attachment may be
formed upon more dignified and more lailing princi¬
ples ; but this is a dangerous experiment. Even fup-
pofing good fenfe, good temper, and internal worth
of every fort, yet a new attachment upon Inch quali¬
fications is rarely formed ; becaufe it commonly, or ra¬
ther always, happens, that fuch qualifications, the only
folid foundation of an indiffbluble connection, if they
did not originally make efteem predominate over ani¬
mal defire, are afterwards rendered altogether invi-
fible by fatiety of enjoyment creating difguft.”
Love, in medicine. The fymptoms produced by
this palfion as a difeafe, according to medical writers,
are as follow: The eye-lids often twinkle ; the eyes
are hollow, and yet appear as if full with pleafure :
the pulfe is not peculiar to the pafllon, but the fame
with that which attends folicitude and care. When
the object of this affection is thought of, particularly
if the idea is hidden, thefpirits are confufed, the pulfe
changes, and its force and time are very variable : in
feme inftances, the perfon is fad and watchful; in o-
thers, the perfon, not being confcious of his ftate,
pines away, is flothful, and regardlefs of food; though
the wifer, when they find themfelves in love, feek
pleafant company and aCtive entertainments. As the
force of love prevails, fighs grow deeper; a tremor af-
fedts the heart and pulfe ; the countenance is alter¬
nately pale and red ; the voice is fuppreffed in the
fauces ; the eyes grow dim ; cold fweats break out;
fleep abfents itfelf, at leaft until the morning; the fecre-
tions become difturbed ; and a lofs of appetite, a hec¬
tic fever, melancholy, or perhaps madnefs, if not
death, conftitutes the fad cataftrophe. On this fub-
jeft the curious may confult iEgineta, lih. iii. cap. 17.
Oribat. Synop. lib. viii. cap. 9. or a treatife profeffed-
ly written on love, as it is a diftemper, by James Fer-
rard, Oxford, printed 1640.
The manner of the Greeks and Romans were fimi-
lar to each other in the affairs of love. They gene¬
rally made a difeovery of their paffion, by writing
upon trees, walls, doers, &c. the name of their be¬
loved. They ufually decked the door of their dulci-
nea with flowers and garlands, made libations of wine
before their houfes, fprinkling the pofts with the fame
liquor, as if the objedt of their affeftion was a real
goddefs. For a man’s garland to be untied, and for
a woman to compofe a garland, were held to be in¬
dubitable indications of their love.
When their love was without fuccefs, they ufed fe-
veral arts to excite affection in the objedt of their de¬
fire. They had recourfe. to inchantreffes, of whom
the Theffalian were in the higheft eftimation.—The
means made ufe of were moft commonly philtres or
l6ve potions, the operation of which was violent and
dangerous, and frequently deprived fuch as drank them .
of. their reafon. Some of.the moft remarkable ingre¬
dients of which they were compofed were thefe : the Love,
hippomanes, the jynx, infedts bred, from putrefadtion, Loventi-
the filh remora, the lizard, brains of a calf, the hairs lium' f
on the tip of a wolf’s tail, his fecret parts, the bones T '
of the left fide of a toad eaten with ants, the blood
of doves, bones of fnakes, feathers of fcritch-owla,
twifted cords of wool in which a perfon had hanged
himfelf, rags, torches, reliques, a neft of fwallows bu¬
ried and familhed in the earth, bones fnatched from
hungry bitches, the marrow of a boy familhed in the
midft of plenty, dried human liver ; to thefe may be
added feveral herbs growing out of putrid fubftances.
Such were the ingredients that entered into the com-
pofition of that infernal draught a lone potion.
But, befides the philtres, various other arts were
ufed to excite love, in which the application of certain,
fubftances was to have a magical influence on the per¬
fon againft whom they levelled their Ik ill. A hysena’a
udder worn under the left arm, they fancied would
draw the affections of whatever woman they fixed
their eyes upon. That fpecies of olives called
and barley-bran made up into a pafte, and.thrown into-
the fire, they thought would excite, the flame of love.
Flour was ufed with the fame intention. Burning
laurel, and melting wax, were fuppofed to have the
like effeCt. When one heart was to be hardened, and
another mollified, clay and wax were expofed to the
fame fire together.' Images of wax were frequently
jufed, reprefenting the perfons on whom they wilhed
to make an impreffion ; and whatever was done to the
fubftitute of wax, they imagined was felt by .the per¬
fon reprefented. Enchanted medicaments were often
fprinkled on fome part of the houfe where the perfon
reiided. Love-pledges were fuppofed to be of lingu¬
lar ufe and efficacy : thefe they placed under their
threlhold, to preferve the affections of the owner from
wandering. Love-knots were of lingular power, and
the number three was particularly obferved in all they
did. But no good effeCt was expefted, if the ufe of
thefe things was not attended with charms or magical
verfes and forms.of words. See Magic.
Having mentioned their arts of exciting love, it
may not be amifs to take notice, that the ancients ima-
gmed, that love excited by magic might he allayed by
more powerful fpells and medicaments, or by applying
to demons moie powerful than thofe who had been
concerned in. railing that paffion. But love infpired-
without magic had no cure ; Apollo himfelf could find -
no remedy, but cried out
Hei mibi quod nullis amor eft medicabilis herbis.
The antidotes againft love were generally agnus ca/lus,
which hasthe power of weakeningthegenerativefacuity ;
fprinklrng the dull in which a mule had rolled hcrfelf;
tying toads in the hide of abeaft newly flain ; applyfino-
amulets of. minerals or herbs, which were fuppofed of
great efficacy in othev cafes; and invoking the affift-
ance of the infernal deities. Another cure for love
was bathing in the waters of the river Selemnus ; to •
which we may add the lover’s leap,, or jumping down
from the Leucadian promontory.
Love-Apple. See Solanum.
LGV.ENTINUM, or Luentinum, (anc. geog.)
a town of the Demeta in Britain, near the month of
the Tuerobis or.Tivy. Supppfed to have been after¬
wards
L O U ' [ 3.04 ] LOU
°* v^ards fwallowed up by an earthquake, and to have he was perfectly healed, after bathing m this lough JV'
‘ flood where is now the lake called Lin Savatan in about eight days. Hence that writer gives us another ftran
Brecknocklhire. derivation of the name Locbneack, which (he fays) Lo
1 LOUGHBOROUGH, a town of Leiceilerihire feems to hint at this quality ; Neafg or Neas, m Iriih,
in England, 1 to miles from London. It is the fe- lignifying a fore or ulcer,” which might not impro-
cond town in the county, and was in the Saxons time baUy be corrupted into Neagh ; Hence he apprehends,
a royal village. Its market is on Thurfday ; and its this lake was remarked at a much earlier period for
fairs are on April 25th, May 28th, Auguft ill, and its healing property. As to its petrifying power, it
November 2d. It has a large church, and a free is mentioned by Nenius, a writer of the 9th century,
fchool; befides a charity fchool for 80 boys and ano- who fays, “ Eft aliud ftagnum quod facit ligna du-
ther for 20 girls. It has been very much reduced by refeere in lapides. Homines autem findunt ligna, et
fires ; but is ftill a very agreeable town, with rich mea- poll quam formaverunt, projiciunt in ftagnum, et ma-
dow-ground, on the Fofi'e, which runs here almoft pa- nent in eo ufque ad caput anni, et in capite anni lapis
rjdlel with the river Soar. The new canal has made invenitur, et vocatur ftagnum Lu^h-Echad\” Lough-
the coal-trade here very extenfive. , Neach gives title of baron to the family of Skejfiig-
LOUGHBRICKLAND, a fair and poll town of ton*
Ireland, fituated in the county of Down, and province LOUGH-STRANGFORD, a lake of Ireland,
of Ulfter, 58 miles from Dublin. The name figni- fituated in the county of Down and province of Ul-
fies the lake of the fpeckL-d trouts ; and it was fo called fter. It takes its prefent name from a fmall port-
from a lake near it, which abounds with thofe fifli. It town called Strangford, feated on the weft fide of the
- confifts of one broad ftfeet, at the end bf which is narrow entrance into the fea. It was formerly knowir
the parifh-church, faid to have been built by Dr Tay- by the name bf Lough-Cone or Lough-Coyne. It is a
lor when bifhop of Dromore, foon after the Reftora- deep bay or inlet of the fea, about 17 miles long and
tion. The linen manufacture is carried on here very four or five broad ; it goes weft as far as Downpatrick,
extenfively ; and the town is a great thoroughfare, and north as far as Comber and Newtown, and by
the. turnpike road from Dublin to Belfaft palling computation covers 25,775 acres, Irifli plantation
through a red bog near it. The fairs are five in the meafure. It abounds with excellent filh, particularly
year. fmelts ; and off the bar there is a periodical herring
LOUQH-DERG, anciently Derg-ahhan,, i. e. “ the filhery in or about Auguft. The bar pr entrance
river of the woody morafs,” from a river which iffues into this lough is about three miles below Strang-'
but of this lake. This lough is fituated in the county ford. There is a long rock at the entrance in the
of Donegal and province of'Ulfter in Ireland, and is middle of the paffage, dangerous to ftrangers on ac-
famous for having in it the ifland that contains St count of the current 5 yet there is a broad paffage on
Patrick’s pfirgatory, which is a narrow little cell, either fide, and deep water. The current here is very
hewn out of the folid rock, in which a man could ftrong-md rapid, running at the rate of fix or feven
fcarce Hand upright.—There is alfo a lake of this miles an hour. There are but few veffels that go
name fituated between the counties of Galway and' higher up than Strangford. A good ma ly veffels
Tipperary. bound up the channel put in here, if the wind is un-
LOUGH-NEACH, a loch or lake of Ireland, fi- favourable to their paffage. The iflands in this lake
tuated in the counties of Armagh, Down, Derry, and are numerous ; Dodlor Boat enumerates them at 260.
Antrim, and province of Ulfter. It is the largeft in But from an a&ual furvey, made at the time Dr Smyth
Europe, thofe of Ladoga, and Onega in Rulna, and wrote his hiftbry of that county, it appears, there
that of Geneva in Switzerland, excepted; being 20 are 54 iiland^ fmall and great, known by particular
miles long and 15 broad. The area of this lake is names, and many others namelefs; the contents of
computed to be 100,000 acres. It is remarkableffor thefe 54 ifiands added together amount to 974 acres
a healing virtue ; and likewife for petrifying wood, and an half. The great and profitable manufa&ure
which is not only found in the water but in the ad- parried on in thefe ifiands, and the fiat ftony coafis
jacent foil at a confiderable depth. On its fhores furrounding the lake, is the burning of fea-weed into-
feveral beautiful o-ems have been difeovered. ' Its an» kelp, which employs a number of handstand has been
cient name was Loch-eacha or Loch-Neacb, from loch, computed to produce to the feveral proprietors a neat
« a lake,” and Neach, “ wonderful, divine, or emu- profit bf 10001. per annum and upwards. Four of
nent.” Its petrifying powers are not inftantaneous, the ifiands here are called Swan ijlauds, from thenum-
as feveral of the ancients have fuppofed, but require a ber of fwans that frequent them,
long ferjes of ages to bring them to perfedion, and LOUIS, or Knight?of St Louis, the name of a
appear to be occafioned by a fine mud or fand, which military order in France, inftituted by Louis XIV. in
infinuates itfelf into the pores of *he wood, and which 1693. Their colours are of a flame colour, and pafi
in procefs of time becomes hard like ftone. On the from left to right; the king is their grand mafter.
Borders of this lake is Shane’s caftle, the elegant feat There are in it eight great croffes, and 24 comman-
of the right honourable John O^Neil. Dr Smyth ders; the number of knights is not limited. At the
feems to doubt whether the healing quality in this time of their iuftitution, the king charged his revenue
lake is not to be confined to one fide of it, called the with a fund of 300,000 livres for the penfions of the
fi/hing-banh; and he informs us, that this virtue was commanders and knights.
"difeovertd in the reign of Charles II. in the inftance Louis, Lewis, Louis d'or, or Lewidore, a French
of the fon of one Mr Cunningham, who had an evil coin, firftftruckin 1640,under the reign of LomsXIII.
which .run on him in eight or ten places ; and notwith- and which has now a confiderable currency. See
Handing all applications feemed incurable, at length Moxuv-Tsf/n
A8t. n LOUISIANA,
LOU [ 305 1 LOW
uifiani LOUISIANA, a country in North-America,boundr
ed dn the fouth by the gulph of Mexico, on the call
by the river Miflifippi, on the weft by New Mexico,
and on the north by an unknown country. It extends
from the 29th to the 40th degree of north latitude,
and from about the Both to the 96th, or 97th degree
weft longitude from London, The climate of Loufiana
varies according to the latitudes. The fouthern parts
are not fo hot as thofe parts of Africa which lie under
the fame parallel, and the northern parts are colder than
the countries of Europe at the fame diftance from the
pole: the caufes of which are fuppofed to be the thick
forefts which over-run the country, and the great num¬
ber of rivers; the former preventing the fun from heat¬
ing the earth, and the latter fupplying it with moift
vapours; befides the cold winds which come from the
north over vaft tracts of land. They have bad weather1;
but it never lafts long, for the rain generally falls ifi
ftorms and fudden ftiowers; the air is wholefome, the
inhabitants healthy, and they who are temperate live
to a great old age. The country is extremely well wa¬
tered ; and almoft all the rivers that run through it fall
into the Miflifippi, which difeharges itfelf into the
gulph of Florida.
LOUSE, in zoology. See Pediculus and Lice.
LOUSY disease. See Medicine-AJiw.
LOUTH, a town of Lincolnfhire in England, 156
miles from London. It is a town corporate; and
one of the handfomeft and gayeft in the county, there
being in it not only frequent aflemblies, concerts, &c.
but even mafquerades. Here are feveral handfome
houfes. From hence there is a canal to the fea at Til-
ney, about eight miles. Befides a charity fchool for
40 children, it has a free fchool founded by Ed¬
ward VI. with a large church, and a fine fteeple,
which fome think is as high as Grantham fpire, which
is 288 feet high. Its markets are on Wednefday and
Saturday, and its fairs on May 24th, and Auguft
16th.
Louth, a county in the eaftern part of Ireland,
which extends in the form of a bow or half-moon, on
the fide of the ocean, being much longer than it is
broad; it is bounded on the fouth and fouth-weft by
the county of Eaft-Meath, on the north-weft by Mo¬
naghan, on the north by Armagh, and on the north-
eaft by the bay of Carlingford, which parts it from
the county of Down : it is watered by feveral fmall ri¬
vers which fall into the fea; and its fouth frontiers are
watered by the river Boyne. Its chief towns are Dun¬
dalk and Carlinford ; unlefs we include Drogheda, a
part whereof is in this county. It is the fmalleft
county in_the kingdom ; but very fertile and pleafant,
and abounding with many remains of antiquities, of
which Mr Wright, in his Louthiaiia, has given a very
ample defeription. It contains 111,180 Irilh planta¬
tion acres, 50 parifhes, 5 baronies, and 5 boroughs,
and returns 10 members to parliament: it is about 22
miles long and 14 broad.
Louth, a town in the above county, having a
yearly fair.
LOUVAIN, a city in the Auftrian Netherlands, in
the province of Brabant, pleafantly feated on the river
Dyle, in a plentiful and agreeable country. The walls
are about eight or nine miles in circumference ; but they
include feveral fields and vineyards. The caftle Hands
Vol. X. Part I.
on a high hill, furrounded with fine gardens, and has Louva'a.
a charming profped all over the country: This town
contains nine market places, 14 water-mills, I26ftreets,
16 ftone bridges, and feveral handfome palaces. The
town-houfe is a venerable old building, adorned with
ftatues on the outfide ; and the churches are very hand¬
fome, particularly the collegiate church of St Peter,
but the principal ornament is the univerfity, founded
only in 1426 by John IV. duke of Brabant, with the
concurrence of Pope Martin V. It contains about 44
colleges, four of which are called Pedagogia. Thertf
is in the number alfo an Englifh college of friars-
preachers, which owes its eftablk'hment to the liberali¬
ties of Cardinal Philip Howard, brother to the duke
of Norfolk, who, before he was raifed to the purple*
had been private chaplain to Queen Catherine, con-
fort to Charles II. The Irilh have like wife a femi*
nary, creeled in part under the care of Eugenius Mat-
theus, titular archbilhop of Dublin, anno 162 3, which re¬
ceives its appointments from the Propaganda at Rome^
Befides the above, there are two convents for the Irifh,
one of Recalledts and the other of Dominicians,
where divinity and the Mathefis are taught. In the
laft century the number of fcholars exceeded 4000, but
in the year 1743 the inhabitants amounted to 12,000,
including 2000 ftudents only.—At the beginning of
the 14th century, under John III. it flourilhed con-
fiderably in the manlifa&ure of woollen cloth : 409
houfes were then occupied by fubftantial clothiers, wh®
gave employment to an incredible number of weavers,
fo great it is faid, that a bell was rung to prevent any
injuries which the children in the ftreet might receivO
from the crowd and hurry on their returning from work.
In 1382, thefe weavers, however, took up arms, and
rebelled againft their fovereign Prince Wenceflaus,
throwing from the windows of the Town-hall i 7 of the
aldermen and counfellors, and afterwards proceeded ta
lay wafte great part of Brabant: but being befieged
and reduced to great extremities, they fubmifiively im¬
plored his clemency : which was granted after the exe¬
cution of fome of the principal ringleaders. Thd
weavers, the chief inftigators to this revolt, were ba-
niflied, the greater part of whom took refuge in Eng¬
land ; where they firft introduced, or atleaft augment¬
ed very much, the woollen manufafture. The town,
by this circumftance, being almoft depopulated, the
univerfity was eltablilhed to fupply in fome meafure the
lofs of the rebellious clothiers. Since that time the
manufadture gradually declined, no cloth of any ac¬
count being made there at prefent. This impolitic
ftep of the Duke Wenceflaus fent treafures to England,
through the hands of thofe exiled people ; an import-
ant leflbn to governors, that they fhoitld deal with,
great precaution refpecting fuch ufeful members of the
community. Upon the ruins of thefe looms was form¬
ed the cloth manufadlure of Limbourg, which is car¬
ried on with good advantage to this day. There is yet
Handing at Louvain part of the old drapers-hall, now
converted into four public fchools, where leftnres in di¬
vinity, philofophy, law, and phyfie, are given, and
the public afts are made. Adjoining to the fchools
is the univerfity library, which altogether compofe
a large pile of building. Over the door of the chief
entrance we read thefe words, Sapientia adijicavh Jibi
domum. The principal church is collegiate, dedicated to
Q^q St
HOW r 306 1 LOW
Lonys, St Peter, which had formerly three very large towers one are out at a time, it is always proper to carry a
^3-ow hell. with devated fpires, one confiderably higher than the gun ; as it is no Uncommon thing to fpy a hare when
' r r two collaterals ; thefe were blown down in the year re- on this expedition.
corded by this chronogram, oMnla CaDVnt. Fromthe LOW (East), a town of Cornwall in England,,
name of this church the burghers have acquired the 231 miles from London, in the poit-road from Ply-
nick-name of Pctermen, whofe anceftors having clothed mouth. It is an ancient borough by prefeription,
the hack by a noble woollen manufatture, the modern made a corporation by charter of queen Elifabeth,
Petemen now compofe an ignoble mixture for the confifting of nine burgeffes (one of whom is yearly
- belly, called after them, Peterman beer, a fort of whitifh . chofen the mayor), a recorder, aldermen, &c. ; and
muddy ale, which they notwithftanding fend in large the mayor, magillrates, and freemen, who are about
quantities to all parts of the country, as well as to 68, choofe the members ot parliament. This being
^Holland, by the canals. Louvain was anciently the a manor of the duchy of Cornwall, was Ivttled by
capital of the province, long before Bruxelles had any king William on lord Somers, and is now held by the
claim to that title. E. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat. 51. 12. corporation at the fee-farm rent of 20s. a-year. It is
LOUYS, or Louis, (John), an engraver of con- feated pretty commodioully on a creek of the lea, over
fiderable eminence, who flourilhed about the middle of which there is a large Hone bridge, fupported by 15
the 16th century. According to Bafan, he was a arches, which leads to Wcjl Low, Handing between
native of Flanders. He learned the art of engraving two hills. The chief benefit which the inhabitants
from Peter Soutman, at the time that Suyderhoef Hu- have is in their liihery. Here is a battery of four
died under the fame maHer ; and his ufual Hyle of en- guns, and a fmall chapel. Its market is on Saturday,
graving bears fome refemblance to that of his maHer’s. and it has two fairs in the year.
One of his beH prints is, Diana, with her nymphs, repo- Low (Wejl), called alfo Port-Pigbam, a town of
fing after the chafe ; a middling-fized plate, length wife, Cornwall, divided from EaH Low by a Hone bridge
from Rubens. of 15 arches over the river Low, from whence both
LOW-bell, in birding, a name given to a bell, by towns receive their name, as the river does from the
means, of which they take birds in the night, in open lownefs of its current between its high banks. The
champaign countries, and among Hubble, in O&o- corporation, by charter of queen Elifabeth, confitts
ber. The method is to go out about nine o’clock at of 12 burgefles, one of whom is annually chofen
might in a Hill evening, when the air is mild and the mayor, and, with the other burgeffes, has power to
fun does not fhine. The low-bell fliould be of a deep choofe a Heward. Its members, whom it has fent to
and hollow found, and of fuch a fize that a man may parliament ever fince the 6th of Edward VI. are elebt-
conveniently carry it in one hand. The perfon who ed by the corporation and freemen, who are about
carries it is to mak& it toll all the way he goes, as _ 60. There was a chapel of eafe here in the reign of
nearly as may be, in that manner in which the bell on
the neck of a flieep tolls as it goes on and feeds.
There muff alfo be a box made like a large lanthorn,
about a foot fquare, and lined with tin, but with one
iide open. Two or three great lights are to be fet in
this; and the box is to be fixed to the perfon’s breaff,
with the open fide forwards, fo that the light may be
caff forward to a great diffance. It will fpread as it
goes out of the box ; and will diffin&ly Ihow to the pef-
fon that carries it whatever there is in the large fpace
of ground over which it extends, and confequently all
the birds that rooff upon the ground. Two perfons
muff follow him. who carries the box and bell, one on
each fide, fo as not to be within the reach of the light
to Ihow themfelves. Each of thefe is to have a hand-
met of about three or four feet fquare, faffened to a long
Hick or pole; and on whichever fide any bird is feea
at rooff, the perfon who is neareff is to lay his net
over it, and take it with as little noife as pofiible.
When the net, is over the bird, the perfon who laid it
is not to be in a hurry to take the bird, but muff Hay
till he, who carries the light is got beyond it, that the
motions may not be difeovered. The blaze of the
light and the noife. of the bell, terrify and amaze the
birds in fuch a manner that they remain Hill to be ta¬
ken ; but the people who are about the work muff keep
the greateff quiet and flillnefs that may be.
Some people are- fond of going- on this fcheme
alone. The perfon then fixes the light box to his.
breaff. and carries the hell in one hand, and the net
in the other; the net in- this cafe may be fomewhat
iinaUer, and the handle Ihorter, When more than
2
Henry VIII. which was afterwards converted into a
town-hall; and the town lying in the parifh of Tal-
land, the people go thither to church. The market
is on Saturday, and fair on April 25. There is a
pretty little harbour here ; near the mouth of which
is a fmall ifiand called St George’s, which abounds
with fea-pies. The river here is navigable for veffels
of 100 tons.
LOWER (Richard), an eminent Englilh phyfician
in the 17th century, was born in Cornwall, and edur
cated at Weffminffer-fchool and Oxford. He entered
on the phyfic line ; and pra&ifed under Dr Thomas
Willis, whom he inffrufted in fome parts of anatomy,
efpecially when the latter was writing his Cerebri ana-
tome. He, with Dr Willis, in 1674, difeovered the
medicinal waters, at Affiop in Northamptonffiire;
which, upon their recommendations, became very,much
frequented. In 1666 he followed Dr Willis to Lonr
don ; pra&ifed phyfic under him ; and became fellow
of the royal fociety, and of the college of phyficians.
In, 1669 he publilhed his. PradaLus de corde; and^
after, the death of Dr Willis in 1675, hewas effeemed
the moff eminent phyfician, in London, Upon the
breaking out of the Popifin plot , in 167%. fays Mr
Wood in his Athernt Oxonienfts, he clofed with the
Whigs,, fuppofing that party would carry all before
them; but, being miffaken, he loff his credit and
pra&ice. He died in 1691.
LOWERING, among diffillefrs, a term ufed to
exprefs the. debafing the Hrength of any fpirituous
liquor, by mixing water with it. The Handard and
marketable price of thefe liquors is fixed in regard to
LOW [ 3°7 0 L O W
a certain Itrength in them called proof} this is that
ftrength which makes them, when thaken in a phial or
poured from on high into a glafs, retain a froth or
crown of bubbles for foitie time. In this ftate, fpirits
tonfift of about half pune or totally inflammable fpirit,
and half water i and if any foreign or home fpirits
are to be expofed to fale, and are found to have that
proof wanting, fcarce any body will buy it till it has
been diftilled again and brought to that ftrength ; and
if it is above that ftrength, the proprietor ufually adds
water to it to bring it down to that ftandard. See
the article Proof. .
There is another kind of lowering among the re*
tailers of fpirituous liquors to the vulgar, by reducing
it under the ftandard proof. Whoever has the art of
doing this without deftroying the bubble proof, which
is eaiily done by means of fome addition that gives a
greater tenacity to the parts of the fpirits, will de¬
ceive all that j udge by this proof alone. In this cafe,
the beft way to judge of liquors is by the eye and
tongue, and efpecially by the inllrument called Hy¬
drometer.
LOWTH (William), D.D. a learned divine, born
at London in 1661, was the fon of an apothecary, and
took his degrees at Oxford. His eminent worth and
learning recommended ' him to Dr Mew bilhop of
Winchefter, who made him his chaplain, gave him
two livings in Hampfhire, and conferred on him a
prebend in the cathedral of Winchefter. He acquired
an unufual ftiare of critical learning. Thus fituated
in life, the labours of Mr Lowth appear to have been
ftrictly confined within the limits of his own province,
and applied folely to the peculiar duties of his func-
tiori: yet, in order that he might acquit himfelf the
better in theology, he had purfued his ftudies with a
more general and extenfive view. Few were more
deeply verfed in critical learning ; there being fcarcely
any ancient author, Greek or Latin, profane or eccle-
fiaftical, efpecially the latter, but what he had read
with accuracy, conftantly accompanying his reading
with critical and philological remarks. Of his col¬
lections in this way he was upon all occafions very
communicative. Hence his notes on Clemens Alexan-
drinus, which are to be met with in Potter’s edition
of that father. Hence his remarks on Jefephvs, com¬
municated to Hudfon for his edition, and acknow¬
ledged in the preface : as alfo thofe larger and more
numerous annotations on the Ecclefiaftical Hiftorians,
inferted in Reading's edition of them at Cambridge,
rhe author of Bibliotheca Biblica was indebted to him
tor the fame kind of afiiftance. Chandler, late bifliop
ot Durham, while engaged in his “ Defence of Chrifti-
anity, from Hie Prophecies of the Old Teftament, a-
gainft the Difqmrfe of the Grounds and Reaibns of
the Chriftian Religion,” and in his “ Vindication of the
Defence, in anfwer to The Scheme of Literal Pro¬
phecy confidered,” held a conftant correfpondence with
lum, and confulted him upon many difficulties that
occurred in the courfe of that work. The moft va¬
luable part of his character was that which leaft ap¬
peared in the eyes of the world, the private and re-
tiredpart, that of the good Chriftian and the ul'eful
panm-prieft. His piety, his-diligence, liis'hofpitali-
ty and beneficence, rendered his life highly exem¬
plary, and greatly enforced his public exhortations.
He married Margaret, daughter of Robert Pitt, Efq;
of Blandford, by whom he had two fons and three
daughters, (fee the next article). He died in 1732,
and was buried by his own orders in the church-yard
at Buriton. He publilhed, 1. A vindication of the
divine authority and infpiration of the Old and New
Teftaments ; 2. Directions for the profitable reading
of the Holy Scripture; 3. Commentaries on the pro¬
phets ; and other works.
Lowth (Robert), D. D. fecond fon of the pre¬
ceding Dr William Lowth, and bilhop fuccefiively of
St David’s, Oxford, and London, was born on the
29th of November 1710, probably at Buriton in the
county of Hants. He received the rudiments of his
education in Whichefter college, where his fchool ex-
ereifes were diftinguilhed by uncommon elegance;
and having refided the requifite number of years in
that feminary, in 1730 he fucceeded on the founda¬
tion at New College, Oxford. He took the degree of
M. A. JuneS. 1737. Though his abilities mull have
been known to thofe with whom he was connefted,
he was not forward to appear before the world as a
writer. At Oxford he continued many years impro¬
ving his talents, with little notice from the great, and
with preferment fo fmall as to have at prefent efcaped
the diftindt recolledtion of fome of his contempora¬
ries.
He was not, however, fuffered to languilh for ever
in obfeurity. His genius and his learning forced them-
felves upon the notice of the illuftrious fociety of
vyhich he was a member; and he was placed in a fta-
tion where he was eminently qualified to Ihine. la
•1741 he was elected by the univerfity to the profef-
forlhip of poetry, re-eledted in 1743, and whilft he
held that office he read his admiiT.ble ledtures De facra
poefi Hebraorum. In 1744 bilhop Hoadley collated
him to the redtory of Ovington in the county of
Hants; added to it, nine years afterwards, the redtory
of Fall Weedhay in the fame county ; and in the in¬
terim railed him to the dignity of archdeacon of Win¬
chefter. Thefe repeated favours he fome years after¬
wards acknowledged in the following manly and re-
fpedtful terms of gratitude : “ This addrefs, My Lord,
is not more necelfary on account of the fubjedt, than
it is in refpedt of the author. Your Lordlhip, unfo-
licited and unalked, called him from one of thofe col¬
leges to a ftation of the firlt dignity in your diocefe,
and took the earlieft opportunity of accumulating your
favour upon him, and of adding to that dignity a fuit-
able fupport. Thefe obligations he is now the more
ready thus publicly to acknowledge, as he is removed
out of the reach of further favours of the like kind.
And though he hath relinquilhed the advantages fo
generoufly conferred on him, yet he lhall always efteem
himfelf highly honoured in having once enjoyed the
patronage of the great advocate of civil and religious
liberty.”
On the 8th of July 1754 the univerfity of Oxford
conferred upon him the degree of D. D. by diploma;
an honour which, as it is never granted but to diftin-
.guilhed merit, was probably conferred on Mr Lowth
in confequence of his prele&ions on the Hebrew poetry,
which had then been lately publilhed. Having in 1749
travelled with Lord George and Lord Frederick Ca-
vendilh, he had-a claim upon tlie patronage of the
Qjl 2 De-
LOW [ 308 ] LOW
®evonfti!re family ; and in 1755, the late duke being
then lord lieutenant of Ireland, Dr Lowth went to
that kingdom as his grace’s firft chaplain. Soon after
this appointment he was offered- the bifhopric of Li¬
merick ; but preferring a lefs dignified ftation in his
own country, he exchanged it with Dr Leflie, pre¬
bendary of Durham and redtor of Sedgefield, for thefe
preferments. In November 1765 he was chofen F.R.S.
In June 1766 he was, on the death of Dr Squire,
preferred to the bifnopric of St David’s; which, in the
Odtober following, he refigned for that of Oxford,
vacant by the tranllation of bifitop Hume to Salifbury.
In April 1777, he was tranfiated to the fee of Lon¬
don, vacant by the death of bifhop Terrick; and in
1783 he declined the offer of the primacy of all Eng¬
land.
Having been long afflidted wit^ the ftone, and having
long borne the fevereft fufferings of pain and ficknefs
with the moft exemplary fortitude and refignation, this
great and good man died at Fulham, Nov. 3. 1787 ;
and on the 12th his remains were privately interred in
a vault at Fulham church, near thofe of his prede-
#effor. He had married in 1752, Mary, the daughter
of Laurence Jackfon of Chrift-church, Hants, Efq{
by whom he had two fons and five daughters. His
lady and two children only furvived him.
His literary character may be eftimated from the
value and the importance of his works; in the account
of which we may begin with his PreleSions on the He¬
brew Poetry. The choice of fo interefting a fubjedl
naturally attradled general attention; and the work
has b?en read with equal applaufe abroad and at home.
In thefe prelections the author has acquitted himfelf <
in the moft mafterly manner, as a poet, a critic, and
a divine ; and fuch is the claffic purity of his Latin
ilyle, that though we have read the work with the
clofeft attention, and with no other view than to dif-
eover, if poflible, an Anglicifm in the compofition,
we never found a tingle phrafe to which, we believe,
a critic of the Auguftan age could pofiibly have ob¬
jected. This is an excellence to which neither Milton
nor Johnfon has attained ; to which indeed no other
Englifh writer of Latin with whom we are acquainted
has attained, unlefs perhaps Atterbury muft be dx-
cepted. To the preledtions was fubjoined a fhort con¬
futation of bifhop Hare’s fyftem of Hebrew metre ;
which occafioned a Latin letter from Dr Edtvards of
Clare-hall, Cambridge, to Dr Lowth, in vindication
of the Harian metre. To this the author of the
preleCtions replied in a larger confutation, in which bi¬
fhop Hare’s fyftem is completely overthrown, and the
fallacy upon which it was built accurately inveftigated.
After much attentive confideration, bifhop Lowth has
pronounced the metre of the Hebrew to be perfectly
irrecoverable.
In 1758 he publiflied The life of William of Wyke-
ham, I'fhop of lV,ncheJler, with a dedication to Biflvop
Lloadley ; which involved him in a difpute concerning
a decifion which that bifhop had lately made refpeCt-
ing the wardenfhip of Windiefter-cpllege. This con-
troverfy was on both fides carried on with fuch abi¬
lities, that, though relating to a private concern, it
may yet be read, if . not with pleafure at leaft with
improvement. The life of Wykeham is drawn from
.Ac moft.authentic fourtesj and affords much informa¬
tion concerning the'manners, and fome of the public
tranfa&ions of the period in which Wykeham lived,
whilft it difplays fome private intelligence refpe&ing
the tw’o literary focieties of which he was the founder.
In thefe two focieties Dr Lowth was educated, and
he gratefully expreffes his obligations to them.
In 1762 was firft publifhed his Short IntroduElion to
Englifh Grammar, which has fince gone through many
editions. It was originally defigned only for private
and domeftic ufe : but its judicious remarks being too
valuable to be confined to a few, the book was given to
the world ; and the excellence of its method, which
teaches what is right by fhowing what is wrong, has
infured public approbation and very general ufe. In
1765 Dr Lowth was engaged with Bifhop Warburton
in a controverfy, which made much noife at the time,
which attracted the notice even of royalty, and of
which the memory is ftill recent. If we do not wifh
to dwell on the particulars of this controverfy, it is
becaufe violent literary contention is an evil, which,
though like other war it may fometimes be unavoid¬
able, is yet always to be regretted ; and becaiife the
characters of learned, ingenious, and amiable men,
never appear to lefs advantage than under the form
which that ftate of hoftility obliges them to affume.
The two combatants indeed "engaged with erudition
and ingenuity fueh as is feldom brought into conflict;
but it appears that, in the opinion of Dr Johnfon,
Warburton had the moft fcholaftic learning, and that
Lowth was the moft correCt fcholar; that, in their con-
teft with each other, neither of them had much argu¬
ment, and that both were extremely abufive. We
1 have heard, and we hope it is true, that they were af¬
terwards reconciled, and expreffed mutual regret for
the violence of their paft conduft.
In 1778 Bifhop Lowth publifhed his laft great work.
Si Tranflation of Ifaiah. To his literary and theological
abilities, the tranflator joined the moll critical know¬
ledge of the character and fpirit of the eaftern poetry;
and, -accordingly, the prophecies of Ifaiah (which,
though almoft always fublime or elegant, are yet fome¬
times obfeure) ware tranfiated in a manner adequate
to the higheft expectations of the public. Several
occafional difeourfes, which the Bifhop, by his ftation,
was at different times called upon to deliver, were of
courfe publifhed, and are all worthy of their excellent
author ; but there is one on the kingdom of God, on the
extenfion and progreffive improvement of Chrift’s re¬
ligion, and on the means of promoting thefe by the
advancement of .religious knowledge, by freedom of
inquiry, by toleration, and mutual charity, which
may be diftinguifhed above the reft, as exhibiting a
moft comprehenfive view of the fuccefiive ftates of the
Chriftian church, and containing the tfueft principles
of Chriftianity.
Of the Bifhop’s poetical pieces, none difplay great¬
er merit than Verfes on the Genealogy of Chrift, and the
Choice of Hercules, both written very early in his life.
He wrote a fpirited Imitation of an Ode of Horace, ap¬
plied to the alarming fituation of this country in
1745 ; and likewife fome verfes'on the death of Frede¬
ric prince of Wales, with a few fmaller poems. The
following infeription on the tomb of his daughter,
beautifully difplays his paternal affeCtion and claffic
taftc. As it is fhort, and, in our opinion, has all the
merit-
L O X
L©wth* merit of the ancient epitaph, the reader will probably
t k°*ia- be pleafed with fuch a fpecimefl of his lordfhip’s La-
tinity.
Cara, vale, Ingemo prajlans, pietate,J>U(loi‘e,
Et plufquam natee nomine cara, vale.
Cara Marta, vale. At venlet fellclus ovum.,
Quando itcrum tecum,fim modo dignus, ero.
Cara, redi, lata turn dicam voce, paternas,
Eja, age in amplexus, cara Maria, redi.
Learning and tafte, however,did not conftitute Bifnop
Lowth’s higheft excellence. Eulogium itfelf can fcarce-
ly afcend to extravagance when fpeaking of him
either as a private man or as a pallor of the church of
Chrift. Elis amiable manners rendered him an orna¬
ment to his high illation, whilll they endeared him to
all with whom he converfed ; and his zeal for the in-
terells of true religion made him eager to promote to
places of trull and dignity fuch clergymen as he knew
were bell qualified to fill them. Of his modelly,
gentlenefs, and pleafing converfation, we have the telli-
mony of one whofe decifion wall hardly be difputed.—
“ It would anfwer no end (fays Biihop Warburton) to
tell you what I thought of the author of Elebrew poe¬
try, before I faw him. But this I may fay, I was never
more furprifed, when I did fee him, than to find him of
fuch amiable and gentle manners, of fo modell, fenfible,
and difengaged a deportment.” He united, indeed,
ift an eminent degree, the qualities of the gentleman
with thofe of the fcholar: he converfed with elegance,
as he wrote with accuracy. As a hulband, a father,
or the mailer of a family, he was as nearly faultlefs as
the imperfections of humanity will eafily permit. His
temper, when roufed by what he thought improper con-
du£t, was indeed fufceptible of confiderable warmth;
[ 3°9 1
L 0 X
brown In thofe parts where the male is red. This
fpecies is a conilant inhabitant of Sweden, Germany, "
Poland, Switzerland, Ruffia, and Siberia, where it
breeds; but migrates fometimes in vail flocks into
other countries, as is now and then the cafe in refpecl
to England ; for though in fome years a few are
met with, yet in others it has been known to vifit us
by tlioufands, fixing on fuch fpots as are planted with
pines, for the fake of the feeds, which are its natural
food: it is obferved to hold the cone in one claw like
the parrot, and to have all the aclions of that bird when
kept in a cage. It is alfo found in North America and
Greenland ; and is faid to make the nell in the highell
parts of the fir-trees, fallening it to the branch with
the refinous matter which'exfudes from the trees.
2; The coccothraulles, or hawfinch, is in length
feven inches; breadth, 13: the bill is funnel-lhaped,
ftrong, thick, and of a dull pale pink colour; the
breaft and whole under fide are of a dirty flelh colour
the neck afli-coloured; the back and coverts of the
wings of a deep brown, thofe of the tail of ayellowilh
bay : .the greater quill-feathers are black, marked with
white on their inner webs : the tail is Ihort, fpotted
with white on the inner fides; and the legs-are of a flelh-
colour. This fpecies is ranked among the Britilh birds
but only vifits thefe kingdoms occafionally, and for the
moll part in winter, and never known to breed here.
It is more plenty in France, coming into Burgundy
in fmall flocks, about the beginning of April; and fo on-
after making the nell, which is placed between the
bifurcation of the branches of trees, about twelve feet
from the ground : it is compofed of fmall dry fibres,
intermixed with liverwort, and lined with finer ma¬
terials. The eggs are of a roundilh ftiape, of a bluiflv
green fpotted with olive brown,, with a few irregular
but if he could be highly offended, upon a flight con- black markings interfperfed. It is alfo common h
ceffion he could likewife forgive. His heart was ten¬
der and fympathetic. He poflefled a mind which felt
Italy, Germany, Sweden,, and the weft and fouth. r
parts of Rufiia, where the wild fruits grow. It feeds,
its own ftrength, and decided on whatever came before on berries, kernels, &c.and from the great ftrength of
it with promptitude and firmnefs. In thofe trials,
where affliction was to be fuffered or fubdued, he be¬
haved as a man and a Chriftian. Elis piety had no
tincture of morofenefs ; his charity no leaven of often-
tation. To his whole diocefe he was endeared by his
laudable diferetion and his ufeful zeal. To the
world he was a benefit by his examplary life and his
fplendid abilities. And whilll virtue and learning are
reverenced among men, the memory of Lowth will be
rcfpeAed and admired.
the bill, it cracks the ftones of the fruit of the haw s,
cherries, &c. the greateft with eafe.
3. The enucleator, or pine-grofsbeak, is nine inches
in length, and weighs two ounces. The bill is ftrong,,
dulky, and forked at the end: the head, back, neck, and
breaft, are of a rich crimfon ; the bottoms of the fea¬
thers afh-colour; the quill-feathers and tail dulky,.
their exterior edges of a dirty whitethe legs are
black. This fpecies frequents the moll northern parts
of this kingdom, being only met with in Scotland,
LOXIA, in zoology ; the name of a genus of birds and efpecially the Highlands, where it breeds, and
of the order of pafleres, the diftinguifiling characters of inhabits the pine-forefts, feeding on the feeds, like the
which are thefe : The bill is ftrong, convex above and —r" l':n T* c A "n c—A- rr
below, and very thick at the bafe: the noftrils are
Email . and round: the tongue is as if cut off at the
end : fhe toes are four, placed three before and one
behind ; excepting in one fpeciesj which has only two
toes before and one behind.
1. The curviroftra, or common crofs-bill, which is
about the fize of a lark, is known by the Angularity
©f its bill, both mandibles of w hich curve oppofite
ways and crofs each other : The general colour of the
plumage in the male is of a reel-lead inclining to rofe-
colour, and more or lefs mixed with brown:
the
crofs-bill. It is alfo found in all the pine-forefts of
Siberia, Lapland, and the northern parts of Ruflia :
it is common about St Peterftmrgh in autumn, and is
caught in great plenty at that time for. the ufe of the
table ; returning north in fpring. They are likewife
common to the northern parts of America ; appearing
at Hudfon’s Bay in May, to which place they are faid
to come from the fouth, and are obfcrved to feed on
the buds of willow. The fouthern fettlements arc
inhabited by them throughout the year, but the
northern only in the fummer feafon. Our laft voyagers.
met with this bird in Norton Sound; it was alfo
wings and tail are brown; the legs black. The fe- found at Aoonalafhka.
sale is of a green colour, more or lefs mixed with 4. The pyrrhula,.or bullfinch,.is fo generally knowm
I O X [ 31° ] L O X
a? almoft to fuperfede defcription : The head, wings,
and tail, are black ; the breaft and belly red ; the upper
tail coverts and vent white ; and the breaft afh-colour.
The female differs in having the under parts of a red-
Midi brown. This fpecies is common in moft parts of
the continent of Europe, and throughout Ruflia and
Siberia, at which laft places it is caught for the table.
It is pretty common in England ; and builds in the
'bilfhes, five or fix feet from the ground. The neft is
compofed chiefly of mofe ; and the eggs, which are
five or fix in number, are dirty bluifh white, marked
at the large end with dark fpots. The time of breed¬
ing is about the end of May or beginning of June.
In the fummer it moftly frequents woods and the
more retired places. In winter it approaches gardens
and orchards, and has been generally ftigmatifed for
making havock among the buds of trees. From fome
late obfervations, however, it would appear, that the
objeft of thefe birds is not the bud, but “ the worm in
the bud and that this fpecies, in conjunftion writh
various other fpecies of fmall birds, are the frequent
means of defending the embryo-fruits, and thence pro¬
moting their growth -to maturity : for the warmth
that fwells the buds, not only hatches nidos (eggs) of
unnumbered tribes of infects, whofe parent flies, by
an unerring inftindt, laid them there,—but brings for¬
ward a numerous race already in a caterpillar ftate,
that now iffue from their concealments, and make
their excurfion along,the budding branches, and would
probably deftroy every' hope of fruitage, but for-thofe
ufeful inftruments for its prefervation, whofe yo'ung
are principally fed by eating caterpillars.-—The buH-
;finch, in its wild ftate, has only a plain note ; but
when tamed it becomes remarkably docile, and may
be taught any tune after a pipe, or to whiftle any notes
in the jufteft manner': it feldom forgets what it has
learned ; and will become fo tame as to come at call,
perch on its matter’s fhoulders, and (at command) go
through a difficult muficai leflbn. They -may be 'alfo
taught to .fpeak, and fame -thus inftrudted are annually-
brought to London from Germany.
5. The ceeruka, or blue grofsbeak, is the fize of
•the bullfinch.: The bill is ftout, brown, and the bafe
of it furrounded .with black feathers which reach on
each fide as far as the eye : the whole plumage befides
.is of a deep blue, except the quills and tail, which are
brown, with a.mixture of green, and acrofs the wing
.coverts a band of red : the legs are dufky. It is an
inhabitant of South America ; but is fometimes found
in Carolina, where it is a very folitary bird, and feen
only in pairs, but difappear in winter. It has only
a Angle note.
6. The violacea, or purple grefsbeak, is about the
.fize of a fparrow : The bill is black : the plumage,
violet black ; except the irides, a ftreak over the eye,
the chin, and the vent, which are red : the legs are
dufky grey. This fpecies inhabits the Bahama Iflands,
Jamaica, and the warmer parts of America.
7. The cardinalis, or cardinal groftbeak, is near
eight inches in length. The bill is ftout, and of a
pale red colour : the irides are hazel: the head is
greatly crefted, the feathers rifing up to a point when
ereft : round the bill, and on the throat, the colour is
black ; the reft of the bird of a fine r*d j the quills
and tail duller than the reft, andbrownifh within : the Latin* ^
legs are the colour of the bill. The female differs —
from the male, being moftly of a reddifh brown.
This fpecies is met with in feveral parts of North A-
merica ; and has • attained the name of nightingale
from the finenefs of its fong, the note of which
refembles that of the nightingale. In fpring, and moft
part of the fummer, it fits on the tops of the higheft
trees, finging early in the morning, and piercing the
ear with its loud pipe, Thefe birds are frequently
kept in cages, in which they fing throughout the year,
with only fhort intervals of mutenefs. They are foM
of maize and buck-wheat ; and will get together great
hoards of thefe, often as much as a bufhel, which they
artfully cover with leaves and fmall twigs, leaving
only a fmall hole for entrance into the magazine.
They are alfo fond of bees. They come the beginning
of April into New York and the Jerfeys, and fre¬
quent the Magnolia fwamps during the fummer: in
autumn they depart, towards Carolina. They are
pretty tame, frequently hopping along the road be¬
fore the traveller; but are not gregarious, fcarce ever
more than three or four being met with together.
From their being familiar birds, attempts have been
made to breed them in cages, but without fuccefs.
8. The orix, or grenadier grofsbeak, is about the
fize of a houfe-fparrow. The forehead, fides of the
head, and chin, are black ; the breaft and belly the
fame: the wings are brown, with pale edges; and
the reft of the body of a beautiful red colour : the legs
are pale. Thefe birds are inhabitants of Saint Helena;
they are alfo in plenty at the Cape of Good Hope,
where they frequent watery places that abound with
reeds, among which they are fuppofed to make their
neft. If (as is fuppofed) this be the fame with Kolben’s
Finch, he fays that the neft is of a peculiar contri¬
vance, made with fmall twigs, interwoven very clofely
and tightly with cotton, and divided into two apart¬
ments with but one entrance (the upper for the male,
the lower for the female), and is fo tight as not to be
penetrated by any weather. He adds, that the bird is
fcarlet only in fummer, being in the winter wholly
afti-coloured. Thefe birds, feen among the green
reeds, are faid to have a wonderful effect; for, from
the brightnefs of their colours, they appear like fo
many fcarlet lilies.
9. The Philippina, or Philippine grofsbeak, is about
the fize of a fparrow : the top of the head, the hind
part of the neck and back, and the fcapulars, are yel¬
low, the middle of the feathers brown : the lower part
of the back is brown, with whitifh margins: the fore
part of the neck and breaft are yellow; and front,
thence to the vent yellowifti white ; the wing-coverts
brown, ed^ed with white: the quills are brown,
with pale rufous or whitifh edges; and the tail the
fame : the legs are yellowifh. Thefe birds inhabit the
Philippine Iflands ; and are noted for making a mofl:
curious neft, in form of a long cylinder, fwelling out
into a globofe form in the middle. This is compofed
of the fine fibres of leaves, &c. and fattened by the
upper part to the extreme branch of a tree. The
entrance is from beneath ; and, after afeending the
cylinder as far as the globular cavity, the true neft is
placed on one fide of it; where this little architect
by«
L O X [ ju ] L O X
Loxia
P* 3i.*
lays her eggs, and hatches her brood in perfect fecu-
rity.
A variety of this fpecies, the Baglafechat (Buff. iii.
469), an inhabitant of Abyffinia, makes a very curi¬
ous neft like the former, but a little different in Ihape ;
and is faid to have fomewhat of a fpiral form, not un¬
like that of a nautilus. It fufpends it, like the other,
on the extreme twig of fome tree, chiefly one that
hangs over fome ft ill-water; and always turns the
opening towards that quarter from whence leaft rain
may be expected.
xo. The Abyffinica, or Abyflinian grofsbeak, is
about the fize of the hawfinch : the bill is black : the
hides are red: the top and fides of the head, throat,
and breaft, are black: the upper parts of the body,
belly, and thighs, pale yellow, inclining to brown where
the two colours divide : the fcapulars are blackifh ; the
wing-coverts brown, bordered with grey; the quills and
tail brown, edged with yellow : the legs are of a red-
difh grey. This bird is found in Abyffinia ; and makes
a curious neft of a pyramidal Ihape, which is fufpended
from the ends of branches like the others. The open¬
ing is on one fide, facing the eaft : the cavity is fe-
parated in the middle by a partition ; up which the
bird rifes perpendicularly about half-way, when de-
fcending, the neft is within the cavity on one fide.
By this means the brood is defended from fnakes,
fquirrels, monkeys, and other mifchievous animals, be-
fides being fecure from rain, which in that country
fomCtimes lafts for fix months together.
11. The penfilis, or penfile grofsbeak, (the Toddy~
bird of Fryer), is about the.fize of the houfe-fparrow r
the bill is black : the irides are yellow: the head, throat,
and fore part of the neck, the fame : from the.noftrils
fprings.a dull green , ftripe, which paffes through the
eye and beyond it, where it is broader: the hind part
of the head and neck, the back, rump, and wing-
coverts, are of the fame colour : the. Quills are black,
edged with green; the belly is deep grey, and the
vent of a rufous red:, the tail and legs are black.
Thisfpecies isfound at Madagafcar; and fabrieatesanell
of a curious conftruction, compofed of ftraw and reeds
interwoven in ftiape of a. hag, the. opening beneath.
It is faftened above to a twig of fome tree ; moftly to
thofe growing, on the borders of ftreams. On one fide
of this, within, is the true neft.. The bird does not
form a new neft every year, but faftens a new one to
the end of the laft ; and often as far as five in number,
one hanging from another. Thefe build in fociety, like
rooks; often five or fix hundred being feen ont one
tree. They have three young at each hatch.
Kaempfer ft mentions a bird fimilar to this, if not
the fame, which makes the neft,' near Siam, on a tree
with narrow leaves and Xpreadmg,branches, the fize of
an apple-tree : the neft in the ftiape of a .purfe, with a
long neck, made of dry grafs and other materials, and
fufpended at the ends of. the. branches ; the opening
always to the north-weft. He counted fifty on one
tree only.; and defcribes the .bird itfelf as being like, a
Canary-bird, of a dark yellow, and chirps like a fpar-
rew.
4 Account,of • Fryer J alfo talks of tire ingenuity of the Toddy
Jadia and Bird, making a neft “ like a fteeple, with winding
meaaders,” and tying_ it .by a flender thread to the
bough of a tree. “ Hundreds of thefe pendulous
nefts may be feen on thefe trees.”
12. The chloris, or greenfinch, is a well-known bird:
the general colour is a yellowiih green, paleft on the.
rump and breaft, and inclining to white on the belly ;
the quills are edged with yellow, and the four outer
tail-feathers are yellow from the middle to the bafe';
the bill is pale-brown, and ftout 5 and the legs are of
a Hefti-colour.—--This fpecies is pretty common in Bri¬
tain, and flies in troops during the winter. It makes
the neft in fome low buffi or hedge, compofed of dry
grafs, and lined with hair, wool, See. laying five or fix
greeniffieggs, marked at the larger end with red brown;
and the male takes his turn in fitting. This bird foon
becomes tame ; even old ones being familiar almoft as
foon as caught: it lives five or fix years. Like the
chaffinch, it is apt to grow blind if expofed to the
fun. This fpecies is alfo pretty common every where
on the continent of Europe : but not very frequent in
Ruffia ; and is not at all found in Siberia, though it
has been met with in Kamtfchatka. It is fufficiently
common both in Cumberland and Scotland: yet in
the firft, it is fcarce ever obfervedin the winter feafon;
but the laft week in Mai-ch becomes plentiful, and
breeds as in other parts of England^
13. The Bengalenfis, or. Bengal grofsbeak, is a trifle
bigger than a houfe-fparrow: the bill is of a fleffi-colour }
the irides are whitiffi; the topoftheheadisof agoldenyel-
low; the upper parts of the body are brown, with paler
edges; the fides of the head and under parts rufous
white ; acrofs the breaft is a brown band, uniting to,
and of the fame colour with, the upper parts of the
body; tlxe legs are of a pale yellow, the claws grey.
This fpecies (thus deferibed by Mr Latham) feems to
be the fame with the Indian grofsbeak. deferibed as
follows in the BJiatic Refearcbes. “ This little bird,
called bayd in Hindi, berleia in. Sanfcrit, babui in the
dialed! of Bengal, c/bii in Perfian, and tenawwit in
Arabic, from his remarkably pendant neft, is rather
larger than a fparrow, with yellow-brown plumage;
a yellowifix head and feet, a light-coloured breaft, and
a conic beak very thick in proportion to his body.
This bird is exceedingly common in Hindoftan : he is
aftoniffiingly fenfible, faithful, and. docile, never vo¬
luntarily deferting the place where his young were
hatched, but not averfe,. like moft other birds, to the
fociety of mankind, and eafily taught to perch on the
hand of his mafter. In a ftate of nature he generally
builds his neft on the higheft tree that he can find, efpe-
cially on the palmyra, or on the lndian fig-tree, and he
prefers that which happens to overhang a well or a rivu-.
let: he makes it of grafs, which he weaves like cloth
and ffiapes like a. large bottle, fufpending it firmly
on the branches, but fo as to rock with the wind, and
placing it with its entrance downwards to fecure it
from birds-of prey. His neft ufually confifts of two
or three chambers ; and it is the popular belief that
he lights them with fire-flies, which he catches alive
at night, and confines with moift clay or with cow-
dung : That fuch flies are often found in his neft;
where pieces of cow-dung are. alfo ftuck, is indubi¬
table ; but as their light could be of little ufe to him,
it feems probable that he only feeds on them. He may
be taught with cafe to fetch a piece .of paper, or any
L 0 X . C 3
’Loxia. fmall thing that his matter points out to him : It is an
v attefted fait, that if a ring be dropped into a deep well,
and a fignal given to him, he will fly down with ama¬
zing celerity, catch the ring before it touches the wa¬
ter, and bring it up to his matter with apparent exul¬
tation } and it is confidently aflerted, that if a houfe
or any other place be fhown to him once or twice, he
will carry a note thither immediately on a proper fig¬
nal being made. One inftance of his docility I can my-
felf mention with confidence, having often been an eye-
witnefs of it. The young Hindoo women at Benares,
and in other places, wear very thin plates of gold,
-called tic as, (lightly fixed by way of ornament between
their eye-brows; and when they pafs through the
ftreets, it is not uncommon for the youthful libertines,
who amufe themfelves with training bayas, to give
them a fignal, \Vhich they nnderftand, and fend them
to pluck the pieces of gold from the foreheads of their
miftrefles, which they bring in triumph to the lovers.
The baya feeds naturally on grafshoppers and other
infe&s; but will fubfift, when tame, on pulfe macera¬
ted in water: his fleflt is warm and drying, of eafy
digeftion, and recommended in medical books as a fol-
vent of (lone in the bladder or kidneys ; but of that
virtue there is no fufficient proof. The female lays
many beautiful eggs refembling large pearls; the white
of them, when they are boiled, is tranfparent, and
the flavour of them is exquifitely delicate. When
many bayas are affembled on a high tree, they make
a lively din ; but it is rather chirping than finging :
Tjheir want of mufical talents is however amply fup-
plied by their wonderful fagacity, in which they are
-not excelled by any feathered inhabitant of the fo-
reft.”
14. The nigra, or black grofsbeak, is about the fize
of a Canary bird : the bill is black, flout, and deeply
notched in the middle of the upper mandible: the
plumage is black, except a little white on the fore part
of the wing and bafe of the two firft quills : the legs
are black. It inhabits Mexico.
15. The minuta, or minute grofs'beak, is about the
fize of a wren : the bill is flout, thick, fhort, and
brown: the upper parts of the plumage are grey brown,
the under parts and rump ferruginous chefnut; the
fourth, fifth, and fixth quills are white at the bafe:
the legs are brown. It inhabits Surinam and Cayenne.
—It is faid to keep paired to its mate the whole year;
and is a lively, and not very tame bird. It moftly
frequents lands which have Iain for feme time unculti¬
vated ; and lives.both on fruits and feeds. It makes
a roundifh neft, the hollow of which is two inches
in diameter, compofed of a reddifli herb, and placed
on the trees which it frequents. The female lays three
or four eggs.
16. The focia, or fociable grofsbeak, is about the fize
of a bullfinch : The general colour of the body above
is a rufous brown, the under parts yellawifh : the beak
and muzzle are black ; the legs brown ; and the tail
is (hort. It inhabits the interior country at the Cape
of Good Hope ; where it was difeovered by Mr Pater-
fon.—Thefe birds, according to our author, live toge¬
ther in large focieties, and their mode of nidification
is extremely uncommon. They build in a fpecies of
M'tmofa which grows to an uncommon fize; and which
N° 188.
12 1 I O X
they feem to have fele&ed for that purpofe, as well on Loxia."
account of its ample head, and the great ftrength of ■- v-—?
its branches, calculated to admit and to fupport the ex-
tenfive buildings which they have to creft, as for the
tallnefs and fmoothnefs of its trunk, which their great
enemies, the ferpent-tribe,- are unable to climb. The
method in which the nefts themfelves are fabricated,
is highly curious. In the one deferibed by Mr Pater-
fon there could be no lefs a number (he fays) than
from 800 to 1000 refiding under the fame rooff. He t See the
calls it a roof, becaufe it perfectly refembles that of a r®‘
thatched houfe ; and the ridge forms an angle fo acute at Mjmo-
and fo fmooth, projefiting over the entrance of the neft sA.
below, that it is impoflible for any reptile to approach
them. The induftry of thefe birds “ feems almoft
equal (fays our author) to that of the bee ; through- Journitt
out the day they appear to be bufily employed in car-tnta *be
rying a fine fpecies of grafs, which is the principal ma-c<'‘nt£) *1
terial they employ for the purpofe of erecting this ex- 't/ntotf'
traordinary work, a&well as for additions and repairs, a- 133.
Though my (hor-t flay in the country was not fuffici- &c.
ent to fatisfy me by ocular proof, that they added to
their neft as they annually increafed in numbers, (till
from the many trees which I have feen borne down with
the weight, and others which I have obferved with
their boughs completely covered over, it would appear
that this is really the cafe ; when the tree which is
the fupport of this aerial city is obliged to give way
to the increafe of weight, it is obvious that they are no
longer protected, and are under the neceflity of rebuild¬
ing in other trees. One of thefe deferted nefts I had
the curiofity to break down, fo as to inform myfelf of
the internal ftru&ure of it, and found it equally ingeni¬
ous with that of the external. There are many en¬
trances, each of which forms a regular ftreet, with nefts
on both fides, at about two indies diftance from each
other. The grafs with which they build is called the
Bofliman s grafs: and I believe the feed of it to be
their principal food; though, on examining their nefts,
I found the wings and legs of different infects. Front
every appearance, the neft which I differed had been
inhabited for many years; and fome parts of it were
much more complete than others : this therefore I
conceive nearly to amount to a proof, that the animals
added to it at different times, as they found ncceffary,
from the increafe of the family, or rather of the naiioa
or community.”
17. The tridaftyla, or three-toe’d grofsbeak (the
guifso balito of Bujfon), has only three toes, one be¬
fore and one behind. The bill is toothed on the edges:
the head, throat, and fore-part of the neck are of &
beautiful red, which is prolonged in a narrow band
quite to the vent; the upper part of the neck, back,
and tail, are black ; the wing coverts brown, edged with
white ; quills brown, with greenifh edges; and legs a
dull red : the wings reach half way on the tail 
This fpecies inhabits Abyflinia; where ft frequents
woods, and is a folitary fpecies. It feeds on kernels
of feeds, which it breaks with eafe with its bill. The
name in its native place is gmfso batito dimmo-'won jerck.
Button’s figure is from Mr Bruce’s drawings.
i here are ; 6 other fpecies of this genus; the whole
number, befides varieties, enumerated in the Syji. Nat.
(Gmelin), and in Mr Latham’s Index Oriutb. bein^3.
3 °n
Plate erLXXlY .
L U B [31
■Loyo’a On Plate CCLXXIV. are given fpeeimens of fix, viz.
II A, the Camilea ; B, the Longicauda ; C, the Socia ;
IiUbgc' , D, the Cardinal!s ; E, the Nigra ; F, the Violacea.
¥ LOYOLA (Ignatius). See Ignatius.
LOZENGE, in heraldry, a four-cornered figure,
refembling a pane of glafs in old cafements. See He¬
raldry, P.455.C0I. 1. Though all heralds agree, that
fingle ladies are to place their arms on lozenges, yet
they differ with refpeft to the caufes that gave rife to
it. Plutarch fays, in the life of Thefeus, that in Me-
gara, an ancient town of Greece, the tomb-ftones, un-.
der which the bodies of the Amazons lay, were fhaped
after that form ; which fome conjecture to be the caufe
why ladies have their arms on lozenges, S. Petra SanEla
will have this fhield to reprefent a cujhion, whereupon
women ufed to fit and fpin, or do other houfewifery.
Sir J. Feme thinks it isibrmed from the fhield called
tejfera, which the Romans finding unfit for war, did
allow to women to place their enfigns upon, with one
of its angles always uppermoft.
Lozenges, among jewellers, are common to bril¬
liant and rofe diamonds. In brilliants, they are form¬
ed by the meeting of the ficill and ftar facets on the
bezil; in the latter, by the meeting of the facets in the
horizontal ribs of the crown. See Facets.
Lozenge is alfo a form of medicine, made into
fmall pieces,- to be held or chewed in the mouth till
they are melted there : the fame with what are other-
wife called trochifci) “ troches.”
LUBEC, a city and port-town of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony and duchy of Holfteii), in
E. Long. 10. 35. N. Lat. 54. 20. It Hands at the
conflux of feveral rivers, the largefl of which is the
Trave, 12 miles from the Baltic, where it has a fine
harbour, and 40 north-eaft of Hamburg. By the Stec-
kenitz, another of thofe rivers, it has a communica¬
tion with the Elbe, and confequently with thd Ger¬
man ocean. The city lies on the fide of a hill, with
the Trave, increafed by the Steckenitz on the one fide,
and the Waekenitz on the other ; and is flrongly for¬
tified with baflions, moats, walls, and ramparts} the
lafl: of which are planted with trees, and form an a-
greeable walk. Lubec being formerly the chief of. the
Hanfe towns, was very powerful in confequence of
the vaft trade it carried on ; but a great part of that
trade is now transferred to Hamburg : however, it is
Hill faid to employ 150 of its own (hips, and has a
great fliare of the Baltic trade. It is about two miles
in length, and more than one in breadth. The houfes
are all of Hone, but old-fafhioned. Several of the
ilreets have on each fide rows of lime-trees, with canals
in the middle, like thofe of Holland. The public
ftrudlures confift of the.ancient cathedral of the bilhop-
ric of Lubec, and feveral other Lutheran churches ; a
nunnery for 22 ladies, with an abbefs and priorefs ; a
poor-holife, an alms-houfe, and houfe of correction ;
an orphan-houfe ; an hofpital dedicated to the Holy-
Ghoft ; a houfe in which poor travellers are entertain¬
ed three days, and then fent forward with a pafs ; but
fuch as happen to be fick, are piovided with all necef-
faries till they recover or die ; the city-armoury, a
grammar-fchool oi feven claffes, the Calvinift church,
and the Popifh chapel. The deputies of the Hanfe-
towns ufed to meet here formerly in the town-houfe.
Vol. X. Part 1.
3 1 L u n
An alliance dill fubfifts between Lubec, Hambufg, I-uhec
and Bremen ; and thefe cities, under the name of L'lbm
Hanfe-toivns, negociate treaties with foreign powers. ’
Here are divers manufactures, and the city’s territory
is about 60 miles in compafs. In the diet of the em¬
pire Lubec is pofieffed of the third feat among the Rhe-
nifh imperial cities; and among thofe of the circle, has
the firlt. In tjie matricula, its affeffment is 480 flo¬
rins, and to the chamber of Wetzlar it pays 557 rix-
dollars and 88 kruitzers. The city is a republic with¬
in itfelf, and both makes and executes laws in regard
to civil and criminal matters, &c. A father and fon,
or two brothers, cannot be in the regency at the fame
time. The famous league of the Hanfe-towns was be¬
gun here in 1164. This city had its charter of privi¬
leges from the emperor Frederic II. Formerly it car¬
ried on wars, both offenfive and defenfive, for feveral
years, not only againft the dukes of Mecklenburg, but
again ft the kings of Sweden and Denmark ; particu¬
larly in 1428, when it fitted out 250 fhips of . force
againft Eric X. king of Denmark. There are about
20 churches in Lubec, with lofty fteeples or fppreg.
The Trave brings fliips of burden into the very heart
of the city; but the largeft unload at Travemunde,
i. e. the mouth of the Trave, eight or ten miles di-
ftant. Formerly it is faid to have employed no lefs
than 600 fhips. In the famous cellar here, it is faid
there is wine 200 years old. The church of St Ma¬
ry’s, a noble lofty pile, is fupported by tall pillars,
all of one Hone each, and has a high fpire, covered
with gilt lead. The town’s garrifon confifts of about
700 or 800 men. The revenue of its Lutheran bifliop,
though he is a prince of the empire, is faid not to exceed
3000 pounds.
LUBEN, a city of Germany, in the marquifate of
Lower Lufatia. It is fituated on the river Spree, and
is the capital of a fmall circle of the fame name. It
is the feat of the diets, and of the chief tribunals
and offices; and has feveral churches, with a noble
land-houfe and hofpital. E. Long. 14. 25. N. Latr.
52LUBIENIETSKI (Staniflaus), a Poliffi gentle¬
man, defcended from a noble family, and born at
Cracow in 1623, was educated by his father with
great attention. He became a celebrated Socinian mi-
nifter; and took great pains to obtain a toleration
from the German princes for 1 is Socinian brethren.
His labours, however, were ineffectual; being himfelf
perfecuted by the Lutheran .minifters, and banilhed
from place to place ; until at length he was banifhed
out of the world, with his two daughters, by poifon,
his wife narrowly efcaping, in 1675. We have of his
writing si hijlory of the reformation in Poland; Atrea-
tife on comets ; with other works in Latin.
LUB1N (Eilhard), was profeffor of poetry in the
univerfity of Roftock in 1595 : and ten years after,
was promoted to the prpfefforfliip. of divinity. He
wrote notes on Anacreon, Juvenal, Perfius, &c. and
feveral other works; but that which made the mofl
noife is a Treatife on the nature and origin of evil, in-
titled, Phofphorus ffe caufa prima et natura mail, printed
at Roftock in 1596 ; in which we have a curious hy-
pothefis to account for the origin of moral evil. He
fuppofed two co-eternal principles; not matter and va-
R r eawm.
LUC [ 314 3 LUC
LuWIn ritim, as Epicurus did ; but God, and Nihilum or No-
Lucinus being publiibed againft by Grawer, was
1,.,. defended by Lubin ; but after all, he is deemed better
acquainted with polite literature than with divinity.
He died in 16?. 1.
LUBLIN, a handfome and confiderable town of
Poland, capital of the palatinate of the fame name,
with a citadel, a bifhop’s fee, an univerfity, and a
handfome Jewifli fynagogue. Here the judicial courts
for ail Poland are held. It hasthree fairs, frequented
by merchants from all nations. It is feated on the ri¬
ver Byftrziia. E. Long. 22. 31. N. Lat. 51. 26.
LUCA, (anc. geog.), a town of Etruria, on the
river Aufer; a colony and a municipium. Now
Lucca, capital of the republic of that name, near the
river Sechia. E. Long. 11. 20. Lat. 43. 4,5.
LUCANIA, a country of Italy, and a part of
Magna G raecia ; bounded on the north by the river
Silarus by which it was feparated from the Picentini,
and by the river Bradanus by which it was parted from
the Apuli Peucetii; on the fouth by the Laus, which
fepa,mted it from, the Bruttii; on the eaft by the Si¬
nus Tarentinus ; and on the weft by the Tufcan fea.
J.ucani, the people, defcendants of the Samnites. Lu¬
can us the epithet, (Horace). Luc<e haves denoted ele¬
phants ; firft feen in Pyrrhus’s wars in Lucania, whepce
the appellation (Pliny).
LUCANUS (Marcus Annreus), a Latin poet, born
at Corduba in Spain, about A. C. 39. He was the
fon of Annaeus Mela, the youngell brother of Seneca ;
and was conveyed to Rome from the place of his na¬
tivity at the age of eight months : a circuraftance, as
his more indulgent critics obferve, which fufficiently
refutes the cenfure of thofe who confider his language
as provincial. At Rome he was educated under the
Stoic Cornutua, fo warmly celebrated by his difciple
Perfius the fatirift, who was the intimate friend of our
poet. In the clofe of his education, Lucan is faid to
have pafted fome time at Athens.. On his return to
Rome he rofe to the office of quaeftor, before he had
attained the legal age. He was afterwards inrolied
among the augurs ; and married a lady of noble birth,
and of a moft amiable charaifter. Lucan had for fome
time been admitted to familiarity with Nero, when
the emperor chofe to contend for poetical honours by
the public recital of a poem he had compofed on Niobe;
and fome verfes of this imperial produftion are fup-
pofed to be preferved in the firft fatire of Perfius. Lu¬
can had the hardinefs to repeat a poem on Orpheus,
in competition with that of Nero ; and, what is more
remarkable, the judges of the conteft were juft and
bold enough to decide againft the emperor. From
hence Nero became the perfecutor of his fuccefsful ri¬
val, and forbade him to produce any poetry in public.
The well-known confpiracy of Pifo againft the tyrant
foon followed} and Tacitus, with his ufual farcaftic
feverity, concludes that Lucan engaged in the enter-
prize from the poetical injuries he had received: “ a
remark (fays Mr Hay ley5", who has endeavoured to
h;srefute the imputation) which does little credit to the
Second Epi- candour of the hiftorian 5 who might have found a
fie on Epic much nobler, and, I will add, a more probable motive
Eodry. for his conduft, in the generous ardor of his character,
and his paffionate adoration of freedom. In the fennel
of his narration, Tacitus alleges a charge againft our
poet, which, if it were true, muft lead us to deteft I/Jeanuj.
him as the moft abjefb of mankind.. The hiftorian af- " v—**
ferts, that Lucan, when accufed of the confpiracy, for
fome time denied the charge ; but corrupted at laft.by
a promile of impunity, and defirous to atone for the
tardinefs of his confeffion, accufed his mother Atilla
as his accomplice. This circumftance is fo improbable
in itfelf, and fo little confonant to the general charafter
of Lucan, that fome writers have treated, it with con¬
tempt, as a calumny invented by Nero, to vilify the
objedl of his- envious abhorrence. But the name of
Tacitus has given fuch an air of authority to the ftory,.,
that it may feem to deferve a more ferious difeuffion,
particularly as there are two fubfequent events related
by the fame hiftorian, which have a tendency to inva¬
lidate the accufation fo injurious to- our poet. The
events I mean are,, the fate of Annaeus, and theefcape
of Atilla, the two parents of Lucan. The former died
in confequence of an accufation. brought againft him,,
after tlie death of his fon, by Fabius Romanus, who
had been an intimate with Lucan, and forged .fome let¬
ters in his name, with the defign of proving his father
concerned in the confpiracy. Thefe letters were pro¬
duced to Nero, who lent them to Annaeus, from an
eager defire,.fay s Tacitus, to get poffeffion of his wealth-
From this fa<ft two inferences may be drawn, accord¬
ing to the different lights in which it may be confider-
ed :—If the accufation againft Annaeus was juft, it is
clear that Lucan had not betrayed his father, and he ap-
. peats the lefs likely to have endangered by his con¬
feffion the life of a parent, to whom he owed a Hill ten*
dertr regard—If Annaeus was not involved in the con¬
fpiracy, and merely put to death by Nero for the fake,
of his treafure, we may the more readily believe, that
the tyrant who murdered the father from avarice,.might
calumniate the fon from envy. But the efcape of Atilla
affords us the ftrongeft reafon to conclude that Lucan
was perfedlly innocent of the abject and unnatural
treachery of which Tacitus has fuppofed him guilty.
Had the poet really named his mother as an accom¬
plice, would the vindi&ive and fanguinary Nerp have
fpared the life of a woman whofe family he detelled,
particularly when other females were put to death for
their ffiare in the confpiracy ? That Atifta was not in
that number, the hiftorian himfelf informs us in the
following remarkable fentence, “ Atilla mater Annari
Lucani, fine abfolutione, fine fupplicio, diffimulata
thus tranflated by Gordon : “ The information again ft
Atilla, the mother of Lucan, was diffembled ; and,
without being cleared, ffie efcaped unpuniffied.”
The preceding remarks will, our author hopes, vin¬
dicate to every candid mind the honour of Lucan,
whofe firmnefs and intrepidity of character are indeed
very forcibly difplayed in that picture of his death,
which Tacitus himfelf has given us. He was condemned
to have his veins cut, as his uncle Seneca had before
him. Lucan, “ while his blood iffued in ftreams, per¬
ceiving his feet and hands to grow cold and ftiffen,
and life to retire by little and little to the extremities,
while his heart was ftill beating with vital warmth,
and his faculties nowife impaired, recollected fome
lines of his own, which deferibed a wounded foldier
expiring in a manner that refembled this. The lines
themfelves he rehcarfed ; and they were the laft words
he ever uttered.” The critics differ concerning the
verfea
LUC
r.vicanufl, verfes o? tlic Pharfalia which the author quoted in fo
t—~v—' memorable a manner. The two paffages he is fuppofed
to have repeated are the following ; of which Lipfius
contends for the latter.
Sanguis erant lacrym: quatcunque foramina nova
Humor, ab his lartius manat cruor: ora redundant,
Ht patulsB pares: fudor rubet: oniuia plcnis
Membra flaunt verbs : totum eft pro vulnere corpus.
JLib. ix. 814.
Now the warm blood at once, from every part,
Ran purple poifon down, and drain’d the fainting heart.
Blood falls for tears; and o'er his mournful face
The ruddy drops their tainted paifage trace.
Where’er the liquid juices And a way.
There ftreams of blood, there crimfon rivers ftray.
His mouth and guflung noftrils pour a flood.
And e’en the pores ouze out the trickling blood ;
In the red deluge all the parts lie drown’d,
And the whole body feems one bleeding wound.
Rowe.
Scindirur avulfus; nec ficut vulnere fanguis
Emicuit lentus ; ruptis cadit undique venis,
Difcurfufque arums, diverfa in membra meantis,
Interceptus aquis. Lib. iii. v. 638.
No Angle wound the gaping rupture feems, -
Where trickling crimfon wells in flender ftreams;
Bur, from an op’ning horrible and wide,
A thpufand veflels pour the burfting tide :
At onCe the winding channel’s courfe was broke.
Where wand’ring life her mazy journey took;
At once rhe currents all forgot their way,
And lofttheir purple in the azure fea. Rowe.
Buell was the death of Lucan before he had completed
his 27th year.—His wife, Polla Argentaria, is faid to
have tranferibed and corre&ed the three firft books of
the Pharfalia after his death. It is much to be
[ 3!s ]
LUC
ration which flic paid to the memory of her huiband Lucanu*.
is recorded by Martial; and more poetically deferibed
in that pleafmg and elegant little produ&ion of Statius,
Genethllacon Lucani, a poem faid to have been written
at the requell of Argentaria. The author, after in.
voking the poetical deities to attend the ceremony,
touches with great delicacy and fpirit on the compo-
fitions of Lucan’s childhood, which are loft, and the
Pharfalia, the produftion of his early youth : he then
pays a Ihort compliment to the beauty and talents of
Argentaria; laments the cruel fate which deprived her
fo immaturely of domeftic happinefs; and concludes
with an addrefs to the lhade of Lucan, which, with
Mr Hayley’s tranflation, we lhall fubjoin in a Note,
as it feems to furnilh a ftrong prefumption of Lucan’s
innocence in regard to one of the accufations mention¬
ed above (a). “ Had he been really guilty of bafely
endangering the life of his mother (fays Mr Hayley),
it is not probable that his wife would have honoured
his memory with fuch enthufiaftic veneration; or that
Statius, in verfes defigned to do him honour, would
have alluded to the mother of Nero. If his character
as a man has been injured by the hiftorian (continues
Mr Hayley), his poetical reputation has been treated
not lefs injurioully by the critics. Quintilian, by a
frivolous diltinftion, chfputes his title to be claffed
among the poets ; and Scaliger fays, with a brutality
of language difgraceful only to himfelf, that he feems
rather to bark than to fir$. But thefe infults may ap¬
pear amply compenfated, when we remember, that in
the moft polifhed nations of modern Europe the moft
gretted (Mr Hayley obferves) that we poflefs not the elevated and poetic fpirits have been his warmeft ad-
poem which he wrote on the merits of this amiable mirers; that in France he was idolized by Corneille,
and accomplifhed woman; but her name is immorta- and in England tranflated by Rowe—The fevereft
lized by two iurviving poets of that age. The vene- cenfures on Lucan have proceeded from thofe who
R r 2 have
(a) At tu, feu rafijdum poli per axem
Fam* curribus arduis levatus.
Qua furgunt aninue potentioren.
Terras defpicip, et fepulchra rides :
Seu pacis meritum nemus reclufse
Felix Elyfiis fenes in oris,
<Iuo Pliarfalica turba congregatur;
Et tc nobile carmen inf >nantem
Pompeii comitantur et Catones:
Tu magna facer et fuperbns umbra
Nefcis Tartaron, et procul nocentum
Audi* verbera, pailidumque vifa
Matris lampade refpicis Neronem.
Adfis lucidus ; et vocante Polla
Uuam, quxf>, diem decs fdentum
Kxores; folet hoc patere limen
Ad nuptas redeuntibus maritis.
Hasc te non thiafis proeax dolofis
Falfi numinis induit figuras;
Ipfum led edit, et f equentat ipfum
imis altius inlitum medulii-;
Ac folatia vana fubminiftrat
Vultus, qui fimili notatus anro
Stratis pramitet, excubatque fomno
Secur*. Procul hinc abite mortes;
Htec virse genitalis eft origo;
Cedat luclus atrox, genifque manent
Jam dukes 1 aery ms, dolorque feftus
Qnicquid fleverat ante nunc adoret.
But you, O ! whether to the fleies
On Fame’s triilmphant car you rife,
(Where mightier fouls new life affume)
And mock the confines of the tomb;
Or whether in Elyfium bleft
You grace the grovfes of facred reft,
Where the Pharfalian heroes dwell;
And, as you ftrike your epic fhell,
The Pompeys and the Catos throng
To catch the animating fong;
Of Tartarus the dread controul
Binds not your high and hallow’d foul:
Diftant you hear that wailing coaft.
And fee the guilty Nero's ghoft
Grow pale witli anguilh and affright.
His mother flalhing on his fight.
Be prefent to your Polla’s vows,
While to your honour’d name ftie bows!
One day let your intreaties gain
From thofe who rule the fhadowy train !
Their gates have op’d to blefs a wife,
And given a hufband back to life.
In you the tender fair invites
No fancied god with frantic rices:
You are the objeit of her prayers,
You in her inmoft heart ftie bears:
And, ftampt on mimic gold, your head
Adorns the faithful mourner’s bed,
And fooths her eyes before they clofe,
The guardian of her chafte repofe.
Away with all funereal ftate !
From hence his nobler life we dare :
Let mourning change the pang fevere
To fond devotion’s grateful tear 1
And feftal grief, its anguilh o’er,
What it lamented, now adore !
LUC [ 31
Lueanui, have unfairly compared his language to that of Virgil:
. 1^ar- . but how unjuft and abfurd is fuch a comparifon ! it is
"" comparing an uneven block of porphyry, taken rough
from the quarry, to the moft beautiful fuperficies of po-
lifhed marble. How differently fhould we think of
Virgil as a poet, if we poffeffed only the verfes which
he wrote at that period of life when Lucan compofed
his Pharfalia ! In the difpofition of his fubjeft, in' the
propriety and elegance of didtion, he is undoubtedly
far inferior to Virgil: but if we attend to the bold
originality of his defign, and to the vigour of his fen-
timents; if we confider the Pharfalia as the rapid and
uncorrefted fketch of a young poet, executed in an age
when the fpirit of his countrymen was broken, and
their tafte in literature corrupted; it may juftly be
efteemed as one of the moft noble and moft wonderful
productions of the human mind.”—Lucan wrote fe-
veral poems; but we have none remaining befide his
Pharfalia, of which an excellent Englifh verfion has
been given by Mr Nicholas Rowe.
LUCANUS, the Stag-beetle, in zoology;a genus
of infedls of the order coleoptera ; The antennae end in
a club or knob, which is compreffed or flattened on one
fide, and divided into fhort laminae refembling the teeth
of a comb; the jaws are porreCted or advanced before
CCLXXV t^ie keac*’ anc* are Stated. There are 20 fpecies.
’ The largeft, as well as the moft Angular, is the cervus;
which is eafy to be known by two large moveable
maxillae, refembling in form the horns of a ftag, which
projedt from its head, and have in a fpecial manner
acquired it the appellation of Stag-Beetle. Thofe
maxillae, broad and fiat, equal to one third of the in-
fedf’s length, have in the middle, towards their inner
part, a fmall branch, and at their extremity are forked.
Befides this, they have feveral fmall teeth throughout
their whole length. The head that bears thefe
maxillae is very irregular, very broad and fhort. The-
thorax is fomething narrower than the head and body,
and margined round. The elytra are very plain, with¬
out either ftreaks or lines. The whole animal is of a
d'eep brown colour. It is commonly found upon the
oak, but is fcarce in the neighbourhood of London,
and though the largeft of coleopterous infedfs to be
met with in this part of the world, it is much fmaller
than thofe of the fame fpecies that are found in woody
countries. This creature is ftrong and vigorous, and
its horns, with which it pinches feverely, are carefully
to be avoided.-—The jaws are fometimes as red. as co¬
xal, which gives this infedt a very beautiful appear¬
ance; the female is diftinguifhed by the fhortnefs of the
jaws, which are not half fo long as thofe of the male.
—Thefe infects feed on the liquor that oozes from
oaks, which they (nek with their trunk or tongue.
The females depofit their eggs in the trunks of decayed
trees, fuch as the oak and the afh. The larvae or
grubs lodge under the bark and fa the hollow of
old trees, which they eat into and reduce into fine
powder, and there transform themfelves into chryfalids.
They are common in Kent and Suffex, and are fome¬
times met with in other parts of England. The por-
redted jaws are particularly ufeful to thefe animals, in
ftripping off the bark from tre.es, and affixing them¬
felves thereby to the tree, while they fuck with their
trunk the juice that oozes from it.
LUCAR de Barameda (St), a handfome and
6 ] LUC
confiderable town of Spain, with a very good harbour, Lucar
well defended, in Andalufia. It was once the greateft II
port in Spain, before the galleons unloaded their trea- Lucas'
fure at Cadiz. It is feated at the mouth of the river , ”
Quadalquiver. W. Long. 6. 5. N. Lat. 36. 40.
Lucar de Guadiana (St), a ftrong town of Spain,
in Andalufia, on the confines of Algarve ; feated on
the river Guadiana, with a little harbour. W. Long.
5. 59. N. Lat. 37. 32.
Lucar la Major (St), a fmall town of Spain, in
Andalufia, with the title of a duchy. It is feated on
the river Guadiana, in W. Long. 6. 32. N. Lat. 37.21.
LUCARIA, a feaft celebrated at Rome on the
18th of July, in memory of the flight of the Romans
into a great wood, where they found an afylum, and
faved themfelves from deftrudtion. This wood, in
which they found proteftion, was fituated between
Tyber and the Via Salaria. The enemies from whom,
the Romans fled were the Gauls.—On this feftival,
Plutarch tells us, it was cuftomary to pay the actors,
and fuch as contributed to the public amufement, with
the money arifing from the felling of wood. This
money was called lucar. It is obvious, from what has
been obferved, that hear and lucaria are derived from.
lucus, a grove.
LUCAS (Jacobs), an eminent artift, more gene¬
rally known by the name of Lucas van Leyden, or
Hugenfe, was born at Leyden in 1494. He received
his firft inftrudfions in the art of painting from his fa¬
ther Hugues Jacobs; but completed his ftudies in
the fchool of Cornelius Engelbrecht. He gained
much money by his profeffion ; and being of a gene¬
rous turn of mind, he fpent it freely, dreffed well, and
lived in a fuperior ftyle. It is faid, that, a few years
before his death, he made a tour into Zealand and
Brabant; and during his journey, a painter of Flulh-
ing, envious of his great abilities, gave him poifon at
an entertainment; which, though very flow, was too
fatal in its effedt, -and put an end t# his life, after fix
years languilhing under its cruel influence. Others,
denying the ftory of the poifon, attribute his death
to his inceffant induftry. The fuperiority of this
artift’s genius manifefted itfelf in his infancy : for his
works, even from the age of nine, were fo excellent,
as to excite the admiration of all contemporary artiftsj
and when he was about 15, he painted, a St Hubert,,
which gained him great applaufe. His tone of colour¬
ing (Mr Pilkington obferves) is good, his attitudes
(making a reafonable allowance for the ftiff German
tafte) are well-chofen, his figures have a confiderable:
expreffion in their faces, and his pi&ures are very
highly finilhed. He endeavoured to proportion the
ftrength of his colouring to the different degrees of
diftance in which his obje&s were placed : for in that
early time, the true principles of perfpedtive were but
little known, and the praftice of it was much lefs,
obferved. In the town-hall at Leyden, the moft ca¬
pital pidture of Lucas, the fubjedt of which is the Laft
Judgement, is preferved with great care; the magi-
ftrates having refufed very large fums which have been
offered jbr it.
This artift painted not only in oil, but alfo in dis¬
temper and upon glafs. Nor was he lefs eminent for
his engraving than for his painting. He carried on
familiar and friendly correfpondence with Albert
6 Durer*
LUC [ 3'7 1 LUC
Luca«. Durer, vrho was his cotemporary; and, it is fatd, that
—V—1 as regularly as Albert Durer publifhed one print, Lu¬
cas publifhed another, without the leaft jealoufy on
either fide, or wdfh to depreciate each other’s merit.
And when Albert came into Holland upon his travels,
he was received by Lucas in a moft cordial- and affec¬
tionate manner. His ftyle of engraving, however, ac¬
cording to Mr Strutt, differed confiderably from that of
Albert Durer, “and feems evidently to have been found¬
ed upon the works of Ifraelvan Mechlen. His prints
are very neat and clear, but without any powerful
effect. The ftrokes are as fine and delicate upon the
objetffs in the front, as upon thofe in the diftances;
and this want of variety, joined with the feeblenefs of
the maffes of fliadow, give his engravings, with all
their neatnefs, an unfiniffied appearance, much unlike
the firm fubftantial effedt which we find in the works
of Albert Durer. He was attentive to the minutiaj
of his art. Every thing is carefully made out in his
prints, and no part of them is neglected. He gave great
charafter and expreffion to the heads of his figures ;
but, on examination of his wmrks, we find, the fame
heads too often repeated. The hands and feet are
rather mannered than correct; and when he attempted
to draw the naked figure, he fucceeded but-very indif¬
ferently. He affe&ed to make the folds of his dra¬
peries long and flowing; but his female figures are
frequently fo exceffively loaded with girdles, bandages,
and other ornamental trappings, that much of the ele¬
gance of the defign is loft. He engraved on wood, as
well as on copper; but his works on the former are by no
means numerous. They are,however, very fpirited; tho’
not equal, upon the whole, to thofe of his friend Albert.
The prints of this matter are pretty numerous, but
very feldom met with complete ; efpecially fine im-
prefiions of them. For though they are, generally
fpeaking, executed with the graver only, yet, from
the delicacy of the execution, they foon fuffered in the
printing. Of his engravings the few following may
be mentioned as among the principal, i. Mahomet
Jleeping, ’with a priejl murdered by his fide, and another
fgurefeating his/word, a middling-fized upright plate,
dated 1508, faid to be one of his moft early produc¬
tions. 2. An ecce homo, a large plate, lengthwife,
dated 1510. 3. The crucifixion on Mount Calvary,
the fame. 4. The ’wife mens offering, the fame,
dated 1513. J- Return of the prodigal fan, a mid¬
dling-fized plate, lengthwife, dated 1518. 6. A
large print lengthwife called the dance of Magdalen,
dated 1519. 7. His own portrait, a fmall upright
plate, dated 1525. 8. David playing before Saul, a
middling-fized upright plate, dated This is a
very fine print; the expreflion of Sauls countenance,
in particular, is admirable. 9. A print known by
the name of Ulefpiegle, which is the fcarceft of all the
works of this mafter. It is in the colle&ion of the
king of France ; and faid by Marches, and other
matters, to be unique. But Bafan informs us, that
M. Mariette had alfo an impreffion of this plate ; and
it has been fince found in one or two other collections.
It reprefents a travelling bag-piper with his family ;
himfelf playing as he goes along,, and carrying two
children in a bafket at his. back ; his wife trudging by
his fide, fupporting with one hand an infant on her
fhoulder, and with the other leading an afs loaded
with two bafkets, having two children in each; and Imtas
another child going before, with a little dog, completes II
the finguW groupe. This rare print is dated 1520, Lucena'
and is known to have been fold for 16 louis-d’ors —v—J
It is nearly 74- inches high by 4! broad ; and has
been twice copied. One of the copies is the reverfe
way : but the other is the fame way with the origi¬
nal ; and though not fo well executed, might without
a comparifon be mittaken for it.
Lucas (Richard), D. D. a learned Englilh di¬
vine, was born in 1648, and ftudied at Oxford : after
which he entered into holy orders, and was for fome
time mafter of the free fchool at Abergavenny. Be¬
ing efteemed an excellent preacher, he became vicar of
St Stephen’s, Coleman ftreet, in London, and lec¬
turer of St Olave’s in Southwark. He was doctor of
divinity; and in 1696 was inftalled prebendary of
Weftminfter. His fight began to fail him in his youth ;
and he totally loft it in his middle age. He was great¬
ly efteemed for his piety and learning ; and publiflied
feveral works, particularly, I. Praftical Chriftianity.
2. An inquiry after happinefs. 3. Several fermons.
4. A Latin tranflation of the whole duty of man. He
died in 1715.
LUCCA, a fmall republic of Italy on- the coaft of
the Meditenanean, between the territory of Genoa
on the weft, Modena on the north,, and Tufeany on
the eaft. According to Keyfler, it is only about 30.
miles in circumference, but is exceeding fertile and po¬
pulous. It contains, befides the city of Lucca, 150 vil¬
lages. The number of inhabitants are computed at
120,000. The government is lodged in a gofa-
lonier, whofe power is much the fame with that of
the doges of Venice and Genoa. He is aflifted by
nine counfellors: but the power of all the ten conti¬
nues only for two months; during which time they
live in the ftate-palace, and at the public expence.
They are chofen out of the great council, which con-
fifts of 240 nobles ; but even this council is changed by
a new election every two years. The revenues of the
republic are about 400,000 feudi or crowns; out of
which they maintain 500 men by way of regular force,,
and 70 Swifs as a guard to their a citing magiftrates.
The city of Lucca is fituated in a plain, terminating in
moft delightful eminences, adorned with villas, fum-
mer-houfes, corn-fields, and plantations of every kind;,
fo that nothing either for ufe or pleafure is here want¬
ing. The city, which is about three Italian miles in.
circumference, has regular well-lined fortifications;
and its ftreets, though irregular, are wide, well paved;
and full of handfome houfes. The number of its in¬
habitants are computed to be above 40,000;; and they
carry on large manufactures, efpecially of fdk-iluffs.
Lucca has a biftiop, who enjoys feveral extraordinary
privileges ; and its cathedral is Gothic, Tire city
ttands in E. Long. M. 27; N. Lat. 43. 52.
LUCENTI, Luceutia, or Lucentum, a town of
the Hither Spam, now Alicant, a- fea-port of Va¬
lencia. W. Long. 32', Lat. 38' 37'.
LUCERES, in Roman antiquity, the thirdin or¬
der of the three tribes into which Romulus.divided;
the people, including all foreigners; fo called from-
the lucus or grove, where Romulus opened an afylum.
LUCERIA (anc. geog.), a town of Apulia hr.
Italy; which in Strabo’s time, ftill exhibited marks cf
DiomeTa.
LUG t 3i
Lucerius piomed'g fovereipnty in thofe parts. Ptolemy has Nu~
j ceria j whether from miftakc, or the cuftom of his
’ ‘, time, uncertain. Now Nocera de Pagani, in the king¬
dom of Naples. E. Long. 15, o. N. Lat. 40. 40.
LUCERILI5, in mythology, a name given to Ju¬
piter, as Luceria wafi given to Juno, as the deities which
gave light to.the world.
LUCERNE, one of the 13 cantons of Swifler-
land. It holds the third place among the 13 ; and is
the head of the Catholic cantons. Though lefs than
‘Zuric, and confequently much lefs than Berne, it is,
however, far more extehfive than, any of the reft, be¬
ing 15 or 16 leagues long, and eight broad. The po¬
pulation is eftimated at 100,000. Even the moun¬
tainous part is not barren, but abundant in wood and
pafture, furniihing cattle, hides, cheefe, and butter,
for exportation. All the north part is fertile in grain,
fruit, and hay; fupplying fufficient fpr the con-
fumption of the inhabitants : but as the mountaineers
of the little cantons come to their market for corn.,
the people of Lucerne purchafe this commodity from
other parts of Swiflerland, but efpecially from Alface
and Suabia. Their manufa&ures are very inconfide-
rable ; c.onfifting only in a little filk and cotton thread.
 The government is oligarchical. The councils are
chofen from among 500 citizens only. The great
council of 64 members is the nominal fovereign ; but
in faft the power relides in the fenate, or little coun¬
cil of 36* having for their chiefs the two Avoyers.—r-
The whole canton profeffes the Roman Catholic re¬
ligion. The pope’s nuncio, with the title of legate
a latere, ufually refides at Lucerne.—They threw off
the Aultrian yoke in 1352, and by entering into a
perpetual alliance with the three ancient cantons, they
gave fuch weight to the confederacy, as to enable it
in 13$6 to refift all the efforts of the enemy at the
bloody battle of Sempach.
The town of Lucerne is fUuated at the extremity of
a moft beautiful lake of the fame name, where the
river Renfs iffues from it. The buildings are ancient,
and the ftreets narrow'; nor is Lucerne populous in
proportion to its extent, the inhabitants being only
between 3 and 4000, Since this is the great paffage
to Italy by Mount St Gothard, and the merchandize
which paifes the Alps on mules, and is to be tranf-
ported by the rivers Reufs, Aar, and Rhine, is all
depofited here, it might have a flourifhing trade if
arts and manufaftures were attended to. The Reufs
feparates the town into two unequal parts, which are
conne&ed by three bridges ; one wide for carriages;
and two narrow covered ones for foot paffengers : be-
fides thefe, there is a fourth over an arm of the lake,
to pals to the cathedral. Three of thefe bridges have
old bad paintings of the Dance of Death, and the Hi-
itory of the Bible, and of Swifferland. They make
a commodious dry walk for the inhabitants.—Of re¬
ligious edifices, the principal are the cathedral, or col¬
legiate church of St Leger ; the convent of Corde¬
liers ; the college of the Jefuits ; the convent of Capu¬
chins ; and two convents of nuns. Of the fecular
buildings, the hotel de Ville is the principal. The
arfenal is well furnifhed. The water tower is re¬
markable only for its pofition and antiquity : it is faid
to have been a pharos or lighthoufe.—What greatly
attracts moft the notice of llrangers is, a plan in
8 ] _ LUC
relief of part of the cantons of Lucerne, Zug, and l ucerne,
Berne, and the whole of Schweitz, Uri, and Under- JLucia‘ ^
Wald, executed by General Pfiffer on a large feale. 4 **
He has completed about 60 fquare leagues ; the plan
is 12 feet long, and- nine and a half broad: every
mountain is accurately meafured; and every objed
diftindly placed.
The Lake of Lucerne exhibits greater variety and
more pidur,efque feenery than any other of the Swifs
lakes. It is feven leagues long in a right line, and
three wide about Kuffnacht; but the fliape is very ir¬
regular. The whole feuth fide is bordered by high
mountains; but the north exhibits hills of no great
height. The narrow gulph that extends towards the
weft, is bordered on the north and north-weft by mount
Pilat, which is a fingle mountain riling boldly more
than 6000 feet above the lake ; and on the South by
mount Burgenberg. Stanz-Stadt, -belonging to the
canton of Underwald, is on this fide ; and hereabout?
the lake is deepeft. Kuffnacht is on the point of the
other gulph, which extends towards the eaft, and is
wider than the former. All the country to the weft
of thefe gulphs, and part of it to the north of the
latter, belongs to the canton of Lucerne; but that
which is to the fouth and north-eaft is dependant on
the canton of Zug. All the mountains on the left
ftiore of the lake belong to the canton of Underwald ;
thofe on the right, partly to the canton of Uri, partly
to that of Schweitz, partly to the little republic of
Gerfaw, but principally to the canton of Lucerne.
Lucerne, in botany. See Medicago.—For the
culture of this plant, fee Agriculture, ^183.
LUCIA (St), one of the Caribbee Ifiands in the
Weft Indies, about 22 miles long, and 11 broad, tire
middle of it lying in N. Lat. 39. 14. W. Long. 27. o.
It was firft fettled by the French in 1650; but was
reduced by the Englilh in 1664, who evacuated it in
1666. The French immediately re-fettled the ifiand,
but were again driven away by the Caribbs. As foon
■as the favages were gone, the former inhabitants re¬
turned, but only for a Ihort time; for being afraid of
falling a prey to the fil-ft privateer that Ihould vifit
their coafts, they removed either to other French fet-
tlements that were ftronger, or which they might ex¬
pert to be better defended. There was then no re¬
gular culture or colony at St Lucia ; it was only fre¬
quented by the inhabitants of Martinico, who came
thither to cut wood, and to build canoes, and who
had confiderable docks on the ifiand. In 1718
it was again fettled by the French; but four years
after, it was given by the court of London to the duke
of Montague, who was fent to take poffeffion of it.
This Occafioned fome difturbance between the two.
courts ; which was fettled, however, by an agreement
made in 1731, that, till the refpedlive claims Ihould
be finally adjufted, the ifiand ftiould be evacuated by
both nations, but that both fiiould wood and water
there. This precarious agreement furnifhed an opr
portunity for private intereft to exert itfelf. The
Englifh no longer molefted the French in their habi¬
tations; but employed them as their alfiflants in car¬
rying on with richer colonies a fmuggling trade, which
the fubje&s of both governments thought equally ad¬
vantageous to them. This trade has been more or
lefs confiderable till the treaty of 1763, when the
4 ‘ pro-
LUC f 3'
tucia, property of St-Lucia was fccum! to the' crown of
Lucian. France. After that time the colony flourilhcd confi-
derahly. In the beginning of the year 1772, the
number of White people amounted to 2018 fouls, men,
women, and children; that of the blacks to 663 free¬
men, and 12,795 flaves* The cattle confided of 928
mules or horfcs, 207c head of horned cattle, and 3184
fheep or goats. There were 38 fugar plantations,
which occupied 978 pieces of land; 5>395>^9 coffee-
trees; 1,321,600 cocoa plants; and 367 plots of cot¬
ton. There were 706 dwelling places. The annual
revenue at that time was about 175,000!. which, ac¬
cording to the Abbe Raynal, muft have increafed one-
^ eighth yearly for feme time. It was taken by the
Britifh fleet under admirals Byron and Barrington, in
the year 177* ; but was reitored to France at the
peace of 1783.
The foil of St Lucia is tolerably good, even at the
fea fide; and is much better the farther one advances
into the country. The whole of it is capable of cul¬
tivation, except fome high and craggy mountains which
bear evident marks of old volcanoes. In one deep
valley there are ft ill eight or ten ponds, the water of
which boils up in a dreadful manner, and retains fome
of its heat at the diftance of 6000 toifes from its re-
fervoirs. The air in the inland parts, like that of all
other uninhabited countries, is foul and unwholefofne;
but grows lefs noxious as the woods are cleared and
the ground laid ©pen. On fome parts of the fea-
coaft, the air is ftill more unhealthy, on account of
fome fmall rivers which fpring from the foot of the
mountains, and have not fufficient flope to wafti down
the fands with which the influx of the ocean flops
up their mouths, by which means they fpread them-
felves into unwholefome marlhes on the neighbouring
grounds.
Lucia (St), a high and mountainous ifland of
Africa, and one of thofe of Cape Verde, is about nine
leagues long, and lies in the latitude of 16" 18' N.
according to the Engliftr geographers ; but according
to *11 others, it is. a degree farther to the northward.
Gn the eaft-fouth-eaft fide is a harbour, with a bot¬
tom and Ihore of white fand ; but its beft road is oppo-
fite to St Vincent’s to the fouth-weft, where there are
at leaft 20 fathoms of water. On the weft fide there
is no water: it abounds with-goats, fea and land fowl,
tortoifes, &c. but whether it hath any inhabitants is
not certainly known.
LUCIAN, a celebrated Greek author in the firft
century, was born at Samofata, of obfeure parents, in
the reign of the emperor Trajan. He ftudied law, and
praftifed fome time as an advocate; but growing weary
of the wrangling oratory of the bar, he commenced
rhetoriciam He lived to the time of Marcus Aure¬
lius, who made him regifter of Alexandria in Egypt;
and,, according to Suidas, he was at laft worried by
dogs. Lucian was one of the fineft ufits in all anti¬
quity. His Dialogues, and ether works, are written
in Greek. In thefe he has joined the ufeful to the
agreeable, inftru&ion to fatire, and erudition to ele¬
gance y and we every where meet with that fine and
delicate raillery which charadlerifes the Attic tafte.—
Thofe who cenfure him as an impious fcoffer at reli¬
gion, have reafon on their fide, if religion con filled in
9 ] LUC
the theology of the Pagan poets, or in the extravagant LuciamfU
opinions of philofophers; for he perpetually throws
fuch ridicule on the gods and philoibphers, with their uc^ ms*t
vices, as infpires hatred and contempt for them ; but J
it cannot be faid that he writes any where againft an
over-ruling providence. V
LUC1ANISTS, orLucANisrs, a religious fe<ft,
fo called from Lucianus, or Lucanus, a heretic of the
fecond century, being a difciple of Marcion, whofe
errors he followed, adding fome new ones to them.
Epiphanius fays he abandoned Marcion; teaching that
people ought not to marry, for fear of enriching the
Creator : and yet other authors mention that he held
this error in common with Marcion and other Gno-
ftics. He denied the immortality of the foul y alfert-
ing it to be material.
There was another fedl of Lucianifts, who appear*
ed fome time after the Arians. They taught, that
the Father had been a Father always, and that he
had the name even before he begot the Son; as having
in him the power or faculty of generation: and in this
manner they accounted for the eternity of the Son.
LUCID intervals, the fits of lunatics or ma¬
niacs, wherein the phrenzy leaves them in pofieffion
of their reafon.
LUCIFER, according to the poets, was the fofi
of Jupiter and Aurora: in aftronomy, Lucifer is the
bright planet Venus, which either goes before the fuit
in the morning, and is our morning ftar.; or in the
evening follows the fun, and then is called Hefperus or
the evening ftar.
LUCIFER A, in mythology, a furname given to
Diana, under which title fhe was invoked by the
Greeks in childbed. She was reprefented as cover¬
ed with a large veil, interfperfed with ftars, bearing
a crefcent on her head, and holding in her hand a
lighted flambeau.
LUCIFERIANS, a religious feft, who adhered
ft) the fchifm of Lucifer, biftiop of Cagliari, in the'
fourth century, who was ban! filed by the emperor.
Conftantius for having defended the Nicene doftrine
concerning the three perrons'in the godhead.—St Au-
guftine feems to intimate, that they believed the foul,.,
which they confidered as of a carnal nature, to be-
tranfinitted to the children from their fathers. Theo-
doret fays, that Lucifer was the author of a new
error. The Luciferians increafed mightily in Gaul,
Spain, Egypt, &c. The occafion of the fchifm was,
that Lucifer would not allow any afts he had done to
be abolifhed. There were but two Luciferian bifhops,
but a great number of priefts and deacons. The Lu¬
ciferians bore a peculiar averfion to the Arians.
LUCILIUS (Caius), a Roman knight, and a La¬
tin poet, was born at Suefla in Italy, about 140 B. C.
He lerved under Scipio Africanus in the war with the
Numantines; and was in great favour with that cele¬
brated general, and with Loelius. He wrote 30 books
of fatires,:,ln which Ire lafhed feveral perfons of quality
very fharply. Some learned men aferibe the invention
of fatire to him ; but M. Dacier has maintained, with
great probability, that Lucilius only gave • a better
turn to that kind of poetry, and wrote it with more
wit and humour than* his predeceffors Ennius and Pa-
cuvius had done. His fragments have been carefully.
colleftedi
I u C L 3t° ] 1 U D
■Lvc’m colk&cd ty Francis Doura at Leyden in ijgg, with difengaged him. All Pontus then fubmitted to Lu«
II notes. But they require ftill to be better illuftrated cullus; who being continued in his government of
UCiU l!8' by fome learned critic. Afia, entered the territories of Tigranes, the molt
LUC IN A, a goddefs among the Romans, who powerful king in Afia. That prince marched with a
prefided over women in labour. Some take her to be formidable army againft Lucullus : who defeated him
* Diana, others Juno. She is called Lucina, becaufe with a handful of mesi, and killed great numbers of
{lie brought children to the light; from the Latin word his forces 5 took Tigranocertes, the capital of his king-
lux, “ light.” # dom ; and was ready to put an end to the war, when
LUCIUS, in ichthyology. See Esox. the intrigues of a tribune got him depofed, and Pompey
LUCONIA. See Manila. dominated in his room. Lucullus having brought home
LUCOPHEREA, in ichthyology. See Perca. prodigious riches, now gave himfelf up to exceffive lu-
LUCRETIA, the famous Roman matron, wife of xury; and his table was ferved with a profufion till that
Collatinus, and the caufe of the revolution in Rome time unknown. He brought from the Eaft a great num-
from a monarchy to a republic: this lady being ra- ber of books, which he formed into a library, and gave
vifhed by -Sextus, the eldeft fon of Tarquin king of admittance to all men of learning, who frequented it in
Rome, ftabbed herfelf, 509 B. C. See the article great numbers. Toward the end of his life, he fell into
Chastity. The bloody poinard, with her dead body a kind of madnefs; and Lucullus, his brother, wasap-
expofed to the fenate, was the fignal of Roman li- pointed his guardian. He is faid to have been the firft
berty ; the expulfion of the Tarquins, and abolition who brought cherries into Europe, having brought the
of the regal' dignity, was inftantly refolved on, and grafts from the kingdom of Pontus.
carried into execution. See Rome. LUCUS, in general, denotes a wood or grove fa*
LUCRETIUS, orTiTus Lucretius Caius, one cred to a deity; fo called a lucendo, becaufe a great
of the moft celebrated of the Latin poets, was born of number of lights were ufually burning in honour of
an ancient and noble Roman family, and ftudied at the god (Ifidorus); a practice common with idola-
Athens, where he became one of Epicurus’s fedt. He ters, as we learn from Scripture: hence Homer’s
acquired great reputation by his learning and elo- «>Aa,v
<iuence; but in the flower of his age fell into a frenzy, LUD, a Brit'''1 ^mg mentioned in our old chro-
occafioned by a philtre given him by his wife, who nicies, and faid to have reigned about the year of the
was diflradtedly fond of him. Lucretius, during the world 3878. He is reported to have enlarged and
intervals of his madnefs, put Epicurus’s dodtrines into walled about Troynovant, or New Troy, where he kept
verfe, and compofed his fix books De rerum natuta, his court, and made it his capital. The name of Lnn-
which are ftill extant. It is faid that he killed him- don is hence derived from Lud’s town ; and Ludgate,
felf in a fit of madnefs, in the 54th year before the from his being buried near it: but this is only one
Chriftian sera, when 51 years old. The moft corredt among many other derivations of the name of London;
edition of Lucretius is that of Simon de Coline. The which are at leaft equally probable. See London.
cardinal de Polignac has refuted Lucretius’s arguments LUDI, a term ufed for ftiows and public reprefen-
in his excellent Latin poem intitled Anti-Lucretius* tations made by the Romans, fo«>the entertainment of
His poem Z)tf, recam natura has been tranflated into the people. See Games.
Englifti by Mr Creech. For an account of the particular games of Greece
LUCRINUS lacus (anc. geog.), a lake of Cam- and Rome, as the Ifthmian, Nemsean, Olympic, &c.
pania, between Bains and Puteoli, famous for Its oy- fee Isthmian, &c.
ilers (Horace, Martial, Juvenal); Lucrinenfes (Cicero), LUDIUS, a celebrated painter, lived in the reign
the people dwelling on it. Now a perfect bay fince of Auguftus C as far, and excelled in grand compofitions.
the earthquake in 1538. He was the firft who painted the fronts of houfes in
LUCULLUS (Lucius Lucinius), a Roman gene- the ftreets of Rome ; which he beautified with great
ral, celebrated for his eloquence, his victories, and his variety of landfcapes, and many other different fub-
riches. In his youth he made a figure at the bar; and jedts.
being afterwards made quneftor in Afia, and praetor,in LUDLOW (Edmund), fon of Sir Flenry Ludlow
Africa, governed thofe provinces with great modera- was-born at Maidenhead, and educated in Trinity
tion and juftice. Scarce was he known as a military college, Oxford. His father oppofing the king’s in-
man, when he twice beat the fleet of Amilcai, and tereft, Mr Ludlow joined with the fame party, and
gained two great victories over him. His happy ge- was prefent at the battle ofEdgehillas a volunteer un-
nius was greatly improved by ftudy; for he employed der the earl of Effex. Upon the death of his father,
his leifure in reading the belt authors on military af- he was chofen knight of the {hire for Wilts, and ob-
fairs. Being made conful with Aurelius Cotta, du- tained the command of a regiment of horfe for the de¬
ring the third war with Mithridates king of Pontus, lence of that county. He was one of King Cha. I.’s
he was fent againft this prince : and this expedition judges: after whofe death he was fent by the parlia-
was attended with a feries of victories, which did him ment into Ireland, in quality of lieutenant-general of
lefs honour than an adt of generofity towards his col- the horfe ; which employment he difeharged with di¬
league ; who, willing to take advantage of his abfence ligence and fuccefs till the death of the lord-deputy
to fignalize himfelf by fome great exploit, haftened to Ireton, when he a£ted for fome time as general, though
fight Mithridates; but was defeated and fliut up in without that title; Cro'‘""'U, who knew him to be
Calcedonia; where he muft have* perifhed, if Lucullus, fincerely in the intereft of the commonwealth, always
facrificing his refentment to the pleafure of faving a finding out fome pretext to hinder the conferring of
Roman citizen, had not flown to his affiftance, and that character upon him. The laft ftroke had been
N° 188. # given
L U D r 321 1 L U F
I.R'llow. given by Ludlow to the lrifh rebellion, if tbe ufurpa-
v—' tion of-Cromwell bad not prevented it. Under his
power-he never adled ; and though Cromwell ufed his
utmoft efforts, he remained inflexible. After Crom¬
well’s death, he endeavoured to refbore the common¬
wealth ; but Charles II. being recalled, he thought
proper to conceil hirrifeif, and eicaped into Switzer¬
land, where he fettled. After the revolution, he came
over into England, in order to be employed in Ire¬
land againfl: King James: but appearing publicly
in London, it gave great offence ; and an addrefs
was prefented by Sir Edward Seymour to King
William HI. for a proclamation in order to apprehend
Colonel Ludlow, attainted for the murder of King
* Charles L Upon this he returned to Switzerland,
where he died. During his retirement in Switzer¬
land he wrote his Memoirs.
Ludlow, a town of Shropfhire in England, fitua-
ted at the conflux of the Teme and Corve, 18 miles
from Shrewfbury, and 138 from London. The pre-
fdent of the council of the marches, eflablifhed by
H.nry VIII. generally kept his courts in it, by which
the town was much benefited, thefe courts not having
been abolifhed till the rfl of William and Mary. Its
neighbourhood to Wales makes it a great thorough¬
fare, and engages many of the Welch to fend their
children of both fexes to it for education. It was in¬
corporated by Edward IV- and among other privi¬
leges has that .of trying and executing criminals within
itfelf. It is one of the neateft towns in England,
with walls and feven gates. It is divided into four
wards; and is governed by 2 bailiffs, 12 aldermen, 25
common-councilmen, a recorder, a town-clerk, fteward,
chamberlain, coroner, &c. From the caftle on the top
of the hill on which the town Hands is a moll delight¬
ful profpedt. In an apartment of the outer gatehoufe
Samuel Butler is faid to have written the firft part of
Hudibras. Of this caftle, which was befieged and ta¬
ken by King Stephen, fome of the offices are fallen
down, and great part of it turned into a bowling-green;
but part of the royal apartments and the fword of
ftate are full left. The walls were at firft a mile in
compafs, and there was a lawn before it for near two
miles, of which much is now inclofed. The battle¬
ments are very high and thick, and adorned with
towers. It has a neat chapel, ‘where are the coats of
arms of abundance of Welch gentry, and over- the
ftablerdoors are the arms of Queen Elizabeth, the earls
of Pembroke, &c. This caille Was a palace of the
prince of Wales, in right of his principality. The
river Teme has a good bridge over it, feveral wears a-
crofs it, and turns a great many mills. Here is a
large parochial church, which was formerly collegiate 5
in the choir whereof is an infcription relating to Prince
Arthur, elder brother to King Henry VIII. who died
here, and whofe bowels were here depofited, though
it is faid his heart was taken up fome time ago in a
leaden box. In this choir is a clofet, commonly call¬
ed God’s Houfe) where the priefts ufed to keep their
confecrated utenfils; and in the market-place is a con¬
duit, with a long ftone crofs on it, and a niche wherein
is the image of St Laurence, to whom the church was
dedicated. On the north fide of'the town there was a
rich priory, whereof there are few ruins to be fcen ex¬
cept thofe of its church. Here are an alxns-houfe for
Vol, X. Part I.
30 poor.people, and two charity-fchools where yoboyi Ludolph
and 30 girls are both taught and clothed. It lias a L||g.
market on Monday, and three leffer ones on Wednef- i.LI
day, Friday, and Saturday. Its fairs are on the Tues¬
day Eafter, Whit-Wednefday, Auguft 21. Sept. 28.
and Dec. 8. Provifion? are very cheap here ; and at
the annual horfe-races there is the beft of company.
The country round is exceedingly pleafant, fruitful,
and populous, efpecially that part called the Corvcf*
dalet being the vale on the banks of the river Corve.
Ludlow fends two members to parliament.
LUDOLPH (Job), a very learned writer of the
17th century, was born at Erfurt in Thuringia. He
travelled much, and was mafter of 25 languages; vi-
fited libraries, fearched after natural curiofities and an¬
tiquities every where, and converfed with learned men
of all nations. He publiihed A Hiftory of Ethiopia,
and other curious books.
Ludolph (Henry William), nephew of Job above-
mentioned, was born at Erfurt in 1655. He came
over to England as fecretary to M. Lenthe, envoy from
the court of Copenhagen to that of London; and be¬
ing recommended to Prince George of Denmark, was
received as his fecretary. He enjoyed this office for
fome years, until he was incapacitated by a violent dif-
order; when he was difeharged with a handfome pen-
fion: after he recovered, he travelled into Mufcovy,
where he was well received by the czar, and where
his knowledge made the Mufcovite priefts fuppofe him
to be a conjuror. On his return to London in 1694,
he was cut for the ftone; and as foon as his health
would permit, in acknowledgment of the civilities he
had received in Mufcovy, he wrote a grammar of their
language, that the natives might learn their own tongue
in a regular method. He then travelled into the Eaft,
to inform himfelf of the ftate of the Chriftian church
in the Levant; the deplorable condition of which in¬
duced him, after his return, with the aid of the bifhop
of Worcefter, to print an edition of the New Tefta-
ment in the vulgar Greek, to prefent to the Greek
church. In 1709, when fuch numbers of Palatines
came over to England, Mr Ludolph was appointed by-
Queen Anne one of the commiffioners to manage the
charities railed for them; and he died early the fol¬
lowing year. His collefted works were publilhed in
1712.
LUDWIDGIA, in botany: A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
1 7th order, Calycanthem/e. The corolla is tetrapeta-
lous ; the calyx -quadripartite, fuperior; the capfule
tetragonal, quadrilocular, inferior, and polyfpermous.
LUES, among phyficians, is in general ufed for a
difeafe-of any kind ; but in a more particular fenfe is
re ft mined to contagions and peftilential difeafes : thus
the lues Gallica, or venerea, fignifies the venereal dif-
eafe. See MEDiciNE-/n^.v.
LUFF, the order from the pilot 'to the fteerfman
to put the helm towards the /rc-fide of the Ihip, in
order to make the Ihip fail nearer the direction of the
wind. Hence, luff round, or luff a-lee, is the excefs
of this movement, by which it is intended to throw
the fliip’s head up in the wind, in order to tack her,
&c. A Ihip is accordingly faid to fpring her luff
tvhen flie yields to the effort of the helm, by failing
$ f nearer
luff
Lk
L U K [ 322 1 L U M
nearer to the line of the wind than fhe had done before.
See alfo Hauling the Wind.
I,uFL-'Tach!e, 'a. name given by failors to any large
tackle that is not deftined for a particular place, but
may be varioufly employed as occafxon requires. It
is generally fomewhat larger than the jigger tackle,
although fmaller than thofe which ferve to hoift the
heavier materials into and out of the veffel, which lat¬
ter are the main and fore-tackles, the ftay and quar¬
ter-tackles, &Ci
LUG-sail, a fquare-fail, hoifted occafionally on
the mail of a boat or fipall veffel upon a yard which
hangs nearly at right angles with the mall. Thefe are
more particularly ufed in the barca longas, navigated
by the Spaniards in the Mediterranean.
LUGHUNUM (anc. geog.), the capital of the Se-
gufiani in Gallia Celtica, fituated at the conflux of the
Arar and Rhodanus, on an eminence, as the Celtic
term dune fignifies; built by Manutius Plancus under
Augullus, while commanding in that part of Gaul;
and whither he led a colony. Now Lyons, capital of
the Lyonois.
Lugdunum Batavorum (anc. geog), a town of the
Batavi in Gallia Belgica. Now Leyden in Holland.
Lugdunum Converarum (anc. geog.), a town of
Gaul in Aquitain, at the foot of the Pyrenees. Now
S. Bertrand, in Gafcony.
LUGEUS lacus (anc. geog.), a lake of Japydia,
the wellmotl dillrift of Illyricum, to the fouth of the
Save, and near the head of the Arlia. Now commonly
called the Zirichnitz Lake, from a fmall adjoining town.
It is locked on every fide with mountains; from which
fcanty currents run dowb ; the lefs in quantity their
waters, becaufe drank up by the earth ; till at length
they are fwallowed up in rocky furrows, fo formed as
to referable artificial. In thefe the water being fo redun¬
dant as to refufe receiving any more, they regurgitate,
and return the water with extraordinary celerity; which
thus fpreading itfelf, forms a lake, in moil places 18
cubits high. Thefe waters afterwards retire with
no lefs celerity than they came on, not only through
the furrows, but pafs through the whole of the bottom,
as through a fieve; which when perceived by the in¬
habitants, they diredtly Hop up the larger apertures,
and thus take large quantities of fifh : when the lake
is dry, they cut down their harvefl on the fpot where
they fowed, and fow again before the inundation comes
on : and grafs Ihoots fo quick on it, that it may be cut
down in three weeks time (Lazius, Wernherus).
LUGGERSHALL, a borough of Wiltfhire, 12
miles north of SaKfbury, and 7 5 north by weft of Lon¬
don. It is an ancient borough by prefeription, though
but a fmall hamlet, near the foreft of Chute, in a de¬
lightful country ; and was the refidence of feveral
kings. It had formerly a caftle. It is governed by
a bailiff chofen.yearly at the lord of the manor’s court-
leet. On the neighbouring downs there ufed to be
horfe-races. It has a fair on the 25 th of July, and
lends t>vo members to parliament,
LUKE (St),,the evangelift, and the difciple of the
apoftles, was: originally of Antioch in Syria, and by
profeflion a phyfician. He particularly attached him-
felf to. St Paul, and was his faithful companion in his
travels and labours. He went with him to Troas in
Macedonia about the year 51. He wrote his Gofpel
in Achaia about the year 53 ; and, ten years after, Luke
the Adis of the Apoftles, which contains a hiftory of II
30 years. Of all the infpired writers of the New Te- Lumbricg*
ftament, his works are written in the moft elegant
Greek. It is believed that St Luke died at Rome, or
in Achaia.
Gafpel of St Luxe, a canonical book of the NewTe-
ftament. Some uhink that it was properly St Paul’s
Gofpel; and that, when the apoftle fpeaks .of his Go¬
fpel, he means what is called St Luke's. Irenoeus fays,
that St Luke digefted into writing what St Paul preach¬
ed to the Gentiles; and- Gregory Nazianzen tells us,
that St Luke wrote with the affiftance of St Paul.
St Luke the Evangeli/l’s Day, a feftival in the Chri-
ftian church, obferved on the 18th of Odtober.
LULA, a town of Swedilh Lapland; feated at the
mouth of the river Lula, on the weft fide of the gulph
of Bothnia, 42 miles fouth-weft of Tornea. E. Long.
21. o. N. Lat. 64. 30.
Lula Lapmark, a province of Swedifli Lapland ;
bounded by that of Tornea on the north, by the Both-
nic Gulph on the eaft, by Pithia Lapmark. on the fouth,
and Norway on the weft.
LULLI (John Baptifl), the moft celebrated an3
moft excellent mufician that has appeared in France ' ’
firtce the revival of learning, was born at Florence. He
was taken to France when very young by a perfon of
quality ; and.he carried the art of playing on the vio¬
lin to the higheft perfedlion. Louis XIV. made him
fuperintendant of mufic. Some time after Perinna ha¬
ving introduced operas into France, and quarrelling
with his company, he refigned his privilege to Lulli.
Operas were then carried to the utmoft perfeftion by
this celebrated mufician, and were attended with con¬
tinual applaufe. Lulli every year, after this time, gave
a piece of his own compofition, tiE his death, which
happened in 1687.
LULLY (Raymond), a famous writer, furnamed
the Enlightened Do8or, was born in the ifland of Ma¬
jorca in 1225. He applied himfelfwith indefatigable
labour to the ftudy of the Arabian philofophy, to cbe»
miftry, phyfic, and divinity ; and acquired great re¬
putation by his works. He at length went to preach
the gofpel in Africa; and was ftoned to death ifi Mau¬
ritania, at the age of 80 He is honoured as a martyr
at Majorca, whither his body was carried. He wrote
many treatifes on all the fciences, in which he fliows
much ftudy and fubtilty, but little judgment or foli-
dity. A complete edition of his works has been print¬
ed at Mentz.—He ought not to be confounded with
Raymond Lully of Terraca, furnamed Neophyta, who
from being a Jew turned Dominican friar. This lall
Lully maintained feveral opinions that were condem¬
ned by Pope Gregory XI.
LUMBAGO, a fixed pain in the fmall of the back.
See jMedic in E-Index.
LUMBARIS, a name given to the arteries and
veins which fpread over the loins.
LUMBR1CAL, a name given to four mufcles of
the fingers and to as many of the toes.
LUMBR1CUS, the Worm, in zoology ;^a genus .
of infects belonging to the order of vermes inteftina.
The body is cylindrical, annulated, with an elevated-
belt near the middle, and a vent-hole on its fide. There
are two fpecies of this aninwl.
3 ' ivJUwo-
L U M [323
Ltimbricui 1. Lumbritas terreftris, the earth or dew Worm, Mr B ar-
Lumlnous 0^^erves* differs extremely in colour and external ap-
pearance in the different periods of its growth, which
. hasoccafioned peoplelittle acquainted with thevariations
of this kind of animals to make four or five different fpe«
cies of them ■: The general colour is a dufky red.-—
They live under ground, never quitting the earth but
after heavy rains or at the approach of {forms, and in
the feafon of their amours. The method to force
them out is, either to water the ground with infufions
of bitter plants, Or to trample on it.' The bare mo¬
tion on the furface of the foil drives them up, in fear
of being furprifed by their formidable enemy the mole.
The winding progrefiion of the worm is facilitated by
the inequalities of its body, armed with fmall, ftiff,
fharp-pointed briftles s when it means to infinuate it-
See LidHf, Lurti'n.otif.
nets ,
] L U N
LUMINOUSNESS or th< Se».
and Sea.
Lvminousness of Putrefcent Subjlances* See Light.
LUMP-fish. See Cvclopterus.
LUNA (anc. geog.), a foreft of Germany, at no
great diftance from the Hercynia; below which were
the Boemi 2 it was therefore in Moravia, near the
fprings of the Marus, now March, which runs into
the Danube over againft Carautum.
Luna, or Lunnat a town of Gallia Celtic!. Now
Clugny in Burgundy.
Luna, a town and port of Liguria, at the mouth,
of the Macra. The town was but fmall, but the port
large and beautiful, according to Strabo. Now ex¬
tin £t, and its ruins called Luna Diftrutta. It was fa¬
mous fof its quarries of white marble, thence called
felf into the earth, there oozes from its body a clammy Lunenfe; and for its cheefe, remarkable rather for
liquor, by means of which it Aides dowm. It' never its fize than goodnefs, each being a thoufand weight,
damages the roots of vegetables. Its food is a fmall Luna, in aftronomy, the moon. ,See Astronomy,
. Portion of earth, which it has the faculty of digefting; pajfm.
The fuperfluity is ejected by way of excrement', under Luna, in the jargon of the alchemifts, figftifies ft-
a vermicular appearance. Earth-worms are herma¬
phrodites, and have the parts of generation placed
near the neck: their copulation is performed on the,
ground ; nothing being more ufual I'.an to fee it full
of holes, which holes are thought to be made by tbofe
kind of worms coming to the furface in queft of fe¬
males. During their coition they would fooner fuffer
themfelves to be cruAied than parted.
2. The marinus, marine Worm, or lug, is of a pale         . q 
ICLXX1V red col°ur> and the body is compofed of a number of 38. 50.—Another Luna Mans of Ethiopia, from which
annular joints; the fitin is fcabrous, arid all the rings the Nile was fuppofed to take its rife.
fo called from the fuppofed influence of the mooft
thereupon.
Lun/i Cornea, in chemiftry, is the combination of
marine acid with filver. See Chemistry-/«<3,i?w.
I.UNACY, a fpepies of madnefs. See Lunaticj
and M£dicine-/«</«c.
Lunacy, in lawr. See Idiocy, and Lunatic.
LUN^E mons (anc. geog.), a promontory of Lufi*
tania. Now Rock of Ltjbon. W. Long. 10. N. Lat.
r joints are covered with little prominences, which
render it extremely rough to the touch. It is an in¬
habitant of the mud about the fea fhores, and ferves
for food to many kinds of fifli: furprifing large ones
rire to be met with about thq Bognor rocks in Suffex.
The fifliermen bait their hooks and nets with it.
For the effe&s of thefe animals in the human body,
. and the method of expelling them, fee Medicine-
Jndex.
LUMELLO, a village in Italy, which gives name
to the Lumellin, a fmall diflrift in the duchy of Mi¬
lan, lying along the river Po, and of which Mortaria
and Valencia are the principal places. It was ceded
to the duke of Savoy in 1707, and confirmed by the
treaty of Utrecht in 1713. E. Long. 8. 42. N. Lat.
45-5-
fhines or emits light.
Luminous Emanations, have been obferved from
human bodies, as alfo from thofe of brutes. The
light arifing from currying a horfe, or from rubbing
a cat’s back, are known to mod Inftances of a like
kind have been known on combing a Woman’s head.
Bartholin gives us an account, which he intitles mulier
fplendens, of a lady in Italy whofe body would fliine
Whenever Aightly touched with a piece of linen. Thefe
effluvia of animal bodies have many properties in com¬
mon with thofe produced from glafs; fuch as their
being lucid, their fnapping, and their not being ex¬
cited without fome degree of friction ; and are un¬
doubtedly electrical, as a cat’s back has been found
ftrongly electrical when ftroaked. See Electricity,
and Light.
Lunje Portus, a very extenfive port, or more truly
a bay, of Liguria, between Portus Veneris and Portus
Ericis, 20 miles in compafs. Now il Golfo della Spc%iay
on the eaft coaft of the territory of Genoa.
LUNAR, fomething relating to the Moon.
Lunar Month* See Month.
Lunar Tear, confifts 01354 days, or 12 fynodical
months. See Year.
Lunar Dial. See Dialling.
LUNARE os, in anatomy, is the fecond bone in.
the firft row of the carpus. It has its name from the
Latin, luna "the moon,” becaufe one of its fides is in
form of a crefcent.
LUNARIA, SatTin-flower, or Moon wort, in
botany i A genus of the filiculofa order, belonging to
the tetradynamia clafs of plants; and in the natural
LUMINOUS, an epithet applied to anything that method ranking under the 39th order, SUiquofa. The
filicula is entire, elliptical, compreffed-plane, and pe-
dicellated ; with the valves equal to the partition, pa¬
rallel and plane ; the leaves of the calyx are alternately
fritted at the bafe. This plant is famous in fame parts
of the kingdom forks medicinal virtues, though it has
not the fortune to be received in the fliops. The
people in the northern countries dry the whole
plant in an oven, and give as much as will lie on a
AriUing for a dofe twice a-day in hemorrhages of all
kinds, particularly in the too abundant flowing of the
Rienfes, and with great fuccefs. The Welch, among
whom it is not uncommon, Dr Needham informs us,
make an ointment of it, which they ufe externally,
and pretend it cures dyfenteries.
LUNARIUM (anc. geog.), a promontory of the
Hither Spain, between Blanda and Bsetulo. Com-
S f 2 monly
L U N [ 3H ] L U N
Lunatic, monly called el Calo de Pahfugel, in Catalonia, on the
Mediterranean ; or Cabo de Tofa, on the fame coaft,
and in Catalonia, 15 miles from the former, to the weft.
LUNATIC, a perfon affefted with that fpecies
of madnefs termed lunacy. The word is indeed pro¬
perly applied to one that hath lucid intervals ; fome-
times enjoying his fenfes, and fometimes not; and
that frequently fuppofed to depend on the influence
of the moon.
Lunatic, in law. Under the general term of non
compos mentis (which Sir Edward Coke fays is the
aioft legal name) are comprized not only lunatics, but
perfons under frenzies, or who lofe their intellects by
difeafe 5 thofe that grow deaf, dumb, and blind, not
being born fo ; or fuch, in ftiort, as are judged by the
court of chancery incapable of condutting their own
affairs. To thefe alfo, as well as idiots, the king is
.guardian, but to a very different purpofe. For the
law always imagines, that thefe accidental misfortunes
may be removed ; and therefore only conftitutes the
crown a truftee for the unfortunate perfons, .to protect
their property, and to account to them for all profits
received, if they recover, or after their deceafe to their
reprefentatives. And therefore it is declared by the
ftatute 17 Edw. II. c. 10. that the king ftiall provide
for the cuftody and fuftentation of lunatics, and pre-
ferve their lands, and the profits of them, for their ufe
■when they come to their right mind; and the king
lhall take nothing to his own ufe: and if the parties
die in fuch eftate, the refidue ftiall be diftributed for
F eir fouls by the advice of the ordinary, and of courfe
(by the fubfequent amendments of the law of admi-
niftrations) (hall now go to their executors or admini-
ftrators.
On the firft attack of lunacy, or other occafional
Jnfanity, when there may be hopes of a fpeedy refti-
tution of reafon, it is ufual to confine the unhappy ob-
jc&s in private cuftody under the direftion of their
neareft friends and relations: and the legiflature, to
prevent all abufes incident to fuch private cuftody,
hath thought proper to xnterpofe its authority, by
14. Geo. III. c. 49. for regulating private mad-houfes.
But when the diforder is grown permanent, and the
circumftances of the party will bear fuch additional
«xpence, it is thought proper to apply to the royal
authority to warrant a lafting confinement.
The method of proving a perfon non compos is very
fimilar to that of proving him an idiot. The lord
chancellor, to whom, by fpecial authority from the
king, the cuftody of idiots and lunatics is intrufted,
upon petition or information, grants a commiflion in
nature of the writ de idiota inquirendo, to inquire into
the party’s ftate of mind ; and if he be found non com-
* pos, he ufually commits the care of his perfon, with a
fuitable allowance for his maintenance, to feme friend,
who is then called his committee. However, to pre¬
vent finifter praftices, the next heir is feldom permit¬
ted to be of this committee of the perfon ; becaufe it
is his intereft that the party ftiould die. But, it hath
keen faid, there lies not the fame objection againft his
next of kin, provided he be not his heir; for it is his
intereft to preferve the lunatic’s life, in order to in-
Creafe the perfonal eftate by favings, which he or his
iwnily may hereafter be entitled to enjoy. The heir
is generally made the manager or committee of the Lunation,
eftate, it being clearly his intereft by good manage- ||
ment to keep it in condition: accountable, however, to Lunenbury
the court of chancery, and to the non compos himfelf, v~~ '
if he recoversor otherwife, to his adminiftrators.
See Idiocy.
LUNATION, the period or fpace of time been
one new moon and another j alfo calledfynodkal mouth.
See Cycle and Epact.
LUNDEN, or Lund, a cohfiderable town of
Sweden, in Gothland ; and capital of the territory of
Schonen, with an archbilhop’s fee and an univeihty.
It was ceded to the Swedes by the Danes in 1658.
E. Long. 13. 25. N. Lat. 55. 40.
LUNDY island, fituated 50 miles in the fea, off
the N. W. coaft of Devonftnre, is 5 miles long and
2 broad, but fo encompaffed with inacceffible rocks,
that it has but one entrance to it, fa narrow that two
men can fcarce go abreaft. It is reckoned in the
hundred of Branton. It had once both a fort and a
chapel. The fouth part of it is indifferent good foil, but
the north part of it is barren, and has a high pyramidi-
cal rock called the Conftable. Here are hories, kine,
hogs, and goats, with great ftore of flieep and rabbits;
but the chief ummodity is fowl, with which it
abounds much, their eggs being very thick on the
ground at their feafon of breeding. No venomous
creature will live in this ifland. In the reign of King
Henry VIII. one William Morifco, who had confpi-
red to murder him at Woodftock, fled to this ifland,
which he fortified, turned, pirate, and did much. da-,
mage to this coaft, but was taken by furprize at
length, with 16 of his accomplices, and put to death..
LUNE, Lunula, in Geometry, a plane in form o£
a crefcent or half-moon, terminated by the circum¬
ference of two circles, that interfedl each other with¬
in.
LUNENBURG, or Luneburg Zell, a principa¬
lity of Germany, bounded to the fbuth by that of Ca-
lenberg, the diocefe of Hildeftieim, and the duchy o£
Brunfwic ; to the north, by the duchy of Lauenburg
and the Elbe, by the laft of which it is feparated
from the territory of the imperial city of Hamburg ;
to the eaft, by the duchy of Brunfwic, the Alte Mark,
and the duchy of Mecklenburg; and to the weft, by
the duchies of Bremen and Verden, the county of
Hoya, and the principality of Calenberg. The foil,
except along the Elbe, Aller, and Jetz, is either fand,
heath, or moors. In the more fruitful parts of it are
produced wheat, rye, barley, oats, peafe, buck wheat,
flax, hemp, hops, pulfe, oak,.beech, firs, pines, birch,
and alder, together with black cattle and horfe. The
heaths abound with bees and hpney, and a fmall kind
of fheep whofe wool is long and courfe. Lunenburg
is well furnifhed with fait fprings and limeftone, and
the foreft of Gorde with venifon. The rivers Elbe, 11-
menau, and Aller, are navigable; and confequently
very advantageous to the country, independent of the
fifh which they yield. The general diets of this prin¬
cipality are convened by the fovereign twice a year,
and held at Zell. They confift of the deputies of the
nobility and the towns of Lunenburg, Uelzen, and
Zell, who have the nomination of the members of the «
high colleges, and other officers, jointly with the fove-
2 rsigo-
L U N [ 325 ] L U N
ianenburg reign., There are near 200 Lutheran churches in by the emperor Otho, and prefented to this church; Lunenfe
the country, under two general and 15 fubordinate but in 1698, a gang of thieves ftripped it of 200 H
fuperintendants, feveralgrammar-fchools, two Calvinift rubies and emeralds, together with a large diamond, ^g.‘Lf
churches at Zell, and an academy of exercifes at and moll of the gold, fo that at prefent but a fmall
I.unenburg. The manufa&ures are chiefly linen cloth, part of it remains. Here are fome very rich falt-
cottons, ribbons, llockings, hats, ftarch, bleached wax, fprings. Formerly, when there was a greater demand
refined fugar, gold and filver wires, all kinds of wooden for the fait, upwards of 120,coo tons have been in*
wares, barges, boats, and fhips. The exports of thefe nually boiled here, and fold off: but fince the com-
to Hamburg, Lubec, and Altena, are confiderable. mencement of the prefent century, the fait trade hath
The neighbourhood of thefe cities, with the facility of declined greatly. A fifth of the fait made here be-
conveying goods and merchandize to them and other longs to the king, but is farmed out. It is faid to1
places, either by land or water, is very advantageous excel all the other fait made in Germany. This town
to this country, and contributes greatly to its fubfift- is well fortified ; and has a garrifon, which is lodged -
ence. On account of this principality, the king of in barracks. In the neighbourhood is a good lime-
Great Britain has a feat and voice both in the col- flone quarry ; and along the Ilmenau are ware-houfes,
lege of the princes of the empire and of the circle in which are lodged goods brought-from all parts of
of Lower Saxony. Its quota in the Matricula is Germany, to-be forwardedLy the.Elmenau to Ham--
20 horfes and -120 foot, or yzo^florins in lieu of burg, or by the Afche to-Lubec, from whence other
them. The revenues of the "prjn^iplufty^ arife chiefly goods are broughtr back the fame way. The towit-
from the demefnes,, tolls on the Elbe, contributions, itfelf-drives a eonfiderable traffic in wax, honey, wool.
duties on cattle, beer, wine, brandy, and other c
moditiesr which' all together mull be very confiderable,
fome bailiwics alone yielding upwards of 20,000 rix«-
dollars.
flax, linen, fait, lime, and beer.
LUNENSE m armor, in the natural hillory of the
ancients,. the name of that fpecies of white marble*
now known among us by the .name of the Carrara-
Lunenburg, the capital of the principality of .the. mar Ik, and diftinguiihed from, the ilatuary kind by its
fame name, is a pretty large town of Germany, on the* greater hardnefs and lefs fplesdour. It was ever great-
river Elmen, or the Ilmenau, which is navigable,from ly efleemed in building and .ornamental works, and is
the town to the Elbe, at the diftance of 13 miles. It . fa ilill. . It is of a very clofe and fine texture, of a
is 27 miles from Hamburgh, 43 from Zell, 65 from- , very pure white, and much more tranfparent than any
Brunfwic, 76 from Bremen, 6K from Hanover; and other of tlie white marbles. It has always been found ’
Hands in E. Long. 10. 40. N.-Lat.-ygyzS.’., Its in- in great quantities in Italy, and is fo to this day. See
habitants are reckoned at between 18000 aRdv.9000. Luna.
Formerly this town was one of-the - H anfey and an im- LUNETTE, in fortification, an enveloped counter-
perial city. Some derive its name from . Lina, the guard, or elevation of earth, made beyond the fecond .
ancient name of the Ilmenau; others from Luna, the ditch, oppofite to tire places of arms; differing from
moon, an image of which-.is faid to have been wor- the ravelins only in their fituation. Lunettes are ufually
fhipped by the,inhabitants in the times of Paganifm. made in ditches full of water, and ferve t© the fame
Here were anciently feverabconvents, viz. one of Mi- purpofe as fauffebrays, to. difpute the- paflage of the.
nims, another of Premonilratenfians, another of Be- ditch. See Fortification.
nedidlines, and a fourth-of Minorites. Out of the re- LuN-ETtE, in the manege,., is a half hoffe-fhoe, or
venues of the Benediftine. monaftery was founded an fuch a ftioe as ,wants thefpunge, i. e. that part of the
academy for the martial exercifes, where • young branch which runs towards the quarters of the foot,
gentlemen of the principality of Lunenburg are main- Lunette is alfo the name of two-fmall pieces o.
tained gratis, and taught French, fencing, riding, and felt,, made round-and hollow, to clap upon the eyes
dancing ; but foreigners are .educated at a certain , of a vicious horfe that is apt to bite, and ftrike with
fixed price., A Latin fchool was ■ alfo founded, con- his fore, feet, or. that will.not fuffer his rider to mount
fitting of four, claffes, and well endowed out of thefe him. .
revenues. The fuperintendency and management of LUNGS, in anatomy; a part of the human body,
thefe, and the ettates appropriated to thoir mainte* ferving for refpiration. See Anatomy, n° 117.
nance, belongs to the landfchaft direhlor, and the In the 'Journal tie Medicine for June 1789 ir •’
aufreiter, who are both chofen from among the Xune- feription of an
burg nobility. The firit came-in place, of the Popiflv . Injlrumeut for Inflating tie Lvngs, invented by Mj
abbot, and as fuch is head-of the ttates of the .princi- Gorcy phyfician to the military hofpital atNeufbrifack,
pality, and prefident of the provincial college. He which appears to.be exteremly well adapted to the
Las the title of excellency; and in pubhd inttruments purpofe, whiltt it-may be ufed with the greateft eade
flyles himfelf, ly the grace of God landfchaft direSor, and and facility.
lord of the manfltm of St Michael in Lunelurg. The This inflrument, which the- inventor ftyles apodopir,
chief publid edifices are three parifh-churches, the that is, “ reftorer of refpiration,” confitta of a double
ducal palace;, three hofpitals, the town-houfe, the fait- pair of bellows, BCLM, fig. 1, the two different parts p!ate ,
magazine, the anatomical theatre, the academy; the of which have no communication with each other. In CCLXxT,
conventual church of St Michael, in which lie interred the lower fide B M, is an aperture A for.a valve con-
the ancient dukes ; and in which is- the famous table ftruhted on the principles of thofe of Mr Nairne’s air¬
tight feet long, and four wide, plated-over with chafed pump. It confifts of a rim of copper, clofed at one
gold, with a rim embelliflied with precious-ftones,- of end by a plate of the fame metal,, in which plate ;are
*a immenfe value, which was taken from the Saracens . feven hcail holes placed at equal dittances. This plate
x de-
L U N [ 326 ] L U P
f .•liters, is covered with a piece of filk coated with elaftic gum*
-Ivanifolar. j',! vvhidt are fix tranfverfe incifions of two or three
lines in length. Each incifion is fo made as to be
fituated between two of the holes, and at an equal dif-
tance from each: fee 1), fig. 2. The filk muft be
made very fecure, by a thread palling feveral times
round the rim. It is obvious, that a ftream of air ap¬
plied to that fide of the plate which is oppofite the
filk, will pafs through the holes, and, lifting up the
filk, efcape through the incifions. On the contrary,
a ftream of air applied to the other fide will prefs the
filk upon the plate, and thus clofe the holes, fo that
it wall be impoffible for it to pafs through them. This
valve opens internally, fo as to admit the air from with¬
out. At B Is another valve, on the fame eonftru£tion,
but opening in a contrary direftion, thus permitting
the air to efcape out of the lower part into the tube
E F, but preventing its entrance. At C is another valve,
opening internally to admit the air from the tube
E F ; and at D there is a fourth, opening externally,
to difeharge the air from the upper part.
The flexible tube E F, ferewed on at the end C B,
being introduced into one of the noftrils, whilft the
mouth and the other noftril are clofed by an afliftant,
if we feparate the two handles L M, which were clofe
together at the introduftion of the tube, it is evident,
-that the air in the lungs will rulh into the upper part
through the valve C, whilft the external air wall fill
the lower part through the valve A : the two handles
being again brought into contaft, the atmofpheric air
will be forced into the lungs through the valve B,
•and at the faine time the air in the upper part will be
difeharged at the valve D. Thus by the alternate
play of the double bellows, the lungs will be alter¬
nately filled and emptied as in refpiration. In ufuig the
inftrument care Ihould be taken not to be too violent;
as the more-perfedly the natural motion of refpiration
is imitated the better.
To prevent any fubftunces from without injuring
the valves A, D, fig. 1, the rim is made with a ferew,
B, fig. 3, in order to receive a cap A A, fig. 3, full
of fmall holes. This ferew has alfo another ufe. If
dephlogifticated air be preferred, a bladder filled with
it, fig. 4, may, by means of ti : ferew A, be fattened
to the valve A, fig 1 ; and, to prevent wafte, as this
air may ferve feveral times, a flexible tube may be
ferewed on the valve D, fig. I. communicating with
•the bladder by means of the opening d, fig. 4 ; thus it
may be employed as often as the operator thinks proper.
There is a handle K to the partition in the middle,
in order that, if it be at any time neceflary to ufe
either of the divifions alone, the other may be confined
from afting. c, fig. 5, reprefent the two valves
.to be applied at the end of the inftrument C, B, fig. 1;
and fig. 6. is a feftion of the end C B, fliowing the
valves in their proper places.
It is proper to add, that the capacity of the in¬
ftrument fhould be proportioned to the quantity of air
received into the lungs in infpiration, which Dr
Goodwyn has afeertained to be twelve cubical inches
or fomewhat more. Each divifion of the inftrument,
therefore, Ihouldbe capable of containing that quantity.
LuNG-JVort, in botany. See Pulmon \ria.
EUNISOLAR year, in chronology, the fpace of
532 common years; found by multiplying the cycle of Lunula
the fun by that of the moon. R
LUNULA. SeeLuNE. , Lupu,<11
LUPERCALIA, feafts inflituted in ancient Rome,
in honour of the god Pan.—The word comes from
Lupercalf the name of a place under the Palatine moun¬
tain, where the facrifices were performed.
The Lupercalia were celebrated on the 15th of the
kalends of March, that is, on the 15th of February,
or, as Ovid obferves, on the third day after the ides.
They are fuppofed to have been eftablifhed by Evander.
On the morning of this feaft, the Luperci, or priefts
of Pan, ran naked through the ftreets of Rome,ftriking
the married women they met on the hands and belly
with a thong or ftrap of goat’s leather, which was
held an omen promifing them fecundity and happy
deliveries. See Luperci.
This feaft was abolilhed in the time of Auguftus; but
afterwards reftored, and continued to the time of the
emperor Anaftaiius.—Baronius fays it was abolilhed
by the pope in 496.
LUPERCI, a name given to the priefts of the god
Pan. See Lupercalia.
The luperci were the irtoft ancient order of priefts
in Rome; they were divided into two colleges or
companies, the one called Fabii and the other £>uintiliu
To. thefe Casfar added a third, which he called
LUPINUS, lupine, in botany : A genus of the
decandria order, belonging fo the diadelphia dais of
plant’s ; and in the natural method ranking under the
3 2d order, Papilionacea. The calyx is bilabiated; there
are five oblong and five roundifti antherse ; the legu-
men is coriaceous. There are feven fpecies, fix of
them hardy herbaceous flowery annuals, and one per*
ennial, rifing with upright ftalks from one to three
or four feet high, ornamented with digitate or finger¬
ed leaves, and terminated by long whorled fpikes of
papilionaceous flowers, white, blue, yellow, and rofe-
coloured. They are all eafily raifed from feed ; and
fucceed in any open borders, where they make a fine
variety.
The feeds of the white lupine, which have a legu¬
minous tafte accompanied with a difagreeable bit¬
ter one, are faid to be anthelmintic, both inter¬
nally taken, and applied externally. Cafpar Hoff¬
man cautions againft their external ufe, and tells us
(from one of the Arabian writers) that they have
fometimes occafioned death. Simon Pauli alfo fays,
that he faw a boy of eight or ten years of age, after
taking a dram of thefc feeds in powder, feized with
exquifxte pains in the abdomen, a difficulty of refpi¬
ration, and almoft total lofs of voice ; and that he was
relieved from thefe complaints by a glyfter of milk
and fugar, which brought away a vaft quantity of
worms. But Mr Geoffroy obferves, very juftly, that
either thefe fymptoms were owing to the worms,, and
not to the medicine ; or that thefe feeds, if they have
any noxious quality, lofe it with their bitternefs in*
boiling; fince they were commonly ufed among the
Greeks as food, and recommended by Galen a^ very
wholefome.
LUPULUS, in botany. See Humulus.
LUPUS, in zoology. Sec Canjs.
Lvpui-Mctrinuti See Anarrhjchas.
LupWSj
L U S [ 327 1 L U S
Lupus Lupus, in aftronomy. See there, nQ 406.
K , LURCHER, a kind of hunting-dog much like a
Lufatia. mongrej gre-hound, with pricked ears, a (bagged coat,
^ * and generally of a yellowifh white colour: they are
very fwift runners, fo that if they get between the
burrows and the conies they feldom mifs; and this
is their common pra&ice in hunting: yet they ufe
other fubtilties, as the tumbler does, fome of them
bringing in their game, and thofe are the beft. It is
alfo obfervable, thaj a lurcher will run down a hare at
ftretch.
LURE, in falconry, a device of leather, in the
fhape of two wings, lluck with feathers, and baited
with a piece of flefh, to call back a hawk when at con-
fiderable diftance.
LURGAN, a poll and fair town in the county of
Armagh and province of Ulfter in Ireland, 67 miles
from Dublin. It is a flourifhing town, agreeably fitua-
ted in the midft of a much improved country; and
the inhabitants are extenfively engaged in the linen
manufa&ure. It Hands on a gentle eminence, about
two miles from Lough Neagh, of which it commands
a moft beautiful and extenfive profpedl. The fairs
are three in the year. N. Lat. 54. 3 5. W. Long. 6.3 x.
Lurgan-green, apoft and fair town of Ireland, in
the county of Louth and province of Leinfter, 37
miles from Dublin ; a mile beyond which is a hand-
fome feat of the earl of Charlemont. It has three
fairs in the year.
LURIDAi, the name of the 28th order in Lin-
nxus’s fragments of a natural method. See Botany,
p.462.
LUSATIA, a marquifate of Germany, in Upper
Saxony; bounded to the eaft by Silefia, to the weft by
Mifnia, to the fouth by Bohemia, and to the north by
the marquifate of Brandenburgh. Till towards the
middle of the 15th century, the Upper Lufatia was
called the Mark, i. e. the marquifite or the land of Bu-
difst/in and GorUt%; and the Lower only Lufatia, which,
it is faid, in the Sclavonic, fignifies “ a woody or
marfhy country.” The air of the Upper Lufatia,
which is hilly or mountainous, is better than that of
the Lower, a great part of which is moorhh and bog¬
gy. Both abound in wood, efpecially the Lower, and
turf for fuel. The heathy and mountainous tradts are
generally barren ; but the lower champaign and marfti
lands are tolerably fertile, producing pafture, wheat,
rye, oats, barley, buck-wheat, peafe, lentils, beans,
and millet; together with flax, hops, tobacco, fome
white and red wine, and what is called manna. Of
feveral of thefe articles, however, confiderable quan¬
tities are imported. In this country are found alfo
quarries of ftone, medicinal fprings, baftard diamonds,
agates, and jafpers, earths and clays for tobacco-
pipes and all forts of earthen ware, alum, good iron, ,
ftbne, vitriolic and copper water; nor is it deftitute
of cattle, fifti, and venifon. The rivers Spree, the
Schwarze or Black Elfter, and the Pulznitz, have
their fources in the Lufatias, which are alfo watered'
by the Neifle and Queis. The ancient inhabitants of:
this country were the Saxons, who were fucceeded by
the Vandals, and thefe by the Sober-Wends, a Scla-
vonian people. The prefent inhabitants, the defeen-
dants of the Wends, have an odd drefs ; and the lan¬
guage is fo inarticulate, and guttural, that it Lath been
faid, it might be pronounced without lips, teeth, or Lufatia.
tongue : but the towns are almoft wholly peopled by -v”—”
Germans.
In the Upper Lufatia are fix towns which appear
at the land-diets, 16 fmaller country-towns, and four'
market towns. In the Lower are four diet-towns, 13
country-towns, and two market ones. Both marqui-
fates were formerly fubjeft either to the kings of Bo¬
hemia, the archdukes of Auftria, or eledtors of Bran¬
denburgh; but, in 1636, both were abfolutely ceded
to the eledtor of Saxony, in lieu of the 72 tons of
gold which he expended in aflifting the emperor Fer¬
dinand II. againft the Bohemian's.
Chriftianity was firft planted in Lufatia in the fe-
venth century ; but it was feveral centuries after that
before Popery was fully eftablifhed. In the 11 th cen¬
tury many cloifters were erected in the country ; but
at the reformation fuch numbers embraced Lutheran-,
ifm, that it became the predominant religion, and ftili
continues, though there are ftili feveral Roman Ca¬
tholic foundations, churches, market-towns, and vil¬
lages. The enthufiaftic fed! of Hernhuters poff Tes
a great influence and efteem here. There are ( >n-
fiderable manufactures of woollen and linen fluffs in
the Lufatias, efpecially the Upper. At Budiffen, and-
in the adjacent country, prodigious quantities of ftock- '
ings, fpatterdalhes, caps, and gloves are made. The
linen manufadtures alfo flourifh here, chiefly in the Up¬
per Lufatia, where all forts of linen are made, print¬
ed, and dyed. Exclufive of thefe, there are confider¬
able manufactures of hats, leather, paper, gunpowder,
iron, glafs, bleached wax, &c. Though the demand
and exportation of thefe commodities, particularly li¬
nens and woollens, is not fo great as formerly, yet it
is (till confiderable, and more than overbalances their
importations in wool, yarn, filk, wines, fpices, corn, ,
frefli and baked fruits, garden fluff, and hops. Dif-
putes of many years ftanding have fublifted • between
the country-artificers and linen-manufadturers on the -
one fide, and the diet-towns on the other; the latter
unjuftly feeking to exclude the former from any (hare
in the hnen trade. The nativesof this country are faid
to have quick natural parts, but to be fordidly penu¬
rious. We are told they obferve the Saxon laws much
better than they did the Bohemian; Learning hath
been much efteemed and encouraged in both marqui-
fates fince the reformation. The fchools in the fix
diet-towns of Upper Lufatia, particularly at Gorlitz,
Budiffen, and Zittau, greatly diftintruifti themfelves,
having handfome ftipends. In Lower Lufatia alfo are
fome good fchools,- with feipends for the maintenance
of (Indents.; Printing is faid to be much followed, and
brought to great perfedtion in this country.
In Upper Lufatia, the dates confift, ift, of thofe
called Jlate-lords ; 2dly, of the prelates ; jdly, of the
gentry and commonalty, under which are comprehend¬
ed the counts, barons, nobles, and burgeffes, poffef-
fors of fees.and fief-eftates; and, 4thly, of the repre-
fentatives of the fix principal towns. "Without the
confent of thefe dates no taxes can be impofed, nor
any thing of importance, that regards the public, tranfL
adted. The diets are ordinary or extraordinary. The
ordinary meet once in three years, and the extraordi-'
nary when fummoned by the fovereign upon particular
emergencies. As to ecclefiajtical matters, the dean of"
L TJ S [ 32
Lnf»th Budtflen and his cotififtory cxerciie all manner of epif*
JLufira! C0Pa^ jurifdi&ion ; and, among the Proteftants, the
jurifdielion belongs either to the fuperior, the upper-
office, or the patrons. The revenues arifing to the
fuperior or fovereign, from Upper Lufatia, confift
partly of the fubfidies granted by the Hates, among
which, at prefent, are reckoned capitation and eftate-
money ; and partly of the beer-tax, excife, tolls, &c.
—Upper. Lufatia is divided into two great circles, viz.
thofe of Budiflen and Gorlitz, which are again divided
into leffer circles.
The land-ftates of Lower Lufatia confift, like thofe
of the Upper, of prelates, lords, and knights, and
the reprefentatives of the Hate towns, which are Luc-
kau, Gubberi-Lubbin, and Kalau. Two land diets
i are yearly held at Lubben, called voluntary-diets ; but
when the fuperior caufes the Hates to be fummoned
together at his difcretion, and proportions to be laid
before them, by commiflaries deputed for that pur-
pofe, fuch convention is called a great land-diet. The
marquifate is divided into five circles, each of which
' holds a circle-aflembly in its circle-town. The chief
officers appointed either by the fuperior or the ftates,
are, the prefident of the upper-office, the land-captain,
and the land-judge. The principal tribunals are, the
land-court, and the upper-office, to which lie appeals
from the inferior judicatories. There are alfo officers
for the feveral circles. Spiritual matters belong here
to a confiftory, erected in 1668. The ordinary taxes
are paid into the cheft of the circle ; and from thence
configned to the general cheft, of which the upper
tax-receiver is fuperintendant. By him an annual ac¬
count of the receipts is made out, which is examined
and pafled by the deputies of the ftates.
. LUSITANIA (afic. geog.), one of the divifions of
Spain, extending to the north of the Tagus, quite to
the fea of Cantabria, at leaft to the Promontorium
Celticum. But Auguftus, by a new regulation, made
the Anas its boundary to the fouth, the Durius to
the north; and thus conftituting only a part of the
modern Portugal. Lujitani the people, (Diodorus,
Stephanus). ,
LUSTRAL, an epithet given by the ancients to
the water ufed in their ceremonies to fprinkle and pu¬
rify the people. From them the Romanifts have bor¬
rowed the holy water ufed in their churches.
Lustral Day, (Dies Lujlricus), that whereon the
luftrations wrere performed for a child,’and its name
given ; which was ufually the ninth day from the birth
of a boy, and the eighth from that of a girl. Tho’
others performed the ceremony on the laft day of that
'week wherein the child was "born, and others on the
fifth day from its birth.
Over this feaft-day the goddefs Nundina was fup-
jpofed to prefide ; the midwifes, nurfes, and domeftics,
handed the child backwards^ and forwards, around a
fire burning on the altars of the gods, after which they
fprinkled it with water; hence this feaft had tire name
of amphidromia. rl he old women mixed faliva and dull
with the water. The whole ended with a fumptuous
entertainment. The parents received gifts from their
friends on this occafion. If the.child wasa male, their
door was decked with an olive garland; if a female,
with wool, denoting the work about which women
*vere to be employed.
N° 189.
8 ] L V S
LUSTRATION, in antiquity, facrificee,or cere-Lnftratloe#
monies by which the ancients purified their cities, Luftre.
fields, armies, or people, defiled by any crime or im-
purity. Some of thefe luftrations were public, others
private. There were three fpecies or manners of per¬
forming luftration, by fire and fulphur, by water,
and by air ; which laft was done by fanning and agi~
■ tating the air round the thing to be purified. Some
of thefc luftrations were neceftary, i e. could not be
difpenfed with ; as luftrations of houfes in time of a
plague, or upon the death of any perfon s others again
were done out of choice, and at pleafure. .The public
luftrations at Rome were Celebrated every fifth year ;
in which they led a vi&im thrice round the place tej
be purified, and in the mean time burnt a great quan¬
tity of perfumes. Their country luftrations, which'
they called ambarvalia, wer$ celebrated before they
began to reap their corn : in thofe of the armies, which
they called armdujlria, fame chofen. foldiers, crowned
with laurel, led the viftims, which were a cow, a Iheep,
and a bull, thrice round the army ranged in battle-
array in the field of Mars, to which deity the victims
were afterwards facrificed, after pouring out many
imprecations upon the enemies of the Romans. The
luftrations of their flocks were performed in this man¬
ner : the fhepherd fprinkled them with pure water,
and thrice furrounded his Iheepfold with a compofition
of favin, laurel, and brimftone fet on fire ; and after¬
wards facrificed to the goddefs Pales an offering of
milk boiled, wine, a cake, and millet. As for private
houfes, they were luftrated with water, a fumigation
of laurel, juniper, olive-tree, favin, and fuch like ; and
the viClim commonly was a pig. Luftrations kmad<*
for particular perfons were commonly called expiations,
and the victims piacula. There was alfo a kind of
luftration ufed for infants, by which they were purified,
girls the third,and boys the ninth, day after their birth ;
which ceremony was performed with pure water and
fpittle. See the article Ambarvalja.—-In their lu-
ftratory facrifices, the Athenians'facrificed two men,
one' for the men of their city, and the other for the
women. Divers of thefe expiations were auftere: feme
faffed ; others abftained from all fenfual pleafures ; and
fome, as the priefts of Cybele, caftrated themfelves.
The poftures of the penitents were different according
to the different facrifices. The priefts changed their ha¬
bits according to the ceremony to be performed; white,
purple, and black, were tl>e moft ufual colours. They
call into the river, or at leaft; out of the city, the ani¬
mals or other things that had ferved for a luftration or
facrifice of atonement; and thought themfelves threa¬
tened with fome great misfortune when by chance they
trod upon them. Part of thefe ceremonies were abo-
lifhed by the emperor Conftantine, and his fucceffors :
the reft fubfifted till the Gothic kings were mafters of
Rome ; under whom they expired, excepting what
the popes thought proper to adopt and bring into the
church.
For the luftration, or rather expiation, of the ancient
Jews, fee Expiation.
LUSTRE, the glofs or brightnefs appearing on
any thing, particularly on manufaftures of'filk, wool,
or fluff. It is likewife ufed to denote the compofition
or manner of giving that glofs.
The luftre of filks is given them by wafhlng in foap,
then
L U S [ 329 ] L U T
L«ftre then clear water, and dipping them in alum water cold.
n To give {luffs a beautiful luftre : For every eight pounds
Lutetia. 0f ftuff all0w a quarter of a pound of linfeed ; boil it
iJ"' » half an hour, and then {train it through a cloth, and
let it {land till it is turned almoft to a jelly : after¬
wards put an ounce and a half of gum to diffolve 24
hours ; then mix the liquor, and put the cloth into
this mixture , take it out, dry it in the {hade, and prefs
it. If once doing is not fufficient, repeat the operation.
Curriers give a luftre to black leather firft with juice
of barberries, then with gum-arabic, ale, vinegar, and
Flanders-glue, boiled together. For coloured leather,
they ufe the white of an egg beaten in water. Mo-
roccoes have their luftre from juice of barberries? and
lemon or orange. For hats, the luftre is frequently
given with common water ; fometimes a little black
dye is added : the fame luftre ferves for furs, except
that for very black furs they fometimes prepare a luftre
of galls, copperas, Roman alum, ox’s marrow, and other
ingredients.
Lustre, an appellation given to a branched candle-
ftick, when made of glafs. See Branch and Jjssse.
LUSTRINGS. A company was incorporated for
making, dreffing, and luftrating alamodes and hiftrings
in England, who were to have the foie benefit thereof,
by ftat. 4 and 5 William and Mary. And no foreign
filks known by the name of lujlrings or alamodes are to
be imported but at the port of London, &c. Stat.
9. and ro. W. III. c. 43. See Silk.
LUSTRUM, in Roman antiquity, a general mufter
and review of all the citizens and their goods, which
was performed by the cenfors every fifth year, who
afterwards made a folemn luftration. See the article
Lustration.
TMs cuftom was firft inftituted by Servius Tullius,
about 180 years after the foundation of Rome. In
courfe of time the luftra were not celebrated fo often ;
for we, find the fifth luftrum celebrated at Rome only
in the 5'; 4th year of tluit city.
LUTE, or Luting, among chemifts, a mixed, te¬
nacious, duftile fubftance, which grows folid by dry¬
ing, and, being applied to the jundture of veffels, flops
them up fo as to prevent the air from getting either in
or out. See CHEMisTRV-Znfltx.
Lute, is alfo a mufical inftrument with firings.—
The lute confifts of four parts, wz. the table, the body
or belly, which has nine or ten fides ; the neck, which
has nine or ten flops or divifions, marked with firings;
and the head or crofs, where the fcrew for raifing and
lowering the firings to a proper pitch of tone are fixed.
In the middle of the table there is a rofe paflage for
the found ; there is alfo a bridge that the tuings are
faftened to, and a piece of ivory between the head and
the neck to which the other extremities of the firings
are fitted. In playing, the firings are ftruck with the
right hand, and with the left the flops are preffed.
The lutes of Bologna are efteemed the beft on account
of the wood, which is faid to have an uncommon dif-
pofition fi r producing a fweet found.
LUTETIA parisiorum, (anc. geog.), a town
of the Parifii, in Gallia Celtica, lituated in an ifland in
the Sequana or Seine. It received its name, as fame
fuppofe, from the quantity of clay, lutum, which is in its
neighbourhood. J. Casfar fortified and embelliftied it,
from which circumftance fome authors call it Juki Ci-
Vol. X. Part I.
vitas. Julian the apoftate refided there for fome time.
It is now Paris, the capital of France ; fo called from
its name Paryis in the lower age.
LUTHER (Martin), the celebrated author of the
Reformation, was a native of Eiileben ir ''axony, and
born in 1483. Though his parents were poor, he re¬
ceived a learned education ; during the progrefs of
which, he gave many indications of uncommon vigour
and acutenefs of genius. As his mind was naturally
fufceptible of ferious impreffions, and tinftured with
fomewhat of that religious melancholy which delights
in the fiditude and devotion of a monaftic life, he re¬
tired into a convent of Auguftinian friars ; where he
acquired great reputation, not only for piety, but for
love of knowledge and unwearied application to ftudy.
The caufe of this retirement is faid to have been, that
he was once ftruck by lightning, and his companion kil¬
led by his fide by the fame flaflr. He had been taught
the fcholaftic philofophy which was in vogue in thofe
days, and made confiderable progrefs in it: but hap¬
pening to find a copy of the bible which lay neglected
in the library of his monaftery, he applied himfelf to
the ftudy of it with fuch eagernefs and affiduity, as
quite aftoniihed the monks ; and increafed his reputa¬
tion for fandtity fo much, that he was chofen profeffor
firft of philofophy, and afterwards of theology, at Wit-
temberg on the Elbe, where Frederic eleftor of Saxony
had founded an univerfity.
While Luther continued to enjoy the higheft repu¬
tation for fandtity and learning, Tetzel, a Dominican
friar, came to Wittemberg in order to publifti indul¬
gences. Luther beheld his fuccefs with great con¬
cern ; and having firft inveighed againft indulgences
from the pulpit, he afterwards publiftied 95 thefes,
containing his fentiments on that fubjedl. Thefe he
propofed, not as points fully eftablilhed, but as fub-
jedts of inquiry and difputation. He appointed a day
on which the learned were invited to impugn them
either in perfon or by writing j and to the whole he
Tubjoined folemn prqteftations of his high refpedt for
the apoftolic fee, and of his implicit fubmiffion to its
authority. No opponent appeared at the time pre¬
fixed ; the thefes fpread over Germany with aftonifli-
ing rapidity, and were read with the greateft eagernefs.
Though Luther met with no oppofition for fome
little time after he began to publifli his new dodtrines,
it was not long before many zealous champions arofc
to defend thofe opinions with which the wealth and
power of the clergy were fo ftridtly connected. Their
caufe, however, was by no means promoted by thefe
endeavours ; the people began to call in queftion even
the authority of the canon law and of the pope him¬
felf.—The court of Rome at firft defpifed thefe new
dodtrines and difputes; but at, laft the attention of
the pope being raifed by the great fuccefs of the re¬
former, and the complaints pf his adverfsries, Luther
was fummoned, in the month of July 1318, to ap¬
pear at Rome, within 60 days, before the auditor of
the chamber. One of Luther’s adverfaries, named
Prierias, who had written againft him, was appointed
to examine his dodtrines, and to decide concerning'
them. The pope wrote at the fame time to the elec¬
tor of Saxony, befeeching him not to protedl a man
whofe heretical and profane tenets were fo {hocking to
pious ears; and enjoined the provincial of the Au-
T t guftinians
L U T [ 33° 1 L U T
either, guftinians to check by his authority the rafhnefs of an
arrogant monk, which brought difgrace upon their
order, and gave offence and difturlMnce to the whole
church.
From thefe letters, and the appointment of his open
enemy Prierias to be his judge, Luther eafily faw
what fenterrce he might expect at Rome ; and there¬
fore difcovered the utmoft folicitude to have his caufe
tried in Germany, and before a lefs fufpe&ed tri-
burial. He wrote a fubmiflive letter to the pope, in
which he promifed an unreferved obedience to his will,
for as yet he entertained no doubt of the divine ori¬
ginal of the pope’s authority ; and by the interceffion
of'the other profelTors, Cajetan the pope’s legate in
Germany was appointed to hear and determine the
caufe. Luther appeared before him without heiita-
tion: but Cajetan thought it below his dignity to
difpute the point with a perfon fo much his inferior
in rank and therefore required him, by virtue of the
apoftolic powers with which he was clothed, to retradt
the errors-which he had uttered with regard to indul¬
gences and the nature of faith, and to abftain for the
future from the publication of new and dangerous
opinions ; and at»the lafl: forbad him to appear in his
prefence, unlefs he propofed to comply with what had
been required of him.
This haughty and violent manner of proceeding,
together with fame other circumftances, gave Luther’s
friends fuch ftrong reafons to fufpect that even the
imperial fafe-condudl would nqt be able to protect
him from the legate’s power and refentment, that
they prevailed on him fecretly to withdraw from
Augfburg, where he had attended the legate, and to
return to his own country. But before his departure,
according to a form of which there had been fame
examples, he prepared a folemn appeal from the pope,
ill-informed at that time concerning his caufe, to the
pope, when he fhould receive more full intimation
with refpedt to it.—Cajetan, enraged at Luther’s
abrupt retreat, and at the publication of his appeal,
wrote to the elector of Saxony, complaining of both;
and requiring him, as he regarded the peace of the
church, or the authority of its head, either to fend
that feditious monk a prifoner to Rome, or to banifh
him out of his territories^ Frederic had hitherto, from
political motives, protefted Luther, as thinking he
might be of ufe in checking the enormous power of
the fee of Rome j and though all Germany refounded
with his fame, the ele&or had never yet admitted
him into his prefence. But upon this demand made
by the cardinal, it became neceffary to throw off
fomewhat of his former referve. He had been at
great expence and beftowed much attention on found¬
ing a new univerfity, an object of confiderable impor¬
tance to every German prince; and forefeeing how
fatal a blow the removal of Luther would be to its
reputation, he not only declined complying with either
of the pope’s requefts, but openly difcovered great con¬
cern for Luther’s fafety.
The fituation of our reformer, in the mean time,
became daily more and more alarming. He knew
very well what were the motives which induced the
eleftor to afford him protection, and that he could by
no means depend on a continuance of his friendlhip.
If he Ihould be obliged to quit Saxony, he had no
other afylum, and muff ftand expofed to whatever Lather.
puniihment the rage or bigotry of his enemies could ' V"*-
infliCt ; and fo ready were his adverfaries to condemn
him, that he had bees declared^ a heretic at Rome
before the expiration of the 6o days allowed him in
the citation for making his appearance. Notwith-
llanding all this, however, he difcovered no fymptoms
of timidity or remiffnefs ; but contin ued to vindicate
his own conduCt and opinions, and to inveigh againit
thofe of his adverfaries with more vehemence than
ever. Being convinced, therefore, that the pope would
foon. proceed to the molt violent meafures againft
him, he appealed ta a general council, which he
affirmed to be the reprefentative of the Catholic church,
and fuperror in power to the pope, who being a
fallible man, might err, as St Peter, the moft.perfeCl
of his predeceffors, had done.
The court of Rome were equally affiduous in the
mean time to cruffi the author of thefe new doCtrines
which gave them fo. much unealinefs. A bull was
iffued by the pope, of a date prior to Luther’s ap¬
peal, in which he magnified the virtues of indulgences,
and fubjeCled to the heavieft ecclefiaftical cenfures all
who preformed to teach, a contrary doftrine. Such a
clear decifion of the fovereign pontiff againfl him
might have been very fatal.to Luther’s caufe, had not
the death of the emperor Maximilian, which happened
on January 17. 1519, contributed to give fnatters a.
different turn. Both the principles and intereft of
Maximilian had prompted him to fupport the authori¬
ty of the fee of Rome: but, in confequence of his
death, the vicariate of that part of Germany yvhich is
governed by the Saxon laws devolved to the eleCtor
of Saxony ; and, under the fhelter of his friendly ad—
miniftration, Luther himfelf enjoyed tranquillity, and.
his opinions took fuch root in different places, that-
they could never afterwards be eradicated. At the
fame time, as the. election of an emperor was a point
more interefting to the pope (Leo X.) than a theolo¬
gical controverfy which he did not.underftand, and of
which he could not forefee the confequences, he was
fo extremely folicitous not to irritate a prince of fuch.
confiderable influence in the electoral college as Fre¬
deric, that he difcovered a great unwillingnefs to pro¬
nounce the fentence of excommunication againff- Lu-
ther, which his adverfaries continually demanded with
the moft clamorous importunity.
From the reafon juft now given, and Leo’s natu¬
ral averfion to fevere meafures, a fufpenfion of pro¬
ceeding againft Luther took , place for 18 months*
though perpetual negociations were carried on during
this interval in order to bring the matter to an ami¬
cable iffue. The manner in which thefe were con-
du&ed having given our reformer many opportunities
of obferving the corruption, of the court of Rome, its
obftinacy in adhering to eftabliflied errors, and its in¬
difference about truth, however clearly propofed or
ftrongly proved, he began, in 1520, to utter fome
doubts with regard to the divine orignial of the papajf
authority, which he publicly difputed with Eccius,
one of his moft learned and formidable antagonifts.
The difpute was indecifive, both parties claiming the
viftory ; but it mull have been very mortifying to the
partizans of the Romifh church to hear fuch an effen-
tial point of their doftrine publicly attacked.
The
L U T
r 33* i
L XT T
The Papal authority being once fufpefted, Luther hefitate one moment about yielding obedience ; and Luth
■ proceeded to pufh on his inquiries and attacks from
one doftrine to another, till at lafl he began to fiiake
fet out for Worms,' attended by the herald who had '
brought the emperor’s letter and fafe-conduft. While
the firmed foundations on which the wealth and power on his journey, many of his friends, whom the fate of
ef the church were eftabliihed. Leo then began*tp
perceive that there were no hopes of reclaiming fuch
an incorrigible heretic ; and therefore prepared to de¬
nounce the fenlence of excommunication againft him.
The college of cardinals was often affembled, in order
to prepare the fentence with due deliberation ; and the
abled canonifts were confulted how it might be ex-
preffed with unexceptionable formality. At lad it was
i filled on the 15th of June 1520. Forty-one propofi-
tions, extracted out •of Luther’s works, were therein
Hufs, under fimilar circumdances, and notwithdand-
ing the fame fecurity of an imperial fafe-conduft, fill¬
ed with folicitude, advifed and intreated him not to
rufh w antonly into the midd of danger. But Luther,
fuperior to fuch terrors, filenced them with this reply,
“ I am lav fully called (faid he) to appear in that
city ; and thither will I go in the name of the Lord,
though as many devils as there are tiles on the houfes
were there combined againd me.”
The reception which he met with at Worms, was
condemned as heretical, fcandalous, and offenfive to fuch as might have been reckoned a full reward of all
pious ears ; all perfons were forbidden to read his wri- his labours, if vanity and the love of applaufe had been
tings, upon pain of excommunication ; fuch as had any the principles'by which he was influenced. Greater
of them in their cudody were commanded to commit crowds aflembled to behold him than had appeared
them to the flames ; he hknfelf, if he did not, within at the emperor’s public entry; his apartments were
60 days, publicly recant his errors, and burn his books, daily filled with princes and perfonages of the highed
was pronounced an obdinate heretic, excommunicated, rank ; and he was treated with an homage more fin-
and delivered to Satan for the deftmftion of the flefii'; cere, as well as more flattering, than any which pre-
and all fecular princes were required, under pain of eminence in birth or condition can command. At his
incurring the fame cenfure, to feize his perfon, that he appearance before the diet, he behaved with great de¬
might be punilhed as his crimes deferved.
Luther was not in the lead difconcerted by this fen¬
tence, Which he had for frame-time expefted. He re¬
newed his appeal to his general council ; declared the
pope to be that antichrid, or man of fin, whofe ap¬
pearance is foretold in the New Tedament; declaim¬
ed againd his tyranny with greater vehemence than
ever ; and at lad, by way of retaliation, having affem-
cency, and with equal firmnefs. He readily acknow¬
ledged an excefs of acrimony and vehemence in his
controverfial writings ; but refufed to retract his opi¬
nions unlefs he were convinced of their falfehood, or
to confcwt to their being tried by any other rule than,
the word of God. When neither threats nor intreaties
could prevail on him.- to depart from this refolutron^
fome of the ecclefiadics propofed to imitate the (
bled all the' profeffors and dudents in the univerfity ample of the council of Condance, and, by punifhing
of Wittemberg, with great pomp, and in the pre- the author of this pedilent herefy, who was now in.
fence of a.wad multitude of fpeftators, he cad the vo- their power, to deliver the church at once from fuch
lumes of the canon law, together With the bull of ex- an evil. But the members of the diet refuling to ex-
communication, into the flames. The manner in which
this adlion was judified, gave dill more offence than
the action itfelf. Having collected from the canon law
pofe the German integrity to ft fh reproach by a fe-
cond violation of public faith, a d Charles being no
lefs unwhlling to bring a dain won the beginning of
fome of the mod extravagant propofitions with regard his adminidration by fuch an ignominious aftion, Lu-
to, the plenitude and omnipotence of the pope’s power, ther was permitted to depart in fafety. A few days
as well as the fubordination of all fecular jurifdiftion after he left the city, a fevere edift was publiflied in
to his authority, he publiflied thefe with a commen- the emperor’s name, and by authority of the diet, de»
tary, pointing out the impiety of fuch tenets, and their priving him, as an obdinate and excommunicated cri¬
minal, of all the privileges which he enjoyed as a fub-
jeft of the empire, forbidding any prince to harbour-
or protect him, and requiring all to feize his perfon as
foon as the term fpecified in his protection fliould be •
expired.
But this rigorous decree had no eonfiderable effeft
the execution of it being prevented partly by the mul¬
tiplicity of occupations which the commotions in Spain*
v together with the wars in Italy and the Low Coun¬
tries, created to the emperor ; and partly by a pru-
heretic. Such an abrupt manner of proceeding, how- dent precaution employed by the elector of Saxony,.
evident tendency to fubvert all civil government.
On the acceffion of Charles V. to the empire, Lu¬
ther found himfelf in a very dangerous fituation.
Charles, in order to fecure the pope’s friendfhip, had
determined to treat him with great feverity. His ea-
gernefs to gain this point, rendered him not averfe to
gratify the papal legates in Germany, who infifted, that,
without any delay or formal deliberation, the diet then
fitting at Worms ought to condemn a man whom the
pope had already excommunicated as an incorrigible
ever, being deemed unprecedented and unjuit by the
members of the diet, they made a point of Luther’s
Luther’s faithful patron. As Luther, on his return
from Worms, was palling near Altenltrain in Thurin-
appearing in perfon, and declaring whether he adhered gia, a number of horfemeu in walks rulhed fuddenly
or not to thofe opinions which had drawn upon him out of a wood, where the elector had appointed them
the cenfures of the church. Not only the emperor, but to lie in wait for him, and, furrounding his company*
all the princes through whofe territories he had to carried liim, after difmiffing all his attendants, to
pafs, granted him a fafe conduft ; and Charles wrote Wortburg, a ftrong caftle not far diftant. There the
to him at the fame time, requiring his immediate at- eledfor ordered him to be fuppliea with every thing
tendance on the diet-, and renewing his promifes of pro- neceffary or agreeable ; but the place of his retreat was
te&ion from any injury or violence. Luther did not carefully concealed, until the fury of the pfeftnt ftorm
T t 2 agaiull
L U T C 332 3 L U T
I.vtRer. againft him began to abate, upon a change in the po-
litical fyftem of Europe. In this folitude, where he
remained nine months, and which he frequently called
his Patmos, after the name of that ifland to which the
apoftle John was banilhed, he exerted his ufual vigour
and induftry in defence of his doftrines, or in confu¬
tation of his adverfaries, publifhing feveral treatifes,
which revived the fpirit of his followers, aftonifhed to
a great degree and difheartened at the fudden difap-
pearance of their leader.
Luther, weary at length of his retirement, appeared
publicly again at Wittemberg, upon the 6th of March
1522. He appeared indeed without the eleftor’sleave;
but immediately wrote him a letter, to prevent his ta¬
king it ill. The edift of Charles V. as fevere as it was,
had given little or no check to Luther’s doctrine : for
the emperor was no fooner gone into Flanders, than
his edi£t was neglected and defpifed, and the doftrine
feemed to fpread even falter than before. Carololla-
dius, in Luther’s abfence, had pufhed things on falter
than his leader ; and had attempted to abolilh the ufe
of mafs, to remove images out of the churches, to fet
afide auricular confelfion, invocation of faints, the ab-
ftaining from meatshad allowed the monks to leave
their monalteries, to negledt their vows, and to many;
i Ihort, had quite changed the doctrine and difcipline
of the church at Wittemberg: all which, though not
againft Luther’s fentiments, was yet blamed by him,
as being rafhly and unfeafonably done. Lutheranifm
was Hill confined to Germany; it was not got to
France ; and Henry VIII. of England made the moft
rigorous afts to hinder it from invading his realm.
Nay, he did fomething more : to Ihow his zeal for re¬
ligion and the holy fee, and perhaps his Ikill in theo¬
logical learning, he wrote a treatife Of the Jensen facra-
ments, againft Luther’s book Of the captivity of Babylon ;
which heprefented to Leo X. in October 1521. The
pope received it very favourably \ and was fo well
pleafed with the king of England,, that he compliment¬
ed him with the title of Defender of the faith* Luther,
however, paid no regard to his kinglhip; but anfwered
him with great lharpnefs, treating both his perfon and
performance in the moft contemptuous manner. Henry
complained of Luther’s rude ufage of him to the princes
of Saxony 1 and Filher, bilhop of Rochefter, replied
to his anfwer, in behalf of Henry’s treatife : but nei¬
ther the King’s complaint, nor the biihop’s reply, was
attended with any vifible effects.
Luther, though he had put a flop to the violent
proceedings of Caroloftadius, now made open war with
the pope and biihops ; and, that he might make the
people defpife their authority as much as poffible,
he wrote one book againft the pope’s bull, and
another againft the order falfely called the order of bi-
Jhops. The fame year, 1522, he wrote a letter, dated
July the 29th, to,the affembly ofthe ftates of Bohemiay
pi which he affured them that he was labouring to
tftablilh their do&rine in Germany, and exhorted them,
itot ta.return to the communion ofthe church of Rome;;
and he publilhed alfo, this year, a tranflation of the
New Teftament in the German tongue, which was af¬
terwards correfted by himfelf and Melan&hon. This
tranflation having been printed feveral times, and be¬
fog in, every body’s hands, Ferdinand afchduke of Au-
ftria, the emperor’s brother, made a very feverc edi&,
to hinder the farther publication of it; and forbad all
the fubjefts of his imperial majefty to have any copies
of it, or of Luther’s other books. Some other princes
followed his example ; and Luther was fo angry at it,
tnat he wrote a treatife, .Of tlxfecular power, in which
he accufes them of tyranny and impiety. The diet of
the empire was held at Nurenhurg, at the end of the
year; to which Hadrian VI. fent his brief, dated No¬
vember the 25th : for Leo X. died upon the 2d of Dc~
cember 1521, and Hadrian had been eleited pope up¬
on the 9th of January following. In his brief, among
other things, he obferves to the diet, how he had heard,
with grie(, that Martin Luther, after the fentence of
Leo X. which was ordered to be executed by the edi&
of Worms, continued to teach the fame errors, and
daily to publilh books full of herefies : that it appear¬
ed ftrange to him, that fo large and fa religious a na¬
tion could be feduced by a wretched apoftate friar ;
that nothing, however, could be more pernicious to
Chriftendom : and that therefore he exhorts them to
ufe their utmoft endeavours to make Luther, and the
authors of thefe tumults, return to their duty ; or, if
they refufe and continue obftinate, to proceed againlt
them according to the laws of the empire, and the fe-
verity of the laft edidt.
The refolution of this diet was publiflied in the form,
of an edidl, upon the 6th of March 1523 ; hut it had
no effedt in checking the Lutherans, who ftill went on
in the fame triumphant manner. This year Luther
wrote a great many pieces : among the reft, one upon
the dignity and office of the fupreme magiftrate;
which Frederic eledtor of Saxony is faid to have been
highly pleafed with. He fent, about the fame time,
a writing in the German language to, the Waldenfes,
or Pickards, in Bohemia and Moravia, who had ap¬
plied to him “ about worfhipping the body of Chrift
in the eucharift.” He wrote alfo another book, which,
he dedicated to the fenate and people of Prague,
“ about the inftitution of minifters of the church.”
He drew up a form of faying mafs. He wrote a piece,
entitled, yin example of popijh doBrine and divinity;
which Dupins calls a fatire againj nuns and thofe who
profefs a monqftic life* He wrote alfo. againft the vows
of-virginity, in his preface to his commentary on
1 Cor. viii. And his exhortations here were, it feems,
followed with effects: for foon after, nine nuns, among
whom was Catharine de Bore, eloped from the nun¬
nery at Nimptfchen, and were brought, by the affift-
ance of Leonard Coppen, a burgefs of Torgau, to Wit¬
temberg. Whatever offence this proceeding might give
to the Papifts, it was highly extolled by Luther; who,
in a book written in the German language, compares
the deliverance of thefe nuns from the flavery of a mo-
naftic life, to that of the fouls which Jefus Chrift has
delivered by his death. This year Luther had occa-
fion to canonize two of his followers, who, as Melchior
Adam relates, were burnt at Bruffels in the beginning
of July, and were the fir-ft who fuffered martyrdom for
his doftrine- He wrote alfo a confolatory epiftle to
three noble ladies at Mifnia, who were baniihed from
the duke of Saxony’s court at Friburg, fox reading his
books.
In the beginning of the year 1524, Clement VIL
fent
1 U T [ 333 ] L U T
Luther, fent a legate into Germany to the diet, which was to
be held at Nurenburg Hadrian VI died in October
1523, and was fucceeded by Clement upon the 19th of
November. A little before his death he canonized
Berino, who was hilltop of MeilTen in the time of Gre¬
gory VII. and one of the molt zealous defenders of
the holy fee Luther, imagining that this was done
diredtly to oppofe him, drew up a piece with this title,
Again]] the New Idol and Old Devil fet up at Meijjen ;
in which he treats the memory of Gregory with great
freedom, and does not fpare even Hadrian. Cle¬
ment VII.’s legate reprefented to the diet of Nuren¬
burg the neceffity of enforcing, the execution of the
ediA of Worms, which had been flrangely negle&ed
by the princes of the empire : but, notwithdanding
the legate’s folicitations, which were very preffing, the
decrees of that diet were thought fo ineffe&ual, that
they were condemned at Rome, and rejefted by the
emperor. It was in this year that the difpute between
Luther and Erafmus, about free-will, began. Erafmus
had been much courted by the Papiils to write againft
Luther ; but he was all along of opinion, that writing
would not be found an effedtual way to end the diffe¬
rences and eftablilh the peace of the church. How¬
ever, tired out at length with the importunities of the
pope and the Catholic princes, and defirous at the
fame time to clear himfelf from the fufpicion of favour¬
ing a caufe which he would not feem to favour, he re-
folved to write againll Luther, though, as he tells Me-
landlhon, it was with fome reluftance, and chofe free¬
will for the fubjeft. His book was intitled, ADiatri-
la, or Conference about Free-will; and was written with
much moderation, and without perfonal reflexions.
He tells Luther in the preface, “ That he ought not
to take his diffenting from him in opinion ill, becaufe
he had allowed himfelf the liberty of differing from the
judgment of popes, councils, univerfities, and doXors
of the church.” Luther was fome time before he an-
fwered Erafmus’s book; but at lafl: publifhed a treatife
De Servo Arbitrio, or Of the Servitude of Man’s IVill;
and though MelanXhon had promifed Erafmus, that
Luther fnould anfwer him with civility and modera¬
tion, yet Luther had fo little regard to MelanXhon’s
promife, that he never wrote any thing fharper. He
accufed Eraimus of being cartlefs about religion, and
little folicitous what became of it, provided the world
continued in peace; and that his notions were rather
philofophical than Chriltian Erafmus immediately re¬
plied to Luther,- in a piece called Hyperafpifles ; in the
firft part of which he anfwers his arguments, and in
the fecond his perfonal refleXions.
• In ©Xober 15:24, Luther flung off the monaftic ha¬
bit ; which, though not premeditated and defigned,
was yet a very proper preparative to a Hep he took
the year after j we mean, his marriage with Catharine
de Bore. Catharine de Bore was a gentleman’s daugh¬
ter, who had been a nun, and was taken, as we have
©bferved, out of the nunnery of Nimptfchen, in the
year 1523. Luther had a deflgn, as Melchior Adam
relates, to marry her to Glacius, a minifler of Orta-
tnunden: but fhe did not like Glacius.; and fo Luther
married her himfelf upon the 13th of June 1525,
This conduX of his was blamed not only by the Ca¬
tholics, but, as MelanXhon fays, by thofe of his own
party. lie was even for fojne time afhamed of it him¬
felf ; and vowns, that bis marriage had made him fo
defpicable, that he hoped his humiliation would rejoice
the angels, and vex the devils. MelanXhon found him
fo affliXed with what he had done, that he wrote fome
letters of confolation to him. It was not fo much the
marriage, as the circumftances of the time, and the pre¬
cipitation with which it was done, that occafioned the
cenfures pafled upon Luther. He married all of a fud-
den, and at a time when Germany was groaning under
the miferies of a war which was faid at lealt to be
owing to Lutheranifm. Then, again, it was thought
an indecent thing in a man of 42 years of age, who
was then, as he pretended, reftoring the Gofpel, and
reforming mankind, to involve himfelf in marriage with
a woman of 26, either through incontinence, or any
account whatever. But Luther, as foon as he had re¬
covered himfelf a little from this abalhment, aflumed
his former air of intrepidity, and boldly fupported what
he had done with reafons. “ I took a wife (fays he),
in obedience to my father’s commands; and haftened
the confummation, in order to prevent impediments,
and Hop the tongues of flanderers.” It appears from
his own confeffion, that this reformer was very foud
of Mrs de Bore, and ufed to call her his Catharine;
which made profane people think and fay wicked
things of him: “And therefore (fays he) I mar¬
ried of a fudden, not only that I might not be obliged
to hear the clamours which I knew would be raifed
againH me, but to Hop the mouths of thofe who re¬
proached me with Catharine de Bore.” Luther alfo
gives us to underlland, that he did it partly as con¬
curring with his grand fcheme of oppofmg the Catho¬
lics.
Luther, notwithHanding, was not himfelf altogether
fatisfied with thefe reafons. He did not think the Hep
he had taken could be fufficiently jullified upon the
principles of human prudence ; and therefore we find
him, in other places, ‘endeavouring to account for it
from a fupernatural impulfe. But whether there was
any thing divine in it or not, Luther found himfelf
extremely happy in his-new Hate, and efpecially after
his wife had brought him a fon. “ My rib Kate (fays
he in the joy of his heart) defires her compliments to
you, and thanks you for the favour of your kind let¬
ter. She is very well, through God’s mercy. She is
obedient and complying with me in all things; and more
agreeable, I thank God, than I could have expeXed t
fo that I would not change my poverty for the wealth
of Croefus.” He was heard to fay (Seckendorf tells
us),, that he would not exchange his wife for the king¬
dom of France, nor for the riches of the Venetians;
and that for three reafons: firfi, Becaufe Ihe kid been
given him by God, at the time when Ire implored the
ailiilance of the Holy GhoH in finding a good wife
fecondly, Becaufe, though fne was not without faults,
yet flte had fewer than other womenand, thirdly,,
Becaufe Ihe religioufly obferved the conjugal fidelity
fhe owed him. There went at firfi a report, that Ca¬
tharine de Bore was brought to bed foon after her
marriage with Luther ; but Erafmus, who had wrote
that news to his friends, acknowledged the fallity of it
a little after.
His marriage, however, did not retard his aXivity
and diligence in the work of reformation. He reviled:
the Auglburg eonfeffion of faith,, and apology for the
Puo*.
Luther.
L U T [ 334 ] X U T
Luther. Proteflants, when the ProteRant religion was firil efta-
  blifhed on a firm bafis. See Protestants and Re¬
formation.
After this, Luther had little elfe to do than to fit
down and contemplate the mighty work he had finifh-
ed : for that a fingle monk fhould be able to give the
church fo rude a (hock, that there needed but fuch an¬
other entirely to overthrow it, may very well feem a
mighty work. He did indeed little elfe: for the re¬
mainder of his life was fpent in exhorting princes,
ftates, and univerfitie.s, to confirm the reformation
which had been brought about through him; and pub-
lifhing from time to time fuch writings as might en¬
courage, direft, and aid, them in doing it. The em¬
peror threatened temporal punifhment with armies, and
the pope eternal with bulls and anathemas; but Luther
cared for none 6f their threats. His friend and co¬
adjutor Melanfthon was not fo indifferent; for Me-
lanfthon had a great deal of foftnefs, moderation, and
diffidence in his make, which made him very uneafy,
and even forrawfill, in the prefent diforders. Hence
we find many of Luther’s letters written on purpofe to
fupport and comfort him under thefe feveral diflreffes
and anxieties.
In the year 1533, Luther wrote a confolatory
epiftle to the citizens of Ofchatz, who had fuffered
fome hardffiips for adhering to the Augfburg confef-
fion of faith; in which, among .other things, he fays'4
“ The devil is the hoft, and the world is his inn ; fo
that wherever you come, you (hall be fure to find this
ugly hoft.” He had alfo about this time a terrible
eontroverfy with George duke of Saxony, who had
fuch an averfion to Luther’s do&rine, that he obliged
his fubje&s to take an oath that they would never em¬
brace it. However, 60 or 70 citizens of Leipfic were
found to have deviated a little from the Catholic way
in fome point or other, and they were known previ-
oufty to have confulted Luther about it; upon which
George complained to the e left or John, that Luther
had not only abufed his perfon, but alfo preached up
rebellion among his fubjedts. The eleftor ordered Lu¬
ther to be acquainted with this ; and to be told at the
fame time, that if he did not clear himfelf of the charge,
he could not poffibly efcape punifhment. But Luther
eafily refuted the accufation, by proving, that he had
been fo far from ftirring up his fubjects againft him,
on the fcore of religion, that, on the contrary, he had
exhorted them rather to undergo the greateft hard-
iliips, and even fuffer thernfelves to be baniffied.
Inxhe year 1 ^34, the Bible tranflated by him into
German was firft printed, as the old privilege, dated
at Bibliopolis, under the elector’s hand, fnows; and
it was -publiffied the year after. He alfo publiftied
this year a book againft maffesand the confecration of
prielts, in which he relates a conference he had with
the devil upon thofe points; for it is remarkable in
Luther’s whole hiftory, that he never had any conflicts
of any kind within, but the devil was always his anta-
gonift. In February 1537, an aflembly was held at
Smalkald about matters of religion’, to which Luther
and Melanflhon were called. At this meeting Lu¬
ther was feized with fo grievous an illnefs, that there
were no hopes of his recovery. He was afflicted with
the fttme, and had a ftoppage of urine for 11 days. In
this terrible condition he would needs undertake to tra¬
vel, notwithftanding all that his friends could fay or do Lather,
to' prevent him : his refolution, however, was attend- “—v"”-"
ed with a good effeeft ; for the night after his departure
he began to be better. As he .was carried along, he
made his will, in which he bequeathed his deteftation
of Popery to his friends and brethren; agreeably to
what he often ufed to fay : Pe/I is eratn vivas, nwriens
rro mors, tua, papa; that is, “ I was the plague of
Popery fn my life, and (hall continue to be fo in my
death.”
This year the Pope and the court of Rome, finding
it impoffible to deal with, the Proteftants by force, be¬
gan to have recourfe to ftratagem. They affected there- *
fore to think, that though Luther had indeed carried
things on with a high hand and to a violent extreme,
yet what he had pleaded in 'defence of thefe meafures
was not entirely without foundation. They talked
with a feeming (how' of moderation ; and Pius III.
who fucceeded Clement VII. propofed a reformation
firft: among themfelves, and even went fo far as to fix
a place for a council to meet at for that purpofe. But
Luther treated this farce as it deferved to be treated ;
unmafked and detected it immediately ; and, to ridi¬
cule it the more ftrongly, caufed a picture to be
drawn, in which was reprefented the pope feated on
high upon a throne, fome cardinals about him with
foxes tails on, and feeming to evacuate upwards and
downwards ffurfum dtorfum repurgare, as Melchior Adam
expreffes it). This was fixed over-againft the title-
page, to let the readers fee at once the feope and de-
fign of the book ; which was, to expofe that cunning
and artifice with which thofe fubtle politicians affect¬
ed to cleanfe and purify themfelves from their errors
and fuperftitions, Luther publifhed about the fame
time A Confutation of the pretended Grant of Con-
ftantine to Sylvefter Bifflop of Rome 5 and alfo fome
letters of John Hufs, written from his prifon at Con-
ftance to the Bohemians.
In this manner was Luther employed till his death,
which happened in the year 1546. That year, accom¬
panied by MelanCthon, he paid a vifit to his own coun¬
try, which he had not feen for many years, and re¬
turned again in fafety. Bnt foon after he was called
thither again by the earls of Mansfeldt, to compofe
fome. differences which had arifen about their bounda¬
ries. Luther had not been ufed to fuch matters; but.
becaufe he was born at Ifteben, a town in the territory
of Mansfeldt, he was willing to do his country what
fervice he could, even in this way. Preaching his lad
fermon therefore at Wittemberg, upon the 17th of
January, he fet off on the 23d; and at Hall in Saxony
lodged with Juftus Jonas, wvith whom he (laid three
days, becaufe the watery were out. Upon the 28th,
he paffed over the river with his three fons and
Dr Jonas ; and being in fome danger, he faid to the
Doftor, “ Do not you think it would rejoice the
devil exceedingly, if I and you, and my three fons,
fnouldbe drowned?” When he entered the territories
of the earls of Mansfeldt, he was received by 100
horfemen or more, and conduced in a very honour¬
able manner; but was at the fame time fo very ill,
that it was feared he would die. He faid, that thefe
-fits of ficknefs often came upon him when he had any
great bufinefs to undertake : of this, however, he did
not recover; but died upon the 18th of February, in.
the
L u T ^ r 3
. Luther, the 63d year of his age. A little before he expired,
Lutheran- he admonidied thofe that were about him to pray to
tf®1* God for the propagation of the Gofpel ; “ becaufe
*l v (faid he) the eouhciT of Trent, which had fat pnce or
twice, and the pope, would devife Itrange things againft
it.” Soon after, his body was put into a leaden cof¬
fin, and carried with funeral pomp to the church at
Ifleben, when Dr Jonas preached a fermon upon the
occafion. The earls of Mansfeldt defired that his
body fliould be interred in their territories ; but the
elector of Saxony infifted upon his being brought back
to Wittemberg; which was accordingly done : and
]t>here- he wras buried with the greatest pomp that
perhaps ever happened to any private man. Princes,
earls, nobles, and {Indents without number, attended
the ptpceffion ; and MelanCthon made his funeral ora¬
tion.
A thoufand lies were invented bylhe Papifts about
Luther’s death. Some faid that he died fuddenly;
others, that he killed himfelf; others, that the devil
itrangled him ; others, that his corpfe ftunk fo abo¬
minably, that they were forced to leave it in the way,
as it was carried to be interred. Nay, lies were in¬
vented about his death, even while he was yet alive.
Luther, however, to give the mod effectual refutation
of this account of his death, put forth an advertife-
ment of his being alive i and, to be even with the Pa-
pills for the malice they had Ihown in this lie, wrote
a book at the fame time to prove, that “ the papacy
was founded by the devil.”
Luther’s works were colledted after his death, and
printed at Wittemberg in 7 vols folio.. Catharine de
Bore furvived her hufband a few years ; and continued
the firlt year of her widowhood at Wittemberg, though
Luther had advifed her to feek another place of reli-
dence. She went from thence in the year 1547, when
the town was* furrendered to the emperor Charles V.
Before her departure, fhe had received a prefent of jo
crowns from Chriftian III. king of Denmark and
the eleftor of Saxony, and the counts of Mansfeldt,
gave her good tokens of their liberality. With thefe
additions, to what Luther had left her, (he had where¬
withal to maintain herfelf and her family handfomely.
She returned to Wittemberg, when the town was re-
ftored to the ele&or ; where (he lived in a. very devout
and pious manner, till the plague obliged her to leave
it again in the year J5.52. She fold what fhe,had at
Wittemberg; and retired to Torgau, with a refolu-
tion to end her life there. An unfortunate mifchance
befel her in her journey thither, which proved fatal to
her. The horfes growing unruly, and attempting to
run away, (he leaped out of the vehicle fhe was convey¬
ed in ; and, by leaping, got a fall, of which fhe died
about a quarter of a year after, at Torgau, upon the
20th of December 1552. She was buried there in the
great church, where her tomb and epitaph are.flill to
be feen; and the univerlity of. Wittemberg, which was
then at Torgau becaufe the plague raged at Wittem¬
berg, made a public programma concerning the funeral
pomp.
LUTHERANISM, the fentiments of Martin Lu¬
ther with regard to religion. See Luther.
Lutheranifm has undergone fome alterations frnce
the time of its founder.—Luther rejefted the epiftle of
St James, as inconfilient with the do&rine of St Paul,
*
is 1 r> u t
in relation to junification; he alfofet afide the Apocar- Lutherans
. lypfe: both which are now received as canonical in the l
Lutheran church. , *
Luther reduced the number of facraments to two, J
viz. baptifm, and the euchariil: but he believed the
impanation, or confubftantiation, that is, that the
matter of the bread apd wine remain with the body
and blood of Chrilt; and it is in this article that the
main difference between the Lutheran and Englifh
churches confiits.
Luther maintained the mafs to be no facrifice ; ex¬
ploded the adoration of the holt, auricular confeffion,
meritorious works, indulgences, purgatory, the wor-
fhip ofdmages, &c. which had been introduced in the
corrupt times of the Romilh church. He alfo. oppo-
fed the doctrine of free-will, maintained predeltina-
tion, and afferted our juftification to be folely by t,he
imputation of the merits and fatisfaction of Chrift.
He alfo oppofed the fallings in the Romifh church,,
monaftical vows, the celibate of the clergy, See.
LUTHERANS, the Chriftians who follow the opi¬
nions of Martin Luther, one of the principal reformers
of the church in the 16th century. See Luther.
The Lutherans, of all Proteftants, are thofe who
differ leaft from the Romifh church; as they affirm,,
that the body and blood of Chrift are materially pre¬
fent in the facrament of the Lord’s fupper, though in
an incomprehenfible manner; and likewife reprefent
fome religious rites and inflitutions, as the ufe of
images in churches, the diftiuguifliing veftments of the
clergy, the private confeffion of fins, the ufe of wafers
in the adminiitration of the Lord’s fupper, the form of
exorcifm in the celebration of baptifm, and other ce¬
remonies of the like nature, as tolerable,, and fome of
them as*ufefuL The Lutherans maintain,..with regard
to the divine decrees, that they.refpect the falvation-
or.mifery of men, in. conl'equence of a. previous-know¬
ledge of their fentiments and -charadters,-and not as^
free and unconditional, and as founded on the mere
will of God. Towards the clofe of the laft century,
the Lutherans began to entertain a greater •liberality,
of fentiment than they had before adopted ; though
in many places they perfevered longer in fevere and
defpotic principles than other Proteflant churches.
Their public teachers now enjoy an unbounded liberty
of diflenting from the decifions of thofe fymbols or
creeds which were onCe deemed almolt infallible rules*
of faith and practice,, and of declaring their diflent in
the.manner they judge the moll expedient. Mofheim
attributes this change in their fentiments to the maxim"
which they generally adopted, that.Chriftians were ac¬
countable to God alone, for their religious opinions;
and that no individual could be juftly punifhed by the
magiftrate for his erroneous opinions,' while he con¬
duced himfelf like a virtuous and obedient fubjeft,
and made no attempts to diftutb the peace and order
of civil fociety.
LUTHERN, in architecture, .a kind of window
over the cornice, in the roof of a building; Handing
perpendicularly over the naked of a wall, and ferving
to illuminate the upper ftory..
Lutherns are of various forms; as fquare, femicir.
cular, round, called lull’s eyes, fat arches, &c.
LUTRA, in zoology. See Mustela.
LIJTTI (Beneditto ), an eminent' painter, born at.
Lle~-
LUX [ 336 l LUX
JJiUtzen Florence in 1666. He was the difciple of Antonio
II Dominico Gabiani, and his merit was judged equal to
Luxurians. t}iat 0f jjjg mafter; he painted few befide eafel pieces;
- " * and his works were much valued and fought for in
England, France, and Germany. The emperor knight¬
ed him ; and the eledtor of Mentz, together with his
patent of knighthood, fent him a crofs fet with dia¬
monds. Lutti was never fatisfied in finilhing his pic¬
tures ; yet though he often retouched them, they ne¬
ver appeared laboured. He died in 1724.
LUTZEN, a town of Upper Saxony in Germany;
famous for a battle fought here in 1632, when Gufta-
vus Adolphus king of Sweden was killed. It is fi-
tuated on the river Elfter, in E. Long. 12. 37. N.
Lat. 51. 20.
LUXATION, is when any bone is moved out of
its place or articulation, fo as to impede or deftroy its
proper office or motion. See Surgery.
, LUXEMBURG, a city of the Auftrian Nether¬
lands, and capital of a duchy of the fame name. It
is feated partly on a hill, and partly on a plain; but
is very ftrong both by art and nature. It is but in¬
differently built, though there are fome good ftone
houfes' in it. There is nothing very remarkable among
the ftrudlures but the Jefuits church; which is a hand-
fome edifice, after the modern taile. It was taken by
Louis XIV. in 1684; who fo augmented the fortifica¬
tions, that it is now one of the ftrongeft towns in Eu¬
rope. It was ceded to Spain by the treaty of Ryf-
wick; but the French took it again in 1701, and
gave it up to the houfe of Auftria by the treaty of
Utrecht. It is 25 miles fouth-weft of Treves, and 100
weft of Mentz. E. Long. 6. 10. N. Lat. 49. 52.
Luxemburg (the duchy of), is one of the 17 pro-
, vinces of the Netherlands. It is bounded on the eaft
by the archbifhoprick of Treves; on the fouth, by
Lorrain ; on the weft, partly by Champagne, and
partly by the bifhoprick of Liege", which likewife, with
part of Limburg, bound it on the north. It lies in
the foreft of Ardenne, which is one of the .moft famous
in Europe. In fome places it is covered with moun¬
tains and woods, and in general it is fertile in corn
and wine ; and here are a great number of iron-mines.
The principal rivers are, the Mofelle, the Sour, the
Ourte, and the Semoy. It belongs partly to the houfe
of Auftria, and partly to the French ; and Thionville
is the capital of the French part.
Luxemburg (Fran5ois Henry de Montmorenci),
duke of, and marfhal of France, a renowned general in
the fervice of Louis XIV. was born in 1628. He
was with the prince of Conde at the battle of Rocroy,
in 1643 ; and in 1668 diftinguiflied himfelf at the con-
queft of Franche Compte. In 1672, he commanded
in chief the French army in Holland-; when he de¬
feated 4he enemy near Woerden and Bodegrave, and
was univerfally admired for the fine retreat he made
in 1673. He became marfhal of France in 1675;
gained the battle of Flerus in 1690, that of Steenkirk
in 1692, and that of Nerwind in 1693. at
Verfailies in 1693.
LUXURIANS flos, “ a luxuriant or double
flower ?’ a flower, fome of whofe parts are increafed
in number, to the diminution or entire exclufion of
others.
The parts that lire augmented or multiplied in luxu-
NJ 189. 6
riant flowers, are the flower-cup and petals, which I.uxuriani,
Linnaeus confiders as the teguments or covers of the Luiurjr.
flower ; the parts that are diminifhed, or entirely ex- " »
eluded, are the ftamina or chives, which the fame au¬
thor denominates the male organs of generation.
Luxuriance in flowers is capable of the three follow¬
ing varieties.
t. A flower is faid to be multiplied £/?<» multip/i-
catus), when the increafe of the petals is not fuch as
to exclude all the ftamina: in this fenfe, flowers are
peoperly faid to be double, triple, or quadruple, accord¬
ing to the number of multiplications of the petals.
2. A flower is faid to be full, (Jlos j.l;nus), when,
by the multiplication of the petals, all the ftamina are
excluded. Such are moft of the double flowers that
engage the attention of florifts.
3. A flower is faid to be prolific (Jlos prolifer)t
which produces flowers, and fometimes leaves, from its
centre.
For a particular defeription of each of thefe kinds
of luxuriance in flowers, fee the articles Multiplica-
tvs Flos, Plenus Flos, and Prolifer Flos.
Many natural orders of plants do not in any circum-
ftances produce luxuriant flowers. Of this kind are
the mafqued-flowers of Tournefort, excepting calve’s-
fnout; the rough-leaved, umbelliferous, ftarry plants,
and fuch as flower at the joints, of Ray: fome umbel¬
liferous flowers, however, are prolific.
The pea-bloom, or butterfly-ffiaped flowers, are rare*-
ly rendered double ; fome inltances, however, of luxu¬
riance, are obferved in a fpecies of ladies-finger, coro-
nilla, and broom.
All luxuriant flovvers are vegetable monfters. Such
as are perfectly full,' by which we mean the greateft
degree of luxuriance, cannot be propagated by feeds;
becaufe thefe, for want of impregnation, can never ri¬
pen. Full flowers therefore are very properly deno¬
minated by l innseus eunuchs. This higheft degree of
luxuriance is very common in carnation, lychnis, ane¬
mone, ftock, Indian crefs, rofe, marlh marigold, ra¬
nunculus, violet* poeony, and narciffus."
Flowers which do not exclude all the ftamina, per-
feft their feeds. Of this kind are poppy, fennel-flower,
campanula, and fome others.
Some flowers, as thofe of the water-lily, fig-mari¬
gold, and cadftus, have many rows or feries of petals,
without the number of ftamina being in the leaft dimi¬
nifhed. Such flowers are by no means to be reckon¬
ed luxuriant, in the flighteft degree.
Luxuriance in flowers is generally owing to excels
of nourifhment.
LUXURY ; voluptuoufnefs, or an extravagant in¬
dulgence in diet, drefs, and equipage.
Luxury, among the Romans, prevailed to fuch a
degree, that feveral laws were made to fupprefs, or
at leaft limit it. The extravagance of the table be¬
gan about the time of the battle of Aftium, and con¬
tinued in great excels till the reign of Galba. Pea¬
cocks, cranes of Malta, nightingales, venifon, wild
and tame fowl, were confidered as delicacies. A pro-
fufion of provifions was the reigning tafte. Whole
wild boars were often ferved up, and fometimes thejr
were filled with various fmall animals, and birds of
different kinds: this dilh they called the Trojan horfe,
in allufion to the wooden horfe filled with foldiers.
Fowls
LUX [ 337 1 LUX
Lowry. powls and game of all forts were ferved up in whole
L ’ pyramids, piled up in difhes as broad as moderate
tables. Lucullus had a particular name for each
apartment; and in whatever room he ordered his fer.
▼ants to prepare the entertainment, they knew by the
dire&ion the expence to which they were to go.
When he fupped in the Apollo, the expence was fix¬
ed at 50,000 drachma, that is L. 1250. M. Antony
provided eight boars for 12 guefts. Vitellius had a
large filver platter, faid to have coft a million of fejler-
ces, called Minerva’s buckler. In this he blended to¬
gether the livers of gilt-heads, the brains of pheafants
and peacocks, the tongues of phenicopters, and the
milts of lampreys. Caligula ferved up to his guefts
pearls of great value diflblved in vinegar; the fame
was done alfo by Clodius the fon of iEfop the trage¬
dian. Apicius laid afide 90,000,000 of fejierces, befides
a mighty revenue, for no other purpofe but to be fa-
crificed to luxury : finding himfelf involved in debt,
he looked over his accounts, and though he had the
fum of 10,000,000 of fejierces ftili left, he poifoned
himfelf for fear of being ttarved to death.
The* Roman laws to reftrain luxury were Lex Orchia,
Fannia, Didia, Lictnia, Cornelia, and many others:
But all thefe were too little; for as riches increafed
amongft them, fo did fenfuality.
What were the ideas of luxury entertained in Eng¬
land about two centuries ago, may be gathered from
the following pafiage of Holinfhed; who, in a difcourfe
prefixed to his Hiftory, fpeaking of the increafe of
luxury, fays, “ Neither do I fpeak this in reproach
of any man, God is my judge ; but to (how, that I
do rejoice rather to fee how God has blefled us with
his good gifts, and to behold how that in a time
wherein all things are grown to the moft exceffive
prices, we yet do find means to obtain and atchieve
fuch furniture as heretofore was impoffible. There
are old men yet dwelling in the village where I remain,
which have noted three things to be marveloufly al¬
tered in England within their found remembrance. One
is the multitude of chimneys lately ere&ed ; whereas
in their young days there were not above two or three,
if fo many, in moft uplandifh towns of the realm (the
religious houfes, and manor places of their lords, al¬
ways excepted, and peradventure fome great perfo-
nages), but each made his fire againft a reredofs
[fkreen] in the hall where he dreffed his meat and
dined.—The fecond is the great amendment of lodg¬
ing ; for, faid they, our fathers and we ourfelves have
Iain full oft upon ftraw pallets covered only with a
fheet, under coverlits made of a dogfwraine or horhar-
riots (to life their own terms), and a good log under
their head inftead of a bolfter.—If it were fo that
the father or good man of the houfe had a mattrafs,
or flock bed and (beets, a fack of chaff to reft his
head upon, he thought himfelf to be as well lodged
as the lord of the town. So well were they con¬
tented, that pillows (faid they) were thought meet
only for women in childbed; as for fervants, if
they had any (heet above them, it wras well; for fel-
dom had they any under their bodies to keep them
from pricking ftravvs, that ran oft through the can¬
vas and their hardened hides.—The third thing they
tell of, is the exchange of treene [wooden] platters
into pewter, and wooden fpoons into iilver or tin * for
Vot. X. Parti.
fo common were all forts of treene veffels in old times, Luturji
that a man (hould hardly find four pieces pewter (of 'r“‘“
which one was peradventure a fait) in a good farmer’s
houfe. Again, in times paft, men were contented to
dwell in houfes builded of fallow, willow, &c. fo that the
ufe of oak was in a manner dedicated wholly unto
churches, religious houfes, princes palaces, navigation,
&c. But now willow, &c. are rejefted, and nothing
but oak any where regarded; and yet fee the change,
for when our houfes were builded of willow, then had
we oaken men ; but now that our houfes are come to
be made of oak, our men are not only become willow,
but a great many altogether of ftraw, which is a fore
alteration. In thefe, the courage of the owner was
a fufficient defence to keep the houfe in fafety ; but
now the affurance of the timber muft defend the men
from robbing. Now have we many chimneys, and
yet our tenderlins complain of rheums, catarrhs, and
pofes ; then had we none but reredofes, and our heads
did never ach. For as the fmoke in thofe days were
fuppofed to be a fuffieient hardening for the timber
of the houfe; fo it was reputed a far better medicine
to keep the goodman and his family from the quacks
or pofe ; wherewith, as then, very few were acquaint¬
ed. Again, our pewterers in time paft employed the
ufe of pewter only upon diflies and pots, and a few
other trifles for fervice ; whereas now they are grown
into fuch exquifite cunning, that they can in a man¬
ner imitate by infufion any form or falhion, of cup,
difli, fait, bowl, or goblet, which is made by the
goldfmiths craft, though they be ever fo curious and
very artificially forged. In fome places beyond the
fea, a garnifli of good flat Englifti pewter (I fay
flat, becaufe diflies and platters in my time began to
be made deep, and like bafons, and'are indeed more
convenient both for fauce and keeping the meat warm)
is efteemed fo precious as the like number of veffels
that are made of fine filver.’’
Particular inftances of luxury in eating, however,
might be adduced from an earlier period, furpafiing
even the extravagance of the Romans. Thus, in the
10th year of the reign of Edward IV. 1470, George
Nevill, brother to the earl of Warwick, at his inftal-
ment into the archiepifcopal fee of York, entertained
moft of the nobility and principal clergy, when his
bill of fare was 300 quarters of wheat, 350 tuns of
ale, 104 tuns of wine, a pipe of fpiced wine, 80 fat
oxen, fix wild bulls, 1004 wethers, 300 hogs, 300
calves, 3000 geefe, 3000 capons, 300 pigs, 100 pea¬
cocks, 200 cranes, 200 kids, 2000 chickens, 4000
pigeons, 4000 rabbits, 204 bitterns, 4000 ducks, 200
pheafants, 500 partridges, 2000 woodcocks, 400 plo¬
vers, 100 curlews, 100 quails, 1000 egrets, 200 rees,
400 bucks, does,and roebucks, 1506 hot venifon pafties,
4000 cold ditto, 1000 diflies of jelly parted, 4000 diflies
of jelly plain, 4000 cold cuftards, 200O hot cuftards,
300 pikes, 300 breams, eight feals, four porpuffes*
400 tarts. At this feaft the earl of Warwick was
fteward, the earl of Bedford treafurer, and lordHaftings
comptroller, with many more noble officers; 1000 fer-
vitors, 62 cooks, 515 menial apparitors in the kitchem
—But fuch was the fortune of the man, that after
his extreme prodigality he died in the mdft abje& but
unpitied poverty, vinBus jacuit in frnnma inopia.
And as to drefs, luxury in that article feems to have
U« attained
LUX
r 33s i
L Y C
r.imirj*. attained a great height long before Holinfhed’s time : it may be neceflary that fuch as go beyond proper
' For in the reign of Edward III. we find no fewer bounds in eating, drinking, and wearing what by no
than feven fumptuary laws palled in one feffion of par- means is fuitable to their ftation,. fhould be taxed ac-
liament to reftrain it. It was enafted, that men fer- cordirigly, could it be done without including thofe
vants of lords, as alfo of tradefmen and artifans, (hall who have a better title to fuch indulgence. This is-
be content with one meal of filh or flefh every day ; certainly, however, a point which Ihould be maturely
and the other meals, daily, lliall be of milk, cheefe, weighed before executed ; and, in mercantile countries
butter, and the like. Neither lhall they ufe any or- at lead, fuch reftraints may be found prejudicial, moll
naments of gold, filk, or embroidery ; nor their wives likely impracticable, efpecially where true liberty is
and daughters any veils above the price of twelvepence. eltablilhed. Sir William Temple obferves, fpeaking
Artifans and yeomen fliall not wear cloth above 40s. of the trade and riches, and at the fame time of the-
the whole piece (the fineft then being about L. 6 per frugality of the Hollanders, “ That fome of our max*
piece), nor the ornaments before named. Nor the ims are not fo certain as rwratf in politics: as that en-
women any veils of filk, but only thofe of thread couragement of excefs and luxury, if employed in the
made in England. Gentlemen under the degree of confumption ©f native commodities, is of advantage
knights, not having L. 100 yearly inland, lhall not to trade. It may be fo to that which impoverilhes,
wear any cloth above 4! marks the whole piece. Nei- but not to that which enriches a country. It is indeed
ther {hail they or their females ufe cloth of gold, filver, lefs prejudicial, if it lies in native than in foreign wares ;
or embroidery, &c. But efquires having L. 200 per but the humour of luxury and expence cannot flop at
annum or upwards of rent, may wear cloths of five certain bounds ; what begins in native will proceed in
marks the whole piece or cloth; and they and their foreign commodities; and though the example arife
females may alfo wear ftuff of filk, filver, ribbons, among idle perfons, yet the imitation will run into all
girdles, or furs. Merchants, citizens, burghers, and degrees, even of thofe men by whole indullry tire na-
artificers of tradefmen, as well of London as elfe- tion fubfifts. And befides, the more of our own we
where, who have goods and chattels of the clear value fpend, the lefs we Ihall have to fend abroad ; and fo
of L. 500, and their females, may wear as is allowed it will come to pafs, that while we drive a vail trade,
to gentlemen and efquires of L. 100 per annum. And yet, by buying much more than we felly we lhall come
merchants, citizens, and burgclfes, worth above L. 1000 to be poor at laft.”
in goods and chattels, may (and their females) wear LYBIA, or Libya, a name anciently given to all
the fame as gentlemen of L. 200 per annum. Knights that part of Africa lying between the border of E-
of 200 marks yearly may wear cloth of fix' marks the gypt and the river Triton ; and comprehending Cyre-
cloth, but no higher ; but no cloth of gold, nor furred naica, Marmarica, and the" Regio Syrtica. See thefe
with ermine : but all knights and ladies having above articles.
400 marks yearly, up to L.iooo per annum, may wear LYCfEUM, Auxtio*, In antiquity, the name of a
as they pleafe, ermine excepted ; and they may wear celebrated fchool or academy at Athens, where Ari-
ornaments of pearl and precious Hones for their heads ftotle explained his philofophy. The place was corn-
only. Clerks having degrees in cathedrals, colleges, pofed of porticoes, and trees planted in tljp quincunx
&c. may wear as knights and efquires of the fame in- form, where the philofophers difputed walking. Hence
come. Plowmen, carters, fhepherds, and fuch like, philofophy of the Lyceum is ufed to fignify the philofo-
not having 40s. value in goods or chattels, fhall wear phy of Ariftotle, or the Peripatetic philofophy. Stiidas
no fort of cloth but blanket and ruffet lawn of 12d. obferves, that the Lycseum took its name from its ha-
and lhall wear girdles and belts; and they lhall only ving been originally a temple of Apollo Lycteus 5 or
eat and drink fuitable to their ftations. And whofo- rather a portico or gallery built by Lycieus fon of
ever ufes other apparel than is preferibed by the above Apollo : but others mention it to have been built by
laws lhall forfeit the fame. Piliftratus or Pericles.
Concerning the general utility of luxury to a Hate, LYCuEUS (anc. geog.), a mountain of Arcadia,
there is much controverfy among the political writers, facred to Jupiter; whence Jupiter Lycaus (Pliny).
Baron Montefquieu lays it down, that luxury is ne- Sacred alfo to Pan (Virgil) : and hence Lyaea, the
ceffary in monarchies, as in France; but ruinous to rites performed to Pan on this mountain ; which E~
democracies, as in Holland. With regard therefore vander carrying with him to Latium, were called Lu~
to Britain, whofe government is compounded of both percalia (Virgil).
fpecies, it is held to be a dubious queftion, how far LYCAON (fab. hill.), the firft king of Arcadia,
private luxury is a public evil; and, as fuch, cog- fon of Pelafgus and Meliboea. He built a town called
nifable by public laws. And indeed our legillators Lycofura,on the top of mount Lycseus, in honour of
have feveral times changed their fentiments as to this Jupiter. He had many wives, by whom he had a
point; for formerly there were a number of penal laws daughter called Callifto, and 50 fons. He was fucceed-
exifting to rellrain excefs in apparel, chiefly made in ed on the throne by Ny&imus, the eldeft of his fons.
the reigns of Edward III. IV. and Henry VIII. a He lived about 1820 years before the Chriftian sera.—■
fpecimen of which we have inferted above. But all Another king of Arcadia celebrated for his cruelties,
of them it appeared expedient to repeal at an after He was changed into a wolf by Jupiter, becaufe he
period. In faft, although luxury will of necefiity in- offered human vi&ims on, the altar of the god Pan.
creafe according to the influx of wealth, it may not Some attribute this metamorphofis, to another caufe.
be for the general benefit of commerce to impofe, as The fins of mankind, as theyrelate, were become fo enor-
in the above cited laws, an abfolute prohibition of mous, that Jupiter vifited the earth to punifh wicked-
every degree of it: yet, for the good of the public, nefs and impiety. He came to Arcadia, where he
5 was
t Y C C 339 ] L Y D
tycaonia, was announced as a god, and the people began to pay
lychnis, pr0per adoration to his divinity. Lycaon, however,
who ufed to facrifice all Grangers to his wanton cruel¬
ty, laughed at the pious prayers of his fubjeCts ; and
to try the divinity of the god, he ferved up human
flefh on his table. This impiety fo irritated Jupiter,
that he immediately deftroyed the houfe of Lycaon,
and changed him into a wolf.
LYCAONIA, (anc. geog.), a fmall country of
the Hither Afia, contained between Pamphylia to the
fouth, Cappadocia to the north, Pifidia and Phrygia
to the weft, and Armenia Minor to the eaft. Ly-
caones, the people. This country, though fituated
very near mount Taurus, and part of it on it, yet the
Romans reckoned it into Afia intra Taurum. Arca¬
dia, anciently called Lycaonla, (Stephanus.)—Alfo an
ifiand in the Tiber, joined to Rome by a bridge, and
to the land by another, namely, the Ceftius and Fa-
bricius.
LYCHNIS, campion, in botany, including alfo
the Bachelor s^bu ton, (atch-jix, &c: A genus of the
pentagynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 22d order, CaryophylU. The calyx is monophyl-
lous, oblong, and fmooth ; there are five unguiculated
petals; with the fegments of the limb almoft bifid;
the capfule quinquelocular.
Species, &c. 1. The Chalcedonica, or Chalcedonian
fcarlet lychnis, hath a fibrated perenni#! root; up¬
right, ftraight, hairy, animal ftalks, riling three or
four feet high ; garnilhed with long, fpear-pointed,
clofe-fitting leaves, by pairs oppofite; and the ftalk
crowned by a large, compaft, flat bunch of beautiful
fcarlet or flame-coloured flowers, appearing in June
and July. Of this there are varieties, with Angle
fcarlet flowers, with large double fcarlet flowers of
exceeding beauty and elegance, with pale-red flowers,
and with white flowers. Of thefe varieties, the dou¬
ble fcarlet lychnis is fuperior to all for fize and ele¬
gance : the flowers being large, very double, and col-
lefted into a very large bunch, exhibit a charm-
ing appearance ; the Angle fcarlet kind is alfo very
pretty ; and the others efleet an agreeable variety with
the fcarlet kinds. 2. The dioscia, or dioecious lychnis,
commonly called bachelors-hutton, hath fibrated per¬
ennial roots; upright ftalks, branching very diffufe
and irregular, two or three feet high ; having oval,
acute-pointed, rough leaves, by pairs oppofite; and
all the branches terminated by clutters of dioecious
flowers of different colours and properties in the va¬
rieties ; flowering in April and May. The varieties,
are the common Angle red-flowered bachelors button,
double red, double white, and Angle white-flowered.
The double varieties are exceedingly ornamental in
their bloom ; the flowers large, very double, and
continue long in blow; the Angle red fort grows
wild by ditch fides and other moift places in many
parts of England; from which tire doubles were ac¬
cidentally obtained by culture in gardens. The flowers
are often dioecious, L e. male and female on dittinct
plants. 3.The vifcaria,or v.fcous German lychnis, com¬
monly called catch-jly, hath fibry perennial roots;
crowned by a tuft of long graffy leaves clofe to the
ground ; many ereift, ftraight, Angle ftalks, rifing a
foot and a half or two jeet high, exfuding from their
upper part a vifeous or clammy matter ; garniftied with Eycu
long narrow leaves, by pairs oppofite; and terminated li
by many reddilh purple flowers, in clufters one above*jycnj ,nte*
another, forming a fort of long loofe fpike; all the ''' "v
flowers with entire petals; flowering in May. Of
this alfo there are varieties with Angle red flowers,
with double red flowers, and with white flowers. The
double variety is confiderably the moft eligible for
general culture, and is propagated in plenty by part¬
ing the roots. All the varieties of . this fpecies
emitting a glutinous liquid matter from their ftalks,
flies happening to light thereon fometimes ftick'
and entangle themfelves, whence the plant obtains
the name Catch-fly. 4. The flos-cuculi, cuckoo¬
flower lychnis, commonly called ragged-robin, hath
fibry perennial roots ; upright, branchlefs, channelled
ftalks, rifing near two feet high ; garnifned with long,
narrow, fpear-fliaped leaves, in pairs oppofite ; and
terminated by branchy foot-ftalks, fuftaining many
purple, deeply quadrjfid flowers ; appearing in May.
The flowers having each petal deeply quadrifid in a
torn or ragged-like manner, the plant obtained the
cant name of Ragged-robin. There are varieties with
Angle flowers and double flowers. The double fort is
a large, very multiple, fair flower : it is an improved
variety of the Angle, which grows wild in moft of our
moift meadows, and is rarely cultivated; but the
double, being very ornamental, merits culture in every
garden. All the four fpecies and refpedtive varieties
are very hardy; all fibrous-rooted, the roots peren¬
nial ; but are annual in ftalks, which rife in fpring,
flower in fummer, fucceeded in the Angles by plenty
of feed in autumn, by which all the iingle varieties
may be railed in abundance, but the doubles only by
dividing the roots, and fome by cuttings of the flower-
ftalks.
LYCIA, a country of Afia Minor, bounded by
the Mediterranean on the fouth, Caria on the weft,
Pamphylia on the eaft, and Phrygia on the north. It
was anciently called Mityas, and Tremile, from the Mi-
lyse, or Solymi, a people of Crete, who came to fettle
there. The country received the name of Lycia from
Lycus the fon of Pandion, who ettablilhed himfelf
there. The inhabitants have been greatly commend¬
ed by all the ancients for their fobriety and juftice.
They were conquered by Crcefus king of Lydia, and
afterwards by Cyrus. Though they were fubjedt to
the power of Perfia, yet they were governed by their
own kings, and only paid a yearly tribute to the Per-
fian monarch. They became part of the Macedonian
empire when Alexander came into the eaft, and after¬
wards were ceded to the houfe of the Seleucidae. The
country was reduced into a Roman proviuce by the
emperor Claudius.
LYC1UM, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 28th order,
Luriiht. The corolla is tubular, having its throat
clofed up with the beard of the filaments; the berry
is bilocular. There are eight fpecies, natives of various
countries.
LYCODONTES, in natural hiftory, the petrified
teeth of the lupus-pifeis, or wolf-fiih, frequently
found foflile. They are of different ftiapes ; but the
moft common kind life into a femiorbicular form, and
U u 2 are
L Y C
L Y C
[ 340 1
Income- are hollow within, fomewhat refembllng an acorn-cup ; kind, of a nearly fpherical form, puckered or con- Ly«opcrfi-v
dcs> this hollow is found fometimes empty, and fometimes trailed at the root. This fometimes grows to an con,~ ,
^don? " with the ilratum in which it is immerfed. Many enormous fize. It has been found in England as big
u—them have an outer-circle, of a different colour as a man’s head 5 and at Carraria, near Padua in Italy,v
from the reft. fpecimens have been gathered, weighing 25 pounds,
LYCOMEDES, (fab. hift.), a king of Scyros an and meafuring two yards in circumference; but its
illand in the vEgean fea. He was fon of Apollo and more ordinary fize is that of a walnut or an apple.
Parthenope. He was fecretly entrufted with the The varieties of this fpecies have no limits, being
care of young Achilles, whom his mother Tethis had frequently found to run into one another ; the fcaly,
difguifed in woman’s cloaths, to remove him from the warty, and echinated coats turning fmooth as the
Trojan war, where file knew he mull unavoidably pe- plants grow old, and the neck of the fungus having
rifh. Lycomedes has rendered himfelf famous for his no determinate length. The natural colour of the
puff-ball is either white, grey, or alh-coloured: but
is fometimes found yellowifh, tawny, and brownilh.
The internal fpongy part of it, bound on to wounds,
is efteemed good to flop bleedings. Prefled and dried
in an oven, the puff-ball becomes a kind of tinder.
treachery to Thefeus, who had implored his protec¬
tion when driven from his throne of Athens by the
ufurper Mneftheus. Eycomedes, as it is reported,
either envious of the fame of his illuftrious guefts,
bribed by the emiffaries of Mneftheus, led Thefeus to
an elevated place, on pretence to fliow him the extent the fmoke of which is faid to intoxicate bees. See
of his dominions, and perfidioufly threw him down a
precipice, where he was killed.
LYCOPERDON, in botany; A genus of the na¬
tural order of fungi, belonging to the cryptogamia
clafs of plants. The fungus is roundilh, and full of
farinaceous feeds. There are 10 fpecies, of which the
following are the moll remarkable.
Gent. Mag. July 1766. The Italians fry the great
variety, and indeed any of the others when young,
and eat them with fait and oil, according to the
relation of Marfigli.
LYCOPERSICON. See Solanum.
EYCOPODIUM, or club-moss ; a genus of the
natural order of mufei, belonging to the cryptogamia
. The tuber,truffles, or fubterraneous puff-balls, is a clafs of plants. The antherse are bivalved and feffile ;
native of woods both in Scotland and England. It is a there are no calyptra. There are 24 fpecies; of which.
’ e moft remarkable.
, or common club mofs, is common in
fubterraneousfungus,growing generally in clufters three the following are the
orfour inches under ground,without any vifibleroot.The 1. The clai *tum> 01
figure of it is nearly fpherical, the fize that of a pota¬
to ; the exterior coat at firft white, afterwards black,
and ftudded with pyramidical or'polyhedrous tubercles;
the internal fubftance folid and callous, of a dirty-
white or pale-brown colour, grain’d like a nutmeg with
ferpentine lines ; in which, according to Micheli, are
imbedded minute oval capfules, containing each from
two to four round warted feeds. The truffles of Great
Britain feldom exceed three or four ounces in weight;
but in Italy, and fome other parts of the continent,
they are faid to have been found of the enormous fize
of eight and even 14 pounds. They are received at
dry and mountainous places, and in fir forefts. The ftalk
is proftrate, branched, and creeping, from a foot to two
or three yards long; the radicles woody. The leaves arc
numerous, narrow, lanceolated, acute, often incurved at
the extremity, terminated with a long white hair, and
every where furround the ftalk. The peduncles are
ereft, firm, and naked (except being thinly fet with
lanceolate feales), and arife from the ends of the
branches. They are generally two or three inches
long, and terminated with two cylindrical yellowifh
fpikes, imbricated with oval-acute feales, finely lace¬
rated on the edges, and ending with a hair. In the
tables, either freff> and roafted like potatoes, or ala or bofom of the fcale is a kidney-fhaped capfule.
dried and fliced into ragouts. They have a volatile
and fomewhat urinous fmell, and are reputed to be
aphrodifiacal. . Dogs are with much pains taught to
hunt for them by the feent, and to fcratch up the
ground under which they lie.
2. The bovifta, or common puff-ball, is frequent in
meadows and paftures in the autumn. It varies ex¬
ceedingly in fize, figure, fuperficies, and colour.
In general, it confifts of a fack or bag, having a root
at its bafe, and the bag compofed of three mem¬
branes, an epidermis, a tough white fldn, and an
interior coat which adheres clofely to the central
The pith in the young plants is of a yellowifti colour,
at firft firm and folid, but foon changes into a cellular
fpongy fubftancs, full of a dark dull-green powder,
which difeharges itfelf through an aperture at the
top of the fungus, which aperture is formed of la¬
cerated figments,, in fome varieties reflexed. The.
powder is believed to be the feeds, which through a
microfcope appear of a fpherical form, and to be an¬
nexed to elaftic hairs. See Haller's Hijl.,Hehet. n. 2172.,
Among the numerous varieties of this fungus,, the
gLbrum. moft remarkable. It is a fmooth ftlkle
which burfts with elafticity when ripe, and throws
out a light yellow powder, which, blown into the
flame of a candle, flaflies with a fmall explofion. The
Swedes make mats of this mofs to rub their flioes
upon. In Ruflia, and fome other countries, the pow¬
der of the capfules is ufed in medicine to heal galls in
children, chops in the Ikin, and other fores. It is alft»
ufed to powder over officinal pills, and to make artifi¬
cial lightning at theatres. The Poles make a decoc¬
tion of the plant, and, dipping a linen cloth.into it,
apply it to the heads of perfons afflidled with the dif-
eafe called the plica polonica, which is faM to be cured
by this kind of fomentation
2. The felagOy or fir club-mofs, is common in the
Highland mountains of Scotland, and in the Hebrides^
The ftalk at the bafe is Angle and reclining; but a
little higher is divided into upright dichotomous
branches, from two to fix inches high, furrounded
with eight longitudinal oblique feries of lanceolate,
finooth, rigid, imbricated leaves. Near the fummits
of the branches, in the ala of the leaves, are placed
fingle kidney-ftaped capfules, confifting of two valves,
which open horizontally like the (hells of an oyfter,
:
and
L Y C r 34* 1 L Y D
LycopodJ- an3 caft 0ut a fine yellow powder. Thefe capfules
u'j' Linnaeus fuppofes to be anther*, or male parts of
, firuftification. In the al<t alfo of many of the leaves,
« y * near the tops of the branches, are often found what
the fame great author calls female flowers, but which
the ingenious Haller efteems to be only gems or buds
of a future plant. They confift, firft, of four ftiff,
lanceolate, incurved, minute leaves, one of the outer-
moft longer and larger than the reft. Thefe are fup-
pofed to correfpcyid to the calyx in regular flowers.
Again, at the bottom of this calyx are five fmall pel¬
lucid fubftances refembling leaves, vifible only by a
micrdfcope, which are fuppofed analogous to piftils.
‘Thefe, in time, grow up into three large broad leaves,
two of the five united together like the hoof of an ox;
with a third narrower one annexed at the bafe, and
two other minute ones oppofite to the other three.
Thefe five leaves are joined at the bafe; and in autumn,
falling from the calyx, vegetate, and produce a new
plant. See a diftertation De feminibus mufcorum, Amanit.
Academ. li. p. 261. In the ifland of Raafay, near
Sky, in Rofsfhire, and fome other places, the inhabi¬
tants make ufe of this plant inftead of alum, to fix
the colours in dyeing. The Highlanders alfo fome-
times take an infufion of it as an emetic and cathartic:
but it operates violently ; and, unlefs taken in a fmall
dofe, brings on giddinefs and convulfions. Linnceus
informs us, that the Swedes ufe a deco&ion of it to
deftroy lice on fwine and other animals.
LYCOPOLIS, or-lycon, (anc. geog.) fo called
from the worlhip of wolves. Lycopolita, the people ;
Lycopohtes, the diftrict. There were two towns of this
name, one in the Delta, or Lower Egypt, near the
Mediterranean ; the other in the Thebais, or Higher
Egypt, in the northern part, to the weft of the Nile
LYGOPHRON, a famous Greek poet and gram¬
marian, born at Colchis in Euboea, flourilhed abpjut
304 B. C. and, according to Ovid, was killed by an
arrow. He wrote 20 tragedies ; but all his works are
loft, except a poem intitled Caflfandra, which contains
a long train of predictions, which he fuppofes to
have been made by Caflandra, Priam’s daughter.
This poem is extremely obfcure. The beft edition
of it is that of Dr Potter, printed at Oxford in 1697,
folio.
LYCOPSIS, in botany : A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants
and in the natural method ranking under the 41ft or¬
der, Afperifoiue. The corolla has an incurvated
tube.
LYCOPUS, in botany : A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of plants;,
and in the natural method ranking under the 42d or¬
der, Vertkillat*. The corolla is quadrifid, with one.
of the fegments emarginated ; the ftamina ftai}ding;a-
&nder,. with four retufe feeds.
LYCURGIA, a feftival obferved'by the Spartans,
in memory of their lawgiver Lycurgus, whom they
honoured with a temple and anniverfary facrifice.
LYMPHiEA, were artificial caves or grottos a-
mongft the Romans, furniihed with a great many
tubes, canals, and various hydraulic apparatus, thro’
which the water gufhed out. upon the fpeclators un¬
expectedly whilft they were admiring the beautiful
arrangement of the ilvelhwork.in the grotto..
LYCURGUS, the celebrated legiflator of the Lyeurgu*.
Spartans, was the fon of Eunomes king of Sparta. It
 He travelled to Greece, to the ifle of Crete, Lydgate,
to Egypt, and even to the Indies, to converfe with * **
the fages and learned men of thofe countries, and to-
learn their manners, their cuftoms, and their laws.
After the death of his brother PolydeCtes, who was
king of Sparta, his widow offered the crown to Ly¬
curgus, promifing that (he would make herfelf mif--
carry of the child of which fhe was pregnant, provided
he would marry her ; but Lycurgus nobly refufed
thefe advantageous offers, and afterwards contented
himfelf with being tutor to his nephew Charillus, and
reftored to him the government when he came of age;
but notwithftanding this regular and generous con¬
duct, he was accufed of a delign to ufurp the crown.
This calumny obliged him to retire to the ifland of
Crete, where he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the
laws and cuftoms of nations. At his return to Lace-
demon, he reformed the government: and, to prevent
the diforders occafioned by luxury and the love of
riches, he prohibited the ufe of gold and filverplaced
all the citizens in a ftate of equality; and introduced the
ftriCIeft temperance, the moft exaCt difcipline, and
thofe admirable laws which (a few excepted) have
been celebrated by all hiftorians. It is faid, that, to
engage the Lacedemonians to obferve them inviola¬
bly, he made them promife with an oath not to change
any part of them till his return ; and that he after¬
wards went to the ifland of Crete,, where he killed
himfelf, after having ordered that his allies -ftiould be
thrown into the fea, for fear left if his body fliould be
carried to Sparta the Lacedemonians would think
themfelves abfolved from their oath. He flourilhed
about 870 B. C.
LYDD, a town of Kent in England, two miles
and a half fouth-weft of Romney, of which town and
port it is a member, and. 71 miles from London. It
is a populous town, with a market on Thurfday, and
fair on July 24th. It is incorporated by the name of
a bailiff, eleCted July 22d, jurats, and commonalty.
In. the beach near Stone-end, is a heap of ftones, fan¬
cied to be the tomb of Crifpin and Crifpianus. And
near the fea is a place called Holmflone, . confifting of
beach and pebble-ftones,.which abounds neverthdefs
with holm trees. Here is a charity fchcol.
LYDGATE (John), called the Monk of Bury ;
not, as Cibber conjectures, becaufe he was a native of
that place, for he was born about the year 138a, in
the village of Lydgate; but becaufe he was a monk
of the Benedidb’ne convent at St Edmund's-Bury.
After' ftudying fome time in our Englilh univerfities,
he travelled to France and Italy; and, having acquired
a competent knowledge of the languages of thofe
countries, he returned to London, where he opened a
fchool, in which he inftru&ed the fons of the nobility "
in polite literature. At what time he retired to the
convent of St Edmund’s-Bury, does not appear;
but1 he was - certainly there in 14.15. He was living
in 1446, aged about 66 ; but in wliat year he died
is not known. Lydgate, according to Pits, was an
elegant poet, a perfuafive rhetorician, an expert ma¬
thematician, an acute philofopher, and a tolerable di¬
vine. He was a voluminous writer; and, confidering
the. age in which, he lived, .an excellent poet. His
language
L Y D L 342 J L Y D
^ Lydia, language is lefs obfolete, and his verfification much
’’ more harmonious, than the-language and verfification
of Chaucer, who wrote about half a century before
him. He wrote, I. Hiftory of the Theban war,
printed at the end of Chaucer’s works, 1561, 1602,
1687. 2. Poemation of good counfel; at the end of
Chaucer’s works. 3. The life of Hedtor; London
1594, fol. printed by Grofs, dedicated to Henry V.
3. Life of the Blefied Virgin ; printed by Caxton.
4. The proverbs of Lydgate upon the fall of princes ;
printed by Wink. Word. Lond 410. 5. Dif-
pute of the horfe, the iheep, and the goofe ; printed
in Caxton’s Colled!. 410. 6. The temple of brafs ;
among the works of Chaucer. 7. London lickpenny ;
’vide Stowe’s hiftory, &c. &c. Befides an incredible
number of other poems and tranflations preferved in
various libraries, and of which the reader will find a
catalogue in biftjop Tanner.
LYDIA (anc. geog.), a celebrated kingdom of
Alia Minor.—All the ancient writers tell us, that
Lydia was flrll called Maotiia or Meotiia, from Meon
king.of Phrygia and Lydia j and that it was known
under no other denomination till the reign of Atys,
when it began to be called Lydia from his fon Lydus.
Bochart finding in his learned colleftion of Phoenician
words the verb luz, fignifying “ to wind,” and ob-
ferving that the country we are fpeaking of is watered
by the Masander fo famous for its windings, concludes
that it was thence named Lydia, or Ludia. As to the
ancient name of Maeonia, he takes it to be a Greek
tranfiation of the Phoenician word lud; wherein he
agrees in fome meafure with Stephan us, who derives
♦ the name of Maeonia from Mseon the ancient name
of the Maeander. Some take the word meonia to be
a tranflation of a Hebrew word fignifying “ metal,”
bccaufe that country, fay they, was in former times
enriched above any other with mines. Though Lydia
and Mason ia are by moft authors indifferently ufed for
one and the fame country, yet they are fometimes
diftinguifhed; that part where mount Tmolus ftood,
watered by the Padtolus, being properly called M<eo-
n'ui; and the other, lying on the coaft, Lydia. This
diftindtion is ufed by Homer, Callimachus, Dionyfius,
and other ancient writers. In after ages, when the
lonians, who had planted a colony on the coaft of the
Egean Sea, began to make fome figure, that part was
called Ionia, and the name of Lydia given to the an¬
cient Mseonia.—Lydia, according to Pliny, Ptolemy,
and other ancient geographers, was bounded by the
Myfia Major on the north, by Caria on the fouth,
by Phrygia Major on the eaft, and Ionia on the weft-,
lying between the 37th and 39 degrees of north lati¬
tude. What the ancients ftyle the‘kingdom of Lydia
was not confined within thefe narrow boundaries, but
extended from Halys to the Egean fea. Pliny’s de-
feription includes iEolia, lying between the Hermus
and the Caicus.
» As to the origin of the Lydians, Jofephus, and
after him all the ecclefiaftic writers, derive them
from Lud Shem’s fourth fon; but this opinion has
no other foundation than the fimilitude of names.
Some of the ancients will have the Lydians to be a
mixed colony of Phrygians, Myfians, and Carians.
Others finding fome conformity in religion and reli¬
gious ceremonies between the Egyptians and Tufcans
who were a Lydian colony, conclude them, without Lydia,
any farther evidence, to be originally Egyptians. All —v——1
we know for certain is, that the Lydians were a very
ancient nation, as is manifeft from their very fables ;
for Atys, Tantalus, Pelops, Niobe, and Arachne, are
all faid to have been the children of Lydus. And Zau-
thus in his Lydiaca, quoted by Stephanus, informs us,
that the ancient city of Afcalon, one of the five fa-
trapies of the Philiftines, mentioned in the books of
Jofhua and the Judges, was built by one Afcalus a
Lydian, whom Achiamus king of Lydia had appoint¬
ed to command a body of troops which he lent, we
know not on what occafion, into Syria. The He-
raclidEE, or kings of Lydia, defeended from Hercules,
began to reign before the Trojan war ; and had been
preceded by a long feries of lovereigns fprung from
Atys, and hence ftyled Atyada : a llrong proof of the
antiquity of that kingdom.
The Lydians began Very early to be ruled by kings
whofe government feems to have been truly defpotic
and the crown hereditary. We read of three diftinct
races of kings reigning over Lydia, viz. the Atyadae,
the Heraclidae, and the Mermnadas.
The Atyada were fo called from Atys the fon of
Cotys and grandfon of Manes the firft Lydian king.
But the hiftory of this family is obfeure and fabulous.
The Atyadas were fucceeded by the Heradida, or
the defeendants of Hercules. For Hercules being,
by the direction of the oracle, fold as a Have to Om-
phale a queen of Lydia to expiate the murder of
Iphitus, had, during his captivity, by one of her
Haves, a fon named CleoLus, whofe grandfon Argon
was the firft of the Heraclidae that afeended the throne
of Lydia. This race is Laid to have reigned 505
years, the father fucceeding the fon for 22 genera¬
tions. They began to reign about the time of the
Trojan war. The laft of the family was the unhappy
Candaules, who loft both his life and kingdom by his
imprudence. An event of which we have the following
account by Herodotus. Candaules had a wife whom
he palfionately loved, and believed the moft beautiful
of her fex. He extolled her charms to Gyges his fa¬
vourite, whom he ufed to entruft with his moft import¬
ant affairs ; and the more to convince him of her beau¬
ty, refolved to_lhow her to him quite naked: he accord-
ingly placed him in the porch of her chamber where
the queen ufed to undrefs when fhe went to bed, or¬
dering him to retire after he ftiould have feen her,
and take all pofiible care not to be obferved. But
notwithftanding all the caution he could ufe,' ftie plain¬
ly difeovered him going out; and though (he did not
doubt but it was her hufband’s contrivance, yet lire
palled that night in a feeming tranquillity, fuppref-
fing her refentment till next morning, while Hus fent
for Gyges, and refolutely told him that he mult either
by his death atone for the criminal adlion he had been
guilty of, or put to death Candaules the contriver of
it, and receive both her and the kingdom of Lydia
for his reward. Gyges at fill! earneftly begged ot
her that Ihe w’ould not drive him to the neceffity of
fuch a choice. But finding that he could not prevail
with her, and that he muft either kill his mailer or
die himfelf, he chofe the former part of the alterna¬
tive. Being led by the queen t6 the fame place where
her hufband had polled him the night before, he llab-
L Y D ^ r 343 ] L Y D
I>ydi’a. bed the king while he was afleep, married the queen,
and took poffeflion of the kingdom, in which he was
confirmed by the anfwer of the Delphic oracle. The
Lydians having taken up arms to revenge the death
of their prince, an agreement was made between
them and the followers of Gyges, that if the oracle
fhould. declare him to be lawful king of Lydia he
fhould be permitted to reign j if not, he thould refign
the crown to the Heraclidae. The anfwer of the oracle
proving favourable to Gyges, he was univerfally ac¬
knowledged for lawful king of Lydia. Candaules
is faid to have purchafed a picture painted by Bukr-
chas, reprefenting a battle of the Magnetes, for its
weight in gold ; a circumftance which fhows how early
the art of painting began to be in requeft, for Can¬
daules was cotemporary with Romulus.
Gyges having thus polleflcd himfelf of the kingdom
of Lydia, fent many rich and valuable prefents to
the oracle of Delphos, among others, fix cups of
gold weighing 30 talents, and greatly efteemed for
the workmanfhip. He made war on Miletus and
Smyrna, took the city of Colophon, and fubdued the
whole country of Troas. In his reign, and by his
permiffion, the city of Abydus was built by the Mi-
lefians. Plutarch and other writers relate his accef-
lion to the crown of Lydia in a quite different man¬
ner, and tell us, without making any mention of the
queen, that Gyges rebelled againft Candaules and flew
him in an engagement. In Gyges began the third
race called Mermnada ; who were alfo, properly fpeak-
mg, Heraclidae, being defcended from a fon of Her¬
cules by Omphale. Gyges reigned 38 years, and was
fucceeded by his fon Ardyes.
This prince carried on the war againft the Mile-
fians which his father had begun, and poffefl’ed him¬
felf of Priene, in thofe days a ftrong city. In his
reign the Cimerians invaded and over-run all Afia Mi¬
nor ; but what battles were fought between the Ly¬
dians and thefe invaders, and with what fuccefs, we
find no where mentioned. Herodotus only informs
us, that in the time of Ardyes they poffefled them-
felves of Sardis, the metropolis of Lydia, but could
never reduce the caftle. Ardyes reigned 49 years, and
was fucceeded by his fon Sadyattes,who reigned 12 years,
and warred moft part of his reign with the Milefians..
After him came his fon Alyattes, who for the fpace
of five years continued the war which his father had
begun againft the Milefians, ravaging their country,
and about harveft time carrying away all their corn
yearly, in order to oblige them, for want of provr-
fions, to furrender their city, which he knew he could
not reduce any other way, the Milefians being at that
time mafters of the fea. In the 12th year of this war
the Lydians having fet fire to the corn in the fields,
the flames were carried by a violent wind, which hap¬
pened to blow at that time, to the temple of Minerva
at Aflefus, and burnt it down to the ground. Not
long after, Alyattes falling fick, fent to eonfult the
oracle at Delphos ; which refufed to return any an¬
fwer till fuch time as the king fhould rebuild the temple
of Minerva at Aflefus. Alyattes, thus warned, dif-
patched ambaffadors to Miletus, enjoining them to
conclude a truce with the Milefians till the temple
fhould be rebuilt. On the arrival of the ambafladors,
Thrafybulus, then king of Miletus, commanded all
the corn that was at that time in the city to be Lydia
brought into the market-place, ordering the citizens
to banquet in public, and revel as if the city were
plentifully ftored with all manner of provifions. This-
ftratagem Thrafybulus pradtifed, to the end that the
ambafladors feeing fuch quantities of corn’, and the
people every where diverting themfelvcs, might ac¬
quaint their mafter with their affluence, and divert
him from purfuing the war. As Thrafybulus had de-
figned, fo it happened; for Alyattes, who believed
the Milefians greatly'diftrefled for provifions, receiving
a different account from his ambaffadors, changed the
truce into a lafting peace, and ever afterwards lived
in amity and friendfhip with Thrafybulus and the Mi¬
lefians. He was fucceeded, after a reign of 5 7 years,
by his fon Crcefus, whofe uninterrupted profperity,
in the firft years 'of his reign, far.eclipfed the glory
of all his predeceffors. He was the firft that made
war on the Ephefians, whofe city he befieged and took
notwithftanding their confecrating it to Diana, and
fattening the walls by a rope to her templS, which,
was feven ftadia diftant from the city. After the re-
duftion of Ephefus,. he attacked, under various pre¬
tences, the lonians and ^Eolians, obliging them, and
all the other Greek ftates of Afia, to pay him a year¬
ly tribute. Having met with fuch extraordinary fuc¬
cefs by land, the Lydian prince determined to render
his power equally confpicuous by fea. For this pur-
pofe he thought ferioufly of equipping a fleet; with
which he purpofed to invade and conquer the Grecian
Hands direftly fronting his dominions. But this de-
fign, which, confidering the flow progrefs in maritime
power among the nations moft diligent to. attain it,
would probably have failed of fuecefs, was prevented
by the advice of a philofophical traveller conveyed in
fuch a lively turn of wit, as eaftly changed the refo-
lution of the king. Bias of Priene in Ionia, fome
fay Pittacus of Mitylene in the ifte of Lelhos, while
he travelled after the Grecian caftom,. from curiofity
and a love of knowledge, was prefented to Croefus at
the Lydian court; and being, afked by that prince
what news from Greece ; he anfwered with a republi¬
can freedom, that the Handers had collected powerful
fquadrons of cavalry with an intention of invading
Lydia. “ May the gods grant (faid Croefus), that
the Greeks, who are unacquainted with horfemanfhip*.
ftiould attack the difciplined valour of the Lydian
cavalry ; there Would foon be an end to the conteft.’*
“ In the fame manner (replied Bias)-, as if the Ly¬
dians, who are totally unexperienced in naval affairs,
fhould invade the Grecians by fea.” Struck by the
acutenefs of this unexpefted obfervation, Croefus de-
fifted from his intended expedition againft the Hands,
and inftead of employing new means for extending
his conquefts, determined peaceably to enjoy the lau¬
rels which he had won, and to difplay the grandeur
which he had attained. But his bappinefs was fooa
after allayed by the death of his favourite fon Atys*
who was unfortunately killed at the chace of a wild
boar. For this lofs he continued difconfolate for two
years and in a ftate of inaftion,. till the conquefts of
Cyrus, and growing power of the Perfians, roufed up-
his martial fpirit, and diverted his mind to other
thoughts. He apprehended that the fuccefs which
attended Cyrus in all his undertakings, 'might at latt
prove
L Y D
prove dangerous to himfelf, and therefore refolved to
^ put a flop, if poflible, to his progrefs. In taking
C 344 1
L Y D
will of the god whofe authority you acknowledge.^*
The Lacedemonians, pleafed with the alliance of a '
this refolution, which might probably be attended warlike king, and ftill more w ith the fame of their va-
with the moft important confequences, he was defirous
to learn the will of heaven concerning the iflue of the
war. The principal oracles which he confulted were
thofe of Branchis in Ionia, of Hammon in Libya,
and of Delphi iq Greece. Among thefe refpe&ed
-ihrines, the oracle of Delphi maintained its afcendant,
as the moft faithful interpreter of fate. Crcefus was
fully perfuaded of its veracity; and defirous generoufly
to compenfate for the trouble which he had already
givem, and ftill meant to give, the priefts of Apollo,
he facrificed 3000 oxen to the god, and adorned his
ftirine with dedications equally valuable for the work¬
lour, readily accepted the propofal. To the ftrift
conneftion of an offenfive and defenfive league, they
joined the more refpedted ties of facred hofpitality.
A few years before this tranfaftion, they had fent to
purchafe gold at Sardis for making a ftatue of Apollo.
Croefus had on that occafion gratuitoufly fupplied their
want. Remembering this generofity, they gave the
Lydian amfcafladors at their departure, as a prefent
for their mafter, a vefiel of brafs containing 300 ana¬
phoras (above 12 hoglheads), and beautifully carved
on the outfide with various forms of animals.
Croefus, having thus happily accompliflied the de»
man (hip and for the materials ; preciovjs veffels of fign recommended by the oracle, was eager to fet out
filver, ewers of iron beautifully inlaid and enamelled; upon his intended expedition. He had formerly en-
various ornaments of pure gold, particularly a golden tered into alliance with Amafis king of Egypt, and
lion weighing ten talents, and a female figure three Labynetus king of Babylon. He had now obtained
cubits or near five feet high. In return for thefe mag- the friendlhip of the moft warlike nation of Europe,
nificent prefents, the oracle, in ambiguous language, The newly-raifed power of Cyrus and the Perfians
flattered Crcefus with obtaining an eaiy victory over feemed incapable of relifting fuch a formidable confe-
his enemies, and with enjoying a long life and a pro- deracy.
fperous reign. The god at the fame time enjoined Elevated with thefe flattering ideas of his own in-
him to contract an alliance with the moft powerful of vincible greatnefs, Croefus waited not to attack the
the Grecian ftates. Perfian dominions until he had collected the ftrength
Elevated with thefe favourable predictions of Apollo, ef his allies. The fanguine impetuofity of his temper,
Crcefus prepared to yield a ready obedience to the on- unexperienced in adverfity, unfortunately precipitated
ly condition required on his part for the accomplifh-
tnenf, of his afpiring purpofe. Not deeming him¬
felf fufliciently acquainted with the affairs of Greece,
him into meafures no lefs ruinous than daring. At¬
tended only by the arms of Lydia, and a numerous
band of mercenaries, whom his immenfe wealth enabled
to know what particular republic was meant by the him at any time to call into his fervice, he marched
oracle, he made particular inquiry of thofe bell in¬
formed concerning the ftate of Europe; and difcovered,
that among all the members of the Grecian confede¬
racy, the Athenians and Lacedemonians were juftly
intitled to the pre-eminence. In order to learn which
of thefe communities deferved the epithet of mojipower¬
ful, it was neceflary to fend ambafladors into Greece.
towards the river Halys; and having croffed with
much difficulty that deep and broad ftream, entered
the province of Cappadocia, which formed the weftern
frontier of the Median dominions. That unfortunate
country foon experienced all the calamities of invafion.
The Pteria^i plain, the moft beautiful and the moft
fertile diftrift of Cappadocia, was laid wafte; the
The Lydians difpatched with this important commif- ports of the Euxine, as well as feveral inland cities,
fion, foon difcovered that the Athenians, after having were plundered ; and the inoffenfive inhabitants were
Been long haraffed by internal diffenfions, were actually
governed by the tyrant Pififtratus. The Spartans, on
the other hand, though anciently the worft regulated
of all the Grecian communities, had enjoyed domeftic
.peace and foreign profperity ever fince they had a-
dopted the wife inftitutions of Lycurgus. After that
memorable period, they had repeatedly conquered the
warlike Argives, triumphed over the hardy Arcadians;
and notwithftanding the heroic exploits of Ariftomenes,
fubdued and enflaved their unfortunate rivals of Mef-
fene. To the Lydian ambaffadors, therefore, the Spar¬
tan republic appeared to be pointed out by the oracle
as the community whofe alliance they were enjoined
to folicit. Having repaired accordingly to Sparta,
they were introduced not only to the kings and fe-
qate, but, as the importance of the negociation re-
quired, to the general affembly of the Lacedemonians,
either put to the fword or dragged into captivity.
Encouraged by the unrefifting foftnefs of the natives
of thofe parts, Croefus was eager to pu(h forwards;
and if Cyrus did not previoufly meet him in the field,
he had determined to proceed in triumph to the moun¬
tains of Perfia. Againft this dangerous refolution
he was in vain exhorted by a Lydian named Sandanis;
who, when aflced his opinion of the war, declared it
with that freedom which the princes of the Eaft have
in every age permitted, amidft all the pride and ca¬
prices of defpotic power, to men diftinguifhed by the
gifts of nature or education. “ You are preparing,
O king, to march againft a people who lead a labo¬
rious and a miferable life ; whofe daily fubfiftence is
often denied them, and is always fcanty and precarious;
who drink only water, and wrho are clothed with the
Ikins of wild beafts. What can the Lydians gain by
to whom they, in few words, declared the object of the conqueft of Perfia; they who enjoy all the ad-
their commiflion : “ We are fent, O Lacedemonians !
By Crcefus, king of the Lydians and of many other na¬
tions, who being commanded by the oracle of Apollo
t o feek the friendihip of the moft powerful people of
Llreec?, now fummons you, who juftly merit that epi¬
thet, to become his faithful allies, in obedience to the
vantages of which the Perfians are deftitute ? For my
part, 1 deem it a bleffing of the gods, that they have
not excited the warlike poverty of thefe miferable bar¬
barians to invade and plunder the luxurious wealth of
Lydia.” The moderation of this advice was rejefted
by the fetal presumption of Croefus; who confounding
the
L Y D
-'Lydia. Vne dilates of experienced wifdom with the mean fu<^
geftions of pufiUanimity, difmilfed the counfellor with
contempt.
I 345 1
LTD
being communicated to Cyrus, was immediately adopt¬
ed with approbation by that prince. Harpagus, ha-v
ving obferved that horfes had a ftrong averfion to the
Meanwhile, the approach of Cyrus, who was not of fliape and fmcll of camels, advifed the Perfian army to
a temper to permit his dominions to be ravaged with be drawn up in the following order: All the camels
impunity, afforded the Lydian king ah opportunity of which had been employed to carry baggage and pro¬
fcringing the war to a more fpeedy iflue than by his im
tended expedition into Perfia. The army of Cyrus
gradually augmented on his march | the tributary
princes cheerfullycontributingwith their united ilrength
viffons were collected into one body, arranged in a long
line fronting the Lydian cavalry. The foot foldiers of
the Perfians were ported immediately behind the line,
and placed at a due diftance. The Median horfe (for
towards the affiltance of a mafter whofe valour and ge- a few fquadrons of thefe followed the ftandard of Cy
herofity they admired, and who now took arms to rus) formed the rear of the army. As the troops on
protect the fafety of his fubjects, as well as to fupport both fides approached to join battle, the Lydian caval-
the grandeur of his throne. Such was the rapidity ry, terrified at the unufual appearance of the camels,
of his movement, efpecially after being informed of mounted with men in arms, were thrown into difor
the deftruftive ravages of the enemy in Cappadocia,
.that he arrived from the fhores of the Cafpian to thofe
of the Euxine Sea before the army of Crcefus had
provided the neceflaries for their journey. That prince,
when apprifed of the neighbourhood of the Perfians,
der, and turning their heads, endeavoured to efcapc
from the field. Crcefus, who perceived the confufion,
was ready to defpair of his fortune; but the Lydians,
abandoning their horfes, prepared with uncommon bra¬
very to attack the enemy on foot. Their courage de-
encamped on the Pterian plain *, Cyrus likewife en- ferved a better fate ; but unaccuftomed as the/ were
camped at no great diftance : frequent ikirmifties hap- to this mode of fighting, they were received, and repel-
pened between the light troops; and at length a ge- led by the experienced valour of the Perfian infantry,
neral engagement was fought with equal fury and per- and obliged to take refuge within the fortified ftrength
feverance, and only terminated by the darknefs of of Sardis, where they imagined themfelves fecure. The
right. The lofs on both fides hindered a renewal of walls of that city bid defiance to the rude art of at-
the battle. The numbers, as well as the courage of tack, as then pra&ifed by the moft warlike nations,
the Perfians, much exceeded the expeftation of Croe- If the Perfian army (hould inveft it, the Lydians were
fus. As they difeovered not any intention to harafs . provided with provifions for feveral years ; and there
his retreat, he determined to move hack towards Sar¬
dis, to fpend the winter in the amufements of his pa¬
lace ; and after fummoning his numerous allies to his
ftandard, to take the field early in the fpring with fuch
tncreafe of force as feemed fufficient to, overpower the
Perfians.
But this defign was defeated by the careful vigilance
was reafon to expeft, that in a few months, and even
weeks, they would receive fuch afliftance from Egypt,
Babylonia, and Gre’ece (to which countries they
already fent ambafladors), as would oblige the Per¬
fians to raife the fiege.
The Lydian minifters difpatched into Greece met
with great fympathy from the Sparians. That people
of Cyrus. That experienced leader allowed the ene- were particularly obfervant of the faith of treaties;
tny to retire without moleftation ; carefully informing
himtelf of every ftep which they took, and of every
tneafure which they feemed determined to purfue.
Patiently watching the opportunity of a juft revenge,
he waited until Crcefus had re-entered his capital, and
had dilbanded the foreign mercenaries, who compofed
and while they puniftied their enemies with unexam¬
pled feverity, they behaved with generous compaffion
towards thofe whom they had once accepted for allies.
They immediately refolved therefore to fend him a
fpeedy and effectual relief; and for this purpofe af-
fembled their troops, made ready their yeffels, and
the moft numerous divifion of his army, it then feem- prepared every thing neceffary for the expedition.
ed the proper time for Cyrus to put his Perfians in
motion ; and fuch was his celerity, that he brought
the firft news of his own arrival in the plain of Sardis.
-Crcefus, whofe firmnefs might well.have been ftiaken
by the imminence of this unforefeen danger, was not
The valour of the Spartans might perhaps have
upheld the finking empire of Lydia ; hut before their
armament could fet fail, Crosfuswas no longer a fove-
reign. Notwithftanding the ftrength of Sardis, that
city had been taken by ftorm on the zeth day of the
wanting on the prefent occafion to the duties which he fiege; the walls having been fealed in a quarter which.
owed to his fame and the luftre of the Lydian throne.
Though his mercenaries were dilbanded, his own fub-
jetts, who ferved him from attachment, who had been
appearing altogether inacceffible, was too carelefsly
guarded. This was effe&ed by the enterprife of Hy-
reades a Mede, who accidentally obferved a centinel
long accuftomed to vi&ory, and who were animated defeend part of the rock in order to recover his hel-
with a high fenfe of national honour, burned with a
defire of enjoying an opportunity to check the daring
infolence of the invaders. Croefus indulged and en¬
couraged this generous ardour. The Lydians in that
age fought on horfeback, armed writh long fpears; the
met. Hyreades was a native of the mountainous pro¬
vince of Mardia, and being accuftomed to clamber
over the dangerous precipices of his native country,
refolved to try his adlivity in palling the rock upon
which he had difeovered the Lydian. The defign was
ftrength of the Perfians confifted in infantry. They more eafily accomplifhed than he had reafon to ex-
,’ere fo little accuftomed to the ufe of horfes, that
mels were almoft the only animals which they employ¬
ed as beafts of burden. This circumftance fuggefted
pect: emulatfbn and fuccefs encouraged thebraveft of
the Perfians to follow his example; thefe were fup-
, ported by greater numbers of their countrymen ; th6
to a Mede, by name Harpagus, a ftratagem, which garrifon of Sardis was furprifed ; the citadel ftormed;
Vol. X. Part I. X * the-
L Y G E 346 ] L Y N
l-ydiat Ae rich capital of Lower Afia fubje£led totlie venge-
II .. fill rapacity of an indignant viftor. Thus ended the
Ly^11- , ancient kingdom of Lydia, which continued fubjeft to
* the Perfians till they alfo were conquered by the Ma¬
cedonians.—For the fate of the Lydian monarch, fee
the article Croesus. ,
LYDIAT (Thomas), a learned Englifh divine,
born in 1572, and educated at Oxford. About the
year 1609, he became acquainted with Dr James
Ufher, afterwards archbifliop of Armagh, who carried
him to Ireland. He was at Dublin college for about
two years, after which he returned to England ; and
the re&pry of Alkrington becoming vacant, he was
prefented to it: but at length, being engaged for the
debts of a near relation, which for the prefent he was
unable to pay, having before fpent his patrimony in
printing feveral books, he was fent to prifon; and was
confined at Oxford, in the King’s-bench, and elfe-
where, till Sir William Bofwell, a generous patron of
learned men, Dr Robert Pink, warden of New-college,
bifliop Ulher, and Dr Laud, difcharged the debt. In
the civil wars, he fuffered much in his re&ory of Alk¬
rington from the parliament-party; was four times
pillaged to the value of at leaft 701.; and was forced
for a quarter of a year together to borrow a fhirt to
fhift himfelf. He died in 1646. He wrote fome
pieces in Englilh, and many works in Latin, on chro¬
nology and natural hiftory.
LYDIUS lapis, in the natural hiftory, of the an¬
cients ; the name of the ftone ufed by way of touch-
ftone for the trial of gold and filver, and called by
fome Heraclius lapis ; both of which names were alfo
applied by the ancients to the load-ftone ; and hence
lias arifen no fmall mifunderftanding of their works.
Pliny has obferved, that both the load-ftone' and
touch-ftonewereat tirriesealled/.j'^zArand Heraclius lapis.
The true lapis Lyc&us, or the touchftone, was an¬
ciently found only in the wer Tmolus ; but was after¬
wards found in many other places, and is now very
common in many of the German rivers. The ancients
give us very remarkable and circumftantial accounts of
the ufes they made of it; and it is plain they were able
to difcern the alloys of gold by means of it with veiy
great exa&nefs. We at prefent ufe feveral different
ftones under this name, and for the fame purpofe. In
Italy, a green marble called vsrdello, is moft frequently
ufed; and with us, very frequently fmall pieces of
the bafaltes, the fame with that vaft piece of black
marble called the Giant's Caufeway in Ireland. See Ba-
saltes ; Giant's Caujeivay} Iceland, n&5; Staffa;
and Volcano.
LYCEUM, in botany: a genus of the monogy-
iiia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the fourth
order, Gramina. The fpatha or (heath is monophyl-
lous; there are a pair of corollae upon the fame ger-
men ; the nut is bilocular.
LYGH> Ligii, Lugii, or Logiones (anc. geog.), a
people of Germany, to the weft of the Viftula, where
st forms a bend like a crefcent 4 Ligii, (Dio) ; Lugii,
(Strabo) ; Logiones, (Zofimus). Their name Lugii
is conjeftured to be derived from their mutually clofe
confederacy or league. The Viftula was their boun¬
dary to the north, caft, and fouth, with mount Afc^
burgius to the weft. Now the whole of that ceuntry Lying-in.
lies in Poland, on this fide the Viftula. women
LYING-in-Women. See Midwifery. . H.
Lxing-To, or Lying-By, the fituation of a (hip,
when (he is retarded in her courfe, by arranging the ■ ^^
fails in fuch a manner as to counteraft each other with
nearly an equal effort, and render the fhip alriioft im¬
moveable, with refpeft to her progreffive motion, or
head-way. A fhip is ufually brough.t-to by the main
and fore-top fails, one of which is laid aback, whilft
the other is full; fo that the latter pufhes the (hip
forward, whilft the former refills this impulfe by
forcing her aftern. This is particularly pradtifed in
a general engagement, when the hoftile fleets are drawn
up in two lines qf battle oppofite each other. It is
alfo ufed to wait for fome other (hip, either approach¬
ing or expected; or to avoid purfuing a dangerous
courfe, efpeciaUy in dark or foggy weather, &c.
LYME-regis a fea-port town of Dorfetfhire in
England, 1.48 miles from London. It lies near
the fea, on the very borders of Devonfhire, in a
cavity between two rocky hills, which makes it dif¬
ficult of accefs. It is about five furlongs long, and
contains about 200 houfes. As it lies on the decli¬
vity of a hill, the houfes make a good fhow, one
above another; and fome of them are built of free-
ftone, and covered with blue flate. The corporation
confifts of a mayor (who is juftice of peace during his
mayoralty and the year after, and in the third year both
juftice and coroner), a recorder, 15 capital burgefies,
and a town-clerk. This place had formerly a very
flourifhing trade to France, Spain, the Straits, New¬
foundland, and the Weft Indies; during which, the
cuftoms amounted fome years to 16,cool. But it ftands
on fuch a high fteep rock, that the merchants are ob¬
liged to load and unload their goods at a place a quarter
of a mile off, called the Cobb, originally built in the
reign of Edward 111. which cofts a great fum to
maintain, but forms fuch a harbour as perhaps is not
to be equalled in the world, the (hips being (heltered
by a high thick ftone wall, raifed in the main fea
a good way from the fhore, broad enough for car¬
riages and warehoufes, and the cuftom-houfe officers
have one upon it. The cellars of the low part of the
town, near the fea, are however often overflowed by
the fpring-tides 1 o or 12 feet. There are guns planted
for defence bo-th of the Cobb and the town, the fhore
here being very proper for batteries. The cuftom-houfe
ftands on pillars, with the corn-market under it. There
is an alms-houfe in church-ftreet, alfo PrefByterian and
Anabaptift meeting-houfes. The town-hall is near
Broad-ftreet. The church ftands at the eaft end of
the town on a rifing ground. The market here is
Friday, and there are two fairs in the year. We read,
that, in 774> the Saxon King Kinwulf gave land here¬
abouts to the church of Sherborn, for the boiling of fait
there to fupply its neceffities. At this place the duke
of Monmouth landed in 1685. A few years ago above
2000L worth of gold and filver coin of Char. I. and II.
were difeovered by fome labourers.
LYMINGTON, a borough-town of Hampfhire in
England, 97 miles fouth-weft of London. It ftands
about a mile from the channel, running between the
main land and the ifle of Wight; and has a harbour
f«*
£ Y N t 347 1 L Y N
Lymph for veflels of confiderable burden. Tbe tide flows near
II a mile above the town. It has a market on Satur-
Lyncunm. t}ayS> ancj two fairs in the year ; and fends two mem-
' bers to parliament.
LYMPH, a fine colourlefs fluid, feparated in the
body from the mafs of blood,, and contained in pecu¬
liar veffels called lymphatics. See Anatomy.
LYMPHATI, was a name given by the Romans
to fuch as were feized with madnefs. It is fuppofed
to be ufed for Nymphati, becaufe the ancients imagined
that every perfon who had the misfortune to fee a
nymph was inftantly ftruck 'with phrenzy. Lymphali
may indeed fignify “ madmen,” as derived from lym-
pha, “ wafer ’* over which element the nymphs were
thought to prefide : But it Appears molt likely, that
diftra&ed people were called lyir.phati, from the cir-
cumftance of madmen’s being affe&ed with the hydro-
phobia or dread of water after the bite of a mad dog ;
for this peculiarity, in cafes of canine madnefs, was
not unknown to the Romans.
LYNCEUS, in fabulous hiftory, one of the yofons
of zEgeus, married Hypermneftra,one of the 50 daugh¬
ters of Danaus. See Hypermnestra.
Lynceus, in fabulous hiftory, one of the Argo¬
nauts, who went with Jafon in the expedition to ob¬
tain the golden fleece. He was of great ufe to the
Argonauts, by enabling them to avoid the fand-banks
and rocks they found in their way. The poets fay, that
Lynfceus had fo piercing a fight, that it could not only
penetrate to the bottom of the fea, but even to hell.
Some mythologifts fuppofe, that this fable is taken
from Lynceus’s fkill in obferving the ftars, and difco-
veringthe mines of gold and filver concealedin the earth.
LYNCURIUM, a ftone thought to be the fame
with the tourmalin. The name is derived from
*l lynx,” and <“ urine.”
LYNCURIUS lapis, a ftone capable of produ¬
cing mufhrooms.
In the Ephemerides of the Curious we find men¬
tion made of a ftone, fo called by Dr John George
Wolckamerus, who faw one In Italy, which never
ceafes to produce in a few days mufhrooms of an
excellent flavour by the moft Ample and eafy pro-
cefs imaginable. “ It is ffayshe) of the bignefs of
an ox’s head, rough and uneven on its furface, and
on which alfo are perceived fome clefts and crevices.
It is black in fome parts, and in others of a lighter
and greyifh colour. Internally it is porous, and near¬
ly of the nature of the pumice-ftone, but much hea¬
vier ; and it contains a fmall piece of flint, which is
fo incorporated with it’ as to appear to have been form¬
ed at the fame time the ftone itfelf received its form.
This gives room to judge, that thofe ftones have been
produced by a fat and vifcid juice, -which hasthe pro-
perty of indurating whatever matter it filtrates into.
The ftone here fpoken of, when it has been lightly
covered with earth, and fprinkled with warm water,
produces muflirooms of an exquifite flavour, which are
ufually round, fometimes oval, and whofe borders, by
their inflexions and different curvities, reprefent in fome
meafure human ears. The principal colour of thefe
mufhi'Goms is fometimes yellowifh, and fometimes of a
bright purple ; but they art always diffeminated with
'different fpots, of a deep orange colour,, or red brown;
and when thefe fpots are recent, and ftill in full bloom, Lyneuvinf,
they produce a very agreeable effedt to the fight. But
what appears admirable is, that the part of the ftalk v
which remains adhering to the ftone, when tbe mufti-*
room has been feparated from it, grow, gradually hard*
and petrifies in time, fo that it feems that this fungites
reftores to the ftone the nutritive juice it received from
it, and that it. thus contributes to its increafe.” John
Baptift Porta pretends, that this ftone is found in fe-
veral parts of Italy ; and that it is not only to be met
with at Naples, taken out of mount Vefuvius, but al¬
fo on mount Pantherico, in the principality of Arel-
lino; on mount Garganus, in Apulja; and on the
fummit of fome other very high mountains. He adds,
that the muftirooms which grow on thofe forts of ftones,
and are ufually called fungi lyncurii, have the property
of diffolving and breaking the ftone of the kidneys and
bladder; and that, for this purpofe, nothing more is
required than to dry them in the fhade, and being re¬
duced to powder, to make the patient, faffing, take
a fufficient quantity of this powder in a glafs of white-
wine, which will fo cleanfe the excretory du&s of the
urine, that no ftones will ever after be collefted in
them. As to the form of thofe mufhrooms, their root
is ftony, uneven, divided according to its longitudinal
direftion, and compofed of fibres as fine as hairs, in¬
terwoven one with another. Their form, on firft ftioot-
ing out, refembles a fmall bladder, feared then larger
than the bud of a vine ; and if in this ftate they are
fqueezed between the fingers, an aqueous fubacid li¬
quor iffues out. When they are at their full growth,
their pedicle is of a finger’s length, larger at top than
at bottom, and becomes infenfibly flenderer in propor¬
tion as it is nearer the earth. 'Bhefe mufhrooms are
alfo formed in an umbella, and variegated with an in¬
finity of little fpecks fituated very near one another.
They are fmooth and even on the upper part, but un¬
derneath leafy like the common mufhrooms. Their
tafte is likewife very agreeable, and the fick are not
debarred eating of them when they have been dreffed in
a proper manner. Curiofity having prompted fome
naturalifts and phyficians to fubmit thefe ftones to A
chemical analyfis, in order to be more competent judges
of the ufes they might be put to in medicine, there
firft came forth, by diftillation, an infipid water, and
afterwards a fpirituous liquor. The retort having been
heated to a certain point, there arofe an oil, which had
nearly the fmell and tafte of that of guaiacum ; and a
very acrid fait was extrafted from the- allies.
LYNN-regis, a town of Norfolk, in England,
diftant 98 miles from London. It is a handfome,
large, well-built place, and fends two members to par¬
liament. It was a borough by prefeription in 1298.
King John, on account of its adherence to him againft
the barons, made it a free borough, with large pri¬
vileges. He appointed it a provoft, ^nd gave it a
large filver cup of 73 ounces doubly gilt and enamel¬
led, and a large filver fword that is carried before the
mayor ; though this laft, according to fome, is Hen¬
ry VIII.’s fword, which he gave to the town when it
came into his hands by exchange with the bifhop -of
Norwich ; after which it was called King’s Lynn;
whereas before it was Bifhop’sLynn. Henry HI. made
it a mayor-town, for its ferving him againft the barons.
L Y N [ 348 ]
Lynn-regis. Jt has had 15 royal charters; and is governed by a perpendicular.
*" »“ mayor, high-ftevvard, under-fteward, recorder, x 2 aider-
men, and 18 common-council men. It has two churches,
belides St Nicholas, a chapel of eafe to St Margaret’s,
a prelbyterian and a quakers meeting-houfe, with a
Xi Y O
In the great market-place a ftatue^pn-i
was erefted in 1686 to the honour of king James II. II
There is another fpacious market-place,, adorned with ^
a ftatu* of king William III. and a.fine crofs with a
dome and gallery round it fupported by 16 pillars.
bridewell or workhoufe, and feveral alms-houfes, and The market-houfe is of free-done, fupported by 16
a free-fchooL. In September 1741 the fpires of its columns; and is 70 feet high, erected on four fteps, neat,
two churches were both blown down by a ft or m of ly adorned with ftatues, &c. Every firft Monday in the
wind ; and that of St Margaret’s, which was 193 feet month, the mayor; alderrtien, preachers, &c. meet to
in height, having beat in the body of the church, it hear and determine all controverfies amicably, for pre-
has been fince rebuilt, towards which king George II. venting law-fuits. This was firft eftablilhed in 1588, and
gave L. 1000, and the late earl of Orford, then Sir is called The Feajlof Reconciliation.. The markets are
Robert Walpole, L. 500. This church was formerly on Tuefdays and Saturdays and it has two fairs:
an abbey, and afterwards one of the largeft pariih-
churches in England. The town-houfe, called Tri¬
nity-hall, is a noble old fabric pand fo is the Exchange,
which is of free-ftone, with two orders of columns.
St Nicholas’s chapel is very ancient, and reckoned
one of the faireft and largeft of the kind in England.
It has a bell-tower of free-ftone, and an eight-fquare
fpire over it, both which together are 170 feet from
one of which, beginning Feb. 14. lafts for a fortnight,
and is called Lynn-mart; the other is a cheefe-fair on
0<ft. 6. The adherence of this . town,to king John
and to Henry VIII. as above mentioned, are not tbs
only inftances of its loyalty to its fovereigns; for, in
the late civil wars, it held out for king Charles I. and
fuftained a formal fiege of above 18,000 men of the
parliament-army, for above, three weeks;, but, for
the ground. There is a library in it that was erefted want of relief, was obliged to furrender, and fubmit
by fubfeription ; and there is another at St Marga- to the terms of paying 10s, a-head for every inhabi*
let’s. Here have been formerly feveral monafteries; tant, and a month’s pay to the foldiers, to fave the
but the only fabric remaining that belongs to any re- town from plunder. There are more gentry, and con,
ligious order is the Grey-friars fteeple, a noted fea- feqnently more gaiety, in this town tlian in Yarmouth
mark. The fituatioa of this town, near the fall of or even Norwich; there being fuch plenty of eatables
the Oufe into the fea, after having received feveral and drinkables, that Spelman fays Ceres and Bacchus
other rivers, of which feme are navigable, gives it an
opportunity of extending its trade into eight different
counties; by which many confiderable cities and
towns, viz. Peterborough, Ely, Stamford, Bedford,
St Ives, Huntingdon, St Neot’s, Northampton, Cam¬
bridge, St Edmund (bury, and the north part of Bucks,
as well as the inland parts of Norfolk and Suffolk, are
fupplied with heavy goods, not only from our own
feem to have eftablifhed their magazines at this place }
the eaft fide abounding with corn, (beep, rabbits, hares,
&c. the weft fide with cheefe, butter, blackrcattle,
fwans, and the wild-fowl common to, marfbes, befidcs
the abundance of fea aiuFriver fiftv; fathat he thinks
there is no place in Great,Britain, if in Europe, has
fuch a variety in fo. fin all a compafs of ground. At
a fmall diftance from the town (lands a mount called
produce, as coals and fait from Newcaftle, but alfo of- the Lady’s or Red Mount, where was once a chapel
merchandize imported from abroad, efpecially wine ; dedicated to the Virgin Mary, which was a refting-
©f which tw» articles, viz. coals and wine, this is the place for pilgrims on their way towards her convent
greateft port for importation of any place on all the at 'VValfingham... The king’s ftaith-yard, or quay,
eaftern coaft of England ; and thofe wherein the Eynn where the greatell part o£ the imported wines is land*;
merchants deal more largely.than any town in England, ed and put into large vaults, is a handfome fquare,
except London, Briftol, and Newcaftle. In return with brick buildings,, in the centre whereof is a (latue
for this, Lynn receives back all the corn which the of king James I. People pafs hence into the fen,
counties juft mentioned produce, for exportation ;, and country, .and over the famous waihes into Lincolnfhire
therefore fends more of it abroad than any port except in boats, which are often loft, by venturing out at an
Hull. The foreign trade of the merchants here is
very confiderable, efpecially to Holland,.Norway, and
the Baltic, and alio to Spain and Portugal; and for,
merly they drove a good trade to France, till it was
turned off, by treaties on one hand,, and by prohibi¬
tions, high duties, &c. on the other, to Spain, and
Portugal., The harbour is fafe when (hips are in it,
improper feafon and without guides..
LYNX, in zoology. See Felis.
LYON King of Arms., See Kmc ; and Law*
n° clviii. 16.
This office is of great-antiquity and refpecl in Scot,
land; and although the precife time of. its inftitution
is unknown, yet it muft have been as early as the in.
but difficult to enter by reafon of the many flats and troduftion of armorial figures as hereditary marks of
:_.i cr. i_- 111 1 gentility-and diftindlion into this country, which ,was
in the 12th centuryc His regalia are, a crown of gold;
with a crimfon velvet-cap, a gold taffel, and, an ermine
lining ; a,velvet-robe, reaching to. hisFeet, with the arms
of the kingdom embroidered thereon before and. be,
hind in the proper timftures; a.triple row of gold chain
fhoals in the paffage ; which, however, are well buoyed,
and good pilots are always ready. The town confifts of
about 2400 houfes; and appears to have been very
ftrong, by the ruins of the works demolished in the
civil wars. St Ann’s platform at the north end.mounts
12 great guns, and commands all the fhips paffing near x _
the harbour ; and towards the land, hefides the wall, round his neck, with an oval gold medal pendent there-
there is a ditch. Four rivulets run through the town ; to, on one. fide of. which is the royal bearing, and on
and the tide of the Oufe, which is about as broad the other St Andrew with his crofs enamelled in pro,
here as the Thames at London-bridge, rifes 20 feet per colours, and a baton of gold enamelled green, pow>
a dered
L Y O r 349 ] L Y O
' LTonct. dered with the badges of the kingdom. The Lord
w--'\  Icon’s rank- is fuperior to that of any other king of
arms, as he holds hia office ftnmediately from the fove-
reign by commiffion under the great feal j whereas the
kings of arms in Engldnd are deputies to the Earl
Marfhal, and aft under his authority. Formerly Scot¬
land was divided into two provinces, the one on the
north and the other on the fouth fide of Forth ; and
thefe provinces were tinder tire management of two de¬
puties appointed by the Lord Lyon to fuperintend the
execution of all the bufinefs of his office. Before the
revolution, the Lord Lyon, at his admiffion into office,
was molt folemnly crowned by the fovereign or his
commiffioner, in pretence of the nobility, the officers
of Hate, and other great men, after a fuitable fermon
preached in the royal chapel j and his crown was of
the fame farm with the imperial crown of the king¬
dom. On fblemn occafions he wears.the regalia above
defcribed at all other times, he wears the oval gold
medal or badge on his breaft, fufpended by a broad
green ribbon. He has the abfolute difpofal of all the
offices in his own court, and of the heralds and pur-
fuivants places. The. meffengers at arms throughout
Scotland are alfo created by him, and are amenable to
his jurifdiftion. And the powers veiled in him by
his commiffiian.are the lame with thofe of the fovereign
in all matters relative to the marks of gentility.
LYONET (Peter), an ingenious naturalilt, and
member of feveral learned focieties, was born at Msef-
tricht, and was defcended from a very ancient and re-
fpeftable family of Lorrain. He had fcarcely attain¬
ed his feventh year before he difplayed an uncommon
llrength and agility in all bodily exercifes ; but he was
not lefs diligent in the improvement of his mind. Be¬
ing placed at the Latin fchool, he learned chronology,
and exercifed himfelf in Latin, Greek, and French
poetry, as alfo in- Hebrew, logic, and the Cartefian Phy-
lics. He was particularly fond of the lludy of lan¬
guages, whereof he. underftood no lefs than nine, li¬
ving and dead. Having entered the univerfity of Ley¬
den, he ftudied the Newtonian philofophy, geometry,
algebra, &c.;, but his father (who was a clergyman),
defiring he ffiould attach himfelf to divinity, he reluc¬
tantly abandoned the former ftudies, as his paffion for
them was not ealily to be overcome. He at the fame
time applied himfelf to anatomy, and alfo to mufic
and drawing. He began afterwards to praftife fculp-
ture : and performed feveral pieces in wood, fome of
which are preferved, and have been greatly admired
by .the artifts. After this, he betook himfelf to.
drawing portraits of his friends from life ; wherein,-
after three or four months praftice, he became a great-
proficient. Having attained the. degree, of candidate)
in divinity, he refolved to lludy law, to which he ap¬
plied himfelf with fo much zeal, that he was promo,
ted at the end of the fifil year. Arrived at the Hague, he
undertook the lludy of decyphering; and became fecre-
tary of the cyphers, tranflator of the Latin and French
languages, and patent-mailer, to their High Mighti-
ueffes. Meanwhile, having taken a llrong liking to
the lludy of infefts, he undertook an hillorical de-
feription of fuch as are found about the Hague, and
to that end collefted materials for feveral volumes; and
having invented a method .of drawing adapted thereto,-
he enriched this work with a great number of plates, Lyon-.t.
univerfally admired by all the connoiffeurs vvho had J-'
feen them. In the year 1742 was printed at the
Hague a French tranilation of a German work, the
‘ Theology of Infefts,’ by Mr Leffer. Love of truth
engaged Mr Lyonet to defer the publication of his a -
bove-mentioned defeription, and to make fome obfer-
vations on that work, to which he has added two molt
beautiful plates, engraved from his defign=. This per¬
formance caufed his merit to be'univerfally known and
admired. The celebrated M. de Reaupiur had the
above tranilation reprinted at Paris, not fo much on
account of the work itfelf as of Mr Lyonet’s obfer-
vations ; and bellowed on it, as did alio many other
authors, the highell encomiums. He afterwards exe¬
cuted drawings of the frelh-water polypus for Mr
Trembley’s beautiful work, 1744. The ingenious
Wandelaar had engraved the firil five plates ; when Mr .
Lyonet, who had never witneffied this operation, con¬
cerned at the difficulties he experienced in getting the
remaining eight finilhed in the fuperior llyle he requi¬
red, refolved to perform the talk 'himfelf. He ac¬
cordingly took a lefibn of one hour of Mr Wandelaar,
engraved three or four fmall plates, and immediately
began upon the work itfelf, which he performed in
fuch a manner as drew on him the highell degree of
praife, both from Mr Trembley and from many
other artiils, particularly the celebrated Van Gool}
who declared that the performance allonilhed not
only the amateurs, but alfo the moll experienced
artills. In 1748 he waschofen member of the Royal
Society of London. In 1749 he began (by mere-
chance) his amazing colleftion of- horns and ffidls, ,
which, according to the univerfal tellimony of all tra¬
vellers and amateurs who have.vifited it, is at prefent-
the moll beautiful, and certainly one of the moll valua¬
ble, in Europe. In 1753 .he became member of the.
newly-ellabliihed Dutch. Society of Sciences at Haer-
lem; and in 1757, after the celebrated M. le Cat,
profeffor in anatomy , and furgery, .and .member of al-
moll all the principal focieties.in Europe, had feea
Mr Lyonet’s incomparable Traite /Initomique cle la Chs*
nille qui range le Bait de Saule, with. the. drawings be-
longing to it- (which work was afterwards publilhed),
he was. elefted member of the Royal Academy of Sci¬
ences of Rome, whereof M* le Cat was perpetual fe-
cretary. After the publication of this treatife, he be¬
came, in 1760, member of the. Royal Academy. «f
Sciences of Berlin ; in 1761, of the Imperial Acade¬
my of Naturdills; and, in 1762, of the Imperial Aca¬
demy of Sciences at St Peterlbur-g. In order to en¬
able fuch as might be defirous-of following him in his
intricate and-, moll allonilhing difeoveries refpefting the.
llrufture of this animal, Mr Lyonet .puhlilhed, in the-
* Tranfaftions of the Dutch Society of Sciences at Haer-
lem,’ a defeription and a plate (as he alfo afterwards did
in French at the. beginning pf his Trade An at omique) of
the inftrument .and tools he had invented for the pur-
pofe of diffieftioa, and likewifc of the method he ufed.
to afeertain the degree of sftrength 'of his magnifying
glaffies. Notwithllaading all this labour, which was
confiderably increafed by the extenlive correfpondence.
which he for many years carried on with feveral learn¬
ed and refpeftabk perfonaggs, he Rill found-means ta
L Y R
[ 350 1
L Y R
fi t apart a large proportion of his time (as he himfelf
mentions it in his preface) for the immediate fervice
of his country ; but was not fortunate enough (as ap¬
pears by his writings) to get any other reconipenfe
for. his exertions than forrow and difappointment.—
During the laft fifteeen or twenty years of his life, Mr
Lyonet added to the valuable treafure he had already
colledted of natural curiofities, a moft fuperb cabinet
of paintings, confiding of more than 560 performances;
Concerning tlie number of firings with which this
inftrument was furnifhed, there is great controverfy.
Some affert it to be only three; and that the founds
of the two remote were acute, and that of the inter¬
mediate one a mean between thofe two extremes-*
that Mercuiy, the inventor, refembled thofe three
chords to as many feafons of the year, which were all
that the Greeks reckoned, namely, Summer, Winter,
and Spring : affigning the acute to the firft,the grave
among which are jnany of. the moft eminent works of to the fecond, and the mean to the third.
$he firft Dutch mafters. He did this with a view to
procure himfelf fome amnfement during the latter part
of his life, when old age and infirmities muft weaken
his powers, and fet bounds to his activity. He had
always indeed accuftomed himfelf to employment, in-
fomuch that he has written fome pieces of Dutch po¬
etry ; and this difpofition remained with him till with¬
in a fortnight of his death, when he was attacked with
an inflammation in his breaft, which, though apparent¬
ly cured, was, in the end, the caufe of his diffolutior
He died at the Hague in January 1789, aged 83
years, leaving behind him a moft eftimable character.
LYONOIS, a large province of France ; bound¬
ed on the north by Burgundy ; on the eaft, by Dau-
Others affert that the lyre had four firings ; that the
interval between the firft and the fourth was an oc¬
tave ; that the fecond was a fourth from the firft, and
the fourth the fame diftance from the third, and that
from the fecond to the third was a tone.
Another clafs of writers contend that the lyre of
Mercury had feven firings. Nicomachus, a follower of
Pythagoras, and the chief of them, gives the follow¬
ing account of the matter : “ The lyre made of the
fhell was invented by Mercury ; and the knowledge of
it, as it was conftrucled by him of feven firings, was
tranfmitted to Orpheus : Orpheus taught the ufe of it
to Thamyris and Linus f the latter of whom taught it
y ^ , to Hercules, who communicated it to Amphion the
phiny, Breffe, and the principality of Dombs; on Theban, who built the feven gates of Thebes to the
the fouth, by Vivareis and Velay ; and on the weft, by feven Airings of the lyre.” The fame author proceeds
Auvergne and a fmall part of Bourbonribis. It com- to relate, “ That Orpheus was afterwards killed by
prebends Lower Lyonnois, Beaujolois, and Forez ; the Thracian women ; and that they are reported to
and it produces corn, wine, fruits, and more efpeci- have call his lyre into the fea, which was afterwards
ally excellent chefnuts. The principal rivers are the thrown up at Antiffa, a city of Lelbos: that certain
Soane, the Rhone, and the Loire. Lyons is the ca- fiftiers finding it, they brought it to Terpander, who
pital town. carried it to Egypt, exquifitely improved, and, Ihow-
LYONS, a large, rich, handfome, ancient, and mg it to the Egyptian priefts, affumed to himfelf the
famous town ofFrance, being the moft confiderable in honour of its invention.”
the kingdom, next to Paris, with an archbilhop’s fee, This difference among authors feems to have arifen
an academy of fciences-and belles lettres, and an aca- from their confounding together the Egyptian and the
demy of arts and fciences fettled here in 1736. It is Grecian Mercuries.—The invention of the primitive
feated in the centre of Europe, - on the confluence of lyre with three firings was due to -the firft Egyptian
the rivers Rhone and Soan : on the fide of it are two Hermes, as mentioned under that article.—The lyre
high mountains; and the mountain of St Sebaftian attributed to the Grecian Mercury is defcribed by al-
ferves as a bulwark againft the north winds, which of¬
ten blow here with great violence. It contains about
150,000 inhabitants; and the houfes, in general, are
high- and well built. - It has fix gates, and as many
fuburbs. The town-houfe, the arfenal, the amphi¬
theatre built by the ancient Romans, the hofpital,
and the numerous palaces, are worthy of a traveller’s
moft all the poets to be an inftrument of feven ftringsf.yee
Vincenzio Galilei has colle&ed the various opinions offary.
the feveral Greek writers who have mentioned the in¬
vention of the chelys or teftudo ; and the late Mr
Spence has done the fame in a very circumftantial but
ludicrous manner. “ Horace talks of Mercury as a
wonderful mufician,-and reprefents him with a lyre.
attention. The cathedral is a fuperb ftrufture, and There is a ridiculous old legend relating to this invcn-
the canons that compofe the chapter are all perfons of
diftin&ion. It is a place of very great trade, which
is extended not only through France, but to Italy,
Swifferland, and Spain; and there are four celebrated
fairs every year, which are frequented by great num¬
bers of people. It derives vaft advantages from the ri¬
vers it ftands upon ; and is fituated in E. Long. 4. 55.
N. Lat. 45. 46. • '
LYRA, in ichthyology. See Callyonimus.
Lyra, in aftronomy, a conftellation in the nor¬
thern hemifphere. The number of its ftars, in Pto¬
lemy’s catalogue, is ten ; in Tycho’s eleven ; in Heve-
lius’s feventeen; and in the Britannic catalogue twen¬
ty-one.
LYRE, a mufical inftrument of the ftringed kind,
much ufed by the ancients.
tion, which informs us, that Mercury, after Healing
fome bulls from Apollo, retired to a fecret gfotto,
which he ufed to frequent, at the foot of a mountain
in Arcadia. Juft as he was going in, he found a tor-
toife feeding at the entrance of his cave : he killed the
poor creature, and, perhaps, eat the flefti of it. As he
was diverting himfelf with the {hell, he was mightily
pleafed with the noife it gave from its concaVe figure.
He had poffibly been cunning enough to find out, that
a thong pulled ftrait and faftened at each end, wh^n
ftruck by the finger, made a fort of mufical found.
However that was, he went immediately to work, and
cut feveral thongs out of the hides he had lately
ftolen, and faftened them as tight as he could to the
{hell of this tortoife ; and, in playing with them, made
a new kind of mufic with them to divert himfelf in his
3 retreat.”
I* Y II
retreat.” This, confidered only as an account of the
firft invention of the lyre, is not altogether fo unna¬
tural.
The moll ancient reprefentations of this inftrument
agree very well with the account of its invention : the
ly<-e, in particular on the old celeilial globes, was re-
prefented as made of one entire Ihell of a tortoife ; and
that Amphion in the celebrated group of the Dirce
or Toro, ,in the Farnefe palace at Rome, which is of
Greek fculpture, and very high antiquity, is figured
in the fame manner.
There have, however, been many other claimants to
the feven-ftringed lyre. For though Mercury invent¬
ed this inftrument in the manner already related, it is
faid he afterwards gave it to Apollo, who was the firil
that played upon it with method, and made it the con-
ftant companion of poetry. According to Homer’s-
account of this tranfa&ion, in his hymn to Mercury,
it was given by that god to Apollo, as a peace-offering
and indemnification for the oxen which he had ftolen
from him:
To Phoebus Maia’s fon prefents the lyre,
A gift intended to appeafc hh ire.
The god receives it gladly, and eflays
The novel inftrument a thoufand ways;
With dext’rous (kill the pledtrum wields; and fings,
With voice accordant to the" trembling fttings.
Such ftraius as gods and men approv’d, from whence
The fweet alliance fprung of found and feufe.
Diodorus informs us, that Apollo foon repenting of
the cruelty with which he had treated Marfyas in
confequence of their mufical conteft, broke the firings
of the lyre, and by that means put a flop for a time
io any further progrefs in the pra&ice of that new in-
flrument. The mufes (adds he) afterwards added
to this inftrument the firing called mefe ; Linus, that
©f lichanos ; and Orpheus and Thamyras, thofe firings
which are namedhypate andparhypate (a).
Again, many ancient and refpedlable authors tell
us, that, before the time of Terpander, the Grecian
lyre had only four firings ; and, if we may believe
Suidas, it remained in this flate 856 years, from the
time of Amphion, till Terpander added to it three new
firings, which extended the mufical fcale to a hepta¬
chord, or feyenth, and fupplied th,e player with two
conjoint tetrachords. It was about 150 years after
this period, that Pythagoras is faid to have added an
eighth firing to the lyre, in order to complete the oc¬
tave, which confifted of two disjoint tetrachords.
L Y R
Boethius gives a different hiftory of the fcale, and
tells us, that the fyflem did not long remain in fuch' ^
narrow limits as a tetrachord. Cliortebus, the fon of
Athis, ox Atys, king of Lydia, added a fifth firing ;
Hyagnis, a fixth; Terpander, a feventh; and, at length,
Lychaon of Samos, an eighth. But all thefe accounts
are irreconcileable with Homer’s hymn to Mercury,
where the chelys, or teftudo, the invention of which
he aferibes to that god, is faid to have had feven firings.
There are many claimants among the musicians of'An¬
cient Greece to the firings that were afterwards added
to thefe, by which the fcale, in the time of Ariftoxenus,
was extended to two odtaves. Athenams, more than
once, fpeaks of the nine-ftringed inftrument; and Ion
of Chios, a tragic and lyric p«et and pbilofopher, who
firft recited his pieces in the 82d olympiad, 452 B.C.
mentions, in feme Verfes quoted by Euclid, the ten-
ft ringed lyre ; a proof that the third conjoint tetra¬
chord was added to the fcale in his time, which w'as
about 50 years after Pythagoras is fuppofed to have
conftru&ed the oftachord.
The different claimants among the Greeks to the
fame muffcal^lifcovenes,only prove, that mufic was cul¬
tivated in different countries ; and that the inhabitants-
of each country invented and improved their own in-
flruments, fome of which happening to refemble thofe
of other parts of Greece, rendered it difficult for hi-
ftorians to avoid attributing the fame invention to dif¬
ferent perfons. Thus the fingle flute was given to Mi¬
nerva and to Marfyas ; the fyrinx or fiftula, to Pan
and to Cybele ; and the lyre or chithara, to Mercury,
Apollo, Amphion, Linus, and Orpheus. Indeed, the
mere addition of a firing or two to an inftrumtnt with¬
out a neck, was fo obvious and eafy, that it is fcarce
poffible not to conceive many people to have done it
at the fame time.
With refpedl to the form of the ancient lyre, as
little agreement is to be found among authors as about
the number of firings. The heft evidences concerning
it are the reprefentations of that inflrumentin the hands
of ancient flat ues, bas-reliefs,&c. See JVteCCLXXV.
whdre,
Fig. 1. is a reprefentation of the teff udo, or lyre of
Amphion, in front, as it appears on tlie bafe of the ce¬
lebrated Toro Farnefe at Rome. This admirable work,
confifling of four figures bigger than the life, befides
the toro, or bull, was found in Caracalla’s baths, where
the Famefe Hercules was likewife difeovered : and, ex-
N cept
t 251 ]
( a) It has been already related, that the lyre invented by the Egyptian Mercury had but three firings
and by putting thefe two circumflances together. Dr Burney obferves, we may perhaps acquire fome know¬
ledge of the progrefs of mufie, or, at leaft, of the extenfion of its fcale, in the highefl antiquity.
Mefe, in the Greek mufic, is the fourth found of the fecond tetrachord of the great fyflem, and firfl te¬
trachord invented by the ancients, anfwering to our A,, on.the fifth line in the bafe. If this found then was
added to the former three, it proves two important points: firil, that the moll ancient tetrachord was that
from E in the bafe to A ; and that the three original firings in the Mercurian and Apollonian lyre were tuned!
E, F, G, which the Greeks called Hypate Mefon Farhypate Mefon, Mefon Diatonos. The addition therefore
*f Mefe to thefe, completed the firfl and mofl ancient tetrachord, E, F, G, A.
The firing lichanos, then, being added to thefe, and anfwering to our D on the third line in the bafe, ex¬
tended the compafs downwards, and gave the ancient lyre a regular feries of five founds in the Dorian mode,
the mofl ancient of all the Greek modes; and the two firings called Hypate and Parhypate, correfponding
with our B and C in the bafe, completed the heptachord, or feven founds, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, a com¬
pafs that received no addition till after the time of Pindar, who calls the inftrument then in ufe the yhvn-
tongued lyre..
L Y R C 452 1 L Y R
1 I<vre. cept the Laocoon, is the only piece of Greek fculpture
mentioned by Pliny that is now remaining. The two
projections near the bottom feem to have been faften-
ings for the fti ings, and to have anfwered the purpofe
of tail-pieces in modem inllruments,
2. The lyre held by Terplichore, in the picture of
that mufe dug out of Herculaneum.
3. The Abyffinian teftudo, or lyre in ufe at prefent
in the province of Tigre, from a drawing of Mr Bruce,
* communicated to Dr Burney. “ This inltrument (fays
he) hasfomctimesfive,fometimes fix,but moft frequent¬
ly feven firings, made of the thongs of raw fheep or goat
ikinsy cut extremely fine, and twifted } they rot foon,
nre very fubjeft to break in dry weather, and have
Scarce any found in wet. From the idea, however, of
this inllrument being to accompany and fullain a voice,
one would think that it was better mounted formerly.
•4‘ The Abyffinians have a tradition, that the fiftrum,
'lyre, and tambourine, were brought from Egypt into
Ethiopia, by Thot, in the very firft ages of the world.
The flute, kettle-drum, and trumpet, they fay, were
brought from Paleftine, with Menelek, the fon of their
queen of Saba by Solomon, who was their firft Jewifti
king.
“ The lyre in Amharic is called teg, * the fheep
-in Ethiopic, it is called mefinko ; the verb ftnko fignifies
to ftrike firings with the fingers : ncr pleftrum is ever
tifed in Abyflinia ; fo that mefinko, being literally in¬
terpreted, will fignify the ‘ flringed inftrument played
upon with the fingers/
“ The fides which conftitute the frame of the lyre
tvere anciently compofedof the horns of an animal of the
■goat kind called ageman, about the fizeof a fmall cow,
and common in the province of Tigre. I have feen feve^
•ralof thefe infti-umentsyery elegantly made of fuch horns,
which nature feems to have fhaped on purpofe. Some
-of the horns of an African fpecies of this animal may
-be feen in M. Buffon’s hiftory of the king of France’s
cabinet. They are bent, and lefs regular than the
Abyffinian ; but after fire-arms became common in the
province of T •» e, and the woods, were cut down, this
animal being more fcarce, the lyre has been made of a
light red wood ; however, it is always cut into a fpiral
•twilled form, in imitation of the ancient materials of
•which the lyre was compofed. The drawing 1 fend
you was one of thefe inftruments made of wood.
“The kingdom of Tigre, which isthe largeft andmoft
populous province of Abyffinia, and was during many
ages the feat of the court, was the firft which received
_letters and civil and religious government; it extend¬
ed once to the Red Sea: various reafons and revolu¬
tions have obliged .the inhabitants to relign their fea-
coaft to different barbarous nations, Pagan and Maho¬
metan : while they were in poffeffion of it, they fay
•that the Red Sea furnifhed them with tortoife-fhells,
-of which they -made the bellies of their lyres, as the
Egyptians did formerly, according to Apollodorus
and Lucian; but having now loft that refource, they
shave adopted, in its-place, a particular fpecies of gourd,
or pumpkin, very hard and thin in the bark, flill imi¬
tating with the knife the fqnares, compartments, and
figure of the fhcll of the tortoife.
“ The lyre is generally from three feet to three
.feet fix inches, high; that is, from a line drawn thro’
the point of .the horns, to the lower part of the bale of
N-189.
the founding board. It is exceedingly light, and eafy
of carriage, as an inflrument fhould naturally be in f® '
rugged and mountainous a country.
“ When we confider the parts which compofe this
lyre, we cannot deny it the earlieft antiquity. Man in
his firft ftate was a hunter and a fifher, and the oldeft
ir.ftrument was that which partakes moft of that ftate.
The lyre, compofed of two principal pieces, owes the
one to the horns of an animal, the other to the (hell of
a filh.
“ It is probable, that the lyre continued with the
Ethiopians in this rude ftate as long as they confined
themfelves to their rainy, fteep, and rugged mountains :
and afterwards, when many of them defeended along
the Nile in Egypt, its portability would recommend it
in the extreme heats and wearinefs of their way. Up¬
on their arrival in Egypt, they took up their habita¬
tion in caves, in the fides of mountains, which are in¬
habited to this day. Even in thefe circumftances, an
inftrument larger than the lyre mull have been in¬
convenient and liable to accidents in thofe caverns; but
when thefe people increafed in numbers and courage,
they ventured down into the plain, and built Thebes.
Being now at their eafe, and in a fine climate, all na¬
ture finiling around them, mufic and other arts were
cultivated and refined, and the imperfedl lyre was ex¬
tended into an inftrument of double its compafs and
volume. The fize of the harp could be now no long¬
er an objeftion; the Nile carried the inhabitants every
■where eafily, and without effort ; and we may naturally
fuppofe in the fine evenings of that country, that the
Nile was the favourite feene upon which this inflru-
ment was pra&ifed ; at leaft the fphinx and lotus upon
its head, feem to hint that it was fomeway connefled
with the overflowings of that river.” See Harp.
4. An Etrufcan lyre, with feven firings, in the col-
lection of Etrufcan, Greek, and Roman antiquities,
publifhed from the cabinet of the Hon. Sir William
Hamilton, Vol. I. Naples 1766. PI. cix. With re-
fpe£l to this inftrument, it is worthy of obfervation,
that though the vafe upon which it is reprefented is of
fuch indifputable and remote antiquity, the tail-piece,
bridge, belly, and found-holes, have a very modern ap¬
pearance, and manifeft a knowledge in the conftruftion
of mufical inftruments among the Etrufetns fuperior to
that of the Greeks and Romans in much later times.
The lower part of the inftrument has much the appear¬
ance of an old bafs-viol, and it is not difficult to dif-
cover in it more than the embryo of the whole violin
family. The firings lie round, as if intended to be
played on with a bow ; and even the crofs lines on the
tail-piece are fuch as we frequently fee on the tail¬
pieces of old viols.
y. The Tripodian lyre of Pythagoras the Zacyn-
thian, from a bas-relief in the Maffei palace at Rome
reprefenting the whole choir of the mufes. Athenreus
gives the following account of this extraordinary in-
iirument, lit* xiv. cap. i 5. p. 637. “ Many ancient
inftruments are recorded (fays Artemon), of which
we have fo little knowledge, that we can hardly be
certain of their exiftence ; fuch as the tripod of Py¬
thagoras the Zacynthian, which, on account of its
difficulty, continued in ufe but a fhort time. It
refembled in form the Delphic tripod, whence it
had its name. The legs were equidillant, and fixed
upon
. L Y S [ 353 1 L Y T
Bpon a moveable bafe that was turned by the foot, himfelf, but he fuppHed others with fpeeches. “ Fuit L)fim*chi»
of the player; the ftrings were placed between the Lyfias in caufis forenfibus non veriatus” (fays Cicero), II
kgs of the ftool; the vafe at 'the top ferved for the fed egregiefubtilis feriptor atque elegans,” &c. Quinti- Lythrumj,
purpofe of a found^board, and the ftrings of the three lian calls him, “ fubtilis atque elegans, et quo nihil, ft v ^
iides of the inftrument were tuned to three different Oratorio fatis fit tlocerc, quxras peifetHus. Nihil
modes, the Doric, Lydian, and Phrygian. The per- enim eft inane, nihil arcefiitum ; puro tamen fonti,
former fat on a chair made on purpofe ; ftriking the quam magno flumini, proprior.” Plutarch and Pho-
ftrings with the fingers of the left hand, and ufing the tius relate,-that 425 orations were formerly exhibited
ple&rum with the right, at the fame time turning the under the name of Lyfias; of which 34 only are now
inftrument with his foot to whichever of the three extant. The beft edition of them is by Dr Joint
modes he pleafed; fo that by great pra&ice he was Taylor at London, 1739, 410; Cambridge, 174c,
enabled to change the modes with fuch velocity, that 8vo.
thofe who did not fee him would imagine they heard LYSIMACHIA, loosestrife, in botany : A ge¬
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentan-
dria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 20th order, Rotacet. The corolla is
rotaceous; the capfule globular, beaked, and ten-
three different performers playing in three different
modes. After the death of this admirable mufician,
no other inftrument of the fame kind was ever con-
ftru&ed.1
6. A lyre in the famous ancient pifture dug out valved. There are ten fpecies, but only four are
of Herculaneum, upon which Chiron is teaching the commonly cultivated in gardens. Thefe are hardy,
young Achilles to play. See Chiron. herbaceous perennials and biennials, rifing with eredt
LYRIC-poetry, was fuch as the ancients fung to ftalks from 18 inches to two or three feet high;
the lyre or harp.—It was originally employed in ce- garnilhed with narrow entire leaves ; and terminated
lebrating the praifes of gods and heroes, and its cha- by fpikes and clufters of monopetalous, rotated, five-
raCteriftic -was fweetnefs. Who was the author of it parted fpreading flowers of white and yellow colours. 
is not known. It was much cultivated by the Greeks; They are eafily propagated by feeds, and will thrive
and Horace was the firft who attempted it in the La- in any foil or fituation.
tin language. Anacreon, Alcaeus, Stefichorus, Sappho, LYSIPPUS, a celebrated Greek ftatuary, was
and Horace, were the moft celebrated lyric poets of born at Sicyone, and at firft followed the bufinefs of
antiquity. a lockfmith, which he quitted in order to pradife
LYRODI, among the ancients, a kind of muficians painting: But he afterwards applied himfelf entirely
who played on the lyre and fung at the fame time, to fculpture ; in which he acquired an immortal re-
This appellation was alfo given to fuch as made it putation, and made a great number of ftatues that
their employment to ling lyric poems compofed by were the admiration of the people of Athens and Rome,
others. His grand ftatue of the fun reprefented in a car drawn
LYS, or Lis. See Lis. by four horfes, was worlhipped at Rhodes; he made
Lys, the name of a meafure ufed by the Chinefe feveral ftatues of Alexander and his favourites, which
In eftimating diltances. Two hundred lys make 60 were brought to Rome by Metellus after he had
geographical miles, which are equal to one degree. reduced the Macedonian empire ; and the ftatue of a
LYSANDER, a famous Spartan general. See man wiping and anointing himfelf after bathing, be-
Sparta. ing particularly excellent, was placed by Agrippa
LYSANDRIA, a Samian feftival, celebrated with before his baths in that city. He lived in the time
games and facrifices in honour ©f the Lacedemonian of Alexander the Great, about 334 B. C.; and left
general Lyfander. It was anciently called herea; three fons, who were all famous ftatuaries.
but this name the Samians abolilhed by a public de- LYTHRUM, purple loosestrife, in botany,
cree. A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the
LYSIARCH, an ancient magiftrate, who fuperin- decandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
tended the facred games, and preiided in matters of ranking undei* the 17th order, Galycanthem*. The
religion in the province of Lycia. He was created calyx is cleft in 12 parts; and there are fix petals in-
in a council confiding of deputies from all the pro- ferted into it; the capfule is bilocular and polyfper-
vincial cities, in number 23. The lyfiarchs were mous. There are 10 fpecies, of which the moft re-
both heads of the council and pontiffs of the pro- markable are, 1. The falicaria, or common purple
vmce. . loofeftrife, with oblong leaves, is a native of Bri-
LYSIAS, an ancient Grecian orator, was born at tain, and grows naturally by the fides of ditches and
Syracufe in the 80th olympiad. At 15, he went rivers. It hath a perennial root, from which come
to Thurion, a colony ol the Athenians ; and when forth feveral upright angular ftalks, rifing from three
grown up, aflifted in the adminiftration of the go- to four feet high, garniftied with oblong leaves placed
vernment there many years. When about 47 years fometimes by pairs ; but fometimes there are three
of age, he returned to Athens ; whence, being after- leaves at each joint Handing round the ftalk. The
wards banifhed by the 30 tyrants, he went to Mega- flowers are purple, and produced in a long fpike at
ra. Upon his return, Thrafybulus would have had the top of the ftalk ; fo make a fine appearance. 2,
him employed again in date matters ; but this not ta- The hyfpanum, or Spanilh loofeftrife, with an hyffop
king place, he fpent the remainder of his life as a pri- leaf, grows naturally in Spain and Portugal. It
vate man. He was very familiar with Socrates, and hath a perennial root. The, ftalks are flender, not
other illuftrious philofophers. He profeffed to teach more than nine or ten inches long, fpreading out on
the art of fpeaking ; not that he pleaded at the bar every fide. The lower part of the ftalks is garnifhed
Vcl.X. Part I. yy with
L Y T [ 354 1 L Y T
I.ytteknr. wiih oblong oval leaves placed oppofite. The flowers
—/ come out ftng]y from the fide of the Halts at each
joint; they are larger than thofe of the common fort,
and make a fine appearance in the month of July
when they are in beauty. The firft kind is propa¬
gated by parting the roots in autumn, but requires a
moift foilthe fecond is propagated by feeds brought
from thofe countries where it is native.
LYTTELTON (Edward), lord Lyttelton,keeper
of the great feal in the reign of Charles L was emi¬
nent for his probity and his moderation at the com-
mencement of that monarch’s difputes with his fubjefts.
Without forfeiting his fidelity to the king, he pre-
ferved the elleem of the parliament till 1644* when
he was made colonel of a regiment in the king’s army
at York. He died in 1645. Befides feveral of his
fpeeches which have been printed, he wrote reports
in the common pleas and exchequer printed at Lon¬
don in 1683, in folio ; feveral arguments and dif-
courfes, &c.
Lyttelton ( George lord) eldefl fon of Sir Thomas
Lyttelton, hart, defeended from the great judge Lyt-,
telton, was born in 1700,, at feven months ; and the
midwife fuppofing him to be dead, threw him carelefsly
into the cradle ; where, had not fame figns of life
been taken notice of by one of the attendants, he
might never have recovered. He received the dements
©f his education at Eaton-fchool, where-he fliowed an
early inclination to poetry. His paftorals and fome
other light pieces were originally Written in that femi-
nary of learning; from whence he was removed to the
univerfity of Oxford, where he purfued his clafiical
lludies with uncommon avidity, and Iketched the plan
of his Perfian Letters, a work which afterwards pro¬
cured him great reputation, not only from the ele¬
gance of the language in which they were compofed,
but from the Excellent obfervations they contained on
the manners of mankind.
In the year 1728, he fetout on the tour of Europe;
and, on his arrival at Paris, accidentally became ac¬
quainted with the honourable Mr Poyntz, then out
minifter at the court of Verfailles; who was fo ftruck
with the extraordinary capacity of our yourtg traveller,
that he invited him to his honfe, and. employed him in
many political negociations, which he executed with
great judgment and fidelity.
Mr Lyttelton’s conduct, while on his travels, was
a leflbn of inftrudtion to the reft of his countrymen.
Inftead of lounging away his hours at the coffee-houfes
frequented by the Englifh, and adopting the fafhion-
able follies and vices of France and Italy, his time was
palled alternately in his library and in the fociety of
men of rank and literature. In this early part of his
life, he wrote a poetical epiftle to Dr Ayfcough. anft
another to Mr Pope, which Ihow Angular tafte and
correftnefs.
After continuing a confiderable time at Paris with-
Mr Poyntz, who, to ufe his own words, behaved like
a fecond father to him, he proceeded to. Lyons and:
Geneva;, and from thence to Turin, where he was
honoured with great marks of friendfhip by his Sardi¬
nian inajefty. He then vifited Milan, Venice, Genoa,
and Rome, where he applied himfelf clofely to the
ftudy of the fine arts; and was, even in that celebrated:
metropolis, allowed a perfect judge of painting, fculp* Lytte’tss.
ture, and archite&ure. /-—-J
During his continuance abroad, lie conftantly cor-
refponded with Sir Thomas, his father. Several of
his letters are yet remaining, and place his filial af-
fe&ion in a very diftinguilhed light. He foon after
returned to his native country, and was defied re-
prefentative for the borough of Okehampton in De-
vonlhire; and behaved fo much to the fatisfafiion
of his conftituents, that they feveral times re-elected
him for the fame place witliout putting him to the
leaft expence.
About this period, he received great marks of friend*
ftiip from Frederic prince of Wales, father of his pre-
fent majefty; and was, in the year 1737,- appointed
principal fecretary to his royal highnefs, and continued,
in the ftricteft intimacy with him till tire time of his-
death. His attention to public bufinefs did not, 'how¬
ever, prevent him from exercifing his. poetical talent*.
A moft amiable young lady, Mifs Fbrtefcue, infpired
him with a paffiou, which produced a number of little
pieces, remarkable for their tendernefs and elegance ;
and he had a happy facility of ftriking out an ex¬
tempore compliment, which obtained him no fmalt
fiiare of reputation. One evening being in company
with lord Cobham and feveral of the nobility at
Stowe, his lordlhip mentioned bis defign of putting
up a buft of lady Suffolk in his beautiful; gardens ; and,
turning to Mr Lyttelton, faid, “ George, you mult
furnilh me with a motto for it.” “ I will, my lord,”
anfwered Mr Lyttelton and directly produced the
following couplet :
Her wit and beauty for a court were made,
But truth anft goodnefs fit her for a. lhade..
When- Mr Pitt, the late earl of Chatham, loft his
commiflion in the guards, in confeqnence of his fpirited*
behaviour in parliament, Mr Lyttelton was in waiting
at Leicefter-houfe, and, on hearing the eircumftance^.
immediately wrote thefe lines :
Long had thy virtue mark’d thee out for fame,.
Far, far fuperior to a cornet’s name
This generous Walpole faw, and griev’d to find..
So mean a poll difgrace that noble mind ;
The fervile ftandard from thy free-born hand
He took, and bade thee lead the patriot-band.
In the year 1742, he married Lucy, the daughter
of Hugh Fortefcue, Efq; of Filleigh in the county
of Devon, the lady, ahovementioned, whofe exemplary-
condu<ft, and uniform pra&ice of religion,and virtue,.,
eftablilhed his.conjugal happinefs upon the moft folkk
bafis.
In 1744, he was appointed one of the. lords com-
miffioners of the treafury ; and, during his continuance
in that ftation, conftantly exerted his influence in re--
warding merit and ability.. He was the friend and;
patron of the late Henry Fielding, James Thomfon,
author of the Seafons, Mr Mallet, Dr Young, Mr
Hammond, Mr Weft, Mr Pope, and Voltaire. On
the death of Thomfon, who left his affairs in a very
embarraffed condition, Mr Lyttelton took that poet’s
fifter under his proteftion. He revifed the tragedy of
Coriolanus, which that writer had not put the laft,
hand
L Y T
I.yWeHftti. hand to } and brought it out at the theatre-royal,
■'"v——' Covent-garden, with a prologue of his own writing,,
in which he fo affe&ngly lamented the leds of that
delightful bard, that not only Mr Quin, who fpoke
the lines, but almoft the whole audience, fpontaneouily
burft into tears.
In the beginning of the year 1746, his felicity was
interrupted by the lofs of his wife, who died in the
79th year of her age ; leaving him one fon, Thomas,
the late lord Lyttelton ; and a daughter, Lucy, who
fome time fince married lord vifcount Valentia. The
remains of his amiable lady were depofited at Over-
Arley in Worcefterfhire ; and an elegant monument
was erefted to her memory in the church of Hagley,
which contains the following infcription written by
her huiband :
Made to engage all hearts, and charm all eyes :
Tho’ meek, magnanimous ; tho’ witty, wife ; ,
Polite, as all her life in courts had been ;
Yet good, as {he the world had never feen ;
The noble fire of an exalted mind.
With gentleft female tendernefs combin’d.
Her fpeech was the melodious voice of love.
Her fong the warbling of.the vernal grove ;
Her eloquence was fweeter than her long,
Soft as her heart, and as her reafon Itrong.
Her form each beauty of her mind exprcfs’d.
Her mind was virtue by the graces drefs’d.
Befides thefe beautiful lines, Mr Lyttelton wrote a
jnonody on the death of his lady, which will be re¬
membered while conjugal affe&ion and a tafte for
poetry exifl in this country.
[ 355 3
L Y T
duly confidered, was of itfelf a demonftration fufficient Lytfeltofi.
to prove Chrillianity to be a divine revelation. Mr v''1
Weft was ftruck with the thought; and affured his
friend, that fo compendious a proof would be of great
ufe to convince thofe unbelievers that will not attend
to a longer feries of arguments ; and time has fhown
he was not out in his conje&ure, as the tradl is efteemed
one of the beft defences of Chriftianity which has hi¬
therto been publiftied.
In 1754, he reftgned his office of lord, of the trea-
fury, and was made cofferer to his majelly’s houfe-
hold, and fworn of the privy-council: previous to
which, hejnarried, a fecond time, Elizabeth, daughter
of field-marfhal Sir Robert Rich, whofe indifcreet
conduct gave him great uneafinefs, and from whom
he was feparated by mutual confent, a few years after
his marriage.
After being appointed chancellor and under-trea-
furer of the court of exchequer, he was, by letters-
patent dated the 19th of November 1757,' 31 Geo. If.
created a peer of Great Britain,’ by the ftyle and title
of Lord Lyttelton, baron of Frank ley, in the county of
Worcefler. His Speeches on the Scotch and mutiny
bills in the year 1747, on the Jew bill in 1753, and
on the privilege of parliament in 1763, ftiowed found
judgment, powerful eloquence, and inflexible inte¬
grity. During the laft ten years he lived chiefly
in retirement, in the continual exercife of all the
virtues -which can ennoble private life. Lis laft
work, was Dialogues of the Dead, in which the mo- .
rality of Cambray and the fpiritof Fontenelleare hap¬
pily united.
He was fuddenly feized with an inflammation of
His mafterly obfervations en the converfion and the bowels, in the middle of July 1773, at his feat at
apoftleftiip of St Paul, were written at the defire of Hagley ; which terminated in his death, on the 2 2d of
Gilbert Weft, Efq; in confequence of Mr Lyttelton’s that month. His laft moments were attended with
aflerting, that, befide all the proofs of the Chriftian unimpaired underftanding, unaffefted greatnefs of
religion, which might be drawn from the prophecies
of the Old Teftament, from the neceffary connec¬
tion it has with the whole fyftem of the Jewiih
religion, from the miracles of Chrift, and from the
mind, calm refignation, and humble but confident
hopes in the mercy of God. As he had lived
univerfally efteemed, he died lamented by all parties.
A complete collection of his works has been pub-
evidence given of his refurredtion by all the other lilhed fince his deceafe, by his nephew George Afy-4
apoftles, he thought the converfion of St Paul alone, cough, Efq.
M.
Ma liquid confonant, and the twelfth letter in
J the alphabet.
It has one unvaried found, and is pronouuced by
ftriking the upper lip againft the lower; in which the
pronunciation of this letter agrees with that of b ; the
only difference between the two confifting in a little
motion made in the nofe in pronouncing m, and not
in b : whence it happens that thofe who have taken
cold, for m ordinarily pronounce b ; the nofe in that
cafe being difabled from making the neceffary motion.
All confonants are formed with the aid of voxels t;
in em the vowel precedes, in be it follows; and m is
never mute.
Quintilian obferves, that the m fometimes ends Latin
words, but never Greek ones} the Greeks always
changing it in that cafe into «, for the fake of the bet¬
ter found.
M is alfo a numeral letter, and among the ancients
was ufed for a thoufand; according to the verfe,
M caput ejl numeri, quern fcimus milk teneri.
When a dafli is added to the top of it, as m ; it fig-
nifies a thoufand times a thoufand.
Y y 2 M,
M AC L 35<5 1 MAC
M, as an abbreviature, ftands for Manlius, Marcus,
Martius, and Mucius : M. A. figniiics magijler artium^
or mafter of arts; MS. manufeript, and MSS. manu-
fcripts.
M, in aftronomical tables, and other things-of that
kind, is- ufed for meridional or fouthern ; and fometimes
for meridian or mid-day.
M, in medicinal prefcription, is frequently ufed to
fignify a maniple or handful: and it is fometimes alfo
put at the end of a recipe, for mi/ce “ mingle or for
mixtura “a mixture.” Thus, m.f. julapium, fignifies
u mix and make a julep.”
M, in law, the brand or ftigma of a perfon convic¬
ted of manflaughter, and admitted to the benefit of
his clergy. It is to be burnt on the brawn of his left
thumb.
MAAT (John). See Blankof.
MABA, in- botany : A genus of the triandria or¬
der, belonging to the dicecia clafs of plants. The
perianthium of the male is trifid ; that of the female
is as im the male; the fruit is a plum two-celled fu-
perior.
MABILLON (John), a very learned writer of
Trance in the 17th century, was born at Perre-monte,
on the frontiers of Champagne, in 1632. He was
educated in the university of Rheims, and. afterwards
entered into the abbeyrof the Benedift’nes of St Remy.
In the year 1663, he was appointed keeper of the
treafures and monuments of France at St Dennis : but
having unfortunately broke a looking-glafs there,
which was pretended to have belonged to Virgil, he
defired leave of his fuperiors to quit an employment
which frequently obliged him to tell things he did not
believe. Next- year he went to Paris ;• and was very
ferviceable to Father d’Acheri, who was defirous of
having fome young monk who could affill him in com¬
piling his Spicilegium. This made him known. Soon
after, the congregation of St Maur having formed a
defign of publishing new editions of the fathers, re¬
viled from the MSS. in the libraries of the Benedic¬
tines, Mabillon was- charged with the edition of St
Bernard, which he prepared with extraordinary dili¬
gence. After that, he publilhed many other works,
which are. evidences of his vaft capacity and induftry.
In 1682,. he was employed by Mr Colbert in examin¬
ing fome ancient titles relating to the royal family.
The year following he fent him into Germany, to
fbarch the archives and libraries of the ancient abbeys,
for what was moft curious and proper to illuftrate the
hiftory of the church in general, and that of France
in particular. He has publilhed an account of this
journey. In 1685, he undertook another journey
into Italy, by order of the king of France ; and re¬
turned the year following with a very noble colle&ion.
He placed in the king’s library above 3000 volumes
of rare books, printed and in MSS. and compofed two
volumes of the pieces which he had difcovered in that
country. He was highly efteemed for his virtues as
well as his learning.
MACACO, or Macauco. See Lemur.
MACAO, a town of China, in the province of
Caaton, feated in an illand at the mouth of the river
Tae. The Portugueffe have been in poffeffion oftfte
harbour for 150 years. Formerly they had a great
trade here } but now they have only a fort with a fmall
garrifon. The houfes are built after the European Maea©
manner ; and there is a Chinefe mandarin, as well as a M H .
Portuguefe governor, to take care of the town and Macaroni<?
the neighbouring country. E. Long. 112. 13. N. Lat. ''
2 2. 12.
Macao, in ornithology. See Psittacus.
MAC A RIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the fol¬
lowers of Macarius, an Egyptian monk, who was di-
ftinguilhed towards the clofe of the fourth century for
his fan&ity and virtue. In his writings there are fome
fuperftitious tenets, and alfo certain opinions that feem
tainted with Origenifm. The name has been alfo ap¬
plied to thofe who adopted the fentiments of Macarius
a native of Ireland, who, about the clofe of the ninth
century, propagated in France the error afterwards
maintained by Averrhoes, that one individual intelli¬
gence or foul performed the fpiritual and rational
iunftions in all the human race.
MACARONI. See Folengio, and the next
article.
MACARONIC, or Macaroni an, a kind of bur-
lefque poetry, confifting of a jumble of words of diffe¬
rent languages, with words of the vulgar tongue La-
tonized, and Latin words modernized. Maccaroni
among the Italians, as has been obferved by Caelius
Rhodiginus, fignifies a coarfe clonvnijh man; and be-
caufe this kind of poetry is. patched out of feveral
languages, and full of extravagant words, &c. the
Italians, among whom it had its rife, gave it the name
of maccaronian, or maccaronic poetry* Others choofe
to derive it a macaronibus, from macaroons, a kind of
confeftion made of meal not boulted, fweet-almonds,
fugar, and the white of eggs, accounted a great
dainty among the country-people in Italy ; which,
from their being compofed of various ingredients, oc-
cafioned this kind of poetry, which confifts of Latin,
Italian, Spanifh, French, Englifh, &c. to be called by
their name.
Example.—A bold fellow in the macaronic ftyle,
fays,
Enjilavi omnes fcadrones £5* regimandos, &c.
Another example r
Archelos pifloliferos furiamque manantum,
Et grandem efmeutam qua inopinum fa8a ruelle ejl .e
Toxinumque alto troublantem cor da clochero. See.
Theoph. Folengius, a Benedictine monk of Mantua,
was the firft wno invented, 01 at leail cultivated, this-,
kind of verfe. See Folengio.
The beft pieces of this kind are, the Baldus of Fo--
lengio, and Macaronis Forza by Stefonio a Jefuit,
among the Italians^ and the Reatus ver/tabilis fuper
terribili ejmeuta paifanarum de RuelUsy among the
French. The famous Rabelais firft transferred the
macaronic ftyle out of the Italian verfe into French
profe and on the model thereof formed fome of the
belt, things in his Pantagruel. We have little in
Englilh in the macaronian way; nothing fcarce, but-
fome little loofe pieces colleifted in Camden’s remains.
But the Germans and Netherlafiders have had their
macaronic poets ; witnefs the Certaaien Catholicum cum
Calvinijlis, of one Martinius Hamconius Frifius, which
contains about 1200 verfes, all the words whereof be¬
gin with the letter C.
MACARSKA,
MAC C 357 ] MAC
Micarfka MACARSKA, a town of Dalmatia, and capital
!! of Primogria, with a pretty good harbour, and a bi-
Maccabees ^0p>g fee> feated on the gulph of Venice. E. Lon. 17.
^ 57. N. Lat 43. 42.
MACASSAR, a confiderable kingdom of the
iiland of Celebes, in the Eaft-lndies. The climate is
very hot; and would be intolerable, were it not for
the rains which fall when the fun is direttly over their
heads. The foil is extremely fertile, and there are
ripe fruits at all times of the year. There are great
numbers of monkies, who are devoured by monftrous
ferpents ; fome of which are f© large, that they will
fwallow one of thefe animals entire. The Macaifars
are large, robult, courageous, and greatly addicted to
war. They profefs the Mahometan religion.
Macassar, a large, ftrong, and handfome town of
the ifland of Celebes, and capital of the kingdom of
the ifland of Celebes, ■where the king refides. The
houfes are all built of wood, and fupported by thick
polls ; and they have ladders to go up into them,
which they draw up as foon as they have entered.
The roofs are covered with very large leaves, which
prevent the rain from entering. It is feated near the
mouth of a large river, which runs through the king-
domfrom north to fouth. E. Long. 117.55.S. Lat.5. o.
Macassar Poifon, in natural hiitory, called ippo in
the MacafTar and Malayan tongue, is the gum of a cer¬
tain tree, fhining, brittle, black, and every way like
Hone-pitch, growing in the ifland Celebes, in the
South Seas ; with which all the natives arm themfelves
in travel, having a long hollow trunk of a hard red
wood like brafil, accurately bored, and at one end is
fixed a large lance-blade of iron. Then they make a
foiall arrow, very flraight, and fomewhat bigger than a
large wheaten Itraw : at one end they fix it into a
round piece of white, light, foft, wood, like cork,
about the length of the little finger, juft fit for the
bore of the trunk, to pafs clear by the force of one’s
breath, and to fill it fo exa&ly, that the air may not
pafs by, but againft it, in order to carry it with the
greater force. At the other end they fix in it either
a fmali fifh-tooth for that purpofe, or make a blade of
wood of the bignefs of the point of a lancet, about
three-quarters of an inch long, and making a little
notch in the end of the arrow, they ftrike it firm
therein, which they anoint with poifon. The poi-
fonpus gum, when gathered, is put into hollow bamr
bobs or canes, flopped up very clofe, and thus brought
to Macafl'ar. When they fit it for ufe,. they take a
piece of fmooth turtle-fhell,. and a flick cut flat, and
fmooth at the end: then they take green galan-
gal root, grate it, and with the addition of a little
fair water, prefs the juice into a clean china, difh:
then with a knife fcraping a little of the poifon upon
the fhell, dip the end of the flick in.the foranentioned
liquor, and with this difl'olve the poifon to the. confilt-
enee of a fyrup when this is done, they anoint the
fiih-tooth or wooden blade with the fame, flick, and lay
it in the fun, fo. that, it may be baked hard. The
pointed arrows thus prepared, are put in hollow bam¬
boos, clofe fhut, and in- this ftate. they retain their.vir¬
tue for a month.
MACCABiEUS (Judas). See Judas.
MACCABEES, two apocryphal books of.fcripture,
containing the hiftory of Judas and his brothers, and Maccabeeoi
their wars againlt the Syrian kings in defence of their »
religion and liberties, fo called from Judas Mattathias,
furnamed Maccabeus, as fome fay from the word'330,
formed of the initials of mn' criio -a, q. d. Who is
like unto thee, 0 Lord, among the Gods ; which was the
motto of his flandard ; whence thofe who fought un¬
der his flandard were called Maccabees, and the name
was generally applied to all who fuffered in the caufe
of the true religion, under the Egyptian or Syrian
kings. The firft book of the Maccabees is an excel¬
lent hiftory, and comes neareft to the Ryle and manner
of the facred hiftorians of any extant. It was written
originally in the Chaldee language, of the Jerufalem
dialed, and was extant in this language in the time of
Jerom. From the Chaldee it was tranflated into
Greek, from the Greek into Latin. It isfuppofed to
have been written by John Hyrcanus the fon of Si¬
mon, who was prince and high prieft of the Jews near
30 years, and began his government at the time whene
this hillory ends. It contains the hiftory of 40 years,
from the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death
of Simon the high prieft; that is, from the year of
the world 3829 to the year 3869 ; 131 years before
Chrifl. The fecond book of the Maccabees begins
with two epiilles fent from the Jews of Jerufalem to
the Jews of Egypt and Alexandria ; to exhort them
to obferve the feail of the dedication of the new altar
eredted by Judas on his purifying the temple. The firfl
was written in the 169th-year of the era of the Se-
leucidie, i. e. before Chrilt 144 ; and the fecond in the
t88th year of the fame era, or 125 before Chrift
and both appear to be fpurious. After thefe epiltles
follows the preface of the author to his hiitory, which
is an abridgement of a larger work, compofed by one
Jafon, a Jew of Cyreue, who wrote in Greek the hi¬
ftory of Judas Maccabeus and his brethren, and the
wars againft Antiochus Epiphanes,. and Eupator his
fon. This fecond book does not by any means equal
the accuracy and excellency, of the firft. It contains
a hiftory of about 15 years, from, the execution of
Heliodorus’s commilfion, who was fent by Seleucus
to fetch away the treafures of the temple, to the vic¬
tory obtained by Judas Maccabeus over Nicanor;
that is, from the year of the world 3828, to the year "
3843, 147 years before Chriit.
There are in the Polyglot hibles, both of Paris andl
London, Syriac verfions of both thefe books; but.
they, as well as the Englifh verfions which we have
among the apocryphal writers in our Bibles, are de¬
rived from the Greek. There is. alfo a third book of
the Maccabees, containing the hillory-of the perfecu-
tion of Ptolemy Philopator againft the Jews in E-
gypt, and their fufferings under it; and feems to have
been written by fome Alexandrian Jew in the Gdeek
language,, not. long after the time of Siracides. It is
in moil of the ancient manufeript copies of the Greek.
Septuagint, particularly in the Alexandrian and Va¬
tican,. but. was never inferted into the. vulgar Latin
verfion of the Bihle„nor confequently. into any of our
Englifh copies. Moreover, Joi'ephus’s hiftory. of the
martyrs that fuffered under Antiochus Epiphanes, is;
found in fome manufeript Greek Bibles,, under , thej
name of the fourth book of the- Maccabees.
4 MACBETH,,
M , A C [ 358 ] MAG
Itfhtcketh, MACBETH, a Scots nobleman in the uth cen-
Macbride. jury} near}y allied to Duncan king of Scotland.—•
• ''' Not contented with curbing the king’s authority, he
carried his peftilent. ambition fo far as to put him to
death ; and, chafing Malcolm Kenmure his fon and
heir into England, ufurped the crown. Siward earl
'of Northumberland, whole daughter Duncan |}ad mar¬
ried, undertook, hy the order of Edward the Confelfor,
the protedlion of the fugitive prince.—He marched
with an army into Scotland; defeated and killed Mac¬
beth; and reiU>red Malcolm to the throne of his ancef-
tors. Shakefpeare has made this tranfaction the fub-
je& of one of his bell tragedies.
MACBRIDE (Dr David', an eminent phyfician
and philofopher, was defcended from an ancient family
in the county of Galloway in Scotland. His grand¬
father, a clergyman, had fettled in Ireland about the
end of the lall centuty, as minifter to a Prefbyterian
-congregation at Belfall; and his father, who followed
the fame line, was fettled at Ballymony in the county
of Antrim, where he married, and where our author
was born in April 1726. After a proper fchool-edu-
-cation, and having pafled fome time under the tuition
of ah eminent furgeon in his native place, he was fent
to the univerfity of Glafgow. Having there comple¬
ted the ufual courfe of academical ftudies, he came to
Edinburgh for the further profecution of medical fci-
ence. After a (liort flay here, a war then prevailing
between France and Britain, he was induced to go on
board the navy in the flation of a furgeon’s mate. In
the fervice of his country he continued for feveral
years ; and after difcharging for fome time the duties
of an affiflant, he was raifed to the rank of furgeon.
In this fituation, he firfl turned'his thoughts towards
'the difcovery of a remedy for the fea-fcurvy. It was
not, however, at this period, that either chance or rea-
foning fuggefled to him the employment of an article
which has lince been attended with the moll beneficial
confequences. Here he had an opportunity only of
obferving the fymptoms, of fludying the nature, and
of lamenting the confequences, of the difeafe.
The termination of the war by the peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle put a peidod to Dr Macbride’s employment
as a naval furgeon. He had now probably obtained
much medical knowledge in the fchool of experience ;
but he was fenfible that he had ftill much to acquire
in that of fcience. An ardent keennefs to mingle in
active life had led him from the fchools of medicine at
an earlier period than could have been wiflied; and an
earneft defire to found his future practice in the bell
ellabliihed principles led him back to them, when a
judgment, matured by years, and informed from the
obfervation of fadls, rendered him capable of hearing
teachers with greater advantage. He returned there¬
fore to Edinburgh, and again entered on the career of
academical purfuits, under the tuition of Dr Monro,
and thofe other teachers, whofe abilities raifed the
fame of the medical fchool at this place. But not fa-
tisfied with the inflrmilions to be had from any one fet
of profeflors, the celebrity of the medical teachers in
London led him alfo to vifit that capital. There he
particularly became the pupil of thofe diflinguifhed
Je&urers, Dr Hunter and Dr Smellie. And while
from the former he laboured to acquire an accurate
chirurgical knowledge, from the latter he endeavoured
to obtain the true principles of widwifery confidefed Msebride,
as a fcience. At the fame time, he was no lefs indu- w*’v ' '"f
llrious in improving himfelf in the fuccefsful practice
of both arts by attention at hofpitals.
Thus prepared for the exercife of his profeflion, a-
bout the end of the year x 749 he fixed his refidence
in Dublin in the charadlor of furgeon and accoucheur.
If amiable manners, and extenfive knowledge of his
profeflion, could alone have been fufficient introduc¬
tions to pradlice, he might in a fhort time have look¬
ed for a competent fhare of bufinefs in that capital;
but while he had to combat that objedtion which very
generally arifes from youth, his progrefs was alfo not
a little retarded by an uncommon degree of modefly.
Hence for feveral years he remained almofl in a flats
of obfcurity, and was employed by but few people ei¬
ther of rank or fortune. But, if it is to be regretted
that for many years his time was not fo fully employed
in the lucrative part of his profeffion as was due to
his merit, it ought Hill to he remembered, that this ef-
fenti,ally promoted the caufe of fcience; for by this
means his genius and induflry were directed to medical
refearches; and were productive of difcoveries which •
will with honour tranfmit his name to latefl pollerity.
Thefe, though fome of them might have been fucceis,
fully turned to his own emolument, were freely com¬
municated to the world in different publications; and
he did not fliow greater ingenuity in making difco¬
veries, than liberality of fentiment in publifhing them
for the advantage of others.—His firlt publication,
intitled, “ Experimental Effays on Medical and Phi-
lofophical SubjeCls,” made its appearance in the year
1764.—Thefe eflays are five in number; 1. On the
fermentation of alimentary mixture and the digeition
of the food. 2. On the nature and properties of fix¬
ed air. 3. On the different kinds of antifeptics. 4. Of
the diffolvent power' of quicklime. 5. Of the fea-
fcurvy. The merit of all thefe is fufficiently known
and acknowledged: but the lail of them is unqueition-
ably the moil important; the method therein propo-
fed of both the prevention and cure of that dreadful
difeafe the fcurvy, having been confirmed by repeated
and undeniable obfervation.
Having thus equally diitinguiihed himfelf as an in¬
genious philofopher and able practitioner, the world
were not now How in beffowing upon him the tribute
of applaufe to which he was intitled. His name was
enrolled with honour in the lills of many learned focie-
ties; and the univerfity where his itudies had firit
been commenced, were proud to confer upon him the
degree of Doctor of Medicine.
The reputation, however, of being a diftinguilhed
author, was to him but a fecondary object; and his
talents were not confined to the advancement of medi¬
cine alone. Having fuccefsfully difcovered a confide-
rable improvement in the art of tanning, with that .
fpirited generofity which is ever the concomitant of
real worth, he fpeedily and freely communicated it to
the public, by publilhing, firlt, “ An Account of a
New Method of Tanning;” and afterwards, “ Inllruc-
tions for carrying on the New Method of Tanning.”
As a mark of approbation for this liberal condudt, as
well as a tdlimony of refpe£t for his ingenuity, prize-
medals were conferred upon him by the Societies of
Arts both in London and Dublin. But his lalt and
molt
MAC r 359 3 MAC
MacbriHe. moft cxtenfive publication was more immediately in
the line of his own profefiion : It is intitled, “ A Me¬
thodical Introduction to the Theory and Practice of
Medicine.” In that valuable work he has given a
concife and connected view of the principles and prac¬
tice of the healing art* as belt eitablifhed by found
reafon, and confirmed by accurate obfervation. Moll,
if not all of thefe publications, not only went through
various editions, but were tranllated into different'lan¬
guages.
After the merit ofDrMacbride came to be proper¬
ly known, the public feemed to fhow a defire of ma¬
king compenfation for having fo long overlooked it.
His employment increafed fo rapidly, that he had more
bufinefs than he could tranfaCt either with cafe or fafe-
ty. This having kept him in perpetual agitation both
of body and mind, at laft induced an almoft total in¬
capacity of fleeping. From this circumftance his health
could not fail to be impaired- In this fituation, after
accidental expofure to cold, he was attacked with a
fever, which put an end to his life on the 13th of De¬
cember >778, in the 53d year of his age.
Thofe who were his mofl: intimate acquaintance
were inclined to believe that his death was not a little
haftened by domeftic calamities. During his refidence
in Dublin he was twice married, and was as often fub-
jeCted to that inexpreffible diftrefs which muft refult
from a final reparation in this world from the molt in¬
timate and loving friends. By both of his wives he
had feveral children ; but none of them furvived their
father. And on thefe calamitous events, although he
was able to conceal his feelings from the world, yet
they gave a fevere fhock to his conftitution. After
his death, feveral of the playful trinkets of his infants,
with the fignature of dulces exuvia, were found in his
repofitories among papers on medical and other impor¬
tant fubje&s:. an. incontrovertible proof, that in him at
kaft, the great mind of the philofopher waa conjoin¬
ed with the feeling heart of the affectionate father.
But if his abilities were remarkable as a philofopher
and phyfician, if his condu>ft was exemplary as an huf-
band and parent, his manners were no lefs amiable as
a- companion and friend. His polite and benevolent
conduct, joined to his tafte for the fine arts,.conciliated
the affections and' elteem of all who knew him. His
death was univcrfally and. fincerely lamented in* the city
s>f Dublin.
MACCLESFIELD, a town of Che/hire in Eng-,
fend, 171 miles from London, is feated on the edge of
a- foreft of the fame name, upon a high bank near the
river Bollin ;■ and is a large handfome town, with a
fine church and a very high fteeple. It was ereCted
into a borough by King Edward III,, is governed by
a mayor, and enjoys great privileges and jurifdidtions
fey virtue of the court and the liberties of the foreft.
In its church are two brafs plates, on one of which
there is a promife of 26,000 years and 26 days pardon
for faying five Pater-Nofters and five Aves. Its-chief
manufacture is mohair buttons. The market is on
Mondays; the fairs are June 11 and 30, and Nov. 2.
In Macclesfield foreft are many pits dug for the fake
of the turf; in which it is common to fee fir-trees
Buried, which are dug up for varitus ufes, but chiefly
for fplinters that ferve the poor for candles. W. Long,
a, 10. N. Lat. 53. 15.
MACE, an ancient weapon, formerly much ufed Mite;
by the cavalry of all nations. It was commonly made MaceJonj
of iron ; its figure much refembles a chocolate-mill;
many fpecimens may be feen in the Tower It was
with one of thefe that Walworth rtiayor of London
knocked the rebel Wat Tyler from off his horfe in
Smithfield for approaching the young king RichardII.
in an infolent manner; and as he fell, he difpatched
him with his dagger The mace in modern times
changed its form ; and being no longer a war inftru-
ment, is made of copper or iilver gilt, ornamented with
a crown, globe, and crofs, and is now the chief infignia
of authority throughout Great Britain. Similar to
the ancient maces, were thofe ilaves at the end of
wluch iron or leaden balls armed with fpikes were fuf-
pended by chains; they were till lately carried by the
pioneers of the trained-bands or city militia
Mace, in the materia medica, the fecond coat or
covering of the kernel of the nutmeg, is a thin and
membranaceous fubilance, of an oleaginous nature, and
a y ellowifh colour; being met with in flakes of an inch or
more-in length, which are divided into a multitude of
ramifications. It is of an extremely fragrant, aroma¬
tic, and agreeable flavour; and of a pleafant, but acrid
oleaginous tafte.
Mace is carminative, ftomachic, and aftringent ; .
and poffefles all the virtues of nutmeg, but has lefs-
aftringency.—The oils of mace and nutmeg,, whether
prepared by diftillation or expreffion,. are fo much of
the fame nature, that they may be indiferiminately
ufed for one another on all occafions. They give cafe
in cholics, and often in nephritic cafes, taken internal¬
ly from one drop/to five or fix of the diftilled oil, or an
equal quantity of the expreffed ^ and externally, they
are of uft to rub paralytic limbs : they alio aflift di-
geftion; and will often ftop vomitings and hiccoughs,,
only by being rubbed on the region, of the ftomach.
The nurfes have a cuftom of applying oil of mace by
expreffion to childrens navels to cafe their gripes, and
that often with fuccefs; and we are affured, by air-
thors of credit, that when rubbed on the temples, it
promotes fleep.
MACEDON, or Macedonia, a moft celebrated
kingdom of antiquity, was bounded on the call by
the jEgean fta ; on the fouth by Theffaly and Epirus;
on the weft by the Ionian fea or Adriatic ; on the
north, at firft by the river Strymon and the Scardian r
mountains, - but afterwards by the river Neffus or Ne- Situau'oir,
ftus. In a direft line the whole country extended &c-of thc'
only 150 miles in length ; but the windings of the countrT‘
coaft lengthened it out to three times that extent; in
which almoft every convenient fituation was occupied
by a Grecian lea-port* The coimtry was naturally
divided by the Thermaic and Strymonic gulphs, into
the provinces of Pieria, Chalds, and Pangasus. The
middle region, which took its name from a city of
Euboea from whence it was originally peopled, was
very ftrtilt and pleafant; the inland country, being
diverfifted by. lakes, rivers, and arms of the fea, was
extremely convenient for inland navigation,, while the
towns of Amphipolis, Potidaea, Acanthus, and many
others, afforded marts for the commerce of the republics
of Greece, as well as of Thrace and Macedon, On one
fide of this diftritt were the mountains of Pangaeus,
and on .the other the plains of Pieria. Tire Pangaea ft
mom--
MAC [ 360 1 MAC
Macedon. mountains, which extended 90 miles towards the eait
and the river Neflus, though proper neither for corn
nor pafture, produced plenty of timber for fhip-build-
ing; while the fouthern branches of the mountain
contained rich veins of gold and fdver; but thefe, though
wrought fucceffively by the Thafians and the Athe¬
nians, were only brought to perfection by Philip of
Macedon, who extracted from them gold and filver to
the value of 200,000!. Sterling annually. Pieria ex¬
tended 50 miles along the Thermaic gulph, to the
confines of Theffaly and mount Pindus. The inland
part of the country was beautifully diverfified with
fliady hills andfountains; and fo admirably calculated for
folitary walks and retirement, that the ancients look¬
ed upon it to be the favourite haunt of the mufes,
and accordingly beftowed upon them the title of Pie-
a rules.
Different In the moil early times this country was called Mma-
names. thin, from JEmathius one of its princes. The name of
Maeedon is faid to have been derived from Macedn a
defcendant of Deucalion; though others fuppofe it
to have been only a corruption of Mygdonia a diltrICt
of the country. In thofe remote ages of antiquity,
.Macedon, like moft other countries of Europe, was
divided into a great, number of petty principalities,
of which fcarce even the names are known at this
_. 3 time. All authors agree, however, that Carotins was
Toumledby tire firfl: who ellabliihed any permanent fovereignty
Caranus.' in Macedon. He was an Argive, a defcendant of
Hercules, and-about 800 years B. C. conducted a fmall
colony of his countrymen into the inland diftriCt of
Macedon at that time diilinguifhed by the name of
JEmathia as already mentioned. This territory was
about 300 miles in circumference. On the fouth it
was feparated from the fea by a number of Greek re¬
publics, of which the moft; confiderable were thofe of
Olynthus and Amphipolis; and on the north, eaft, and
weft, was furrounded by the. barbarous kingdoms of
Thrace, Poeonia, and lllyiicum. According to the
traditions of thofe times, Caranus, having confulted
.the oracle on the fuccefs of his intended expedition,
was commanded to be direCled by the goats in the
eftablifhment of his empire* For fome time he pro¬
ceeded at random, without knowing what to make of
the oracle’s anfwer; but happening to enter the fmall
kingdom oi JEmathia, at that time governed by King
Midas, he obferved a herd of goats running towards
Edejfa the capital. RecolleCting then the anfvver of
• the oracle, he attacked and took the city by furprife,
foon after making himfelf mailer of the whole king¬
dom. In memory of this remarkable event he called
the city JEgea, and the people JEgiates, from the goats
who conducted him, and made ufe of the figure of a
goat in his ftandard. From this fable alfo we fee why
the figure of a goat is fo frequently feen on the coins of
Philip and his fuccefibrs.
4 The little colony of Argives led into iEmathia by Ca-
Policy of ranus Would foon have been overwhelmed by the barba-
p ' rous nations w ho furrounded it, had not this prince and
his fubjeCts taken care to ingratiate themfelves with
their neighbours, rather than to attempt to fubdue them
by force of arms. They inftruded them in the Grecian
religion and government, and in the knowledge of many
ufeful arts ; adopting themfelves, in fome degree, the
language and manners of the barbarians; imparting
189.
to them in return fome part of the Grecian civihVa- MacHo*
/ tion and polite behaviour. Thus they gradually af- —-v—<*
fociated with the fierce and warlike tribes in their
neighbourhood ; and this prudent conduCt, being fol¬
lowed by fucceeding generations, may be looked upon
as one of the caufes of the Macedonian greatnefs.
Caranus, dying after a reign of three years, left the
kingdom to his fon Coenus ; who having confiderably
enlarged his dominions, was fucceeded by Thurymas,
and he by Perdiccas I. This laft prince is by Thu-perdi'cca* I.
cydides and Herodotus accounted the founder of the a celebrated
Macedonian monarchy ; though his hiftory is fo ob-monartl1*
feured by fable, that nothing certain can now be
knowm concerning it. In procefs of time, how-ever,
. the good underftanding which had fubfifted between
the Macedonians and their barbarous neighbours be¬
gan to fuffer an interruption; and in 691 B. C. the
kingdom was for the firft time invaded by the Illy- $
rians. At firft they did confiderable damage by their JjJg*,]”™
ravages; but the Macedonian monarch, Argasus, ha-rians.
ving decoyed them into an ambufh, cut off great num¬
bers, and obliged the remainder to leave the king¬
dom. In the reign of his fucceffors, however, they
returned, and occafionally proved very troublefome
enemies till the reigns of Philip and Alexander. ^
In the mean time the kingdom of Macedon began Interfc-
to be affetfted by thofe-great events which took placerence
. in other parts of the world. Cyrus having overthrown ^jPj^aD*
the Babylonian empire, and conquered all the weftern domans^'
part of Afia, eftablilhed a mighty monarchy, which M
threatened all the eaftern parts of Europe with fub-
jection. The Greeks, however, having now emerged
from their barbarifm, and acquired great knowledge
in the art of war, were able to refill effeclually this
very formidable power ; but the kingdom of Mace-
don, obfeure and unconne&ed, was obliged to yield,
and though not formally made a province of the Per-
fian empire, was neverthelefs accounted in fome fort
as under the vaffalage and proteftion of the Perfians.
Alcetas, who afeended the Macedonian throne about
the time that the Perfian monarchy was founded, had
the dexterity to preferve his dominions from the en¬
croachments of the Greeks on the one hand, and of
the Perfians on the other; but in the reign of his fuc-
ceffor Amyntas a formal demand was made of fub-
milfion to the great King Darius, by fending him a
prefent of earth and water. Seven ambaffadors were
lent on this errand by Megabizus, one of the officers
of Darius. They were fumptuoully entertained by
Amyntas; but having attempted to take fome inde¬
cent liberties with the Macedonian women, Alexan¬
der the king’s fon caufed them all to be murdered.
This ralh a6tion had almoft proved the ruin of the
kingdom; but Alexander found means to pacify Bu-
baris the general fent againft him by Megabizus, by
Ihowing him his filler Gygasa, a very beautiful wo¬
man, with whom the Perfian fell in love at firft fight,
and afterwards married her.'
From this time the Macedonians were accounted Advant*-
the faithful allies of the Perfians; and, through the gf, accru-
interell of his fon-in-law, A myntas obtained the country "‘g «oMa-
in the neighbourhood of mount Haemus;and Olympus,
at the fame time that the city of Alabanda in Phry- rence.
gia was given to Amyntas the nephew of Alexander.
The Macedonians dillinguilhed themfelves in the time
of
. $
Reign of
Perdiccas
U.
Of Arche-
laas I.
prey to ci¬
vil diffen-
fions.
MAG L 361 ] MAC
of t!ie Perfian invafion of Greece, by furniniing their wicked monarch*. A number of competitors con- Macedoa-
' allies with 200,000 recruits ; though fome cities, par- ftantly appeared for the throne ; and thefe by turns
ticularly Potidasa, Olynthus, and Pallene, adhered to called in to their afiiftance the Thracians, Illyrians,
the Grecian intereft. The two laft were taken and Theflalians; the Olynthian confederacy, Athens, Spar-
rafed, and the inhabitants maffacred by the Perfxans ; ta, and Thebes. Bardyllis, an active and daring
but Potidaea efcaped by reafon of the fea breaking chief, who, from being head of a gang of robbers,
into the Perfian camp, where it did great damage, had become fovereign of the Illyrians, entered Ma-
Alexander, however, afterwards thought proper to court cedon at the head of a numerous army, depofed A-
the favour of the Greeks by giving them intelligence myntas II. the father of Philip, and fet up in his
of the time when Mardonius defigned to attack them, place one Argaeus, who confected to become tributary
The remaining tranfadtions of this reign are entirely to the Illyrians. Another candidate for the throne,
unknown, farther than that he enlarged his dominions named Pau/atiias, was fupported by the Thracians ;
to the river Neflus on the eaft and the Axius on the but, by the affiftance of the TheiTalians and Olyn-
weft. thians, Amyntas was enabled to refume the govern-
Alexander I. was fucceeded by his fon Perdiccas II. ment. After his reftoration, however, the Olynthians
who, according to Dr Gillies, “ inherited his father’s refufed to deliver up feveral places of importance be-
abilities, though not his integrity.” But from his du- longing to Macedon which Amyntas had either en-
plicity above mentioned both to Greeks and Perfians, trulled to their care, or which they had taken from It
it does not appear that he had much to boaft of as his antagonifl. Amyntas complained to Sparta; and War with
to the latter quality. In the Peloponnefian war he that republic, which had already formed fchemes of the Olyn-
efpoufed the caufe of the Spartans againft the Athe- very extenfive ambition, fo readily complied with thethl4rM*
nians, from whom he was in danger by reafon of their requeft, that it was generally fuppofed to have pro-
numerous fettlements on the Macedonian coaft, and ceeded from Spartan emiffaries fent into Macedonia,
their great power by fea. For fome time, however. They pretended indeed to hefitate a little, and to take
he amufed the Athenians with a fhow of friendfliip 5 time to deliberate on the army which ought to be
but at laft, under pretence of enabling Olynthus and railed for the purpofe ; but Cleigenes, the principal
fome other cities to recover their liberties, he affifted ambaflador, reprefented the urgency of the cafe in
in deftroying the influence of the Athenians in thofe fuch a manner, that the troops which happened at
places, in hopes of eftabliftiing that of the Macedo- that time to be ready were ordered to take the field
nians in its ftead. But this defign failed of fuc- without delay. Two thoufand Spartans, under the
cefs; the Olynthian confederacy was broken, and command of Eudamidas, were ordered into Macedon,
the members of it became fubjeft to Sparta, until at while a powerful reinforcement under the command
laft, by the misfortunes of that republic, they became of Phoebidas, brother to the general, was ordered to
fufficiently powerful not only to refift the encroach- follow him as foon as poflible. By accident, Phoebi-
ments of the Macedonians, but to make confiderable das and his auxiliaries were detained till the feafon
conquefts in their country. for a&ion was palled ; but Eudamidas with his final!
Perdiccas II. was fucceeded about 416 B. C. by army performed very effential fervice. The appear-
Archelaus I. He enlarged his dominions by the con- ance of a Spartan army at once encouraged the fub-
queft of Pydna, and other places in Pieria, though jefts and allies of the Olynthians to revolt; aud the
his ambition feems rather to have been to improve his city of Potidaea, a place of great importance in the
dominions than greatly to extend them. He facili- ifthmus of Pallene, furrendered foon after his arrival
tated the communication between the principal towns in the country. Being too much elated with his fuc-
cf Macedon, by cutting ftraight roads through moft cefs, however, Eudamidas approached fo near the city
part of the country : he built walls and fortrefles in of Olynthus, that he was unexpectedly attacked, de-
fuch places as afforded a favourable fituation ; encou- feated, and killed in a fally of the citizens. He was
raged agriculture and the arts, particularly thofe fub- fucceeded by Teleutias the brother of Agefilaus, who
fervient to war; formed magazines of arms; raifed had under his command a body of 10,000 men, and
and difeiplined a confiderable body of cavalry ; and was farther aflifted by Amyntas king of Macedon and
in a word, fays Dr Gillies, added more to the folid Derdas his brother, the governor or fovereign of the
grandeur of Macedon than had been done by all his moft wefterly province of Macedon, which abounded
predeceflbrs put together. Nor was he regardlefs of in cavalry. By thefe formiable enemies the Olyn-
the arts of peace. His palace was adorned by the thians were defeated in a number of battles, obliged
works of Grecian painters. Euripides was long en- to ftiut themfelves up in their city, and prevented
tertained at his court; Socrates was earneftly folicited from cultivating their territory ; on which Teleutias
to live there, after the example of this philofophic advanced with his whole forces to inveft the city it-
poet, formed by his precepts and cherilhed by his felf. His exceflive eagernefs to deftroy his enemies
friendlhip : men of merit and genius in the various proved his ruin. A body of Olynthian horfe had the
walks of literature and fcience were invited to refide boldnefs to pafs the river Amnias in fight of the allied
in Macedon, and treated with diftinguiihed regard by army, though fo much fuperior in number. Teleutias
a monarch duly attentive to promote his own glory ordered his targeteers to attack them, the Olyn-
and the happinefs of his fubjefts.” thians, having retreated acrofs the river, were clofely
This great monarch died after a reign of fix years, purfued by the Lacedemonians, great part of whom
a fpace by for too ftiort to accompli ill -the magnificent alfo pafiedthe river ; but the Olynthians foddenly turn-
proje&s he had formed. After his death the king- ingupon them, killed upwards of 100, with Tlemoni-
dom fell under the power of ufurpers or weak and das their leader. Teleutias, exafperated at this difafter,
Vol. X. Part I. Z 2 ordered
MAC [ 362 J MAC
Macedon. ordered the remainder of the targeteer* and cavalry to
*■*■■■—v~ purfue 5 while he himfelf advanced at the head of the
heavy armed foot with fuch celerity that they began
to fall into diforder. The Olynthians allowed them
to proceed, and the Lacedaemonians veiy imprudently
advanced juft under the towers and battlements of
the city. The townfmen then mounted the walls,
and difcharged upon them a ihower of darts, arrows,
and other miflile weapons, while the flower of the
Olynthian troops, who had been purpofely polled be¬
hind the gates, fallied forth and attacked them with
great violence. Teleutias attempting to rally his
men, was flain in the firft onfet; the Spartans who
attended him were defeated, and the whole army at
laft difperfed with great daughter, and obliged to
(belter themfelves in the towns of Acanthus, Apolloi-
nia, Spartolus, and Potktaa.
The Spartans, undifmayed by this terrible difafter,
next fent their King Agefipolis with a powerful re¬
inforcement into Macedon. His prefenee greatly
raifed the fpirits of the Lacedaemonian allies, and his
rapid fuccefs feemed to promife a fpeedy termination
to the war, when he himfelf died of a calenture. He
was fucceeded in the throne by his brother Cleombro-
tus, and in the command of the army by Polybiades
an experienced general, who likewife brought along
with him a powerful reinforcement. Olynthus was
how completely blocked up by land, while a fqua-
dron of Lacedaemonian galleys blocked up the neigh¬
bouring harbour of Myceberna. The Olynthians,
however, held out for nine or ten months, but at laft
were obliged to fubmit on very humiliating condi-
The^lyn- ti°ns* They formally renounced all claim to the do-
thiar.s obli- minion of Chalcis ; they ceded the Macedonian cities
*;ed to fub- to their ancient governor ; and in confequence of this
Amyntas left the city of iEgaea or Edefla, where
14 till now he had held his royal refidence, and fixed it
Pella made at Pella, a city of great ftrength and beauty, fituated
the capital on an eminence, which together with a plain of con-
«>f Mace- fiderable extent was defended by impaffable morafles,
and by the rivers Axius and Lydias. It was diftant
about 15 miles from the iEgean fea, with winch it
communicated by means of the abovementioned rivers.
It was originally founded by the Greeks, who had
lately conquered and peopled it; but in confequence
of the misfortunes of Olynthus, it now became the
capital of Macedon, and continued ever after to be fo.
Amyntas, thus fully eftabliftied in his dominions,
continued to enjoy tranquillity during the remaining
part of his life. The reign of his fon Alexander was
Ihort, and difturbed by invafions of the Illyrians;
from whom he was obliged to purchafe a peace. He
Fanfanias him two brothers, Perdiccas and Philip,
ufurps the both very young ; fo that Paufanias again found means
throne. to ufurp the throne, being fupported not only by the
Thracians, but a confiderable number of Greek mer¬
cenaries, as well as a powerful party in Macedon it-
felf. In this critical juncture, however, Iphicrates
the Athenian happening to be on an expedition to Am-
phipolis, was addrefled by Eurydice the widow of
Amyntas, fo warmly in behalf of her two fons, whom
(he prefented to him, that he interefted himfelf in their
behalf, and got Perdiccas the eldeft eftablifhed on
the throne. He was induced alfo to this piece of
generofity by the kindnds which Eurydice and her
hufband had formerly fliown to himfelf, and he like- Macedotu!
wife faw the advantages which muft enfue to hi* coun- ^ *
try from a connexion with Macedon. During the .l6
minority of the young prince, however, his brother
Ptolemy, who was his guardian, openly afpired to the the throne*
throne ; but he was depofed by the Theban general
Pelopidas, who reinftated Perdiccas in his dominions ;
and in order te fecure, in the moft effeftual manner,
the dependence of Macedon upon Thebes, carried along
with him thirty Macedonian youths as hoftages; and
among them Philip, the younger brother of the king.
Perdiccas now, elated by the proteftion of fuch power-
fid allies, forgot Iphicrates and the Athenians, and
even difputed with them the right to the city of Am-
phipolis, which had been decreed to them by the ge¬
neral council of Greece, but which his oppolition
rendered impoffible for them to recover. In confe¬
quence of the truft he put in thefe new allies, alfo, it
is probable that he refufed to Bardyllis the Illyrian
the tribute which the Macedonians had been obliged
to pay him ; which occafioned a war with that nation.
In this conteft the Macedonians were defeated with
the lofs of 4000 men, Perdiccas himfelf being taken cedonians
prifoner, and dying foon after of his wounds. defeated.
The kingdom was now left in the moft deplorable t£e‘r .
ftate. Amyntas, the proper heir to the throne, was
an infant; the Thebans, in whom Perdiccas had placed ]y, ja,*
fo much confidence, were deprived of the foverergnty
of Greece ; the Athenians, juftly provoked at the un¬
grateful behaviour of the late monarch, (bowed au
hoftile difpofition; the Illyrians ravaged the weft, and
the Paeonians the north quarter of the kingdom ; the
Thracians ftill fupported the caufe of Paufanias, and
propoled to fend him into Macedon at the head of a
numerous army ; while Argaeus, the former rival of
Amyntas, renewed his pretenfions to the throne, and
by flattering the Athenians with the hopes of recover¬
ing Amphipolis, eafily induced them to fupport his
claims; and in confequence of this they fitted out a
fleet, having on board 3000 heavy armed foldiers,
which they fent to the coaft of Macedon.
Philip, the late king’s brother, no fooner heard of phiHp ar-
his defeat and death, than he fet out privately from rives in
Thebes; and on his arrival in Macedon found matters Macedon.
in the fituation we have juft now deferibed. Fired
with an infatiable ambition, it is very probable that
from the very firft moment he had refolved to feize
the kingdom for himfelf; yet it was neceflary at firlt
to pretend that he affumed the thr#ne only to preferve
it for his nephew. Philip, as has already been men¬
tioned, was carried off as an hoftage by Pelopidas,
but for a long time pad had remained in fuch obfeuri-
ty, that hiftorians difagree as to his place of reiidence-;
fome placing him in Thebes, and others in Macedon.
It is certain, however, that from the age of 15 he
bad been very much in the family of Epaminondas,
from whofe leffons he could not but derive the greateft
emolument. It is probable alfo that he attended this
celebrated general in many of his expeditions ; and k
is certain, that, with an attendance fuitable to his rank,
he vifited mod of the principal republics, and (bowed
an attention to their inftitutiens, both civil and mili¬
tary, far fuperior to his years. Having eafy accefs to
whomfoever he pleafed, he cultivated the friendlhip
of the firft people in Greece. Even in. Athens,
where
MAC C 363 ] MAC
Mac/;don. where no good-will fubfifted with Macedon, the philo- and independent, and fubjeft only to the government Macedon,
fophers Plato, Ifocrates, and Ariftotle, cultivated his of its own free and equitable laws. This artful con- ——
acquaintance: and the connexion he formed with the duft, together with hi* kind treatment of the pri-
principal leaders of that republic in the early period foners, fo wrought upon the minds of the Athenians,
of his life, no doubt contributed greatly to the accom- that they confented to the renewal of a treaty which
Tp plilhment of the deligns in which he afterwards proved had formerly fublilled between them and his father
Retrieve* fo fuccefsful. His appearance in Macedon inltantly Amyntas. Thus he found means to remove all jea-
the affairs changed the face of affairs: the Macedonian army, loufy of his ambition or the fchemes he might after-
®^ekinK-though defeated, was not entirely deftroyed ; and the wards undertake to their prejudice ; and not only this,
remainder of them fecured themfelves in the fortreffes but to induce them to engage in a ruinous war with
which had been built by Archelaus. There were al- their allies, which occupied their attention until Phi-
fo confiderable garrifons in the fortrefles, and walled lip had an opportunity of getting his matters fo well
towns fcattered over the kingdom ; and the Illyrians, eftablifhed that it was impoflible to overthrow them. 54
who had made war only for the fake of plunder, foon The new king being thus left at liberty to regulate Reduces the
returned home to enjoy the fruits of their victory. His his domeftic concerns, began to circumfcribe the Power
other enemies, the Thracians and Paeonians, were of his chiefs and nobles ; who, efpecially in the morety#
much lefs formidable than the Illyrians, being flill in remote provinces, paid very little regard to the autho-
a very rude and uncivilized ftate, incapable of uniting rity of the kings of Macedon ; fometimes, even in
under one head in fuch a manner as to bring any for- times of public calamity, throwing off their allegiance
midable army into the field. While the Illyrians there- altogether, and affuming an independent government ^
fore gave up the campaign through mere caprice and over confiderable tracts of country. To counteract Ch >ofe» »
unfteadinefs, Philip himfelf applied to the Pseonians, the ambition of thefe chiefs, Philip chofe a body ofI”tr"-ler °I
and by fair promifes and flattery prevailed upon them the braveft Macedonian youths, whom he entertained youn^men
to defift. The king of Thrace, by means of a fum at his own table, and honoured with many teftimonies jochis com-
of money, was eafily prevailed upon to abandon the of his friendfhip, giving them the title of his rom/V7-panions.
caufe of Paufanias; fo that Philip, freed from thefe nions, and allowing them conftantly to attend him in
barbarians, was now left at liberty to oppofe the A- war and hunting. Their intimacy with the fovereign,
thenians, who fupported Argasus, and threatened a which was confidered as an indication of their merit,
very formidable invalion. obliged them to fuperior diligence in all the fevere du-
The appearance of the Athenian fleet before Me- ties of military difeipline ; and the young nobility,
thone, with that of Argaeus at the head of a nume- eager to participate fuch high honours, vieci with each
rous army in Pieria, filled the whole country with con- other in their endeavours to gain admiflion into this
fternation; and Philip, who was by no means deficient diftinguifhed order; fo that while on the one hand
in talents neceflary to recommend himfelf to the good they ferved as hoflages, on the other they formed an
graces of the people, took the opportunity of getting ufeful feminary for future generals, by whom both
Take* up- -Amyntas fet »fide, and himfelf declared king ; for Philip and Alexander were afterwards greatly afliited
on him the which indeed the danger of the times afforded a very in their conquefls.
fovereign- plaufxble pretext. Argaeus, iu the mean time, advan- Diodorus Siculus, and all the Roman writers who Whether
ty- ced with his Athenian allies towards Edeffa, or iEgse, have treated of the hi (lory of Greece, afl'ert that Phi-he infrkui
the ancient capital of the Macedonian empire, where lip, in the firfl year of his reign, inftituted the Mace-t?1’,ie
he hoped to have been amicably received; but finding donian phalanx; a body of 6000 men armed withp
the gates fhut againft him, he returned back to Me- fhort fwords fitted either for cutting or ftabbing, ha-
Defeats and thone. Philip haraffed'him. in his retreat, cutting off yjng alfo ftrong bucklers four feet long and two and
kills Arg;t- great numbers of his men, and afterwards defeated an half broad, and pikes 14 feet long; ufually march-
u« an ufur- Jjjm jn a general engagement ; in which Argaeus him- ing 16 men deep. But this opinion is controverted
* ' felf, with the flower of his army, was cut in pieces, by others. Dr Gillies fuppofes that the opinion had
and all the reft taken prifoners. arifen from the Romans meeting with the phalanx in
This firft inftance of fuccefs contributed greatly to its moft complete form in Macedon ; and as they be-
raife the fpirits of Philip’s party ; and he himfelf took came acquainted with Greece and Macedon pretty
Philip’s ro care to imProve ^ 'n the beft manner poflible. Ha- nearly at the fame time, it was natural for them to
litic treat- vh'g taken a great number of prifoners, both Mace- fuppofe that it had been invented among the Macedo-
ment of thedonians and Athenians, he determined, by his treat- nians. The phalanx, he fays, is nothing different
firifoaers. meat of them, to ingratiate himfelf with both parties, from the armour and arrangement which had always
The former were called into his prefence, and, after prevailed among the Greeks, and which Philip adopt-
a gentle reprimand, admitted to fwear allegiance ed in their moft perfect form; “ nor is there reafon
to him ; after which they were diftributed through (fays he) to think that a prince, who knew the dan-
the army : the Athenians were entertained at his table, ger of changing what the experience of ages had ap-
difmiffed^without ranfom, and their baggage reftored. proved, made any alteration in the weapons or tactics
The prifoners were juft allowed time to return to their of that people. The improvement in the counter¬
native city and to fpread abroad the news of Philip’s march, to which Philip gave the appearance of ad-
generofity, when they were followed by ambaffadors- vancing inftead of retreating, mentioned by -/Elian in
Renounces, *rom Macedon with propofals for peace. As he knew his Taftics, c. xxviii. was borrowed, as this author
his right to that the lofsof Amphipolis had greatly irritated them, tells us, from the Lacedaemonians. If Philip increafed
Amphipo- he now thought proper to renounce his jurifdi&ion the phalanx, ufually lefs numerous, to 6000 men, this
**■ over that city ; and it was accordingly declared free was far from an improvement; and the later kings of
Z z 2 Macedon,
MAC [ 364 ] M A C
Mice^facedon, who fvvelkd it to 16,000, only rendered tion. Molt of the towns in Chalcidice were become Maeedon.
—u 't~—J that order of battle more unwieldy and inconvenient.”
Inftead of this, Philip, according to our author, em¬
ployed himfelf in procuring arms, horfes, and other
neceffary materials for war ; and in introducing a more
fevere and exadt military difcipline than had formerly
17 been known in Macedon.
Overcomes While the king thus took the bell methods to ren-
nknland ^er ^ecure at home and formidable abroad, the
Illyrians. Pfeonians again began to make incurfions into the
kingdom. The death of Agis their king, however,
who was a man of great military Ikill, deprived them
almolt of every power of refillance when they were
attacked. Philip, of confequence, over-ran their
country with little oppoiition, and reduced them
to the Hate of tributaries to Macedon. No fooner
was this accomplilhed, than he undertook a winter’s
campaign againll the Illyrians, who had long "been
the natural enemies of Macedon. They had now ex¬
tended their territory to the eall; by which means the
Macedonians were excluded from the harbours on the
coall of the Adriatic. This was a grievance to Phi¬
lip, who feems early to have meditated the raifing of
a naval power; neither could he hope to be in fafcty,
fhould the kingdom be left open to the incurfions of
a barbarous enemy : for which reafons he determined
at once to humble thofe enemies in fuch a manner
that they fhould no longer be in a fituation to give
him any dillurbanee. After an ineffectual negociation,
he was met by Bardyllis at the head of a confiderable
body of infantry, but with only 400 horfe. They
made a gallant refillance for fome time ; but being un¬
able to cope with fuch a fkilful general as Philip, they
were defeated with the lofs of 7000 men, among
whom was their leader Bardyllis^who fell at the age
18 of 90, . .
They are % ^‘s difafter the Illyrians were fo much difhear-
forced to tened, that they fent ambaffadors to Philip, humbly
become begging for peace on any terms. The conqueror
tributary. grallte(l them the fame conditions which had been im-
pofed upon the Pasonians, viz. the becoming tributary,
and yielding up to him a confiderable part of their
country. That part of it which lay to the eaftward
of a lake named Lychnidus he annexed to Macedon ;
and probably built a town and fettled a colony there ;
the country being fertile,, and the lake abounding with
many kinds of filh highly efteemed by the ancients.
This town and lake were about 50 miles diftant from
the Ionian fea; and fuch was the afcendency which
the arms and policy of Philip acquired over his neigh¬
bours, that the inhabitants of all the intermediate di-
ttridt foon adopted the language and manners of their
conquerors ; and their territory, hitherto unconne&ed
with any foreign power, funk into fuch abfolute de¬
pendence upon Macedon, that many ancient geogra¬
phers fuppofed it to be a province of that country.,
HU Philip had no fooner reduced the Illyrians, than he
irfitns. began to put in execution greater defigns than any he
had yet attempted. The rich coails to the fouthward
of Macedon, inhabited chiefly by Greeks, prefeiited
a ftrong temptation to his ambition and avarice. The
confederacy of Olynthus, after having thrown off the
yoke of Sparta, was become more powerful than ever,
and could fend into the field an army of 10,000 heavy
xmied troops, befides a number of cavalry in propor-
its allies or fubjefts ; fo that this populous and wealthy 1" f
province, together with Pangasus on the right and
Pieria on the left, of both which the cities were ei¬
ther independent or fubjedl to the Athenians, formed
a barrier not only fufficient to guard againft any in¬
curfions of the Macedonians, but which was even for¬
midable to them. But though Philip was fenfible 3°
enough of the importance of thofe places, he confi-
dered thfe conqueli of Amphipolis as more neceffary 0f Amphi-
at the prefent time. By the poffeffion of this place polls.
Macedon would be conne&ed with the fea, and would
be fecured in many commercial advantages, which
could not but contribute greatly to the profperity of
the kingdom at large ; a road was likewife opened to
the woods and mines of Pangseus, the former of which
were fo neceffary to the raifing of a naval power, and
the latter for the eftablifliment of a proper military
force. This city had indeed been declared indepen¬
dent by Philip himfelf in the beginning of his reign ;
but this was only to prevent a rupture with the Athe¬
nians, who ffill afferted their right to it as an ancient
colony ; thotlgh, by reafon of the perfidy of Ghari-
demus, a native of Eubcea, they had hitherto failed
in their attempts to recover it. The Amphipolitans,
however, having once enjoyed the fweets of liberty,
prepared to maintain themfelves in their independence.
In the mean time the holtile defigns of Philip, which
all his precaution had not been able to conceal, alarm¬
ed the inhabitants to fuch a degree, that they thought
proper to put themfelves under the protection of the
Olynthians. By them they were readily received in¬
to the confederacy ; and, trufting to the llrength of
their new allies, behaved in fuch an infolent manner
to Philip, that he was not long of finding a fpecious
pretext for hollility ; at which the Oly nthians, great¬
ly alarmed, fent ambaffadors to Athens, requefting
their affiftance- againil fuch a powerful enemy. Philip,
however, juftly alarmed at fuch a formidable confpi-
racy, fent agents to Athens, with fuch expedition
that they arrived there before any thing could be con¬
cluded with the Olynthian deputies. Having gained
over the popular leaders and orators, he deceived and
flattered the magiftrates and fenate in fuch an artful
manner, that a negociation was inftantly fet on foot, ^
by which Philip engaged to conquer Amphipolis for Engages to
the Athenians, upon condition that they furrendered conquer it
to him the ftrong fortrefs of Pydna, a place which f“r t!ie A"
he reprefented as of much lefs importance to them ;1 eniaiTS'
promifing alfo to confer upon them many other ad¬
vantages, which, however, he did not fpecify at that
time. Thus the Athenians, deceived by the perfidy
of their own magiflrates, elated with the hopes of re¬
covering Amphipolis, and outwitted by the fuperior
policy of Philip, rejected with difdain the proffers of
the Olynthians.
The ambaffadors of Olynthus returned home high¬
ly difgufled with, the reception they had met with ;
but had fcarce time to communicate the news to their
Countrymen,, when the ambaffadors of Philip arrived
at Olynthus. He pretended to condole with them on.
the affront; they had received at Athens; . but teflified.
his furprife that they fhould court the affiftance of that
diftant and haughty republic, when they could avail
themfelves of the powerful kingdomof Macedon, which
wilhcd.
MAC [ 365 ] MAC
Maeedon. wifhed for nothing more than to enter into equal and
* lalUng engagements with their confederacy. As a proof
of his moderation and iincerity, he offered to put them
in poffeflion of Anthemus, an important town in the
neighbourhood, of which the Macedonians lhad long
claimed the jurifdiftion, making many pother fair pro-
mifes; and among the reft, that he would reduce for
them the cities of Pydna and Potidasa, which he chofe
rather to fee in dependence on Olynthus than Athens.
Thus he prevailed upon the Olynthians not only to
abandon Amphipolis, but to affift him with all their
power in the execution of his defigns.
Philip now loft no time in executing his purpofes
on Amphipolis ; and preffed the city fo clofely, that
the people were glad to apply to the Athenians for
relief. Accordingly they dilpatched two of their moll
eminent citizens, Hierax and Stratocles, to reprefent
the danger of an alliance betwixt Philip and the Olyn¬
thians, and to profefs their forrow for having fo deep¬
ly offended the parent ftate. This reprefentation had
fuch an effeft, that though the Athenians were then
deeply engaged in the focial war, they would proba¬
bly have paid fome attention to the Amphipolitans,
had not Philip taken care to fend them a letter with
frefh affurances of friendfhip, acknowledging their right
to Amphipolis, and which he hoped fhortly to put in¬
to their hands in terms of his recent agreement. By
thefe fpecious pretences the Athenians were perfuaded
to pay as little regard to the deputies of the Amphi-
^ politans as they had already done to thofe of the Olyn-
Amphipol’sth'ans ; fo that the city, unable to defend itfelf alone
furrendeis. againft fo powerful an enemy, furrendered at laft at
difcretion in the year 357 B. C.
Philip ftill proceeded in the fame cautious and poli¬
tic manner in which he had begun. Though the ob-
ftinate defence of the Amphipolitans might have fur-
nifhed a pretence for feverity, he contented himfelf
with banifhing a few of the popular leaders from whom
he had moft caufe to dread oppofition, treating the
reft of the inhabitants with all manner of clemency
but took care to add A mphipolis to his own domi¬
nions, from which he was determined that it never
ftiould be feparated, notwithftanding the promifes he
had made to the Athenians. Finding that it was not
his intereft at this time to fall out with the Olynthians,.
he cultivated the friendfhip of that republic with great
afliduity ; took the ‘cities of Pydna and Potidasa,.
which he readily yielded to the Olynthians, though'
they had given him but litle affiftance in the reduction
of thefe places. Potidsea had been garrifoned by the
Athenians ; and them the artful king fent back with¬
out ranfom, lamenting the neceflity of his affairs which
obliged him. Contrary to his inclination, to oppofe their
republic. Though this was rather too grofs, the A-
thenians at prefent were fomuch engaged with-the.fa¬
cial war, that they had not leifure to attend to the affairs -
of other nations. Philip made the bell ufe of his time,
^ and next proje&ed the conqueft of the gold mines of
Makes him-Thrace- That rich and fertile country was now held
filt matter by one Cotys, a prince of fuch weak intelleftual facuh
ef the gold ties, that the fuperftition of tire Greeks, into, which
Thrace ^ WaS newty initiated,' had almoft entirely fubverted
h-is reafon ; and he wandered about in quell of the
goddefs Minerva,' with whom he fancied himfelf in
love. The invafton ■ of the Macedonians, however.
awaked him from his reverie; and Cotys, finding him- Maeedon,
felf deftitute of other means of oppofition, attempted 
to Hop the progrefs of the enemy by a letter. To this
Philip paid no regard: the Thracians were inftantly
expelled from their poffelfions at Crenidx, where there
were very valuable gold mines. Thefe had formerly
been worked by colonies from Thafos and Athens ; but
the colonifts had long fince been expelled by the barba¬
rous Thracians, who knew not how to make ufe of
the treafure they were in poffefiion of. Philip took
the trouble to defeend into the mines himfelf, in order
to infpedl the works; and having caufed them to be
repaired, planted a Macedonian colony at Crenidce,
bellowed upon it the -name of Philippi, and drew
annually from the gold mines to the value of near
x000 talents, or 200,6001. fterling ; an immenfe fum
in thofe days. The coins ftruck here were likewife
called Philippi.
Philip having obtained this valuable acquifition, Settles the
next took upon him to fettle the affairs of Theffaly, affairs of
where every thing was in confufion. This country Theffaly
had been formerly opprefled by Alexander tyrant off^advan-1
Pheras; aftervvhofe death three others appeared, vi%. Ti f- tage.
fiphornus, Pitholaus, and Lycophron, the brothers-in-
law of Alexander, who had likewife murdered him. By
the united efforts of the Theffalians and Macedonians,
however, thefe ufurpers were ealily overthrown, and
effedtually prevented from making, any difturbances for
the future ; and the Theffalians, out of a miftaken gra¬
titude, furrendered to Philip all the revenues arifing
from their fairs and towns of commerce, as well as all
the conveniencies of their harbours and’fliipping; a
conceffion which- Philip took care to fecure in the moft
effectual manner.
Having now not only eftablilhed his fovereignty in'
the moft effe&ual manner, but rendered Himfelf very
powerful and formidable to his neighbours, Philip de¬
termined to enjoy fome repofe from his fatigues. Ha- Marrias
ving formed an alliance with Arybbas king of Epirus, Oly mpias.-
he, in the year 357 B. C. married Olympias the fi¬
tter of that prince ; a match thoughtithe more eligible,,
as the kings of Epirus were fuppofed to be defeended
from Achilles. The nuptials were folemnized at Pel¬
la with great pomp, and feveral months were fpent
in ftiows and diverfions ; during which Philip fhowed
fuch an extreme pronenefs to vice of every kind, as
difgraced him in the eyes of his neighbours, and moll
probably laid the foundation of'his future domeftic un-
happinefs. So much was this behaviour of the Mace- a. general1
donian monarch taken notice of by ihe neighbouring combina-
ftates, that the Paeonians and Illyrians threw oft' thetion°f
yoke,, engaging in their fchemes the king,of Thrace :
and nwtwithftanding the infane ftate of that prince, their r rirces’
deiigns were now carried on with more judgment than formed a-
was ufual with barbarians.. Philip, however,, not-gainft him.
witbftanding his dilfipation, gpt.warning, of his dan¬
ger in fufficient time to prevent the bad confequences
which might have enfued had the confederates got
time to bring, their matters to a proper-bearing. Early
in the fpring. 356 he took the- field with the flower of
the Macedonian troops. Having marched in perfon
againft tlie Pseonians and Thracians,, he difpatched
Parmenio his bell general into Illyria. Both enter-- ^
prifes proved: fuccefsful; and while Philip returned Defeats h'3'
victorious from Thrace, he received an account of the enemies.
I. victory
MAC
?>Tactdon. viftor)* gained by Parmenio ; a fecond mefienger in-
“ ^ formed him of a vi&ory gained by his chariot at the
Olympic games ; and a third, that Olympias had been
Birth of delivered of a fon at Pella. This was the celebrated
Alexander Alexander, to whom the diviners prophefied the
the Great, folgheft profperity and glory, as being born in fuch au-
_ 39 fpicious circumftahces.
anointed ^ ^lort t*me after the birth of Alexander, Philip
his pretep- wrote a letter to the philofopher Ariftotle, whom lie
tor. cbofe for preceptor to his young fon. The letter was
written with great brevity, containing only the fol¬
lowing words: “ Know that a fon is born to us. We
thank the gods not fo much For their gift, as for
bellowing it at a time when Ariftotle lives. We af-
40 fure ourfelves that you will form him a prince worthy
Extent of 0f p;s father, and worthy of Maeedon.” He next
dooian^er-^t a^out farther enlargement of his territories,
ritories. which were already very confiderable. . Pamnia was
now one of his provinces ; on the call his dominions
extended to the fea of Thafos, and on the weft to
the lake Lychnidus. The Theflalians were in effect
fubjetl to his jurifdi&ion, and the polfdfion of Am-
hipolis had fecured him many commercial advantages;
e had a numerous and well-difciplined army, with
plentiful refources for fupportmg fuch an armament,
and carrying through the other fchemes fuggefted by
his ambition ; though his deep and impenetrable poli-
4T cy rendered him more truly formidable than all thefe
Proje&s put together. His firft fcheme was the reduction of
the con- Olynthus, the moft populous and fertile country on
queft of O- the borders of Macedon ; after which his ambition
and of all PromPte<f bim to acquire the fovereignty of all Greece.
Greece. To accomplilh the former, he had hitherto courted the
friendftiip of the Olynthians by every poflible method ;
and without letting flip any opportunity to acomplilh
the latter,he deprived the Athenians gradually of feveral
of their fettlements in Thrace and Macedon. In thefe de¬
predations, however, he took care always to give fuch
appearance of juftice to his aftions, that hiaantago-
ttifts, who had ftudied the matter lefs deeply, could
not find a plaufible pretext for engaging in war againll
him, even when he had openly committed hollilities
againft them. Philip eaiily perceived that the affairs
of the Greeks were coming to a crifis, and he deter-
4* mined to wait the event of their mutual diffentions.
Account of That event did not difappoint his hopes. The Phoci-
danwJar ans bad violated the religion of thofe days in a moft
extraordinary manner 5 they had even ploughed up
the lands confecrated to Apollo: and however they
might pretend to excufe themfelves by examples, the
Amphictyons fulminated a decree againft the Phocians,
commanding the facred lands to be laid wafte, and im-
pofing an heavy fine upon the community.
By this decree all Greece was again involved in the
war called Phocian, from the name .of the city about
which it commenced. Philip at the beginning of the
troubles was engaged in Thrace, where a civil war had
taken place among the fons of Cotys ; and wherever
Philip interfered, he was fure to make matters turn
•ut to his own advantage. His incroachments at
length became fo enormous, that Kerfobletes, the moft.
powerful of the contending princes, agreed to cede
the Thracian Cherfonefus to the Athenians; who
immediately fent Chares at the head of a powerful ar¬
mament to take poffelfion of it. In this expedition
MAG
the town of Seftos was taken by ftorm, and the inha- Macedo**
bitants cruelly treated by Chares, while Philip employ- "
ed himfelf in the iiege of Methone in Pieria. This city
he likewife reduced; but the king loft an eye at the fiege an eye It*
in the following extraordinary manner, if we may give the ftegc
credit to fome ancient hiltorians. A celebrated archer, ofMethone,
named After, had it Teems offered his fervices to Phi¬
lip, being reprefented as fuch an excellent markfman,
that he could hit the fwifteft: bird on the wing. Phi¬
lip replied, that he would be of excellent ufe if they
were to make war with ftarlings. After, difgufted with
this reception, went over to the enemy, and with
an arrow wounded the king in-the eye. When the
weapon was extracted, it was found to have on it the
following irifeription : “ For the right eye of Philip.”
The king ordered the arrow to be fliot back again,
with another infeription, importing that he would
caufe After to be hanged when the town was taken.
A report was railed after Philip’s death, that he had
loft his eye by prying too narrowly into the amours of
Olympias and Jupiter Ammon ; which the vanity of
his fucceffor prompted him to cherifti, as his flatterers
had probably been the inventors of it.
All this time the Phocian war raged with the great-
eft fury, and involved in it all the ftates of Greece.
Lyxophron, one of the Theffalian tyrants, whom Philip
had formerly deprived of his authority, had again
found means to re-eftablilh his authority; and his coun¬
trymen having taken part with the Phocians, Lyco- 44
phron called in Onomarchus the Phocian general to engaged
proteft him againft the power of Philip, by whom he 5n.a w*r
was fenfible that he would Toon be attacked. The king marchuT*
accordingly marched into Theffaly with a confiderable the Phocian
army, defeated Phyallus the brother of Onomarchus, general,
whom the latter had fent into the country with a de¬
tachment of 7000 men. After this he befieged and Who de-
took the city of Pegafx, driving the enemy towards feats him;
the frontiers of Phocis. Onomarchus then advanced
with the whole army; and Philip, though inferior in
numbers, did not decline the engagement. The Pho¬
cians at firft gave ground, on which the Macedonians
purfued, but in good order; but coming near a pre¬
cipice, on the top of which Onomarchus had polled
a detachment of foldiers, the latter rolled down Hones
and fragments of the rock in fuch a manner as did
dreadful execution, and threw them into the utmoft
diforder. Philip, however, rallied his troops with
great prefence of mind, and prevented the Phocians
from gaining any farther advantage than they had
already done; faying, as he drew oft' his men, that
they did not retreat through fear, but like rams, in
order to ftrike with the greater vigour. Nor was he
long before he made good his affeition ; for having re¬
cruited his army with the greateft expedition, he re¬
turned into Theflaly at the head of 20,000 foot and ^
500 horle, where he was met by Onomarchus. The But is at
Macedonians at this time were fuperior in number to Uft deieat-
their enemies; and Philip moreover took care to re-6,1 ai1<i
mind them, that their quarrel was that of heaven, andc *
that their enemies Jiad been guilty of facrilege, by pro¬
faning the temple of Delphi. That they might be
ftill more animated in the caufe, lie put crowns of laurel
on their heads. Thus fired by enthufiafm, and having
betides the advantage of numbers, the Phocians were
altogether unable to withftand them. They threw away
5 their
[ 366 1
Philip pur-
Cue; his an;
bicious
U’i. ernes.
48
Is oppofed
by the A-
theniaiis.
Continua-
th'ii of the
Phocian
war.
MAC [ 367 ] MAC
tlieir arms and fled towards the fea, where they ex- he was ilill enabled to make a very formidable appear- Macede*.
petted to have been relieved by Chares, who, with ance; andthe Pliocians took the field with great pro- 
the Athenian fleet, was nigh the fltore : but in this fpett of fuccefs.
they wxre difappointed, for he made no attempt to Philip now thought it time to throw off the maik Philip en-
fave them. Upwards of 6000 perifhed in the field of entirely, for which the proceedings of the Athenians, tfages ia
battle or in the purfuit, and 3000 were taken prifo- particularly their league with Olynthus, furniflied him ^,e <luar*
ners. The body of Onomarchus being" found among with a plaufible pretext; and the revenging fuch hor- *
the flain, w-as by order of Philip hung up on a gib- rid facrilege as had been committed at Delphi feemed
bet as a mark of infamy, on account of his having to give him a title to march at the head of an army-
polluted the temple ; the bodies of the reft wrere thrown into Greece. The fuperftition of the Greeks, how-
into the fea, as being aQ partakers of the fame crime, ever, had not yet blinded them to fuch a degree, but
The fate of the prifoners is not known, by reafon of they could eafily perceive that Philip’s piety was a
an ambiguity in a fentence of Diodorus Siculus, which mere pretence, and that his real defign was to invade
may imply that they were drowned, though it does and conquer the whole country. TTie Athenians no
not exprefsly fay fo. fooner heard of the march of the Macedonian army.
After this viftory, Philip fet about the fettlement than they difpatched, with all expedition, a ftrong
•of Thefl'aly, waiting only for an opportunity to put guard to fecure the pafs of Thermopylae ; fo that Phi-rs prevent-
in execution his favourite fcheme of invading Greece, lip was obliged to return greatly chagrined and diked from en-
In the mean time, he rejoiced to fee the ftates weak- appointed. Their next ftep was to cajl an aflembly, tennK
ening each other by their mutual difleniions; of which to deliberate upon' the meafures proper to be taken ii* reLce*
he never failed to take advantage as far as poffible. order to reftrain the ambition of the Macedonian mo-
He now, however, began to throw off the mafk with narch ; and this affembly is rendered memorable by
regard to the Olynthians, whom he had long deceived the firft appearance of Dembfthenes as an orator a-
with fair promifes. Having detached Kerfobletes from gainft Philip. Athens for fome time had been in a
the interell of the Athenians, he eftabliflied him in very alarming fituation. They were deeply involved
the fovefeignty of Thrace ; not out of any good vyill, in the facred war ; their northern poffeffions were
but with a view to deftroy him whenever a proper op- Continually infulted and plundered by Philip ; while-
portunity' offered. Were he once poffeffed of the a number of his mercenary partifans drew off the pub-
dominions of that prince, the w-ay to Byzantium was lie attention to fuch a degree, that, inltead of taking
open to him; the poffeffion of which muft have been a meafures to counteract that ambitious prince, they a-
great temptation to Philip, who well knew how to mufed themfelves with fpeculations about the defigns
value the importance of its fituation both with refpeCt of the Perfian monarch, who was preparing for war
to commerce and war : and in order to pave the way againft the Cyprians, Egyptians, and Phoenicians. I-
to this important conquelt, he attacked the fortrefs focrates the celebrated orator, and Phocion the ftatef-Extrema
of Her sum, a fmall and in itfelf unimportant place, man, joined the multitude in their prefent opinion, Indolence
though, by reafon of its neighbourhood to Byzan- though not from any mercenary motives, but purely an^ca|ie^f*'
ti urn, the acquifition was valuable to Philip. The from a fenfe of the unfteady conduct of the Athenians; '^the^iianel
Athenians, however, at lalt began to perceive the de- who, they were affured, could not contend with a
figns of Philip, and determined to counteraCl them, prince of the vigour and aClivity of Philip ; and therev
For this purpofe they entered into an alliance with fore exhorted them by all means to cultivate the friend-
Olynthus; and having warned Kerfobletes of his dan- Ihip of Philip, whom they could not oppoie with any ^
ger, they ordered a powerful fleet to the defence of probability of fuccefs. Ifoerates, indeed, greatly with- Advice of
the Heneum. But thefe vigorous meafures were foon ed for an expedition into Afia, and looked upon Phi-liberates
counteracted by the report of Philip’s death, which lip to be the only general capable of conducting it,che <>ratoC
bad been occafioned by his wound at Methone, .and a though at prefent the Greeks had no pretence forto 1 enu
difteinper arifing from the fatigues he had afterwards making war upon the Perfians, but that of revenging
undergone. The inconftant Athenians too eafily gave former injuries: and on this fubjeCl he addreffed a
credit to this report; and, as if all danger had been difeourfe to' Philip himfelf; and it is even faid, that
over with his death, difeontinued their preparations, Ifocrates, by the power of his rhetoric, prevailed upon
and direfted their whole attention to the facred war. Philip and the Athenians to lay afide their animofi-
—This conteft, inftead of being ended by the death ties for a Ihort time, and confent to undertake this
of Onomarchus, now raged with double fury. Phy- expedition in conjunction.
alius, abovementioned, the only furviving brother of If this coalition, however, did really take place, it ^
Onomarchus, undertook the caufe of the Phocians; was of very fliort duration. The views of PhocionHe and
and his affairs becoming every day more and more de- and Ifocrates were violently oppofed by Demofthenes; Phocion
fperate, he undertook the moll unaccountably method Though fenfible of the corruption and degeneracy of^Demot
of retrieving them which could be imagined ; having his countrymen, he hoped to be able to roufe them thenes.
converted into ready money the moft precious mate- from their lethargy by dint of his eloquence ; a ta-
rials belonging to the temple at Delphi, and with this lent he had- been at great pains to cultivate, and in
treafure doubled the pay of his foldiers. By this new which. he is faid to liave excelled all men that ever
piece of facrikge, he indeed brought many advenm- exiited'. ^
rers to his ftandard, though he cut off all hopes of mer- In his firft’ addreffes to the people, this celebrated ora- SubfLn.-e
cy for himfelf or his party ftiould he be defeated, tor exhorted them to awake from their indolence, and of his firft.
Having the aftiftance of 1000 Lacedemonians, 2000 to affume the direftion of their own affairs. They‘hfcourfe,.
Aehasans, and 5000 Athenian foot, with 400 cavalry, had been too long governed, he faid, by the incapa¬
city
MAC [ 368 ] MAC
Ma-cedon. clty .cf a few ambitious men, to the great difadvantage
as wch as difgrace of the community. In the firil
place, an orator who had placed himfelf at the head
of a faction of no more than 300 or 400, availed him¬
felf and his followers of the carelefsnefs and negligence
-of the people to rule them at pleafure. From a con-
fideration of their prefent weaknefs and corruption,
as well as of the defigns and commotions of the neigh-
•bouring powers, he advifed them to abandon all ro-
jnantic and diftant fchemes of ambition ; and inftead
'of carrying their arms into remote countries, to pre¬
pare for repelling the attacks which might be made
upon their own dominions. He iniifted alfo upon a
better regulation of their finances, a more equal dif-
tribution of the public burthens, in proportion to the
abilities of thoie upon whom they were laid, and upon
the retrenching many fuperfluous expences. Having
pointed out in a ftrong light the vigorous conduct of
Philip ; and fhown by what means he had attained
to fuch a refpeCtable footing in the world, he next
laid down a proper plan for their military operations.
He told them, that they were not yet prepared to
meet Philip in the field ; they muft begin with pro-
r testing Olynthus and the Cherfonefus, for which it
would be.neceflary to raife a body of 2000 light arm¬
ed troops, with a due proportion of cavalry, which
ought to be tranfported under a proper convoy to the
iflands of Lemnos, Thafos, and Sciathos, in the neigh¬
bourhood of Macedon. In thefe they would enjoy
all kinds of neceflaries in abundance, and might avail
themfelves of every favourable incident, to appear at
the firft fummons of their allies; and either to repel the
incurfions of the Macedonians, or harafs their territo¬
ries. While this was going on, more vigorous prepa¬
rations might be made for war at home ; and it was
propofed, that only the fourth part of the Athenian
citizens fhould enlift, and no more fupplies were want¬
ed at prefent but 90 talents. But notwithftanding the
moderation of thefe propofals, and the urgent necelfi-
ties of the flate, it was impoffible to prevail upon the
indolent and carelefs Athenians to provide for their
own fafety. They appear, indeed, at this time, to
have been defperately funk in effeminacy and diffipa-
tion; which difpofition Philip took care to encourage
to the utmoft of his power. There was an affembly
in the city called the Sixty, from their confifting ori¬
ginally of that number, who met exprefsly for the pur-
pofes of extinguifhing all care about public affairs, and
to intoxicate themfelves with every kind of pleafure
they had in their power. With this aflembly Philip
was fo well pleafed, that he fent them money to fup-
port their extravagancies ; and fo effectually did they
anfwer his purpofes, that all the eloquence of Demof-
thenes could not counteract the fpeeches of orators
much His inferiors when backed by Macedonian gold.
Philip himfelf, as we have already hinted, was ex-
ceffively debauched in his private character, and the
’ molt fhameful flories are related of him by the ancient
writers, particularly by Demofthenes. Theopompus
too, an author who flourifhed in the time of Alexan¬
der, and was rewarded and honoured by that monarch,
alfo fpeaks of him in fuch terms as we cannot with de¬
cency relate: but thefe accounts, coming from the
avowed enemies of the king, are fcarcely to be credit¬
ed ; and perhaps policy, as well as inclujation, might
contribute fomewhat to this fcandalous behaviour, that Macedon-.
he might thereby recommend himfelf to the libertines  
of Athens, and prevent even many of the more think¬
ing part of the people from fufpeCting his defigns.
But in whatever exceffes he might at times indulge
himfelf, he never loft fight of his main objeft, the fub-
jugation of the Greek ftates. On pretence of being
in want of money to defray the expence of his build¬
ings, he borrowed money at a very high price through¬
out the whole country ; and this he found an eafy mat¬
ter to do, as the diffipation of the Delphic treafures
had rendered calh very plentiful in Greece. Thus he
attached his creditors firmly to his own intereft;
and on pretence of paying debts, was enabled without
moleftation tobeftow a number of penfions and gratui¬
ties upon the Athenian orators, who by their treache¬
rous harangues contributed greatly to the ruin of their
country ; at leaft as far as it could be ruined by fub-
je&ion to a prince who would have obliged them t«
remain at peace, and apply themfelves t® ufeful arts.
Thefe he himfelf encouraged in a very eminent degree.
The greateft part of his time was employed at Pella,
which city he adorned in the moft magnificent manner
with temples, theatres, and porticoes. He invited,
by liberal rewards, the moft ingenious artifts in Greece;
and as many of thefe met with very little encourage¬
ment in their own country, great numbers flocked to
him from all quarters. In the government of his peo¬
ple, alfo, Philip behaved with the utmoft impartiality;
liftening with condefcenfion to the complaints of the
meaneft of his fubjects, and keeping up a conftant cor-
refpondence with thofe whom he thought worthy of
his acquaintance; from which, it is not eafy to ima¬
gine how he could be fo guilty of the vices we have
already mentioned from fome ancient hiftorians.
The fate of Olynthus was now foon determined.
This city, which held the balance of power betwixt
Athens and Macedon, was taken and plundered, and
the inhabitants fold for Haves ; but the chief hope of
Philip was in putting an end to the Phocian war.
For this purpofe he affefted a neutrality, that he might _
thereby become the arbiter of Greece. His hopes
were well founded; for the Thebans, who were at
the head of the league againft the Phocians, foli-
cited him on the one fide, and the ftates confede¬
rate with the Phocians did the like on the other.
He anfwered neither, yet held both in dependence.
In his heart he favoured the Thebans, or rather
placed his hopes of favouring his own caufe in that
ftate ; for he well knew, that the Athenians, Spar¬
tans, and other ftates allied with Phocis, would ne¬
ver allow him to pafs Thermopylse, and lead an army
into their territories. So much refpect, however, did
he fliow to the ambaffadors from thefe ftates, parti¬
cularly Ctefiphon and Phrynon, who came from A-
thens, -that they believed him to be in their intereft, ^
and reported as much to their mafters. The Athe-Over¬
mans, who were now diffolved in ea£e and luxury, re-reaches the
ceived this news with great fatisfa&ion ; and named
immediately ten plenipotentiaries to go and treat of a conciU(}es,
full and lafting peace with Philip. Among thefe pie-peace,
nipotentiaries were Demofthenes and zEfchines, the'
moft celebrated orators in Athens. Philip gave di-
redlions that thefe ambaffadors fliould be treated with
the utmoft civility ; naming, at the fame time, three of
hi*
MAG [ 369 ] MAC
'Vaci-don. his minlllers to confer with them, viz. Antipater, Par-
^””11  menio, and Euryloohus. Demoflhenes being obliged
to return to Athens, recommended it to his colleagues
not to carry on their negociations with Philip’^ depu¬
ties; but to proceed with all diligence to court, there
to confer with the king himlelf. The ambafla-
dors, however, were fo far from following his in-
ftrudtions, that they fuffered themfelves to be put
off for three months by the arts of Philip and his mi-
nifters.
In the mean time, the king took from the Athe¬
nians fuch places in Thrace as might belt cover his
frontiers ; gh*ing their plenipotentiaries, in their dead,
abundance of fair promifes, and the ftrongeft affurafi-
ces that his good-will fhould be as beneficial to them
as ever tkeir colonies had been. At laft a peage was
concluded ; but then the ratification of it was’deferred
till Philip had poiTeffed himfelf of Pheraeain Theffal)^
and faw himfelf at the head of a numerous army ;
then he ratified the treaty ; and difmilfed the plenipo¬
tentiaries with affurances, that he would be ready at all
times to give the Athenians proofs of his friendfhip.
On their return to Athens, when this matter came to
be debated before the people, Demofihenes plainly
told them, that, in his opinion, the promifes of Phi¬
lip ought not to be relied on, becaufe they appeared
to be of little fignificance in themfelves, and came
from a prince of fo much art, and fo little fidelity, that
they could derive no authority from their maker. iEf-
chines, on the other hand, gave it as his fentiment,
that the king of Macedon’s affurances ought to give
them full fatisfa&ion. He faid, that for his part,
he was not politician enough to fee any thing of dif-
guife or diifimulation in the kind’s conduit; that there
vas great danger in diftruiting priuces ; and. that the
fureft method of putting men upon deceit was to
(bow that we fufpefted them of it. The reft of the
plenipotentiaries concurred with iEfchines; and the
people, defirous of quiet, and addiited to pleafure,
eafily gave credit to all that was faid, and decreed
that the peace fhould be kept. All this was the eafier
brought about, becaafe Phocion, the. worthieft man
in the republic, did not oppofe Philip; which was
owing to his having a juft fenfe of the ftatehis country
was in. He conceived, that the Athenians of thofe
times were nothing like their anceftors; and therefore,
as he exprefled himfelf on another occafion, he was
defirous, lince they would not be at the head of
Greece themfelves, that they would at leaft be up¬
on good terms with that power which would be fo.
Pafffs7 Philip, who knew how to ufe as well as to procure
Thermo- opportunity, while the Atheniaris were in this .good
pylae, and humour, paffed Thermopyla;, without their knowing
ends the whether he would fall on Phocis or Thebes ; but he
wan'111 quickly undeceived them, by commanding his foldiers
to put on crowns of laurel, declaring them thereby
the troops of Apollo, and himfelf the lieutenant-gene¬
ral of that god. He then entered Phocis with an air
of triumph ; which fo terrified the Phocians, whom
he had caufed to be proclaimed facrilegious perfons,
that they immediately difmiffed all thoughts ef de¬
fence, and without more ado fubmitted to his mercy.
Thus the Phocian war, which had fo long employed
all Greece, was ended without a ftroke ; and the judge¬
ment on the Phocians remitted to the Amphidlyons,
.Voi.X. Parti.
or grand council of Greece. By their decree the Maceden*
walls of three Phocian cities’were demolifhed, the peo-
pie were forbid to inhabit in any buc villages, to pay
a yearly tribute of 60 talents, and never to make ufe
cither of houfes or arms till they had repaid to the
temple of Apollo the money they had facrilegioufly
carried from thence. Their arms were taken from
them, broken to pieces, and burnt; their double voice
in the council was taken from them, and given to the
Macedonians. Other orders were made for fettling the
affairs both of religion and ftate throughout Greece -
all of which were executed by Philip with great ex-
aftnefs ancf moderation, he paying the moft profound
refpeft to the council; and, when he had performed
its commands, retiring peaceably with his army back
to Macedon, which gained him great reputation.
At Athens alone, the juftice and piety of Philip was
not underftood. The people began to fee, though a
little too late, that they had been abufed and deceived
by thofe who had negociated the late peace.1 They faw, Is
that, through their acceptance of it, the Phocians 0ppof.d by
uTere deftroyed; that Philip was become mafter of the Athe-
Thermopylae, and might enter Greece when he plea-nian9\
fed ; that, in abandoning their allies, they had aban
doned themfelves ; and that, in all probability, they
might foon feel the weight of his power, whom they
had fo foolilhly trufted : they therefore began to take
new and hoftile meafures ; they ordered that the wo- "
men fhould retire out of the villages into the city, their
walls be repaired, and their forts new ftrengthen-
ed. They feemed inclined to queftion Philip’s .elec¬
tion into the council of the Amphi&yons, becaufe it
had been done without their confent; and even to pro¬
ceed to an open war. In all likelihood they had car¬
ried things to extravagancy, if Demofthenes had not
interpofed. He told them, that though he was not.
for making the peae'e, he was however for keeping it;
and that he faw no manner of occafion for their enter¬
ing into fo unequal a conteft as would needs enfue,
if they took up arms, not only againft Philip, but
againft all the ftates concurring with him in the late
tranfaftions. This feems to have cooled the rage of
the Athenians; and to have brought them to think of
ruining Philip by degrees, as by degrees they had t'ai-
fed him.
The fame of his atchievements without the bounds pur(ueS hj
of Macedon having difpofed the fubjefts of Philip toconquefts
hope every thing from his conduct, and the feveral ‘n Thrace,
ftates of Greece to defire above all things his friend¬
fhip ; that prudent monarch laid hold of this favourable
fituation to fix his dominion on fuch a ftable founda¬
tion as that a reverfe of fortune fhould not immediate¬
ly deftroy it. To this end, while he carried on his
negociations through Greece, he likewife kept his ar¬
my in exercife, by taking feveral places in Thrace, ^
which terribly incommoded the Athenians. Diopi-Hi# domi-
thes, who had the government of the Athenian colo-nion# in-
nies in thofe parts, perceiving well what end Philip va.dc(? b7
had in view, did not ftay for inftruftions from home ; Dl0Pltiiesi
but having raifed with much expedition a cqnfider-
able body of troops, taking advantage of the king’s
being abfent with his army, entered the adjacent
territories of Philip, and wafted them with fire and
fword.
The king, who, on account of the operations of the
3 A cam-
MAC r 370 I MAC
Maced on. eampai'gn in" the Cherfonefe, was not at leifure to re-
w-v—. p£j j)i6pjthes by force, nor indeed could divide his ar¬
my without imminent hazard, chofe, like an able ge¬
neral, rather to abandon his provinces to' infults, which
might be afterwards revenged, than, by following the
dictates of an ill-timed paflion, to hazard the lofs of
his veteran army, whereon lay all his hopes. He con¬
tented himfelf, therefore, with complaining to the A-
t-henians of Diopithes's conduit, who in a tyne of
peace had entered his dominions, and committed fuch
devaftations as could fcarce have been juilified in a
time of war. His partifans fupported this^pplication
with all their elotpience- They told the Athenians,
that unlefs they recalled Diopithes, and brought him
to a trial for this infringement of the peace, they ought
not to hope either for the friendlhip of Philip or of
any other prince or date ; neither could they juftly
complaii?, if, prompted by fuch a precedent, others
6t fhould break faith with them, and fall without the
"Who is (V- lead notice'upon their dominions. Demofthenes de-
fcaded by fended Diopithes; and undertook to (how that he de-
8c«m° °* ferved the praife and not the cenfure. of the Athenians.
Thofe of the other party began then to charge him
with crimes of a different nature ; they alleged, that
he oppreffed the fubje&s and maltreated the allies of
Athens. Demotthenes replied, that of thefe things
there were as yet no proofs ; that when fuch fhould
appear, a fingle galley might be fent to bring over Dio¬
pithes to abide their judgment, but that Philip would
not come ‘if they fent a fleet; whence he inferred,
that they ought to be cautious, and to weigh well the
merits of this caufe before they took any refolution.
He faid, that it was true Philip had not as yet at¬
tacked Attica, or pretended to make a defcent on their
territories in Greece, or to force his way into their
ports ; when it came to that, he was of opinion they
would be hardly able to defend themfelves; wherefore
he thought fuch men were to be efteemed as fought
to protect their frontiers, in order to keep Philip as
long as might be at a diftance : whereupon he moved,
that, inftead of difowning what Diopithes had done, or
direfting him to difmifs his army, they fhould fend
hiih over recruits, and fhow the king of Macedon
they knew how to prote& their territories, and to main¬
tain the dignity of their flate, as well as their anceftprs.
Thefe arguments had fuch an effect, that a decree was
made conformable to his motion.
'While affairs flood thus, the Illyrians recovering
courage, and feeing Philip at fuch a diftance, haraffed
the frontiers of Macedbn, and threatened a formidable
invafion : but Philip, by quick marches, arrived on
the borders of Illyrium; and ftruck this barbarous
people with fuch a panic, that they were glad to com¬
pound for their former depredations at the price he
was pleafed tofet. Mofl/of the Greek cities in Thrace
now fought the fricndfhip of the king, and entered in¬
to a league with him for their mutual defence. As it
cannot be fuppofed, that each of thefe free cities had
a power equal to that of-Philip, we may therefore look
Philip’* upon him as their protect or. About this time Phi-
Ichemes de-hp’s negociations in Peloponnefus began to come to
£sa*ed. light; the Argives and Meffenians, growing weary of
that tyrannical authority which the Spartans exercifed
over them, applied’to Thebes for afGftance ; and the
Thebans, out of they natural averfion to Sparta, fought
to open a paflage for Philip into Peloponnefus, tliat, Macedrs,
in conjunbtion with them, he might humble the Lace-y—
demonians. Philip readily accepted the offer; and re-
folved to procure a decree from the Amphi&yons, di-
refting the Lacedemonians to leave Argos and Meffene
free; which if they complied not with, he, as the lieu¬
tenant of the Amphittyons, might, with great appear¬
ance of juflice, march with a body of troops to enforce
their order. When Sparta had intelligence of this,
flie immediately applied to Athens, earneftly intreat¬
ing affiitance, as in the common caufe of Greece. The
Argives and Meffenians, on the other hand, laboured
aQiduoufly to gain the Athenians to their fide; alleging
that, if they were friends to liberty, they ought to af-
fift thofe whofe only aim was to be free. Demof-
thenes, at this junfture, outwreftled Philip, if we may
borrow that king’s expreflion: for, by a vehement ha¬
rangue, he not only determined his own citizens to be¬
come the avowed enemies of the king, but alfo made-
the Argives and Meffenians not over fond of him for
an ally; which when Philip perceived, he laid afide
all thoughts of this enterprife for the prefent, and be¬
gan to prabtife in Eubcea.
This country, now called Negropont, is feparated!
from Greece by the Euripus, a ftrait fo narrow, that
Euboea might eafily be united to the continent. This#
fituation made Philip call it the fetters of Greece, which
he therefore fought to have in his own hands. There
had been for fome years great difturbances in that
country ; under colour of which, Philip fent forces-
thither, and demolifhed Porthmos, the ftrongeft city
in thofe parts, leaving the country under the govern¬
ment of three lords, whom Demofthenes roundly calls
tyrants eftablifhed by Philip. Shortly after, the Ma¬
cedonians took Greus, which was left under the go¬
vernment of five magiftrates, ftyled alfo tyrants at A-
thens. Thither Plutarch of Eretria, one of the moll
eminent perfons in Eubcea, went to reprefent the di-
ftreffes of his country, and to implore the Athenians
to fet it free. This fuit Demofthenes recommended
warmly to the people; who fent thither their famous
leader Phocion, fupported by formidable votes, but a
very flender army : yet fo well did he manage the af¬
fairs of the commonwealth and her allies, that Philip
quickly found he mull for a time abandon that project;
which, however, he did not till he had formed another
no lefs beneficial to himfelf, or lefs dangerous to A-
thens. It was, the profecution of his conqnefts in
Thrace, which he thought of pulhing much farther
than he had hitherto done, or could be reafonably fu-
fpebted to have any- intention of doing.
Extraordinary preparations were made by the Ma¬
cedonian monarch for this campaign. His fon Alex¬
ander was left regent of the kingdom; and he himfelf
with 30,000 men laid fiege to Perinthus, one of the
ftrongeft cities in the country. At prefent, however,
all his arts of cajoling and pretending friendlhip were
infufficicnt to deceive the Athenians. They gave the
command of their army and fleet to Phocion ; a gene¬
ral of great abilities, and with whom Philip woulcl-
have found it very hard to contend. On the other
hand, the king of Perfia began to turn jealous ofothe
growing power of the Macedonian monarch. The
Perfian kings had been accuftomed to regard thofe of
Macedon as their faithful allies ; but the good fortune
MAC [ 37* ] MAC
MitcAon of Philip, the continual clamour of the Athenians chofen him their general, with full power to acl as he Macadam
J®1 ' againft him, and his dethroning at pleafure the petty thought fit againlt fuch as had oppafed the authority ' >r~~J •
princes of Thrace, made him now regarded in another of the AmphiAyons. Thus of a fudden Philip ac-13 c^0fe!l
light. When therefore he led his troops againft Pe- quired all that he fought; and having an army ready general by
riikhus, t/je Great King, as he was ftyled by the Greeks, in expectation of this event, he immediately marched the Am-
fent his letters mandatory to the governors of the ma- to execute the comihands of the AmphiCtyons in ap-P!lil%on**
ritime provinces, directing them to fupply the place pearance, but in reality to accomplifti his own de-
figns. For having palled into Greece with his army,
inftead of attacking the Locrians, he feized immedi¬
ately upon Elatea a great city of Phocis upon the rivei; *
Cephifus. . , a c
The Athenians in the mean time were in the utmoft h
with all things in their power; in confequence of which
they filled it with troops, granted fubfidies in ready
money, and fent befides great convoys of provifion and
ammunition. The Byzantines alfo, fuppofing their
own turn would be next, exerted^heir utmoft endea¬
vours for the prefervation of Perinthus ; fending thi¬
ther the flower of their youth, with all other necefiaries
for an obftinate defence. The confequence of all this
was,, that Philip found himfelf obliged to raife the fiege
63 with great lofs.
Kow he at That the reputation of the Macedonian arms might
hi» ^t^ not ^7 this difgrace, Philip made war on the Scy-
^ * thians and Triballi, both of whom he defeated ; and
then formed a defign of Invading Attica, though he
had no fleet to tranfport his troops, and knew very
>ppofed
, the
by the advice of Demofthenes, they invited the The-^ltJl^J^,
bans to join them againft the common enemy ofGreece. bans,
Philip endeavoured as much as poffible to prevent this
confederacy from taking place; but all his efforts pro¬
ved ineffectual. The Athenians raifed an army, which
marched immediately to Eleufis, where they were join¬
ed by the Thebans. The confederates made the beft
appearance that had ever been feen in Greece, and the
troops were exceedingly good ; but unfortunately the
well that the Theffalians were not to be depended up- generals were men of no conduct or lie ill in the inili- 45
QD if he attempted to march through the Pilse, and tary art. An engagement enfued at Cheronsea; where-Whom h?
that the Thebans would even then be ready to oppofe in Alexander commanded one wing of the Macedonian lefoits at
    army, and his father Philip the other. The cofifede-Cheronscai?
his march. To obviate all thefe difficulties, he had
recourfe to Athens itfelf; where, by means of his par-
tifans, he procured his old friend Asfchines to be fent
their deputy to the Amphi&yons. This feemed a
fmall matter, and yet was the hinge on which his
whole projeft turned. By that time iEfchines had ta¬
ken his feat, a queftion was ftirred in the council, whe¬
ther the Locrians of Amphifia had not been guilty of
facrilege in ploughing the fields of Cyrrha in the neigh¬
bourhood of the temple of Delphi. The affembly be¬
ing divided in their opinions, iEfchines propofed to
take a view ; which was accordingly decreed. But when
the AmphiCtyons came in order to fee how things
flood, the Locrians, either jealous of their property,
•r fpurred thereto by the fuggeftions of fome who
faw farther than themfelves, fell upon thofe venerable
rate army was divided according to the different na¬
tions of which it confifted; the Athenians having the
right and the Boeotians the left. In the beginning
of the battle the confederates had the better; where¬
upon Stratocles an Athenian commander cried out,
“ Come on, brother foidiers, let us drive them back to
Macedonwhich being overheard by the king, he faid
very coolly to one of his officers, “ Thefe Athenians
do not know how to conquer.” Upon this he direct¬
ed the files of the phalanx to be ftraitened; and draw¬
ing his men up very clofe, retired to a neighbouring
eminence: from whence, when the Athenians were
eager in their purfuit, he rufhed down with impetuo-
fity, broke, and routed them with prodigious flaugh-
ter. The orator Demofthenes behaved very unbeco-
perfons fo rudely, that they were compelled to fecure mingly in this engagement; for he deferted his poll,
themfelves by flight. The AmphiCtyons decreed, that
an army fhould be raifed, under the command of one
of thgir own number, to chaftife the delinquents ; but
as this army was to be compofed of troops fent from
all parts of Greece, the appearance at the rendezvous
was fo inconfiderable, that the Amphi&yons fent to
command them durft undertake nothing. The whole
matter being reported to the council, iEfchines, in a
long and eloquent harangue, (bowed how much the
welfare and even the fafety of Greece depended on the
deference paid to their decrees; and after inveighing
againft the want of public fpirit in fuch as had not
fent their quotas at the time appointed by the coun¬
cil, he moved that they (hould deft Philip for their
general, and pray him to execute their decree. The
and was one of the firft that fled: nay, we are told,
that a flake catching hold of his robe, he, not doubt¬
ing but it was an enemy, cried out, “ Alas! fpare my
life.”
This viftory determined the fate of Greece ; and tsappomteS
from this time we muft reckon Philip fupreme lord ofgeneral
all the Grecian ftates. The firft ufe he made of his t!i<5
power was to convoke a general affembly, wherein he Per an5’
was recognifed generalilfimo, and with full power ap¬
pointed their leader againft the Perfians. Having, by
virtue of his authority, fettled a general peace among
them, and appointed the quota that each of the ftates
ftiQuld furniih for the war, he difmiffed them; and re¬
turning to Macedon, began to make great prepara*
tions for this new expedition. His pretence for ma-
deputies from the other ftates, conceiving that by this king war on the Perfians at this time was the affiftance
expedient their refpeftive conftituents would be free
from any farther trouble or expence, came into it at
once; whereupon a decree was immediately drawn up,
purporting that ambaffadors fhould be fent to Philip
of Macedon, in the name of Apollo and the Amphic-
tyons, once more to require his afliftance, and to no¬
tify to him, that the ftates of Greece had unanimoufly
given by the Perfians to the city of Perinthus, as al¬
ready mentioned. In the mean time, however, the
king, by reafon of the diffenfions which reigned in his
family, was made quite miferable. He quarrelled with
his wife Olympias to fuch a degree, that he divorced
her, and married another woman named Cleopatra. •
This produced a quarrel between him and his fon A-
3 A 2 lexander;
*9
Bis cha-
Extrava¬
gant joy
ti the
Athenians.
MAC [ 372 1 MAC
lexander; which alfo came to fiich an height, that A- however, Had very little effe&. The people heard with M-iced
lexander retired into Epirus with his mother. Some pleafure all the harfh things which the orators could *“
time afterwards, however, he was recalled, and a re- fay of the young Alexander king of Macedon, whom
conciliation took place in appearance; but in the mean theyreprefented as a giddy wrong-headed boy, ready
time a confpiracy was formed againft the king’s life, to grafp all things in his imagination, and able to p*r-
the circumltances and caufes of which are very much form nothing. The affairs of Macedon indeed were
unknown. Certain it is, however, that it took effeft, in a very difFrafted ftate on the acceffion of Alexander:
as the king was exhibiting certain (hows in honour of for all the neighbouring •nations had the-fame notion ,
his daughter’s marriage with the king of Epirus. Phk of the young king with the Athenians ; and being ir-
lip, having given a public audience to the ambafiadors ritated by the nfurpations of Philip, immediately re-
of Greece, went next day in ftate to the theatre. AH volted ;• and the Stages of-Greece entered-into a con*
the feats were early taken up ; and the fhows began ftderacy againft him. The Perfians had been con-
with a fplendid procefiion, wherein the images of the triving to transfer the war into Maccddn-; but as foon
12 fuperior deities of Greece were carried, as alfo the as the news-of Philip’s death- reached them, they be-
image of Philip, habited in like manner, as if he now liaved as if all danger had been over. At the fame
made the 13th, at which the people Ihouted aloud: time Attains, .one of the-Macedonian commanders, a-
Then came the king alone, in a white robe, crownedj fpired to the crown, . and fought .to draw-off the foi-
with his guards at a confiderabk dillance, that the diers from their allegiance.
Greeks might fee he placed his fafety only in his con* In the councils held on this occafion, Alexander’s
fidence ofthe loyalty of his fubje&s. Paufanias, the beft friends advifed him rather to make ufe of diflimu-
affaffin, however, had fixed himfelf dole by the door ration than force, and to cajole thofe whom they
of the theatre ; and obferving that all things fell out thought he could : not' fubdne. Thele advices, how-
as he had forefeen they would, took his opportunity ever, were ill-fuitedfto the temper of their monarch,
when the king drew near him, and plunging his fwxmd He thought that vigorous meafures only were proper,
in his left fide, laid him dead at his feet. He then fled and therefore immetuhtely led his army into Theffaly.
as fall as he was able towards the place where his Here he. harangued the princes fo effedually, thht he Alexander**
horfes were; and would have efcaped, had not the thoroughly gained them over to his intereft, and wasdeclaied
twig of a vine catched his fhoe and thrown him down, by them declared general of Greece ; upon which lie i,enerai
This gave time to thofe who purfued him to come up returned to Macedhn, where lie caufed Attains to be CTrectc-
with him; butinftead of fecuring him, in order to ex- feized and put to death:-
tort a difeovery of his accomplices,, they put an end. In the fprkig of the next year (335 B. C.) Alex-
to his life; ander refolved to fubdue the Triballians and Illyrians,
With regard to the charaeler of this monarch, it wh'S inhabited the countries now called Bulgaria and
appears certain, that he was one of the moft eminent Sclavonia, and had been very formidable enemies to
perfons that ever fat on a throne. Had he lived for the Macedonian power. In this expedition he difeo-
fome time longer, he would in all probability have vered,-though then but ■ 20 years of age, a furpriling
fubdued the Perfians ; which was in truth lefs difficult degree of military knowledge. Having advanced the
than what he had already done. ** Had that event the pallbs of Mount Htemus, he found that the barba-Tribalk.
taken place (fays Dr Gillies), the undertakings of his rians had polled themfelves in the moll advantageous
long and fuecefsful reign would have been ennobled •and manner. On the tops of the cliffs, and at the head of
illuminated by the fplendor of extenfive foreign con- every paffage, they had placed their carriages and wag-
queft. Philip would have reached the height of fucH gons in fuch a manner as to form a kind of parapet
renown as is obtained by the habits of-activity, vigi- with their fhafts inwards, that when the Macedonians .
lance, and fortitude, inthe purfuit of unbounded great* fhould have half afeended the rock, they might.be able
nefs ; and in the opinion of- poftefky, would perhaps to pufh thefe heavy carriages down upon them. sJ ),ey
have furpaffed the glory of all kings and conquerors reckoned the-more upon this contrivance,, beeaufe of
who either preceded or followed him. Yet; even on the clofe order of the phalanx, which, they imagined; ,
this fuppofit-ion, there is not any man of fenfe and would be terribly -expofed by the foldiers wanting:
probity, who, if he allows himfelf' time for ferious re- room-to ftir, .and thereby avoid the falling waggons:
fteftion, would purchafe the imagined grandeur and But Alexander, having diredled his heavy-armed troops
profperity of the king of Macedbn at the price of his to march, gave orders, that, .where the way would per-
artifices- and his crimes ; and to a phdofopher, who mit, they fnbuld open to the-right and left, and fiifler
confidered either the means by which he had obtained the carriages to go through; but that, in the narrow
his triumphs or the probable confequenees of his domi- paffes, they Ihould throw themfelves on their faces with
nion over Greece and Afia, the bufy ambition of this their ihields behind them, that the carts might run
mighty conqueror would appear but a deceitful feene over them. This had the defired effeft; and the Ma-
of -fplendid mifery.” cedonians reached :the enemies works without the lofs
No fooner did the news of Philip’s death reach A- of a man. The difputa was then quickly decided ;
thens, than, as if aH danger had been paft, the inhabi- the barbarians were driven from their polls with great
tants Ihowed the moft extravagant figns of joy. De- {laughter, and- left behind them aTconfiderable booty
mofthenes and his party put on chaplets of flowers, and for the conquerors.
behaved as if they had gained a great viftory. Pho- The next exploits of Alexander were againft the
cion reproved them for this madnefs; bidding them Getse, the Tanlantii, and fome other nations inhabi-
remember, that “ the army which had beaten them at ting the country on the- other fide of the Danube-.
Cheronsea wes leffcied but by oik.” This reproof, Them he alfo overcame j ftiowing in all-his adions
the
MAG r 373 1 MAC
MSeed6n. the moll perfeft Ikill in military affairs, joined with the ’toAbdera. Croffing the river Ebrus, he proceeded Macedon.
w < greateft valour. In the mean time, however, all Greece through the country of P-xti*, and in 20 days reached v—
was in commotion by a report which had been conii- Seltos ; thence he cahie to Eleus, where he facrificed
dently fpread abroad, that the king was dead in Illy- on the tomb of Protefdaus, becaufe he was the firfl
The The- ria. The Thebans, on this news, feized Amyntasand among the Greeks who at the liege of Troy fet foot
fcans revolt Timolaus, two eminent officers in the Macedonian gar- on the Afiatic ihore. He did this, that his landing
•B the. rifon,which held their citadel, and dragged them to the might be more propitious than that of the hero to
death fhl" market-place, where they were put to death without whom he facrificed, who was Haiti foon after. The
either form or procefs, or any crime alleged againft greateft part of the army, under the command of Par-
them. Alexander, however, did not fuffer them to menio, embarked at Seftos, on board a fleet of 160
remain long in their miftake. He marched with fuch galleys of three benches of oars, befides fmall craft,
expedition, that in feven days he reached Pallene in Alexander himfelf failed from Eleus 3.and when he
The Italy ; and in fix days more he entered Btrotia, was in the middle of the Hellespont, offered a bull to
before the Thebans had any intelligence of his palling Neptune and the Nereids, pouring forth at the fame
the ftraits of Thermopylae. Even then they would not time a libation from a golden, cup. When he drew
believe that the king was alive ; but infifted that the near the Ihote, he lanched a javelin, which ftuck in
Macedonian army was- commanded by Antipater, or the earth.: then, in complete armour, he leaped upon
by one Alexander the fon ofiEropus. The reft of the the ftrand ; :and having ereifted altars to Jupiter, Mi-
Greeks, however, were not fo hard of belief; and nerva* and,.Hercules, he proceeded to Ilium; Here
therefore fent no affiftance to the Thebans, who were again he facrificed< to Minerva; and taking down dome
I 74 thus obliged to bear the confequences of their own arms which had liung in the temple of that goddefs
Tfeies fblly and obftinacy. The city was taken by ftorm, fince the time, of the Trojan war, confecrated his own
deftro 3Ild ar><*the inhabitants were forfome hours maffacred with- in their Head. He facrificed alfo to the ghoft of
G>tc' out diftin&ion of age or lex ; after which the houfes Priam, to avert his wrath on account of the defeent
were demolifhed, all except that of Pindar the famous which he himfelf claimed from Achilles-
poet, which was fpared out of refpeft to the merit of In the mean. time, the Peril a ns had affembkd a great
its owner, and becaufe he had celebrated Alexander I, army in.Phrygia ; among,whom was one Memnon a
king of Macedon. The lands, excepting thofe defti- Rhodian, the beft officer in the fervice of Darius. A-
ned to religious ufes, were fltared among the foldiers, lexander, as-focm as-he had-performed all tnc eeiemo¬
und all the prifoners fold for (laves; by which 440 nies which he judged neceffary, marched direcitly ta¬
lents were brought into the king's treafury. wards the enemy. Memnon -gave it as his opinion,
By this feverity the reft of the Grecian Hates were that they- fhould burn and deftroy all-the country
fo thoroughly humbled, that they thought no more of round, that they might deprive the Greeks of the
making any refiftance, and Alexander had nothing fur- means of fubfiftihg, and then tranfport a part of their
ther to hinder him from his favonrite projeft of inva- army into Macedon. But the Perfians, depending on
ding Alia. Very littld preparation was neceffary for their cavalry, reje&ed thisfalutary advice; and pulled
the Macedonian monarch, who went out as to. an af- themfelves along the river Granicus, in order, to wait
fured conqueft, and reckoned upon being fupplied only the arrival of Alexander. lathe engagement which ;
by the fpoils of his enemies. Hiftorians are not agreed happened on. the banks of that river,, the Periians were
as to the number of his army: Arrian fays, that there defeated and Alexander became-mailer of-alb the t See Gro* *
Member of-were 30,000 foot and 5000 horfe. . Diodorus-Siculus . neigbouring country; which he immediately began to'"""-
the army tells us, that there were 13,000 Macedonian fbot, 7000 take care of, as if. it had been, pjirt of his hereditary
with which. 0f the confederate Hates, and 5000 mercenaries. Thefe dominions. . The city of Sardis was-immediately de-c<mfeqIien.
hemvtded, were under the command of Parmenid.. Qfthe. Odri- liver edup ; and here Alexander.built a temple-to Jiy ce? of his •
*' fians, Triballians, and Illyrians, there were-jooo; and piter Olympius, . After this, he reftoredthoEphefians firft vidtory,-
of the Agrians, who were armed only with darts, jooo. . to their liberty ; .ordered -tire tribute which they for-
As for the .'horfe, he tells us there were 18,000 com- merly. paid to the Perfians to be applied • towards the
manded by Philotas, and as many-Theffalians-under rebuilding of the- magnificent' temple of Diana; and
the command of Callas: out of the confederate Hates having fettled the affairs of the city,- marched againft
of Greece, were 600 commanded by Euiygius ; and Miletus. . This place was defended by Memnon with
900 Thracians and Peonians, who led the van under a confiderable body of troops who had fled thither af-
Caffander.. Plutarch tells us, that;.according to a low ten the battle of Granicus, and therefore made a vigo-
computation, he had 30,000 foot and 5000 boric-; and, rous refiftancr. The fortune of Alexander, however,
according to the large lb" reckoning, lie had 34,000- prevailed; and the. city was-foon reduced, though
foot and 4000 horfc. As to his fund for the pay- Mftnjian with part.of the troops efcaped to Halicar- -
ment of the army, Ariftohulus fa vs it was but 70 tar- naffiis. After this, the king dilmiffed his fleet, far
lents; and Oneficritus, who was alfo in this expedition, which, various reafons have been affigned ; though it
not only takes away the 70 talents, but affirms that is probable,- that the chief one was to ftow- his army
the king was 200 in > debt. As for provifions, there that their only refource nbw was in fubverting flic Per-
was juft fufficient .‘for. a month, and no ■ more ; and to Can empire.
prevent-diftuijsances, Antipater was -left in- Macedon < Almoft all the-cities between Mil'etus and Halicar-
l6 with i 2,qco foot and 1 <;oo horfe. naffus fubmitted as foon as they heard that the former
Sets out on ■ The army having affembled at A mphipolis, he was taken ; but .Halicarnaffus, where. Memnon ..com-
hisoupedi- marched from thence to the mouths of the nver Stry- manded with a very’ numerous garrifon, made an obfti-
tlon. mon; then croffing mount Pangseus, hs took tlie road nate defence. Nothing, however, was able, to re60;
MAC l 374 I MAC
'Macedon. t}ie Macedonian army. Memnon was at laft obliged
^ to abandon the place ; upon which Alexander took
and rafed the city of Tralles in Phrygia; received the
fdbmiflion of feveral princes tributary to the Perfians;
and having deftroyed the Marmarians, a people of Ly-
cia who had fallen upon the rear of his army, put an
end to the campaign ; after which he fent home all
the new-married men ; in obedience, it would feem,
to a precept of the Mofaic law, and which endeared
him more to his foldiers than any other adfion of his
life.
As foon as the feafon would permit, Alexander
quitted the province of Phafelus; and having fent part
of his army through the mountainous country to Perga,
by a fhqrt but difficult road, took his route by a
■certain promontory, where the way is altogether im-
paffable, except when the north winds blow. At the
time of the king’s march the fouth wind had held for
a long time; but of a fudden it changed, and blew from
the north fo violently, that, as he and his followers
declared, they obtained a fafe and eafy paffage through
the Divine affiftance. By many this march is held to
be miraculous, and compared to that of the children
of Ifrael through the Red Sea; while, on the other
hand, it is the opinion of others, that there was nothing
at all extraordinary in it. He continued his march
•towards Gordium, a city of Phrygia ; the enemy ha¬
ving abandoned the ftrong pafs of Telmiffus, through
■which it was neceffary for him to march. When he
arrived at Gordium, and found himfelf under a ne-
ceffity of flaying fome time there till the feve'ral
corps of his army could be united, he expreffed a
ftrong defire of feeing Gordius’s chariot, and the fa¬
mous knot in the harnefs, of which fuch ftrange ftories
had been publiihed to the world. The cord in which
this knot was tied, was made of the inner rind of
78 the cornel-tree ; and no eye could perceive where it
"Unties the had begun or ended. Alexander, when he could find
Gordian no poffible way of untying it, and yet was unwilling
* to leave it tied left it ffiould caufe fome fears in the
breafts of'his foldiers, is faid by fome authors to have
cut the cords with his fword, faying, “ It matters not
how it is undone.” But Ariftobulus affures us, that
the king wrefted a wooden pin out of the beam of the
waggon, which, being driven in acrofs the beam, held
it up ; and fo took the yoke from under it. Be this
as it will, however, Arrian informs us, that a great
tempeft of thunder, lightning, and raia, happening the
fucceeding night, it was field * declarative of the true
folution of this knot, and that Alexander fhould be¬
come lord of Afia.
The king having left Gordium, marched towards
Cilicia; where he was attended with his ufual good
fortune, the Perfians abandoning all the ftrong paffes
as he advanced. As foon as he entered the province,
he received advice that Arfames, whom Darius had
made governor of Tarfus, was about to abandon it,
and that the inhabitants were very apprehenfive that
he intended to plunder them before he withdrew. To
jQ prevent this, the king marched inceflantly, and arrived
His lick- juft in time to fave the city. But his faving it had
nsfg and re- wep njgh coft fiim his life : for, either through the
covery. eXceffive fatigue of marching, as fome fay, or, accord¬
ing to others by his plunging when very hot into the
river Cydnus, which, as it runs through thick lhades,
has its waters exceffively cold, he fell into fuch a dif- Maeedow;
temper as threatened his immediate diffolution. His —v
army loft their fpirits immediately; the generals knew
not what to do ; and his phyficians were fo much af¬
frighted, that the terror of his death hindered them
from uling the neceftary methods for preferving his life.
Philip the Acarnanian alone preferved temper enough
to examine the nature of the king’s difeafe ; the worft
fymptom of which was a continual waking, and which
he took off by means of a potion, and in a ftiort time
the king recovered his ufual health.
Soon after Alexander’s recovery, he received the
agreeable news that Ptolemy and Afander had defeated
the Perfian generals, and made great conquefts on the
Hellefpont; a little after that, he met the Perfian army
at Iffus, commanded by Darius himfelf. A bloody
engagement enfued, in which the Perfians were de¬
feated with great flaughter, as related under the article
Issus. The confequences of this viftory were very
advantageous to the Macedonians. Many governors
of provinces and petty princes fubmitted themfelves to
the conqueror ; and fuch as did fo were treated, not as
a newly-conquered people, but as his old hereditary
fubje&s; being neither burthened with foldiers nor*
oppreffed with tribute. Among the number of thofe
places which, within a fhort fpace after the battle
of Iffus, fent deputies to fubmit to the conqueror, was
the city of Tyre. The king, whofe name was Azel-
micus, was abfent in the Perfian fleet; but his fori was
among the deputies, and was very favourably received
by Alexander. The king probably intended to confer
particular honours on the city of Tyre ; for he ac¬
quainted the inhabitants that he would come and fa-
crifice to the Tyrian Hercules, the patron of their
city, to whom they had erected a moft magnificent
temple. But thefe people, like moft other trading
nations, were too fufpicious to think of admitting
fuch an enterprifing prince with his troops within
their walls. They fent therefore their deputies again
to him, to inform him, that they were ready to do
whatever he ftiould command them 1; Jut, as to his
coming and facrificing in their city, they could not
confent to that, but were pofitively determined not to
admit a Angle Macedonian within their gates. Alexan¬
der immediately difmiffed their deputies in great dif-
pleafure. He then affembled a council of war, wherein
he infifted ftrongly on the difaffedled ftate of Greece,
(for moft of the Grecian ftates had fent ambaffadors
to Darius, to enter into a league with him againft the
Macedonians), the power of the Perfians by fea, and
the folly of carrying on the war in diftant provinces,
while Tyre was left unreduced behind them : he alfo
remarked, that if once this city was fubdued, the fove-
reignty of the fea would be transferred to them, be-
caufe it would fix their poffeffion of the coafts ; ar^d as
the Perfian fleet was compofed chiefly of tributary
fquadrons, thofe tributaries would fight the battles, not
of their late but of their prefent mafters. For thefe ^
reafons the fiege of Tyre was refolved on. ^ Tyre takes
town was not taken, however, without great diffi- and de-
culty ; which provoked Alexander to fuch a degree, ftroyed.
that he treated the inhabitants with the greateft cruelty.
See Tyre.
After’ the' reduftion of Tyre, Alexander, though
the feafon was already far advanced, refolved to make
an
MAC
t 375 1
MAC
81
Egypt fub-
24
Alexander
vifits the
temple of
Jupiter
AiKr.:;,s.
an expedition into Syria ; and in his way thither pro-
pofed to chaftife the Jews, who had highly offended
him during the fiege of Tyre : for when he fent to
them to demand pr@vifions for his foldiers, they an-
fwered, That they were the fubjefts of Darius, and
bound by oath not to fupply his enemies. The king,
however, was pacified by their fubmiffion ; and not
only pardoned them, but conferred many privileges
upon them, as related under the article Jews.
From Jerufalem Alexander marched direftly to
Gaza, the only place in that part of the world which'
ftill held out for Darius. This was a very large and
ftrong city, fituated on an high hill, about five miles
from the fca-fhore. One Bath, or Beth, an eunuch,
Fad the government of the place ; and had made
every preparation necefiary for fuftainihg a long and
obftinate fiege. The governor defended the place
with great valour, and feveral times reptilfed his ene¬
mies : but at laft it was taken by florm, and all the
garrifon (lain to a man ; and this fecured to Alexander
an entrance into Egypt, which having before been
very impatient of the Perfian yoke, admitted the Mace¬
donians peaceably.
Here the king laid the foundations of the city of
. Alexandria, which for many years after continued to
be the capital of the country. While he remained
here, he alfo formed the extraordinary defign of vifit-
ing the temple of Jupiter Ammon. As to the mo¬
tives by Which he was induced to take this extraordi¬
nary journey, authors are not agreed ; but certain it
is, that he hazarded himfelf and his troops in the
higheft degree ; there being two dangers in this march,
which, with the example of Cambyfes, who loll the
great-eft part of his army in it, might have terrified
any body but Alexander. The firft was the want of
water, which, irf the fandy defarts furrounding the
tempte, is no where to be found ; the other, the un¬
certainty of the road from the fluctuation of the fandt;
whfth changing their fituation every moment, leave the
traveller neither a road to walk in nor mark to march
lents. Having received alfo at this time a Fupply Macedoo
of 6ooo foot and 500 horfc from Macedon, he fet e '
about reducing the nations of Media, among whom
Darius was retired. He firft reduced the Uxians:
and having forced a pafiage to Perfepolis the capital
of the empire, he like a barbarian deftroyed the
{lately palace there, a pile of building not to be
equalled in any part of the world ; after having given
up the city to be plundered .by his foldiers. In the
palace he found 120,000 talents, which he appro¬
priated to his own ufe, and caufed immediately to
be carried away -upon mules and camels; for he had
fuch an extreme averfion to the inhabitants of Per¬
fepolis, that lie determined to leave nothing valuable
in the city.
During the time that Alexander remained at Per¬
fepolis, he received intelligence that Darius remained
at Ecbatana the capital of Media ; upon which he 84
purfued him with the greateil expedition, marching He prfuet
at the rate of near 40 miles* a-day. In 15 days he DariU8*
reached Ecbatana, where he was informed that Da¬
rius had retired from thence five days before, with an
intent to pafs into the remoteft provinces of his em¬
pire. This put fome ftop to the rapid progrefs of
the Macedonian army; and the king perceiving that
there was no neceffity for hurrying himfelf and his
foldiers in fuch a manner, began to give the orders
requilite in the prefent fituation of his affairs. The
Theflalian horfe, who had dc-ferved exceedingly well
of him’ in all his battles, he difmiflcd according to his
agreement; gave them their whole pay, and ordered
2000 talents over and above to be diUributed among
them. He then declared that he would force no
man : but if any were willing to ferve him longer for
pay, he defired they would enter their names in a
book, which a great many of them did; the reft fold
their horfes, and prepared for their departure. The
king appointed Epocillus to conduct them to the fea,
and afiigned him a body of horfe as an efeert: he
likewife fent Menetes with them, to take care of
by. Thefe difficulties, however, Alexander got over ;
though not without a miraculous interpofition, as is
pretended by all his hiftorians.
Alexander having confulted the oracle, and received'
a favourable anfwer, returned to purfue his conqurits.
Having fettled the government of Egypt, he appointed
the general rendezvous of his forces at Tyre. Here
he.met with ambaffadors from Athens, requefting him
to pardon fuch of their countrymen as he found forving.
the enemy. The king, being defirous to oblige fuch
a famous ftate, granted their requeft; and lent alfo a
fleet to the coaft of Greece, to prevent the effedls of
fome commotions which had lately happened in Pelo-
ponnefus. He then dire&ed his march toThapfacus;
, and having paffed the Euphrates and i igris, met with
Darius near Arbela, where the Perfians were again
t See Ar~ overthrown with prodigious flaughterf, and Alexander
iela. in effeft became mailer of the Perfian empire.
Reduces After this important victory, Alexander marched
Babylon, dire£11 y to 'Babylon, which was immediately delivered
Sufa, and up ; the inhabitants being greatly difaffe&ed to the
Perfepolis. Perfian intereft. After 30 days {lay in this country,
the king marched to Sufa, which had already furren-
dered to Philoxenus > and here he received the trea-
fures of the Perfian monarch, amounting, according
to the moll generally received account, to 50,000 ta-
their embarkation, and that they were fafely landed
in Euboea without any expence to themfelves.
On receiving frefli information concerning the Hate
of Darius’s affairs, the icing fet out again in purfuit
of him, advancing as far as Rhages, a city one day’s
journey from the Cafpian ftraits : there he underilood
that Darius had paffed thofe ftraits fome time before
which information leaving him again without hopes,
he halted for five days. Oxidates, a Perfian whom
Darius had left prifoner*at Sofa, was made governor
of Media, while the king departed on an expedition
into Parthia. The Cafpian {traits lie paffed immedi¬
ately without oppofition ; and then gave directions
to his officers to colledl a quantity of provifions fuffi-
cient to ferve his army on a long march through a „
wafted country. But before his officers could ac- ^0 ;»
c«jmpli{h thofe commands,. the king received intelli- murderedi-
gence that Darius had been murdered by Beffus, one ^
of his own fubje£ts, and governor of Baclria, as is re¬
lated at length under the article Persia. 2C
As foon as Alexander had collected his forces to- Alexander
gether, and fettled the government of Parthia, he*ei,uces. ,
entered Hyrcania ; and having, according to his ufualHyrcan^ '
cuftom, committed the greatdl part of his army to
the care of Craterus, he, at the ’head of a choice
body of troops, paffed through certain craggy roads,
a 4 and.:
MAC t 376 1 MAC
Mscedcn. ani before die arrival of Craterus, wbo took an open ever, he preferved the Macedonian difcipline ; tut Mattdun.
and eafy path, ftruck the whole provinces with fuch then he made choice of 30,000 boys out of the pro-  v—■*<
terror, that all the principal places were immediately vinces, whom he caufed to be inftrufted in the Greek
put into his hands, and foon after the province of Aria language, and dire&ed to be brought up in fuch a
dlfo fubmitted, and the king continued Satibarzancs manner as that from time to time*he might with them
the governor in his employment.—The reduction of fill up the phalanx. The Macedonians faw with
tin's province fintlhed the conqueft of Perfia ; but the great concern thefe extraordinary meafures, which
ambition of Alexander to become mailer of every fuited very ill with their grofs underllandings; for
nation of which he hud the leaft intelligence, induced they thought, after all the viflories they had gained,
him to enter the country of the Mardi> merely be- to be abfolute lords of Afia, and to poflefs not only
caufe its rocks and barrennefs had hitherto hindered the riches of its inhabitants, but to rule the inhabi-
any body from conquering, or indeed from attempt- tants themfelves: whereas they now faw, that flex¬
ing to conquer it. This conquell, however, he eafily ander meant no fuch thing; but that, on the con-
accomplilhed, and obliged the whole nation to fub- trary, he conferred governments, offices at court,
mitto his pleafure. Butin the mean time diilurbanees and all other marks of confidence and favour, indii-
began to arife in Alexander's new empire, and among criminately both on Greeks and jPerfians.- From this
Jiis troops, which all his aflivity could not thorough* time alfo the king feems to have given inltances of a *
ly fupprefs. He had fcarcely left the.province of Aria, cruelty he had never ffiown before. Philotas his moll,
when he received intelligence, that the traitor Beffus intimate friend was feized, tortured, and put to death
bad caufed himfelf to be proclaimed-king of Afia-by for a confpiracy of which it could never be proved
the name of Aftaxerxes; and that Satibarzanes had that he was guilty ; and foon after Parmenio and
joined him, after having maffacred allthe Macedonians Tome others were executed without any crime at all
who had been left in the province. Alexander ap- real or alleged. Thefe things very much difturbed
pointed one Arfames governor in the room of Sati- the army. Some of them wrote home to Macedonia
barzanes; and marched thence with-his army againll of the king’s fufpicions of his friends, and his difpo-
the Zaranga, who under the command of Barzaentes,
cne of thofe who had confpired againll Darius, had
taken up arms, and threatened to make an obftinate
defence. But their numbers daily falling off, Bar-
aaentes being afraid they would purchafe their own
fafety at the expence of his,'.privately withdrew from
fition to hunt out enemies at the very extremities qf
the world. Alexander having intercepted fome of
thefe letters, and procured the bell information he
could concerning their authors, picked out thefe dif-
fatisfied people, and having difpofed them into one
corps, gave it the title of the turbulent battalion;
his camp, and, eroding the river Indus, fought ffielter hoping by this means to prevent the fpirit of difaffeo
among .the .nations beyond it. .But they, either dread- tion from pervading the whole army.
As a farther precaution againll any future confpira¬
cy, Alexander thought fit to appoint Hephaellion and
Clytus generals of the auxiliary horfe ; being appre-
henfive, that if this authority was lodged in the hands
of a fingle perfon, it might prompt him to dangerous
undertakings, and at the fame time furnilh him with
: ing the power of Alexander, oTdetelling the treachery
of this Perfian, towards-his former mailer, feized and
delivered him up to Alexander, who caufed him im-
mediately .to be put. to death.
The Mace- The immenfe treafure which the Macedonians had
^v^the acquired in the eonquell of .Perlia began now to cor- ..mvingo, auu «l -mt iaiuc umc iuinnn mm witn
JfclvMup to rilPt tr^iem' The king himfelf was of a moll generous the means of carrying them into execution. To keep
$a\ury. difpofition, and liberally bellowed his gifts on thofe his forces in aclion, he fuddenly marched into the
around him ; but they made a bad ufe of his bounty, country -of the Euergette, i. e. BenefaBors ; and found
and foolilhly indulged in thofe vices by which the former them full of that kind and hofpitable difpofition for
poffeffors of that wealth had loll it- The king did which that name had been bellowed on their ancejlors :
all in his power to difeourage the lazy and ina&ive he therefore treated them vvitli great refpedl ; and at his
pride which now began to ihow kfelf ..among his of- departure added fome lands to fheir dominions, which
ficers ; but neither his difeourfes nor his example had lay contiguous, and which for that reafon they had re-
any confiderable effedl. The manners of his courtiers quelled of him.
from bad became w’orfe, in fpite of -all he -could fay Turning then to the eall, he entered Arachofia, the
or do to prevent it; and at laft they proceeded to inhabitants of which fubmitted without giving him any
, cenfure his conduft, and to exprefs themfelves with trouble. While he paffed the winter in thefe parts,
fome bitternefs on the fubjeft of his long continuance the king received advice, that the Arians, whom he
of the war, and his leading them conftantly from one had fo lately fubdued, were again up in arms, Sati-
labour to another. This came to fuch an height, that barzanes being returned into that country with tw-o
the king was at laft-obliged to ufe fome feverity in order thoufand horfe affigned him by Belfus. Alexander in-
8S to keep -his army within the limits of their duty, llantly difpatched Artabazus the Perfian, with Erigyss
Alexander From this time forw'ard, however, Alexander himft If and Caranus, two of his commanders, with a conli-
the Peifiar)0 ^C^a,n t0 ^t6r his^conduft ; and by giving a little in- fiderable body of horfe and foot; he likewife o-dered
to the -cuftoms of the Orientals, endeavoured to fe-
cure that obedience from his new fubjetSls which he
found fo difficult to be preferved among his old ones.
He likewife endeavoured, by various methods, to blend
the culloms of the Afiatics and the Greeks. The
Phrataphernes, to whom he had given the govern-
ment of Parthia, to accompany them. A gene-Satibarzs-
ral engagement enfued, wherein the .Arians behavednesdefeated
very well, as long as their commander Satibarzanesand
lived ; but he engaging Erigyus, the Macedonian ftruck
form of his civil government refembled that of the him firil into the throat, and then, drawing forth
ancient Perfian kings: in the military affairs.,,how- his fpear again, through the mouth; fo that he un-
190. 2 mediately
M A C
l .177 T
MAC
fMoeedcm. mediately expired, and with him the courage of his the chief commanders under Beffus, fignifying, that. Maced*#,
foldiers, who inftantly began to fly ; whereupon Alex- if he would fend a fmall party to receive Beffus,
ander’s commanders made an eafy conqueft of the rell
of the country, and fettled it effectually under his obe¬
dience.
The king, uotwithftanding the inclemency of the
feafon, advanced into the country of Paropamifus, fo
called from the mountain Paropamifus, which the fol-
diers of Alexander called Caucafus. Having croff-
ed the country in 16 days, he came at length to an
opening leading into Media ; which finding of a fuffi-
cient breadth, he dire&ed a city to be built there,
which he called Alexandria, as alfo feveral other
towns about a day’s journey diftant from thence : and
in thefe places he left 7000 perfons, part of them fuch
as had hitherto followed his camp, and part of the mer¬
cenary foldiers, who, weary of continual fatigue, were
content to dwell there. Having thus fettled things in
this province, facrificed folemnly to the gods, and ap¬
pointed Proexes the Perlian prefident thereof, with a
fmall body of troops under the command of Niloxenus
to affift him, he refumed his former deiign of penetra¬
ting into Baftria.
90 Beffus, who had affumed the title of Artaxerxes,
fed and vv^ien was affured that Alexander was marching
t t0 towards him, immediately began to wafte all the
ath. country between Paropamifus and the river Oxus ;
which river he paffed with his forces, and then burnt
• all the veffels he had made ufe of for tranfporting them,
retiring to Nautaca, a city of Sogdia ; fully perfuaded,
thatj by the precautions he had taken, Alexander
would be compelled to give over his purfuit. This
conduA of his, however, difheartened his troops, and
gave the lie to all his pretenfions ; for he had affefted
to cenfure Darius’s conduit, and had charged him with
cowardice, in not defending the rivers Euphrates and
they W'ould deliver him into his hands ; which they
did accordingly, and the traitor was put to death
in the manner related in the hiftory of Persia.
A fupply of horfes being now arrived, the Mace¬
donian cavalry were remounted. Alexander contioued
his march to Maracanda the capital of Sogdia, from
whence he advanced to the river laxartes. Here he
performed great exploits againft the Scythians; from
whom, however, tho’. h^overcame them, his army fuf-
fered much ; and the revolted Sogdians being headed
by Spitamenes, gave him a great deal of trouble.
Here he married, Roxana the daughter of Oxyartes, a 91
prince of the country whom he had fubdued. But du- Alexander
ring thefe expeditions, the king greatly difgufted his ’
army by the murder of his friend Clytus in a drunken
quarrel at a banquet, and by his extravagant vanity
in claiming divine honours.
At laft he arrived at the river Indus, where Hephas- paff,?s\he
ftion and Perdiccas had already provided a bridge of indus • •
boats for the paffage of the army. The king refrelhed
his troops fo£ 30 days in the countries on the other fide
of the river, which were thofe of his friend and ally
Taxiles, who gave him 30 elephants, and joined his army
now with 700 Indian horfe, to which, when they were
to enter upon a&ioh, he afterwards added 5000 foot.
The true reafon of this feems to have been his enmity
to Pprus, a famous Indian prince, whofe territories lay
on the other fide of the river Hydafpes. During this
recefs, the king facrificed with great folemnity; recei¬
ving alfo- ambalfadors from Ambifnrus, a very potent
prince* and from.Doxareas, who was likewife a king in
tho'fe parts, with tenders of their duty, and confiderable
prefents. Thefe ceremonies over, Alexander appointed
Philip governor of Taxila, and put a Macedonian gar-
Tigris, whereas he now quitted the banks of the moll rifon into the place, becaufe he intended to erett an hof-
defenfible river perhaps in the whole world. As to his
hopes, tho’ it cannot be laid they were ill founded, yet
they proved abfolutely vain ; for Alexander, continuing
his march, notwithllanding all the hardlhips his foldiers
fuftained, reduced all Baflria under his obedience,
particularly the capital Bactria and the flrong callle
Aornus : in the latter he placed a garrifon under the
command of Archelaus ; but the government of the
province he committed to Artabazus. He then con-
pital there for the cure of his lick and wounded foldiei
He then ordered the veffels, of which his bridge bad
been compofed when he palled the Indus* to be taken
to pieces, that they might be brought to the Hydafpes,
where he was informed that Porus with a great at my
lay encamped to hinder his pafiage. When he ap¬
proached the banks of this river with his army and the
auxiliaries under the command of Taxiles, he found
that the people he had to do with were not fo eafily
tinned his march to the river Oxus : on the banks of to be fubdued ha the Perlians and other Afiatics. The
which when he arrived, he found it three quarters of Indians were not only a very tall and robuft, but alfp
a mile over, its depth more than proportionable to its
breadth, its bottom fandy, its ftream fo rapid as to ren¬
der it almoft (innavigable, and neither boat nor tree
in its neighbourhood ; fo that the ablell commanders
in the Macedonian army were of opinion that they
Ihould be obliged to march back. The king, how¬
ever, having lirlt fent away, under a proper efcort, all
his infirm and worn-out foldiers, that they might be
conducted fafe to the fea-ports, and from thence to
Greece, devifed a method of palling this river without
either boat or bridge, by caufing the hides which co-
a very hardy and well-difciplined people ; and their
king Porus was a prince of high Ipirit, invincible cou¬
rage, and great conduct. .
It was about the fummer folilice when Alexander
reached the Hydafpes, and conlequently its waters
were broader, deeper, and more rapid, than at any
other time ; for in India the rivers iwell as the Tim’s
increafing heat melts the fnow, and fublide again as
winter approaches. Alexander therefore had every dif¬
ficulty to ilruggle with. Porus had made his dilpofi-
tions fo judicioully, that Alexander found it impoffible
vered the foldiers tents and carriages to be Huffed with to pra£tife upon him as he had done upon others, and
llraw, and then tied together, and thrown into the ri- to pafs the river in his view : wherefore he was con-
ver. Having crofftd the Oxus, he marched direclly llrained to divide his army into fmall parties, and to
towards the camp of Beffus, where when he arrived, praCtife other arts, in order to get the better of fo vi¬
be found it abandoned ; but received at the fame time gilant a prince. To this end he caufed a great quan-
letters from Spitamenes and Dataphernes, who were tity of corn and other provifions to be brought into
Vet. X. Part I. _ 3 B his
MAC I 378 ] MAC
Macfdon. his camp ; giving out, that he intended to remain where now, that they had not reached the continent at all, but Mseedon,
he was till the river fell, and by becoming fordable
fhould give him an opportunity of forcing a pafiage:
this did not, however, hinder Porus from keeping up
very ftridl difeipline in his camp ; which when Alex¬
ander perceived, he frequently made fuch motions as
feerried to indicate a change of his refolution, and that
he had ftill thoughts of palling the river. The main
thing the Macedonians flood in fear of were the ele¬
phants ; for the bank being pretty fteep on the other
fide, and it being the nature of horfes to Hart at the
firll appearance of thofe animals, it was forefeen that
the army would be difordered, and incapable of fuilain-
ing the charge of Porus’s troops,
pi At length Alexander paffed the river by the fol-
H^daf'es lowing contrivance. There was, at the dillance of 150
w’lh diffi- ftadia from his camp, a rocky promontory proje<fting
ealty. into the river, thick covered with wood; and over-
againft this promontory there lay a pretty large unin¬
habited ifland almoft overgrown with trees. The king
therefore conceived within himfelf a projett of convey¬
ing a body of troops from this promontory into that
ifland ; and upon this fcheme he bulk hisjiopes of fur-
prifing Porus, vigilant as he was. To this end he kept
him and his army conftantly alarmed for many nights
together, till he perceived that Porus apprehended it
was only done to harafs his troops, and therefore no
longer drew out of his camp, but trufted to his ordi¬
nary guards : then Alexander refolvedto put his defign
in execution. A considerable body of horfe, the Ma¬
cedonian phalanx, with fome corps of light-armed
ipot, he left in his camp under the command of Cra-
terus, as alfo the auxiliary Indians ; giving thefe orders
to be obferved in his abfence, that if Porus marched
againll him with part of his army and left another part
with the elephants behind in his camp, Craterus and
his forces fhould remain where they were ; but if it fo
happened that Porus withdrew his elephants, then Cra¬
terus was to pafs the river, beeaufe his cavalry might
then do it fafely. Alexander having marched half the
way, or about nine of our miles, ordered the merce¬
nary troops under the command of Attalus and other
generals, to remain there ; and directed them, that as
foon as he knew he was engaged with the Indians
on the other fide, they fhould pafs in veffels provided
■for that purpofe, in order to aflill him. Then march¬
ing a long way about, that the enemy might not per-
'ceive his defign of reaching the rock, he advanced as
diligently as he could towards that poll. It happened
very fortunately for him, that a great florm of thun¬
der, lightning, and hail, rofe in the night, whereby
his march was perfectly concealed, his veffels of 30
oars put together, and his tents Huffed and Hitched, fo
'that?they palled from the rock into the ifland, without
‘being perceived, a little before break of day; the
florin ceafing jufl as he and his foldiers were ready for.
their paffage. When they had traverfed the ifland, they
boldly fet forward to gain the oppofite fhore in fight of
Porus’s out-guards, who inflantly pofled away to give
their mafler an account of the attempt. Alexander
fended firfl himfelf, and was followed as expeditioufly
as poffible by his.forces, whom he took care to draw
up as fafl as they arrived. When they began their
march again, they found that their good fortune was
awt fo great aa at firfl they efteemed it; for it appeared
were in truth in another ifland much larger than the vr—
former. They crofted it as fall as they could, and
found that it was divided from the terra firma by a
narrow channel, which, however, was fo {welled by the
late heavy rain, that the poor foldiers were obliged to
wade up to the breaft. When they were on the other
fide, the king drew them up again carefully, ordering
the foot to march flowly, they being in number about
6coo, while himfelf with 5000 horfe advanced before.
As foon as Porus received intelligence that Alexander
was adlually palling the river, he Tent his fon with 2000
horfe, and 120 armed chariots, to oppofe him. But
they came too late: Alexander was already got on
fhore, and even on his march.
When the Macedonian fcouts perceived them ad- 94
vance, they informed the king, who fent a detachment '^*16 f°n °f
to attack them, remaining ftill .at the head of his ca-
valry in expectation of Porus. But when he found killed,
that this party was unfupported, he inllantly attack¬
ed with all his horfe, and defeated them with the
flaughter of many, and the lofs of all their armed
chariots, the fon of Porus being flain in the fight.
The remainder of the horfe returning ta the camp with
this difaftrous account, Porus wa? in fome confufion ;
however, he took very quickly the bell and wifeft re-
folutions his circumilances would allow ; which wrere,
to leave a part of his army, with fome of his ele¬
phants,. to oppofe Craterus, who was now about to
pafs the river alfo ; and, with the reft, to march againtt
Alexander and his forces, who were already paffed.
This refolution once taken, he marched immediately
out of his camp, at the head of 4000 horfe, 30,000
foot, 300 chariots, and 200 elephants. He advanced
as expeditioufly as he could, till he came into a plain
which was firm and fiindy, where his chariots and ele¬
phants might aft to advantage : there he halted, that
he might put his army in order, knowing well that he
need not go in queft of his enemy. Alexander foon;
came up with his horfe,, but he did not charge Porus ;
on the contrary, he halted, and.put his troops in or¬
der, that they might be able to defend themfelves in
cafe they were attacked. When he had waited fome
time, his foot arrived ; whom he immediately furround-
ed with his horfe, that, after fo fatiguing a march,
they might have time to cool and breathe themfelves,.
before they were led to engage. Porus permitted all
this, becaufe it was not his inter.eft to fight, and be-
c2ule he depended chiefly upon his order of battle, the
elephants covering his foot, fo that the Macedonians
could not charge them.
When Alexander had difpofed his foot in proper 95
order, he placed his borfe on the wings :. and, cfefer-
ving that he was much fuperior in them to the enemy, e<1>
and that the cavalry of Porus. were eafy to be charged,
he refolved to let the foot have as little fhare as poffible
in the battle. To this end, having, given the neceffa-
ry.direftions to Ccenus who commanded them, he went
himfelf to the right, and with great fury fell upon
the left wing of Porus.. The difpute, tho’ ftiort, was
very bloody : the cavalry of Porus, tho’ they fought,
gallantly, were, quickly broken ; and the foot being by
this means uncovered, the Macedonians charged them..
But the Indian horfe rallying^ came up to their relief,
yet were again defeated. By this time, the archers had
■wounded
MAC [ 379 3 MAC
Mtcedonr wounded many of the elephants, and killed moll of
v their riders, fo that they did not prove lefs troublefome
and dangerous to their own fide than to the Macedo¬
nians 5 whence a great confufion enfued; and Ccenus,
taking this opportunity, fell in with the troops under
his command, and entirely defeated the Indian army.
Poms himfelf behaved with the greateft intrepidity,
and with the moft excellent cpndudl: he gave his or¬
ders, and direfted every thing, as long as his troops
retained their form ; and, when they were broken, he
retired from party to party as they made Hands, and
continued fighting till every corps of Indians was put
to the rout. In the mean time Craterus had palled
with the reft of the Macedonian army ; and thefe, fal-
ling upon the flying Indians, increafed the flaughter
of the day exceffively, infomuch that 20,000 foot and
3000 horie were killed, all the chariots were hacked to
pieces, and the elephants not killed were taken : two
of Porus’s fans fell here, as alfo moft of his officers of
all ranks.
As for Porus, Alexander gave ftri& direftions that
ho injury might be done to his perfon: he even fent
Taxiles to perfuade him to furrender himfclf, and to
allure him that he Ihould be treated with all the kind-
nefs and refpeCt imaginable; but Porus, difdaining this
advice from the mouth of an old enemy, threw a jave¬
lin at him, and had killed him but for the quick turn
of his horfe. Meroe the Indian, who was alfo in the
fervice of Alexander, fucceeded better: he had been
the old acquaintance of Porus; and therefore when he
intreated that prince to fpare his perlbn, and to fubmit
He fubmits t0 fortune and a generous victor, Porus fol-
to Alexan- l°wed bis advice; and we may truly fay, that the con-
der, dition of this Indian king fuffered nothing by the lofs
of the battle. Alexander immediately gave him his li¬
berty, reftored him Ihortly after to his kingdom, to
which he annexed provinces almoft equal to it in va¬
lue, Neither was Alexander a lofer by his munifi¬
cence ; for Pbrus remained his true friend and con-
ftant ally.
To perpetuate the memory of this vi&ory, Alex¬
ander ordered two cities to be ere&ed; one on the
field of battle, which he named Nkaa ; the other on
this fide the river, which he called Bucepbala, in
honour of his horfe Bucephalus, who died here, as
Arrian fays, of mere old age, being on the verge of
go. All the foldiers, who fell in battle, he buried
with great honours 5 offered folemn facriiices to the
gods, and exhibited pompous Ihows on the banks of
the Hydafpes, where he had forced his paffage. He
then entered the territories of the Glaufe, in which
were 37 good cities, and a multitude of populous
villages. All thefe were delivered up to him without
fighting; and as foon as he received them, he pre-
fented them to Porus; and having reconciled him to
Taxiles, he fent the latter home to his own dominions.
About this time ambaffadors arrived from fome Indian
princes with their fubmifiions ; and Alexander having
conquered the dominions of another Porus, which lay
on the Hydraotes a branch of the Indus, added them
to thofe of Porus his ally.
In the middle of all this fuccefs, however, news
arrived, that the Cathei, the Oxydracas, and the Malli,
the njoft warlike nations of India, were confederated
againft the Macedonians, and had drawn together a
great army. The king immediately marched to give Mieedo*,
them battle; and in a few days reached a city called —v—
Sangala, feated on the top of an hill, and having a
fine lake behind it. Before this city the confederate Sangaia t*.
Indians lay encamped, having three circular lines of ken,
carriages locked together, and their tents pitched in
the centre. Notwithftanding the apparent difficulty
of forcing thefe intrenchments, Alexander refolved im¬
mediately to attack them, The Indians made a noble
defence; but at laft the firft line of their carriages was
broken, and the Macedonians entered. The fecond
was ftronger by far; yet Alexander attacked that
too, and after a defperate refiftance forced it. The
Indians, without trufting to the third, retired into the
city ; which Alexander would have invefted : but the
foot he had with him not being fufficient for that
purpofe, he caufed his works to be carried on both
fides as far as the lake; and, on the other fide of that,
ordered feveral brigades of horfe to. take poll; order¬
ing alfo battering engines to be brought up, and in
fome places employing miners. The fecond night, he
received intelligence that the befieged, knowing the
lake to be fordable, intended to make their efcapc
through it. Upon this the king ordered all the car¬
riages which had been taken in forcing'their camp to
be placed up and down the roads, in hopes of hinder¬
ing their flight; giving directions to Ptolemy, who
commanded the horfe on the other fide of the lake, to
be extremely vigilant, and to caufe all his trumpets to
found, that the forces might repair to that poft where
the Indians made their greateft effort. Thefe pre¬
cautions had all the effedt that could be deiired : fot
of the few Indians who got through the lake, and
paffed the Macedonian horfe, the greater part were
killed on the roads; but"the greateft part of their
army was conftrained to retire again through the
water into the city. Two days after, the place was
taken by ftorm. Seventeen thoufand Indians were
killed; 70,000 taken prifoners; with 300 chariots,
and 500 horfe. The Macedonians are faid to have
loft only 100 men in this fiege ; but they had 1200
wounded, and among thefe feveral perfons of great
diftindtion.
The city was no fooner taken, than Alexander dif-
patched Eumenes his iecretary, with a party of horfe;
to acquaint the inhabitants of the cities adjacent with
what had befallen the Sangalans; promifing alfo, that
they fhould he kindly treated if they would fubmit.
But they were fo much affrighted at what had hap¬
pened to their neighbours, that, abandoning all their
cities, they fled into the mountains ; choofing rather
to expofe themfelves to wild beafts, than to thefe in¬
vaders, who had treated their countrymen fo cruelly.
When the king was informed of this, he fent detach¬
ments of horfe and foot to fcour the roads; and thefe,
finding aged, infirm, and wounded people, to the
number of about 500, put them to the fword without ^
mercy. Perceiving that it was impoffible to perfuade
the inhabitants to return, he caufcd the city of San¬
gala to be rafed, and gave the territories to the few
Indians who had fubmitted to him.
Alexander, ftill unfated with conqueft, now pre¬
pared to pafs the Hyphafis. The chief reafon which
induced him to think of this expedition was, the in¬
formation he had received of the ftate of the countries
3 B 2 beyond
A1 "
der’s tnoop
refufe to
proceed
further.
MAC [ 3S0 ] M A C
beyond that river. He was told that they were in
thedrfelves rich and fruitful; that their inhabitants
were not only a very martial people, but very civilized;
that they were governed by the nobility, who were
themfelves- fubje£t to the laws ; and that as they lived
in happinefs and freedom, it was likely they would
fight obftinately in defence of thofe bleffi-ngs. He
was farther told, that among thefe nations there were
the largeft, ftrongeft, and moft ufeful elephants bred
and tamed ; and was therefore fired with an earneft
delire to reduce fuch a bold and brave people under
his rule, and of attaining to the poffeffion of the many
valuable things that were faid to be amongft them.
As exorbitant, however, as bis perfonal ambition was,
he found it impoflible to infufe any part of it into the
minds of his foldiers ; who were fo far from wifiling
to triumph overmew and remote countries, that they
were highly defirous of leaving thofe that they had
already conquered. When therefore they were in¬
formed of the king’s intentions, they privately con-
fulted together in the camp about the fituation of
their own affairs. At this confultation, the gravefl
and beft of the foldiers lamented that they were made
uie of by their king, not as lions, who fall fiercely
upon thofe who have injured them; but as maftiffs,
who fly upon and tear tbofe who are pointed out to
them as enemies. The reft, were not fo modeft;
but expreffed themfelves roundly againft the king’s
humour for leading them from battle to battle, from
liege to liege, and from river to river; protefting
that they would follow him no further, nor laviih
away their lives any longer, to purchafe fame for him.
Alexander was a man of too much penetration not
.to be early in perceiving that his troops were very
uneafy. He therefore harangued them from his tri¬
bunal ; but though his eloquence was great, and the
love his army had for him was yet very ftrong, they
did not relent. For fome time the foldiers remained
ful!en and filent; and at laft turned their eyes on Cce-
nus, an old and experienced general, whom Alexander
loved, and in whom the army put great confidence.—
He had the generofity to undertake their caufe ; and
told Alexander frankly, “ that men endured toil in
hopes of repofe; that the Macedonians were already
much reduced in their numbers; that of thofe who
remained, the greater part were invalids; and that
they expected, in confideration of their former fer-
vices, that he would now lead them back to their na¬
tive country : an aft which, of all others, would moft
contribute to his own great defigns; fince it would
encourage the youth of Macedon, and even of all
Greece, to follow him in whatever new expedition he
pleafed to undertake.” The king was far from being
pleafed with this fpeech of Ccenus, and much lefs with
the difpofition of his army, which continued in a deep
filence. He therefore difmiffed the affembly : but
next day he called another, wherein he told the fol¬
diers plainly, that he would not be driven from his
purpofe ; that he would proceed in his conquefts with
fuch as (hould follow him voluntarily: as for the reft,
he would not detain them, but would leave them at
liberty to go home to Macedon, where they might
publiih, “ that they had left their king in the midft
cf his enemies.” Even this expedient had no fuccefs;
Lis army was fo thoroughly tired with long inarches and
defperate battles, that they were determined to go no- Maeedon.
further, either for fair fpeeches or foul. Upon this v ,,**J
Alexander retired to his tent, where he refufed to fee
his friends, and put on the fame gloomy temper that
reigned among his troops. For three days things
remained in this fituation. At laft the king fuddenly
appeared; and, as if he had been fully determined to
purfue his firft defign, he gave orders for facrificing
for the good fuccefs of his new undertaking. Ari-
ftander the augur reported, that the omens, were al¬
together inaufpicious; upon which the king faid, that
fince his proceeding farther was neither pleafing to
the gods nor grateful to his army, he would return.
When this was rumoured among the army, they af- I0° *
fembled in great numbers about the royal tent, fain- fentsct°"' .
ting the king with loud acclamations, wiftiing him.tUrn.
fuccefs in all his future defigns,; giving him at the
fame time hearty thanks, for that “ he who was in¬
vincible had fuffered himfelf to be overcome by their
prayers.”
A flop being thus put to the conquefts of Alexan¬
der, he determined to make the Hyphafis the boun¬
dary of his dominions; and having erected twelve’
altars of an extraordinary magnitude, he facrificed:
on them: after which he exhibited fhows in. the -
Grecian manner; and, having added all the conquered
country in thefe parts to the dominions of Porus, he Ior
began to return. Having arrived at the Hydafpes, Sails down
he made the neceffary preparations for failing down the Indus,
the Indus into the ocean. For this purpofe, he or¬
dered vaft quantities of timber to be felled in the
neighbourhood of the Hydafpes, through which he
was to fail into the Indus; he caufed the veffels with
which he had paffed other rivers to be brought thi¬
ther, and affembled a vaft number of artificers capable
of repairing and equipping his fleet; which, when
finifhed, confifted of 80 veflels of three banks of oars,
and 2000 leffer fhips and tranfports. Thofe who were
to manage this fleet were collected out from the Phoe¬
nicians, Cyprians, Carians, and Egyptians following
his army, and who were reckoned perfectly well (killed
in the naval art. When all things were ready, the
army embarked about break of day ; the king," in the
mean time, facrificing to the gods according to the
ceremonies ufed in his own country, and likewife ac¬
cording to thofe of the country where he now was.
Then he himfelf went on board;, and caufing the fignal
to he given by found of trumpet, the fleet fet fail.
Craterus and Hephseftion had marched fome days be¬
fore with another diviflon of the army ; and in three
days the fleet reached that part of the river which was
oppofite to their camps. Here he had information^
that the Oxydracae and Malli were railing forces to
oppofe him : upon which he immediately determined
to reduce them; for, during this voyage, he made it
a rule to compel the inhabitants on both fides of the
river to yield him obedience. But before he arrived
on the coafts of the people above mentioned, he him¬
felf fuftained no fmall danger; for, coming to the
confluence of the Acefines with the Hydafpes, from
whence both rivers roll together into the Indus, the
eddies, whirlpools, and rapid currents, rulhing with
tremendous, nolle from the refpe&ive channels of thofe
rivers into the great one formed by them both, at
once terrified thofe who navigated his veffels, and ac¬
tually
MAC [ 381 ] MAC
Maced'-n tttally deflroyed many of the long veffels, with all who
were aboard of them ; the king himfelf being in fome
danger, and Nearchus the admiral not a 1’ttle at alofs.
As foon as this danger was over, Alexander went on
fhore ; and having ordered his elephants with fome
troops pf horfe and archers to be carried acrofs, and
put under the command of Craterus, he then divided
his army on the left-hand bank into three bodies; the
fh-ft commanded by himfelf, the fecond by Hyphas-
ftion,- and the third by Ptolemy. Hyphseftion had
orders to move filently through the heart of the coun¬
try, live days march before the king; that if, on'
Alexander's approach, any of the barbarians Ihould
attempt to Ihelter themfelves by retiring into the
country, they might fall into the hands of Hephte-
ftioh. ' Ptolemy Lagus was ordered to march three
days journey behind the king, that if any efcaped his
army, they might fall into Ptolemy’s hands ; and the
fleet had orders to flop at the confluence of this river
with the Hydraotes till fuch time as thefe feveral corps
fhould arrive.
ioi Alexander himfelf, at the head of a body of horfe
His cxpedi- an(i light armed foot, marched through a defart
th^Malh ^ countl7 againlt the Malli ; and, fcarce affording any
relt to his fqldiers, arrived in three days at a city into
which the barbarians had put their wives and children,
with a good garrifon for their defence. The country
people, having no notion that Alexander would march
through fuch a defert and barren region, were all un¬
armed, and in the utmoft confufion. Many of them
therefore were flain in the field; the reft fled into the
city, and Ihut the gates. But this only protrafted
their fate for a Ihort time ; for the king, having or¬
dered the city to be invefted by his cavalry, took it,
as well as the caftle, by ftorm, and put all he found
there to the fword. He fent at the fame time Per-
diccas with a confiderable detachment, to inveft ano¬
ther city of the ;Malli at a confiderable diftance ; but
when he came there, he found it abandoned. How¬
ever, he purfued the inhabitants who had but lately
left it, and killed great numbers of them on. the road.
After this the king took federal other cities, but not
without confiderable refiftance; for the Indians fome-
times chofe to burn themfeves in their houfes. rather
than furrender. At laft he marched to their capital
eity; and finding that abandoned, he proceeded to
the river Hydraotes, where he found 50,poo men
encamped on the oppofite bank, in order to difpute
his paffage. He did not hofitate, however, to enter
the river with a confiderable party of horfe : and fo
much were the Indians terrified at his prefence, that
their whole army retired before him. In a Ihort time
they returned and attacked him, being alhamed to fly
before fuch an inconfiderable number ; hut in. the
mean time the reft of the Macedonian forces came up,
and the Indians were-obliged to retire to a city which
lay behind them, and whieh Alexander invefted that
very night. The next day he ftormed the. city with
inch violence, that the inhabitants were compelled
to abandon it, and to retire to the caflde, where
they prepared for an obftinate defence. The king
inftantly gave orders for fealing the walls, and the
foldiers prepared to execute thefe orders as faft as
they could ; but the king being impatient caught hold
of a ladder and mounted it firft himfelf, being followed
by Leonatus, Peuceftas, and Abreas, the latter a man Macedon.
of great valour, and who on that account had double J
pay allowed him. The king having gained the top
of the battlements, cleared them quickly of the defen-
dants, killing fome of them with his fword, and pufh- rate valour
ing others over the walls : but after this was done, he and danger,
was in more danger than ever ; for the Indians galled
him with their arrows from the adjacent. towers,
though they durft not come near enough to engage
him. His own battalion of targeteers mounting in
hafte to fecond him, broke the ladders; which, as
foon as Alexander perceived, he threw himfelf down
into the caftle, as did alfo Peuceftas, Leonatus, and
Abreas. As foon as the king was on the ground, the
Indian general ruihed forward to attack him ; but
Alexander inftantly difpatched him, as well as feveral
others who followed him. Upon this the reft retired,
and contented themfelves with throwing darts and
■ ftones at him at a diftance. Abreas was ftruck into
the head with an arrow, and died on the fpot ; and,
fhortly after, another pierced through the king’s breaft-
plate into his body. As long as he had fpirits, he
defended himfelf valiantly ; but, through a vaft effufion
of Blood, loftng his fenfes, he' fell upon his Afield.
.Peuceftas then covered him with the facred Afield of
Pallas on one fide, as did Leonatus with his own
Afield on the other, though they themfelves were
dreadfully wounded. In the mean time, however, the ^ ^
foldiers on the outfide, eager to lave their king, fup- gcujj.y fa_
plied their want of ladders by driving large iron pins ved by hia
into the walls. By the help of thefe many of them men.
afeended, and came to the afliftance of Alexander and
his companions. The Indians were now flaughtered
without mercy ; but Alexander continued for fome
time in a very dangerous way : however, he at laft re¬
covered his ftrength, and Ihowed himfelf again to his
army, which filled them with the greateft joy.
v The Malli, being now convinced that nothing but'
fubmiffion could fave the remainder of them, fent de¬
puties to Alexander, offering the dominion of their
country; as did alfo the Oxydracas : and the king
having fettled every thing in thefe countries agreeable 105
to his mind,.proceeded on his voyage down the river He pro-
Indus. In this voyage he receive«1 the fubmilfion of ceeds in 1':9'
fome other; Indian princes; and perceiving, that, at ^o^n'tha
the point of the ifland Pattala, the river divided itfclf-lsdui.
into two vaft branches, he ordered an haven and con¬
venient docks to. be made there for his {hips; and
when he had careened his fleet, he failed dowm the
right-hand branch towards the ocean. In .his paffage
he fuftained great difficulties by;, reafon of hia want of
pilots, and at the mouth of the river very narrowly
miffed being caft aw*-/: yet all-this did not hinder-
him from purfuing his firft defign, though it does not-
appear that he had any other motive, thereto than the
vain defire of boafting that he had entered the ocean
beyond the Indus.: for, having confecrated certain
hulls to Neptune, and thrown them into the fea,
performed certain libations of golden cups, and
thrown, the cups alfo into the fea, he. came back
again ; . having only furveyed two little iflands, one
at the mouth of the Indus, and. one a little farther in
the ocean.
On the king’s return to Pattala, he refolved to fail
down the other branch of the Indus,, that, he might:
fee.-
■MAC r 382 J MAC
Maetdan, fee whether it was more fafe and commodious for his
fleet than that which he had already tried ; and for
this he had very good reafons. He had refolved to
fend Nearchus with his fleet by fea, through the
Perfian gulf up the river Tygns, to meet him and
his army, in Mefopotamia ; but as the poffibility of
this voyage depended .on the ceafing of the Etefian
winds,' there was a neceffity of laying up the fleet till
the feafon Ihould prove favourable. Alexander, there¬
fore, failing through this branch of the Indus, fought
•on the fea-coalt for bays and creeks, where his fleet
might anchor in fafety ; he caufed alfo pits to be
funk, which might be filled with frefh water for the
ufe of his people ; and took all imaginable precautions
for preferving them in eafe and fafety till the feafon
would allow them to continue their voyage. In this
he fucceeded to his wilh; for he found this branch of
the river Indus, at its mouth, fpread over the plain
country and forming a kind of lake, wherein a fleet
might ride with fafety. He therefore appointed Leo-
natus, and a part of his army, to carry on fuch works
as were neceffary ; caufing them to be relieved by
ShrsoftTor frefh troops as often as there was occafion : then ha-
Babyi'ou. vihg given his laft in {trillions to Nearchus, he de-
v parted with the reft of the army, in order to march
back to Babylon.
Before the king’s departure, many of his friends
advifed him againft the route which he intended to
take. They told him, that nothing could be more ra(h
or dangerous than this refolution. They acquainted
him, that the country through which he was to travel
was a wild uncultivated defart; that Semiramis, when
Ihe led her foldiers this, way out of India, brought
home but 20 of them ; and that Cyrus, attempting
to do the fame, returned with only feven. But all this
was fo far from deterring Alexander, that it more
than ever determined him to purfue no other road. As
foon, therefore, as he had put things in order, he
•marched at the head of a fufficient body of troops to
reduce the Oritae, who had never vouchfafed either to
make their fubmiflion or to court his friendlhip. Their
territories lay on the other fide of a river called s/ra-
bis, which Alexander crofted fo fpeedily, that they
had no intelligence of his march ; whereupon moft of
them quitted their country, and fled into the defarts.
Their capital he found fo well fituated, that he refol¬
ved to take it out of their hands, and to caufe a new
and noble city to be founded there, the care of which
he committed to Hephasftion. Then he received the
deputies of the Oritns and Gedrofi ; and having aflured
them, that if the people returned to their villages, they
Ihould be kindly treated, and having appointed Apol-
lophenes prefident of the Oritas, find left a confiderable
body of troops under Leonatus to fecure their obe-
107 dience, he began his march through Gedrofia. In this
His dan- ’ march his troops fuffered incredible hardlhips. The
gerous road was very uncertain and troublefome, on account
*T*arch. of its lying thro’ deep and loofe fands, rifing in many
Gedrofia. places into hillocks, which forced the foldiers to climb,
at the fame time that it funk under their feet; there
were no towns, villages, nor places of refrefhment, to
be met with ; fo that, after exceflive marches, they were
forced to encamp among thefe dry fands. As to pro-
vifions, they hardly met with any during their whole
march. The foldiers were therefore obliged to kill their
beafts of carnage : and fuch as were fent to bring fome Macedwt.
corn from the fea-fide, were fo grievoufly diftreffed,  »
that, though it was fealed with the king’s fignet, they
cut open the bags, choofing rather to die a violent death
for difobedience than perilh by hunger. When the
king, however, was informed of this, he freely par¬
doned the offenders; he was alfo forced to accept
the excufes that were daily made for the lofs of
mules, horfes, &c. which were in truth eaten by the
foldiers, and their carriages broken in pieces to avoid
further trouble. As for water, their want of it was
a great misfortune ; and yet their finding it in plenty
was fometimes a greater: for, as by the firft they
perifhed with thirft, fo by the latter they were burit,
thrown into dropfies, and rendered incapable of travel.
Frequently they met with no water for the whole day
together : fometimes they were difappointed of it at
night; in which cafe, if they were able, they march¬
ed on ; fo that it was common with them to travel 30,
40, 50, or even 60 miles without encamping. Num¬
bers through thefe hardlhips were obliged to lag in the
rear ; and of thefe many were left behind, and perilh-
ed ; for indeed fcarce any ever joined the army again.
Their miferies, however, they fuftained with incre¬
dible patience, being encouraged by the example of
their king ; who, on this occafion, fuffered greater
hardlhips than the meaneft foldier in his army. At laft 10$
they arrived at the capital of Gedrofia, where they re- He arrive#
frelhed themfelves, and ftaid fome time : after which, JIi Carama-
they marched into Caramania; which being a very plen¬
tiful country, they there made themfelves ample amends
for the hardlhips and fatigues they had fuftained. Here
they were joined firft by Craterus with the troops un¬
der his command, and a number of elephants; then
came Stafanor prefident of the Arians, and Pharif-
manes the fon of Phrataphernes governor of Parthia.
They brought with them camels, horfes, and other
beafts of burden, in vaft numbers; having forefeen,
that the king’s march thro’ Gedrofia would be attend¬
ed with the lofs of the greateft part, if not of all the
cavalry and beafts belonging to his army.
During Alexander’s ftay in Caramania, he redreffed 109
the injuries of his people, who had been grievoufly op-
preffed by their governors during his abfencei Here y^ces'of
alfo he was joined by his admiral Nearchus, who his people,
brought him an account that all under his command
were in perfect fafety, and in excellent condition;
with which the king was mightily pleafed, and, after
having beftowed on him fingular marks of his favour,
fent him back to the navy. Alexander next fet out for
Perfia, where great diforders had been committed during
his abfence. Thefe alfo he redreffed, and caufed the
governor to be crucified; appointing in his room Peu-
ceftas, who faved his life when he fought fingly againft
a whole garrifon as above related.1 The new governor
was no fooner inverted with his dignity, than he laid
afide the Macedonian garb, and put on that of the
Medes ; being the only one of Alexander’s captains,
who, by complying with the manners of the people he
governed, gained their affedtion.
While Alexander vifited the different parts of Per¬
fia, he took a view, among the reft, of the ruins of Per-
fepolis, where he is faid to have expreffed great fdr-
row for the deftruftion he had formerly occafioned.
From Perfepolis he marched to Sufa, where he gave
MAG [ 383 j MAC
W»cedon. an extraordinary loofe to pleafurc ; refolving to make
~ himfelf and his followers fome amends for the difficul¬
ties they had hitherto undergone; purpofmg at the
fame time fo effectually to unite his new conquered
with his hereditary fubjedts, that the jealoufies and
fears, which had hitherto tormented both, fhould no
^ ,T0 longer fnbfift. With this view he married two wives
other'two the blood royal of Perfia; viz. Barfine, or Statira,
wives. the daughter of Darius, and Paryfatis the daughter
of Ochus. Drypetis, another daughter of Darius, Ire
gave to Hephaeftion ; Amaftrine,. the daughter of Oxy-
artes- the brother of Darius, married Craterue; and
to the reft of his friends, to the number of. 80, he gave
other women of the greateft quality. All thefe mar¬
riages were celebrated at once, Alexander himfelf be-
ftowxng fortunes upon them; he diredled likewife to
take account of the number of his officers and foldiers
who had married Afiatic wives; and tho’ they appear¬
ed to be 10,000,- yet he gratified each of them accord-
in ing t° hi® rank. He next refolved to pay the debts of
Pays the his army;, and thereupon iffued an ediCt directing
r'ebts of hjs every man to regifter his name and the fum he ovyed;
arR1^‘ with which the foldiers complying flowly, from an ap-
prehenfion that there was fome defign againft them,
A lexander ordered tables heaped with money to be fet
in all quarters of the camp, and caufed every man’s
debts to be paid on his bare word, without even,
making any entry of his name ; though the whole fum
came to 20,000 talents. On fuch as had diftinguifhed
themfelves in an extraordinary manner, he bellowed
crowns of gold. Peuceftas had the firft ; Leonatus
the fecond; Nearchus the third; Oneficritus the
fourth ; Hephaeftion, the fifth ; and the reft of his
guards had each of them one. After this he made
other difpofitions for conciliating, as he fuppofed, the
differences among all his fubjcCls. He reviewed the
30,000 youths, whom at his departure for India he had
ordered to be taught Greek and the Macedonian dif-
cipline ; expreffing high fatisfaClion at the fine appear¬
ance they made, which rendered them worthy of the
appellation he bellowed on them, viz. that of Epigoni,
i. e. fucceflbrs. He promoted alfo, without any di-
ftinCtion of nation, all thofe who had ferved him faith-
dully and valiantly in the Indian war. When all thefe
■regulations were made, he gave the command of his
heavy armed troops to Hephaeftion, and ordered: him.
'to march direCtly to the banks of the Tigris, while in
the mean time a fleet was equipped for carrying tire
king and the troops he retained with him down to
•the ocean.
Thus ended the exploits of Alexander j the greateft
-conqueror that ever the world faw, at leal! with re-
fpeCl to the rapidity of his eonquefts. In 12 years
time he had brought under his fubjeClion Egypt,
Libya, Afia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, Paleftine, Ila-
•bylonia,. Perfia, with part of India and Tartary. Still,,
however, he meditated greater things. He had now
got a great tafte in maritime affairs; and is faid to
have meditated a voyage to the coafts of Arabia and
Ethiopia, and thence round the whole continent of
■Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar. J^ut of this there
is no great certainty;, though thathe intended to fub-
due the Carthaginians and Italians, is more than pro-
•bable. All thefe defigns, however, were fruftrated by
death,, which happened at Babylon in 323 B. C.
He is faid to have received feveral warnings of his ap- Mated)**
proaching fate, and to have been advifed to avoid that '/™~J
city; which advice he either defpifed or could not
follow. He died of a fever after eight clays ifinefs, He aies at
without naming any fucceffor ; having only given his Babylon,
ring to Perdiccas, and left the kingdom, as he faid,
to the mojl worthy.
The character of this great prince has been varioufly ^
reprefented ; but moft hiftorians feem to have looked ter>
upon him rather as an illuftrious madman than one
upon whom the epithet of Great could Ire properly be*
ftowed. From a careful ©bfervation of his condudl,
however, it mu ft appear, that he pofleff’ed not only a
capacity to plan, but likewife to execute, the greatelt
enterprifes that ever entered into the mind of any of
the human race. From whatever caufe the notion^
originated, it is plain that he imagined himfelf a divine
perfon, and born to fubdue the whole world: and ex¬
travagant and impra&icable as this fcheme may appear
at prefent, it cannot at all be looked upon in the fame
light in the time of Alexander.. The Greeks were in
liis time the moft powerful people* in the world in re-
fpedl to their fkill in the military art, and the Perfians
were the moft powerful with refpeft to wealth and
numbers. The only other powerful people in the
world were the Carthaginians, Gauls, and Italian na¬
tions. From a long feries of wars which the Cartha¬
ginians carried on- in Sicily, it appeared that they
were by no means capable of contending with the
Greeks even when they had an immenfe fuperiority of
numbers ; much lefs then, could they have fuftained an
attack from the whole power of Greece and Afia
united. The Gauls and Italians were indeed very
brave, and of a martial difpofition; but they were
barbarous, and could not have refifted armies well dif-
ciplined and under the command of fuch a fkilful
leader as Alexander. Even long after his time, it ap¬
peared that the Romans themfelves- could not have
refifted the Greeks; fince Regulus, after having de¬
feated the Cathaginians and reduced them to the ut-
moft diltrefs, was totally unable to refill a Carthagi¬
nian army commanded by a Greek general, and guided:
by Greek difcipline.
Thus it appears, that the feheme of Alexander can¬
not by any. means be accounted that of a madman, or
of one who projects great things without judgment or
means to execute them. If we confider from his ac¬
tions the end which moft probably he had in view,
could'his fcheme have been accomplilhed, we lhall find
it not only the greateft hut the ie/i that can polfibly
be imagined He did not conquer to deftroy, enflave,
or opprefs; but to civilize, and unite the whole world
as one nation. No fooner was a-province conquered
than he took care of it as if it had been part of his
paternal inheritance. He allowed not his foldiers to
opprefs and plunder the Perfians, which they were
very much inclined to do; on the contrary, by giving
into the oriental cuftoms himfelf, he ftrove to extinguifti
that inveterate hatred which had fo long fubfifted be¬
tween the two nations. In the Scythian countries
which he fubdued, he purfued the fame excellent plan.
His courage and military fkill, in which he never was
excelled, were difplayed, not with a view to rapine or
defultory conqueft, but to civilize and induce the bar*
barous inhabitants to employ themfelves in a more pro--
MAC [ 384 ] MAC
Macedon, per way of life. “ Am id (l the hardfliips of a military
—v 1 life (fays Dr Gillies), obftinate lieges, bloody battles,
and dear bought viidories, he {till refpefted the rights
of mankind, and pradifed the mild virtues of huma¬
nity. The conquered nations enjoyed their ancient
laws and privileges; the rigours of defpotifm foftened;
arts and induftry encouraged; and the proudeft Ma¬
cedonian governors compelled, by the authority and
example of Alexander, to obferve the rules of juftice
towards their meaneft fubje&s. To bridle the fierce
inhabitants of the Scythian plains, he founded cities
and eftablilhed colonies on the banks of the laxartes
and Oxus; and thofe deftru&ive campaigns ufually
afcribed to his reftlefs adivity and blind ambition,
appeared to the difcernment of this extraordinary man
not only eflefitial to the fecurity of the conquefts
which he had already made, but neceflary for the
more remote and fplendid expeditions which he ftill
purpofed to undertake, and which he performed with
fingular boldnefs and unexampled fuccefs.”—In an¬
other place-the fame author gives his charader in the
following words.
“ He was of a low ftature, and fomewhat deform¬
ed ; but the adivity and elevation of his mind ani¬
mated and ennobled his frame. By a life of continual
labour, and by an early and'habitual pradice of the
gymnaftic exercifes, he had hardened his body againft
the impreffions of cold and heat, hunger and thirft,
and prepared his robull conllitution for bearing fuch
exertions of ftrength and adivity, as have appeared
incredible to the undifciplined foftnefs of modern times.
In generofity and in prowefs, he rivalled the greateft
heroes of antiquity 4 and in the race of glory, having
finally outftripped all competitors, became ambitious
to furpafs himfelf. His fupe'rior {kill in war gave un¬
interrupted fuccefs to his arms ; and his natural hu¬
manity, enlightened by the philofophy of Greece,
taught him to improve his conquells to the bed inte-
relts of mankind. In his extenfive dominions, he built
or founded not lefs than 70 cities ; the lituation of
which being chofen with confummate wifdom, tended
to facilitate communication, to promote commerce,
and to diffufe civility through the greateft nations of
the earth. It may be fufpeded, indeed, that.he mif-
took the extent of human power, when in the courfe
of one reign he undertook to change the face of the
world ; and that he mifcalculated the ftubbornnefs of
ignorance and the force of habit, when he attempted
to enlighten barbarifm, to foften fervitude, and to
tranfplant the improvements of Greece into an Afri¬
can and Afiatic foil, where they have never been
known to flourilh. Yet let not the defigns of Alex¬
ander be too haftily accufcd of extravagance. Who¬
ever ferioufly confiders what he actually performed be¬
fore his 33d year, \\ ill be cautious of determining what
he might have accompliftied had he reached. the ordi¬
nary term of human life. His refources were peculiar
to himfelf; and fuch views as well as aftions became
him as would have become none befides. In the lan¬
guage of a philofophical hiftorian, ‘ he feems to have
been given to the world by a peculiar difpenfation of
Providence, being a man like to none other of the
human kind.’
“ From the part which his father Philip and himfelf
afted in the affairs of Greece, his hiftory has been
19c.
tranfmitted through the impure channels of cxagge- Macedoa,
rated flattery or malignant envy. The innumerable v
fictions, which difgrace the works of Vis biographers,
arc contradicted by the moft authentic accounts of his
reign, and inconfiftent with thofe public tranfaCtions
which concurring auhorities confirm. In the prefent
work it feemed unneceffary to expatiate on fuch to¬
pics, fince it is lefs the bufinefs of hiftory to repeat or
even to eXpofe e rors than-to feleft and imprefs ufeful
-truths. An author, ambitious of attaining that pur-
pofe, can feldom indulge the language of general pa¬
negyric. He will acknowledge, that Alexander’s ac¬
tions were not always blamelefs; but, after the moft
careful examination, he will affirm, that his faults were
few in number, and refulted from his fituation rather
than from his character.
“From the firft years of his reign he experienced the
crimes of difaffection and treachery, which multiplied
and became more dangerous with the extent of his
dominions and the difficulty to govern them. Several
of his lieutenants early afpired at independence; others
formed confpiracies againfl: the life of their mafter.
The firft criminals were treated with a lenity beco¬
ming the generous fpirit of Alexander : But when
Philotas, the fon of Parmenio, and even Parmenio
himfelf, afforded reafon to fufpedt their fidelity ; when
the Macedonian youths, who, according to the infti-
tution of Philip, guarded the royal pavilion, prepared
to murder their fovereign, he found it neceffary to de¬
part from his lenient fyftem, and to hold with a firmer
hand the reins of government. Elated by unexampled
profperity, and the fubmiffive reverence of vanquilhed
nations, his loftinefs difgufted the pride of his Euro¬
pean troops, particularly the Macedonian nobles, who
had been accuftomed to regard themfelves rather as his
companions than fubjefts. The pretenfions which
found policy, taught him to form and to maintain, of
being treated with thofe external honours ever claim¬
ed by the monarch s of the Eaft, highly offended the
religious prejudices of the Greeks, who. deemed it im¬
pious to prottrate the body or bend the knee to any
mortal fovereign. Yet had he remitted formalities
confecrated by the practice of ages, he muft infenfibly
have loft the refpeft of his Afiatic fubjefts. With a
view to reconcile the difcordant principles of the vic¬
tors and vanquiftied, he affected an immediate defcent
from Jupiter Ammon, a claim liberally admitted by
the avarice or fears of the Libyan priefts; and which,
he had reafon to expert, could not be very obftinately
denied by the credulity of the Greeks and Macedo¬
nians, who univerfally acknowledged that Philip, his
reputed father, was remotely defcended from the Gre¬
cian Jupiter. But the fuccefs of this defign, which
might have intitled him, as fon of Jupiter, to the fame
obeifance from the Greeks which the barbarians rea¬
dily paid him as monarch of the Eaft, was counter-
.afted, at firft by the fecret difpleafurc, and afterwards
by the open indignation, of feveral of his generals and
courtiers*. Nor did the conduct of Alexander tend to
extricate him from this difficulty. With his friends
he maintained that equal intercourfe of vifits and en¬
tertainments which chaiafteriled the Macedonian man¬
ners ; indulged the liberal flow of unguarded conver-
fation ; and often exceeded that intemperance in wine
which difgiaced his age and country.”
MAC [ 38c ] M A C
Mace.tert. We (hall conclude this character of Alexander with
1.,—y—— ■ Ql,fei ving, that he had in view, and undoubtedly muft
have accomplifhed, the fovereignty of the ocean as well
as of the land. The violent refiftance made by the
Tyrians had Ihown him the ftrength of a commercial
nation; and it wras undoubtedly with a view to en¬
rich his dominions by commerce, that he equipped the
fleet on the Indus, and wifhed to keep up a communi¬
cation with India by land as well as by fea. “ It was
chiefly with a view to the latter of thefe objefts (fays
Dr Robertfon), that he examined the navigation of
the Indus with fo much attention. With the fame
view, on his return to Sufa, he in perfon furveyed the
courfe of the -Euphrates and Tigris, and gave direc¬
tions to remove the catarafts or dams with which the
ancient monarchs of Perfia, induced by a peculiar pre¬
cept of their religion, which enjoined them to guard
with the utmofl care againft defiling any of the ele¬
ments, had conftrufted near the mouths of thefe rivsrs,
in order to Ihut out their fubjefts from any accefs to
the ocean. By opening the navigation in this man¬
ner, he propofed, that the valuable commodities of
India fliould be conveyed from 'the Perfian Gulf into
the interior parts of bis Afiatic dominions, while by
the Arabian Gulf they fliould be carried to Alexan¬
dria, and diftributed to the reft of the world.
“ Grand and extenfive as thefe fchemes were, the
precautions employed, and the arrangements -made for
carrying them into execution, were fo various and fo
proper, that Alexander had good reafon to enter¬
tain fanguine hopes of their proving fuecefsful. At
the time when the mutinous fpirit of his foldiers obli¬
ged him to relinquilh his operations in India, he was
not 30 years of age complete. At this enterprifmg
period of life, a prince of a fpirit fo aftive, perfeve-
ring, and indefatigable, muft have foon found means
to refume a favourite meafure on which he had been
long intent. If he had invaded India a fecond time,
he would not, as formerly, have been obliged to force
his way through hoftile and unexplored regions, op-
pofed at every ftep by nations and tribes of barbarians
whofe names had never reached Greece. All Afia,
from the fhores of the Ionian fea to the banks of the
Hyphafis, would then have been fubjeft to his domi¬
nion ; and through that immenfe ftretch of country he
had eftabliflied fuch a chain of cities or fortified fta-
tions, that his armies might have continued their march
with fafety, and have found a regular fucceflion of ma¬
gazines provided for their fubfiftence. Nor would it
have been difficult for him to bring into the field forces
fufficient to have atchieved the conqueft of a countiy
fo populous and «sxtenfive as India. Having armed
and difeiplined his fubjefts in the Eaft like Euiopeans,
they would have been ambitious to imitate and to equal
their inftrudtors; and Alexander might have drawn
recruits, not from his fcanty domains in Macedonia
and Greece, but from the vaft regions of Afia, which
in every age has covered the earth, and aftonilhed man¬
kind with its numerous armies. When at the head
of fuch a formidable power he had reached the con¬
fines of India, he might have entered it under circum-
ilances very different from thofe in his firft expedition.
He had fecured a firm footing there, partly by means
<sf the garrifons which he left in the three cities which
he had built and fortified, and partly by his alliance
Vol. X. Part I.
with Taxiles and Porus. Thefe two Indian prince*,
won by Alexander’s humanity and beneficence, which,
as they were virtues feldom difplayed in the ancient
mode of carrying on war, excited of courfe an higher
degree of admiration and gratitude, had continued
fteady in their attachment to the Macedonians. Re¬
inforced by their troops, and guided by their infor¬
mation as well as by the experience which he had ac¬
quired in his former campaigns, Alexander muft have
made rapid progrefs in a country where every in¬
vader from his time to the prefent age has proved fuc-
cefsful.
“ But this and all his other fplendid fchemes were
terminated at once by his untimely death. In con-
fequence of that, however, events took place which
illuftrate and confirm the juftnefs of the preceding' fpe-
culations and conjedtures by evidence the moft ftriking
and fatisfa&ory. When that great empire, which the
fuperior genius of Alexander had kept united and in
fubjedtion,, no longer felt his fuperintending control,
it broke into pieces, and its various provinces were
feized by his principal officers, and parcelled out among
them. From ambition, emulation, and perfonal ani-
mofity, they foon turned their arms againft one an¬
other ; and as feveral of the leaders were equally emi¬
nent for political abilities and for military Ikill, the
conteft was maintained long, and carried on with fre¬
quent viciffitudes of fortune. Amidft the various con-
vulfions and revolutions which thefe occafioned, it
was found that the meafures of Alexander for the pre-
fervation of his conquefts had been concerted with fuch
fagacity, that upon the final leftoration of tranquillity,
the Macedonian dominion continued to be eftablilhed
in every part of Afia, and not one province had fha-
ken off the yoke. Even India, the moft; remote of
Alexander’s conquefts, quietly fubmitted to Pytho the
fon of Agenor, and afterwards to Seleucus, who fuc-
ceffively obtained dominion over that part of Afia.
Porus and Taxiles, notwithftanding the death of their
benefactor, neither declined fubmiffion to the autho¬
rity of the Macedonians nor made any attempt to re¬
cover independence.”
With the death of Alexander fell alfo the glory of
the Macedonians ; who very foon relapfed into a fitu-
ation as bad, or worfe, than that in which they had
been before the reign of Philip. This was occafioned Ctuflsat
principally by his not having diftinCtly named a fuc-the diffclu-
ceflbr, and having no child of his own come to the tinn o^'#
years of diferetion to whom the kingdom might feem emPire*
naturally to belong. The ambition and jealoufy of
his mother Olympias, his queen Roxana, and efpeei-
ally of the great commanders of his army, not only
prevented a fucceffor from being ever named, but oc¬
cafioned the death of every perfon, whether male or •
female, who was in the leaft related to Alexander,'
To have a juft notion of the origin of thefe difturb-
ances, it is neceffary in the firft place to underftand
the fituation of the Macedonian affairs at the time of
Alexander’s death.
When Alexander fet out for Afia, he left Antipater,
as we formerly obferved, in Macedon, to prevent any
difturbances that might arife either there or in Greece,
The Greeks, even during the lifetime of Alexander,
bore the fuperiority which he exercifed over them with
great impatience ; and, though nothing could be more
3 C gentle
Aridxtis
appointed
king.
J'l6
A party
formed
By Melea¬
ger, and
another_by
Perdiccas.
MAC f 386 1 MAC
■ gentle than the government of Antipater, yet he was not affift the royal family who were in Afia ; and Eu- Maeeden.
^ exceedingly hated, hecaufe he obliged them to be menes had not as yet fufficient intereft to form a party 1 -v—
quiet. One of the laft aftions of Alexander’s life fet in their favour. In a Ihort time, however, Perdiccas vy f17
all Greece in aflame. He had, by an edict, dire&ed prevailed againft Meleager, and got him murdered Murdered
all the cities of Greece to recal their exiles ; which by which means the fupreme power for a time fell in-and theem-
edift, when it was publilhed at the Olympic games, to his hands. His firil ftep, in confequence of thisPire di*
ereated much confulion. Many of the cities were power, was to diftribute the provinces of the empire
afraid, that, when the exiles returned, they would among the commanders in the following manner, in
change the government; mofl: of them doubted their order to prevent competitors, and to fatisfy the ambi-
own iafe.ty if-the edift took place; and all of them tion of the principal commanders of the army. Ari-
beld this peremptory decree to be a total abolition of dseus, and the fon of Roxana, born after the death of
their liberty. No fooner therefore did the news of his father, were to enjoy the regal authority. Anti-
Alexander’s death arrive than they prepared for pater had the government of the European provinces,
war. Craterus had the title of protestor. Perdiccas was ge-
In Afia the Hate of things was not much better; neral of the houfehold troops in the room of Hephse-
not indeed through any inclination of the conquered ftion. Ptolemy the fon of Lagus had Egypt, Libya,
countries to revolt, but through the diffenfions among and that part of Arabia which borders upon Egypt,
the commanders.—In the general council which was Cleomenes, a man of infamous chara&er, whom Alex-
called foon after the death of Alexander, after much ander had made receiver-general in Egypt, was made
confuiion -and altercation, it was at lail agreed, or Ptolemy’s deputy. Leomedon had Syria; Philotas,
rather commanded by the foldiers, that Axidasus the Cilicia; Pithon, Media; Eumenes, Cappadocia, Pa-
brother of Alexander, who had always accompanied phlagonia, and all the country bordering on the Euxine
the king, and had been wont to facriflce with him. Sea, as far as Trapezus; but thefe were not yet con-
fhould affume the fovereignty.—This Aridaeus was a quered, fo that he was a governor without a province,
man of very flender parts and judgment, not naturally, Antigonus had Pamphylia, Lycia, and Phrygia Ma-
but by the wicked pra&ices of Olympias, who had jor; Callander, Caria ; Menander, Lydia; Leonatus,
given him poifonous draughts in his infancy, left he Phrygia on the Hellefpont.
fhould Hand in the way of her fon Alexander or any In the mean time, not only AlexandeiJs will, butAlexan-
of his family ; and for this, or fome other reafon, Pei- Alexander himfelf, was fo' much negle&ed, that hisder’s body
diccas, Ptolemy, and moft of the horfe-officers, refent- body was allowed to remain feven days before any neSlc<r';e;d,
ed his promotion to tuch a degi-ee, that they quitted notice was taken of it, or any orders given for its
the affembly, and even the city. However, Meleager, ing enbalmed. The only will he left was a Ihort
at the head of the phalanx, vigoroufly fupported their memorandum of fix things he would have done.  
firft refolution, and threatened loudly to fixed the blood 1. The building of a fleet of 1000 ftout galleys, to be
of thofe who affected to rule over their equals, and to made ufe of againft the Carthaginians and otlxer na-
affume a kingdom which no way belonged to them, tions who ftiould oppofe the reduction of the fea-
Aridneus was accordingly arrayed in royal robes, had coafts of Africa and Spain, with all the adjacent
the arms of Alexander put upon him, and was faluted illands as far as Sicily. 2. A large and regular high-
by the name of Philip, to render him more popular, way was to be made along the coaft of Africa, as far
Thus were two pax-ties formed, at the head of whom as Ceuta and Tangier. 3. Six temples of extraordf-
were Meleager and Perdiccas; both of them pretend- nary magnificence were to be creeled at the expence
ing vaft concern for the public good, yet, at bottom, of 1500 talents each. 4. Caftles, arfenals, havens,
defiring nothing more than their own advantage, and yards for building flxips, to.be fettled in proper
P^rdiceas was a man of high birth, had had a fupreme places throughout his empire. 5. Several new cities
command in the army, was much in favour with Alex- were to be built in Em-ope and Afia ; thofe in Afia
ander,- a id one in Whom the nobility had put great to be inhabited by colonies from Europe, and thofe in
confidence. Meleager was become formidable by ha- Europe to be filled with Aliatics ; that, by blending
ving the phalanx on his fxde, and having the nominal their people and their manners, that hereditary anti-
king entirely in his power : for Aridssus, or Philip, pathy might be eradicated which had hitherto fubfift-
was obliged to comply with whatever he thought pro- ed between the inhabitants of the different continents,
per; and publicly declared, that whatever he did-was 6. Laftly, he had proje&ed the building of a pyra-
hy the advice of Meleager; fo that he made his mini- mid, equal in bulk and beauty to the biggeft in E-
fter accountable for his own fchemes, and no way en- gypt, in honour of his father Philip. All thefe de-
dangered kimfelf. The Macedonians xtlfo, befides figns, under pretence of their being expenfive, were
their regard for the deceafed king, foon began to en- referred to a council of Macedonians^ to be held no-
textain a perfonal love for Philip on account of his body knew when or where.
moderation. The government, being now in the hands- of Perm¬
it isremarkable, however, that notwkhftaixding all diccas and Roxana,, grew quickly very cruel and dif-
the favours which Alexander had conferred upon his taftefuL Alexander was fcaree dead when the queen
officers, and the fidelity with which they had ferved fent for Statira and Drypetis, the two daughters ofrhedaugh-
him during his life, only two of them were attached to; Darius, one of whom had been married to Alexander ters of Da-
the interefts of his family after his death. Thefe were and the other to Hephseftion ; but as foon. as they
Aixtipater and Eumenes the Cardian, whom he had arrived, at Babylon, caufed them both-to be murdered, Roxaiu.
appointed his fecretary. Antipater, as we have al- that no fon of Alexander by any other woman, or of
ready ftfcn, was embroiled with the Greeks, and could Hepha;ftion, might give any, trouble to her or her fon
i Alexander,
MAC [ 387 ] MAC
Macedon. Alexander. Syflgambis, the mother of Darius, no
*■“—fooner heard that Alexander the Great was dead, than
ihe laid violent hands on herfelf, being apprehenlive
no of the calamities which were about to enfue.
The Greeks War was firft declared in Greece againft Antipater
Ire°fub.bUt /n t^ie ye^r 321 C. Through the treachery of
dued * tf16 Theffalians, that general was defeated, with the
army he had under his own command. Leonatus
was therefore fent from Afia, with a very confiderable
army, to his afliftance ; but both were overthrown
with great lofs by the confederates, and Leonatus him-
felf was killed. In a ihort time, however, Craterus
arrived in Greece with a great army, the command of
which he refigned to Antipater. The army of the
co*federates amounted to 25,000 foot and 3000
horfe; but Antipater commanded no fewer than
40,000 foot, 3000 archers, and 5000 horfe. In fuch
an unequal conteft, therefore, the Greeks were de¬
feated, and forced to fue for peace; which they did
not obtain but on condition of their receiving Macedo¬
nian garrifons into feveral of their cities. At Athens
alfo the democratic government was abrogated; and
fuch a dreadful punifliment did this feem to the Athe¬
nians, that 22,000 of them left their country, and re-
_ 141 tired into Macedon.
Cesln Afia While thefe things were doing in Greece, dillurb-
»ndThrace ances began alfo to arife in Afia and in Thrace. The
Greek mercenaries, who were difperfed through the
inland provinces of Afia, defpairing of ever being al¬
lowed to return home by fair,means, determined to
attempt it by force. For this purpofe, they aflembled
to the number of 20,000 foot and 3000 horfe ; but
were all cut off to a man by the Macedonians. In
Thrace, Lyfimachus was attacked by one Seuthes, a
prince of that country who claimed the dominions of
his anceftors, and had raifed an army of 20,000 foot
and 8000 horfe. But though the Macedonian com¬
mander was forced to engage this army with no more
than 4000 foot and 2000 horfe, yet he kept the field
of battle, and could not be driven out of the country.
Perdiccas, in the mean time, by pretending friendlhip
na to the royal family, had gained over Eumenes entirely
Ambition to his intereft*; and at lall put him in pofleffion of the
t” ofCper Prov^nce Cappadocia by the defeat of Ariarathes
diccas. r king of that country, whom he afterwards cruelly
caufed to be crucified. His ambition, however, now
began to lead him into difficulties. At the firft divi-
fion of the provinces, Perdiccas, to ftrengthen his own
authority, had propofed to marry Nicsea the daughter
of Antipater ; and fo well was this propofal relilhed,
that her brethren Jollas and Archias conduced her
to him, in order to be prefent at the celebration,
of the nuptials. But Perdiccas now had other things
in view. He had been folicited by Olympias to marry
her daughter Cleopatra, the widow of Alexander king
of Epirus, and who then refided at Sardis in Lydia.
Eumenes promoted this match to the utmoft of his
power, becaufe he thought it would be for the in-
tereft of the royal family ; and his perfuafions had
■fuch an effedt on Perdiccas, that he was fent to Sardis
to compliment Cleopatra, and to carry prefents to her
in name of her new lover. In the abfence of Eu-
menes, however, Alcetas, the brother of Perdiccas,
perfuaded him to marry Nioasa; but, in order to
gratify his ambition, he refolved to divorce her imme¬
diately after marriage, and marry Cleopatra. By this Macedon.
laft marriage, he hoped to have a pretence for altering
the government of Macedon ; and, as a neceffary mea-
fure preparative to thefe, he entered into contrivances
for deftroying Antigonus. Unfortanately for him-
felf, however, he riiined all his fehemes by his own
jealoufy and precipitate cruelty. Cynane, the daughter •
of Philip by his fecond wife, had brought her daughter
named Jidda, and who was afterwards named Eurydice,
to court, in hopes that king Aridacus might marry
her. Againft Cynane, Perdiccas, on fome political
motives, conceived fuch a grudge, that he caufed her
to be murdered. This raifed a comrhotion in the
army; which frightened Perdiccas to fuch a degree,
that he now promoted the match between Aridaeus
and Eurydice ; to prevent which, he had murdered
the mother of the young princefs. But, in the mean
time, Antigonus, knowing the defigns of Perdiccas
againft himfelf, fled with his fon Demetrius to Greece,
there to take ffielter under the proteftion of Antipater
and Craterus, whom he informed of the ambition and
cruelty of the regent. I21,
A civil war was now kindled. Antipater, Craterus, A combi-
Neoptolemus, and Antigonus, were combined againft nation a-
Perdiccas; and it was the misfortune of the empire Jn gainft him*
general, that Eumenes, the moft able general, as
well as the moft virtuous of all the commanders, was
on the fide of Perdiccas, becaufe he believed him to
be in the intereft of Alexander’s family. Ptolemy, in
the mean time, remained in quiet pofleffion of Egypt j
but without the leaft intention of owning any perfon
for his fuperior: however, he alfo acceded to the
league formed againft Perdiccas; and thus the only
perfon in the whole empire who confulted the intereft
of the royal family was Eumertes. 144
It was now thought proper to bury the body of A*fc.xan^et
Alexander, which had been kept for two years, during gUr'p^ *n
all which time preparations had been making for it. ’
Aridasus, to whofe care it was committed, fet out
from Babylon for Damafcus, in order to carry the
king’s body to Egypt. This was fore againft the
will of Peydiccas ; for it feems there was a fuperfti-
tious report, that wherever the body of Alexander
was laid, that country fliould flourilh moft. Perdiccas,
therefore, out of regard to his native foil, would have
it conveyed to the royal fepulchres in Macedon ; but
Aridasus, pleading the late king’s exprefs direftion,
was determined to carry it into Egypt, from thenoe
to be conveyed to the temple of Jupiter Ammon.
—The funeral was accordingly conduced with all
imaginable magnificence. Ptolemy came to meet
the body as far as Syria: but, inftead of burying
it in the temple of jtjpiter Ammon, ere&ed a (lately
temple for it in the city of Alexandria ; and, by
the refpedt he fliowed for his dead mailer, induced
many of the Macedonian veterans to join him, and
who were afterwards of the greateft fervice to him. I2j
No fooner was the, funeral over, than both thePerdicca«
parties above mentioned fell to blows. Perdiccas
marched againft Ptolemy ; but was (lain by his own ^ °Wa
men, who, after the death of their general, fubmitted
to his antagonift; and thus Eumenes was- left alone to
contend againft all the other generals who had ferved
under Alexander. In this conteft, however, he would
by no means have been overmatched, had his foldiers
3 C 2 been
MAC [38s] MAC
Maeedoh. been attached to _ him; but as they had been ac- and applied for affiftanee to Caflander.
11 euftomed to ierve under thofe veiy generals againit
whom they were now to fight, they were on all occa-
fions ready to betray and defert Eumenes. However,
he defeated and killed Neoptolemus and Craterus,
but then found himfelf obliged to®contend with Anti¬
pater and Antigonus. Antipater was now appointed
prote&or of the kings, with fovereign power ; and
116 Eumenes was declared a public enemy. A new divifiqp
.a now di- of Alexander’s empire took place. Egypt, Libya,
vjiori of and the parts adjacent, were given to Ptolemy becaufe
e empu e they could not be taken from him. Syria was con¬
firmed to Ledmedon. Philoxenus had Cilicia. Me-
fopotamia and Arbelitis were given to Amphimachus.
Babylon was bellowed,on Seleucus. Sufiana fell to
Antigenes, who commanded the Macedonian Slrgyi
,. Polyfperchon Mactdkw*.
alfo had the imprudence to recal Olympias from Epi* '—v—*.
rus, and allow her a lhare in the adminillration ; which
Antipater, and even 'Alexander himfelf, had always
refufed her. The confequence of all this was, that
Caffander invaded Greece, where he prevailed againft
Polyfperchon : Olympias returned to Macedon, where
fhe cruelly murdered Aridaeus and his wife Eurydice }
file herfelf was put to death by Caflander, who aftex--
wardscaufed Roxana and her fon to be murdered, and
Polyfperchon being driven into Etolia, firft raifed to
the crown Hercules the fon of Alexander by the
daughter of Darius, and then by the inftigation of Caf*
fander murdered him, by which means the line of Alex¬
ander the Great became totally extinft.
Caflander having thus dellroyed all the royal family, Various r<
fpid# or Silver Shields, becaufe he was the firfl who aflumed the regal title, as he had for 16 years before ?ro,“tion*
oppofed Perdiccas. Peuceftas held Perfia. Tlepole-
mus had Caramania. Pithon had Media as far as the
Cafpian ftraits. Stafander had Aria and Drangia.
Philip, Parthia. Stafonor, Baftria and Sogdia. Sy-
birtius, Aracopa. Oxyartes, the father of Roxana,
Parapomifis. Another Pithon had the country be¬
tween this province and India. Porus and Taxfles
held what Alexander had given them, becaufe they
would not part with any of their dominions. Cappa¬
docia was affigned to Nicanor. Phrygia Major, Ly-
caonia, Pamphylia, and Lycia, were given to Antigo¬
nus. Caria to Caflander, Lydia to Clytus, Phrygia the
had all the power. He enjoyed the title of king
Macedon only three years ; after which he died, about
298 B. C. By Theflalonica, the daughter of Philip
king of Macedon, he left three fons, Philip, Antipa¬
ter, and Alexander. Philip fuccecded him, but foon
after died of a confumption. ^ A conteft immediately
began between the two brothers, Antipater and Alex¬
ander. Antipater feized the kingdom; and to fe-
cure himfelf in it, murdered his mother Theflalo-
nica, if not with his own hand, at leafi the execrable
fail was committed in his pretence. Alexander in¬
vited Pyx-rhus king of Epirus, and Demetrius the fon
Lefs to Aridsus. Caflander was appointed general of of Antigonus, to aflill him and revenge the death of
the horfe ; while the command of the houfehold troops
was given to Antigonus, with orders to profecute the
war againft Eumenes Antipater having thus fettled
every thing as well as he could, returned to Macedon
with the two kings, to the great joy of his country¬
men, having left his fon Caflander to be a check upon
Antigonus in Afia.
Matters now feemed to wear a better afpedt than
they had yet done ; and, had Eumenes believed that
ixis enemies really confulted the intereft of Alexander’s
family, there is not the leaft doubt that the war
would have been immediately terminated. He faw,
howevex*, that the defign of Antigonus was only to
fi-t up for himfelf, and therefore he refufed to fubmit.
From this time, therefore, the Macedonian empire
ceafed in Afia j and an account of the franfadlions of
this part of the world fall to be recorded under the
* article Syria. The Macedonian affairs are now en¬
tirely confined to the kingdom of Macedon itfelf, and
to Greece.
Total Ac- Antipater had not long been returned to Macedon,
ftrudhon of when he died ; and the lafl aftion of his life completed
tterVfa- t^ie ru‘n Alexander’s family. Out of a view to the
mily. public good, he had appointed Polyfperchon, the eldeft
©f Alexander’s captains at hand, to be proteftor and
governor of Macedon. This failed not to-difguft his
fon Caflander; who thought he had a natural right to
thefe offices, and of courfe kindled a new civil war in
Macedon. This was indeed highly promoted by his
firft aftions as a governor. He began with attempt-
his mother. But Pyrrhus being bought off, and a
peace concluded between the brothers, Alexander, be¬
ing afraid of having too many protectors, formed a
fcheme of getting Demetrius affaffinated. Inftead of
this, however, both he and Antipater were put to death j
and Demetrius became king of Macedun four years
after the death of Caffander.
In 287 B. C. Demetrius was dx-iven out by Pyrrhus,
who was again driven out by Lyfimaehus two years
after, who was foon after killed by Seleucus Nicator;
and Seleucus, in his turn, was murdered by Ptolemy Ce-
ranus, who became king of Macedon about 280 B. C.
The new king was in a fhort time cut off, with his
whole army, by the Gauls; and Antigonus Gonatus,
the fon of Demetrius Poliorcetes, became king of Ma¬
cedon in 278 B. C. He proved fuecefsful againft the
Gauls, but was driven out by Pyn-hus king of Epirus;
who, however, foon difobliged his fubjeCts to filch a
degree, that Antigonus recovered a great part of his
kingdom. But in a little time, Pyrrhus being killed
at the fiege of Argos in Greece, A ntigonus was refto-
red to the whole of Macedon ; but fcarcely was he
feated on the throne, when he was driven from it by
Alexander the fon of Pyx-rhus. This new invader was,,
in his turn, expelled by Demetrius the fon of Antigo¬
nus ; who, though at that time but a boy, had almofl
made himfelf mailer of Epirus. In this enterprife,
however, he was dtfappointed ; but by his means An¬
tigonus was reftored to his kingdom, which he govern-
a   ^ ed for many years in peace. By a ftratagem he made
ing to remove all the governors appointed in Greece himfelf matter of the city of Corinth, and from that
by Antipater, -and to reftore democracy wherever it
had been abolifhed. The immediate confequence of
this was, that the people refufed to obey their magi-
ftrates; the governors refufed to refign their places.
time began to form fchemes for the thorough conqueft
of Greece. The method he toiok to accomplifh this
was, to fupport the petty tyrants of Greece againft
the free ftates: which indeed weakened the power of
c the
MAC [ 389 ] MAC
Macecton. the latter; but involved the whole country in fomany
~v  ealam ties, that thefe tranfa&ibns could not redound
much to the reputation either of his arms or his ho*
nour. About 243 B. C. he died, leaving the king-
I2p dom to his fon, Demetrius II.
War with Neither Demetrius, nor his fuccdTor A ntigonus Do-
the Ro- fon, performed any thing remarkable. In 221 B. C.
*tual‘ the kingdom fell to Philip, the laft but one of the Ma¬
cedonian monarchs. To him Hannibal applied for
afliftance after the battle of Cannas, which he refufed ;
and the fame imprudence which made him refufe this
afliftance prompted him to embroil himfelf with the
Homans; and at laft to conclude a treaty with them, by
which he in effebl became their fubjeft, being tied up
from making peace or war but according to their plea*
fiire. In 179 B. C. he was fucceeded byhis eldeft fon
Perfes, under whom the war with the Romans was re¬
newed. Even yet the Macedonians were terrible in
war; and their phalanx, when properly conduced,feems
to have been abfolutely invincible by any method of
making war known at that time. It confifted of
16,000 men, of whom icoo marched abreaft, and thus
was 16 men deep; each of whom carried a kind of
pike 23 feet long. The foldiers flood fo clofe, that
the pikes of the fifth rank reached their points beyond
the front of the battle. The hindermoft ranks leaned
their pikes on the fiioulders of thofe who went before
them, and, locking them fail, prefled brifldy againft
them when they made the charge ; fo that the firft five
ranks had the impetus of the whole phalanx, which
was the reafon why the {hock was generally irrefiftible.
The Romans had never encountered fuch a terrible
enemy ; and in tbe firft battle, which happened 171
B. C. they were defeated with the lofs of 2200 men,
while the Macedonians loft n@ more than 60. The ge-
nertris of Perfts now prefled him to fterm the enemy’s
Camp ; but he being naturally of a cowardly drfpofi-
tion refufed to comply, and thus the heft opportunity
he ever had was loft. Still, however, the Romans gain¬
ed little or no advantage, till the year 168 B. C. when
Pa ulus aEmilius, a moft "experienced commander, was
fent into Miicedon. Perfes now put all upon the iflue of
a general engagement; and iEmilius, with ail his cou¬
rage and military experience, would have been defeat¬
ed, had the Macedonians been commanded by a gene¬
ral of the fmalleft courage or conduit. The light
armed Macedonians. charged with fuch vigour, that
after the battle, fome of their bodies were found with¬
in two furlongs of the Roman camp. When the pha¬
lanx came to charge, the points of their fpears ftriking
into the Roman ftnelds, kept the heavy armed troops
from making any motion ; while, on the other hand,
Ptrfes’s light-armed men did terrible execution. On
this occafion, it is faid, that iEmilius tore his clothes,
and gave up all hopes. However, perceiving that as
the phalanx gained ground it loft its order in feveral
places, he earned his own light-armed troops to charge
in thofe places, whereby the Macedonians were foon
put into confufion. If Perfes with his horfe had on
the firft appearance of this charged the Romans brifk-
ly, his infantry would have been able to recover them-
felves ; but inftead of this, he betook himfelf to flight,
and the infantry at laft did the fame, ‘but not till
20,000 of them had loft their lives.
This battle decided the fate of Macedonia, which
immediately fubmitted to the conqueror. The coward¬
ly king took refuge in the ifland of Samothrace; but Macedo-
was at laft obliged to furrender to the Roman conful, n“us
by whom he was carried to Rome, led in triumph, and viachLrus.
afterwards moft barbaroufly ufed. Some pretenders  v—.
to the throne appeared aftenvards; but being unable 130
to defend themfelves againft the Romans, the country Macedonia
was reduced to a Roman province in 148 B. C. To 4
them it continued fubjecl till the year 1357, when it iirovmfe,
was reduced by the Turkilh fultan Bajazet, and hath .
remained in the hands of the Turks ever fince.
MACEDONIANS, in ecclefiallical hiftory, the
followers of Macedenius, bilhop of Conftantinople,
who, through the influence of the Eunomians, was
depofed by the council of Conftantinople in 360, and
fent into efcile. He confidered the Holy Ghoft as a
divine energy diffufed throughout the univerle, and
not as a per fon diftinft. from the Father and the Son.
The fe£t of Macedonians was crufhed before it had ar¬
rived at its full maturity, by the council affembled by
Theodofius in 381, at Conftantinople. See Semi-
arians.
MACEDONIUS. See Macedonians.
MACER (Emilius), an ancient Latin poet, was
born at Verona, and flourifhed under Auguftus Cte-
far. Eufebius relates, that he died a few years after
Virgil. Ovid fpeaks of a poem of his, on the nature
and quality of birds, ferpents, and herbs ; which he
fays Macer being then very old had often read to him:
Stefe fuas •volucrcs legit mihi grandiar £10,
ghtaque nocet ferpens, qua juvat berba, Macer.
Lte Ponte, lib. iv. (leg. ID.
There is extant a poem upon the nature and power
of herbs under Macer’s name ; but it is fpurious. He
alfo wrote a fupplement to Homer, as Quintus Cala¬
ber did afterwards in Greek :
Tu canis aterno quicquii rejlabat pfomero :
Ne careant fumma Troica bdla menu.
De Ponto, lib. ii. efeg. |3.
MACERATION, is an infufion of, or foaking in¬
gredients in water or any other fluid, in order either
to foften them or draw out their virtues.
MACERATA, a handfome and populous town
of Italy, in the territory of the’ church, and in the
Marche of Ancona, with a bifhop’s fee, and an uni-
verfity. It is feated near the mountain Chiento, in
E. Long. 13. 3 7. N. Lat. 43. 15.
MACHAON, a celebrated phyfician among the
ancients, fon of iEfcuIapius and brother to Podalirus,
He went to the Trojan war with the inhabitants ot
Trica, Ithome, and (Echalia. According to fome, he
was king of Meflenia. He was phyfician to the
Greeks, and healed the wounds which they received
during the Trojan war. Some fuppofe he was killed
before Troy by Eurypylus the fon of Telephus. He
received divine honours after death, and Irad a temple
in Meflenia.
MACHiERUS (anc. geog.), a citadel on the other
fide Jordan, near the mountains of Moab, not far
from and to the north of the l.acus Afphalntes. It
was the fouth boundary of the Persea : lituated on a
mountain encompafied round with deep and broad
valleys ; built by Alexander king of the Jews, de-
ftroyed by Gabinius in the war with Ariitobulus, and
rebuilt by Herod with a cognominal town round it.
Here John the Baptift was beheaded (Jofephus).
J 1 MACHIAN,
M AC [ 390 1 MAC
Machian - MACHIAN, one of the Molucca iflands, in the
11. Eaft Indian Ocean, about 20 miles in circumference,
Mac, mes. ^ mon fertne 0f them all. It likewife produces
the heft cloves; and is in poffefiion of the Dutch, who
have three ftrong forts built on it.
MACHIAVEL (Nicholas), a famous political
writer of the 16th century, was born of a diftidguifh-
ed family at Florence. .He wrote in his native lan¬
guage with great elegance and politenefs, though he
underftood very little of the Latin tongue; but he was
in the fervice of Marcellus Virgilius, a learned man,
who pointed out to him many of the beautiful paffages
in the ancients, which Machiavel had the art <of pla¬
cing properly in his works. He compofed a comedy
upon the ancient Greek model; in which he turned
into ridicule many of the Florentine ladies, and which
was fo well received, that Pope Leo X. caufed it to be
acted at Rome. Machiavel was fecretary, and after¬
wards hiltoriographer, to the republic of Florence.
The houfe of Medicis procured him this lall office,
together with a handfome falary, in order to pacify
his refentment for having fuffered the torture upon
fufpicion of being an accomplice in the confpiracy of
the Soderini againll that houfe, when Machiavel bore
his fufferings without making any confeffion. The
great encomiums he bellowed upon Brutus and Caf-
hus, both in his converfations and writings, made him
ilrongly fufpedted of being concerned in another con¬
fpiracy againft cardinal Julian de Medicis, who was'
afterwards pope under the name of Clement VII. How¬
ever, they carried on no proceedings againft him; but
from that time he turned every thing into ridicule, and
gave himfelf up to irreligion. He died in 1530, of a
remedy which he had taken by way of prevention.—Of
all his writings, that which has made the moft noife,
and has drawn upon him the moft enemies, is a poli¬
tical treatife entitled the Prince; which has been tranf-
lated into feveral languages, and wrote againft by many
authors. The world is not agreed as to the motives
of this work; fome thinking, he meant to recommend
tyrannical maxims ; others, that he only delineated
them to excite abhorrence. Machiavel alfo wrote, Re¬
flexions on Titus Livius, which are extremely curious;
The Hiftory.of Florence, from the year 1205 to 1494;
and a quarto volume of Poems and other pieces. Mr
Harrington confiders him as a fuperior genius, and as
' the moft excellent writer on politics and government
that ever appeared.
MACHINE, (Machina), in the general, fignilies
any thing that ferves to augment or to regulate mo¬
ving powers : Or it is any body deftined to produce
motion, fo as to fave either time or force. The word
comes from the Greek v*xciyyi’ “ machine, invention,
art:” And hence, in ftriXnefs, a machine isfomething
that confifts more in art and invention, than in the
ftrength and folidity of the materials 5 for which rea-
fon it is that the inventors of machines are called wge-
meurs or engineers.
Machines are either Ample or compound. The Ample
pnes are the feven mechanical powers, viz. lever, bal¬
ance, pully, axis and wheel, wedge, fcrew, and in¬
clined plane. See Mechanics.
From thefe the compound ones are formed by various
combinations, and ferve for different purpofes. See
Mechanics and Hydrostatics; alfo the articles A-Machinery
griculture, Cannon,Centrifugal,Fire,Steam,
Furnace, Burroughs, Ramsden, &c. &c. leth™*
Machines ufed in war amongft the Greeks, were u—-yl—J
principally thefe: 1. Kx,««x<f> 0r fcaltng ladders;
2. The battering ram ; 3. The helepolis ; 4. The
or tortoife, called by the Romans tejludo ; 5. The
or agger, which was faced with ftone, and raifed higher
than the wall; 6. Upon the were built rvpyoi or
towers of wood ; 7. r£?P«<, 0r oAer hurdles ; 8. Cata-
puhee, or K-zUntfxi, from which they threw arrows with
amazing force ; and, 9. The mSoGokoi, xiTgoSoMt, 0r
e‘*y from which ftones were caft with great velo¬
city.
The principal warlike machines made ufe of by
the Romans were, the ram, the lupvs or wolf, the
tejludo or tortoife, the lalijla, the catapulta, and the
fcorpion.
MACHINERY, in epic and dramatic poetry, is
when the poet introduces the ufe of machines; or brings
fome fupernatural being upon the ftage, in order to
folve fome difficulty or to perform fome exploit out
of the reach of human power.
The ancient dramatic poets never made ufe of
machines, unlefs where there was an abfolute neceffity
for fo doing: whence the precept of Horace ;
Nec Deus interfit, nifi rlignus vindice nodus
Inc'derit.
It is quite otherwife with epic poets, who introduce
machines in every part of their poems; fo that nothing
is done without the intervention of the gods. In Mil¬
ton's Paradife Loft, by far the greater part of the actors
are fupernatural perfonages : Homer and Virgil do no¬
thing without them; and, in Voltaire’s Henriade, the
poet has made excellent ufe of St Louis.
As to the manner in which thefe machines ftiould
a£t, it is fometimes inviftbly, by Ample infpirations and
fuggeftions; fometimes by actually appearing under
fome human form; and, laftly, by means of dreams
and oracles, which partake of the other two. How¬
ever, all thefe ftiould be managed in fuch a manner as
to keep within the bounds of probability.
MACHUL, an inftrument of muftc among the Plate
Hebrews. Kircher apprehends that the name was^^^^1^
given to two kinds of inftruments, one of the ftringed
and the other of the pulfatile kind. That of the
former fort had Ax chords: though there is great rea-
fon to doubt whether an inftrument requiring the aid
of the hair-bow, and fo much refembling the violin,
be fo ancient. The fecond kind was of a circular form,
made of metal, and either hung round with little bells,
or furnilhed with iron rings fulpended on a rod or bar
that paffed acrofs the circle. Kircher fuppofes that
it was moved to and fro by a handle Axed to it, and
thus emitted a melancholy kind of murmur.
MACHYNLETH, a town of Montgomeryftiire
in North Wales, 198 miles from London, and 32 from
Montgomery. It is an ancient town; and has a
market on Mondays, and fairs on May 16, June 26,
July 9, September 18, and November 25, for ffieep,
horned cattle, and horfes. It is feated on the river
Douay, over which there is a large ftone bridge, which
leads into Merionethlhire. It was here that Owen
Glyndwr exercifed the Aril adts of his royalty in 1402.
Here
MAC
Mackenzie, Here he accepted the crown of Wales, and affembled
Mackerel. a parliament; and the houfe wherein they met is now
landing, divided into tenements.
MACKENZIE, (Sir George), an able lawyer,
a polite fcholar, and a celebrated wit, was born at
Dundee in the county of Angus in Scotland in 1636,
and ftudied at the univerfxties of Aberdeen and St An¬
drew’s ; after which he applied himfelf to the civil law,
travelled into France, and profecuted his ftudy in that
faculty for about three years. At his return to his
native country', he became an advocate in the city of
Edinburgh ; and foon gained the chara&er of an emi-
net pleader. He did not, however, fuffer his abili¬
ties to be confined entirely to that province. He had
a good taile for polite literature ; and he gave the pu¬
blic, from time to time, incontellable proofs of an un¬
common proficiency therein. He had praftifed but a
few years, when he was promoted to the office of a
judge in the criminal court; and, in 1674, was ma<ie
king’s advocate, and one of the lords of the privy coun¬
cil in Scotland. He was alfo knighted by his majefty.
In thefe ttations he met with a great deal of trouble,
on account of the rebellions which happened in his
time ; and his office of advocate requiring him to adt
with feverity, he did not efcape being cenfured, as if
in the deaths, of fome particular perfons who were
executed he had ftretched the laws too far. But there
does not feem to have been any juil foundation for this
clamour again!! him ; and it is generally agreed, that
he acquitted himfelf like an able and upright magi-
llrate. Upon the abrogation of the penal laws by
king James II. our advocate, though he had always
been remarkable for his loyalty, and even cenfured for
his zeal again!! traitors and fanatics, thought himfelf
obliged to refign his pofl; being convinced, that he
could not difeharge the duties of it in that point with
a good confidence. But he was foon after reftored,
and held his offices till the revolution ; an event which,
it feeftis, he could not bring himfelf to approve. He
had hoped that the prince of Orange would have re¬
turned to his own country when matters were adjufted
between the king and his fubjedls ; and upon its pro¬
ving otherwife, he quitted all his employments in Scot¬
land, and retired into England, refolving to fpend the
remainder of his days in the univerfity of Oxford. He
arrived there in September 1689, and profecuted his
ftudies in the Bodleian library, being admitted a flu-
dent there by a grace pa!fed in the congregation, June
2. 1690. In the fpring following, he went to Lon¬
don ; where he fell into a diforder, of which he died
in May 169.1. His corpfe was conveyed by land to
Scotland, and interred there with great pomp and fo-
lemnity. “ The politenefs of his learning, and the
Lprighllinefs of his wit, were (fays the reverend Mr
Granger) confpicuous in all his pleadings, and fnone
in his ordinary converfation.” Mr Dry den acknow¬
ledges,. that he was unacquainted with what he calls the
beautiful turn of words and thoughts in poetry, till they
were explained and exemplified to him in a converfa¬
tion with, that noble wit of Scotland Sir George Mac¬
kenzie.—He wrote feveral pieces of hillory and anti¬
quities ; Inllitutions of the laws of Scotland ; Effays
upon various fubje&s, &c. His works were printed
together at Edinburgh in 1716, in z vols folio.
MACKEREL, in ichthyology. See Scomber.
MAC
MACKEY (John,) an Englifhman, employed by Madefy,,
the government as a fpy upon James II. after the re-Mac'aur‘n7
volution, was author of Memoirs of James’s court at T
St Germaine, and of the court of England in the
reigns of William III. and queen Anne ; in which are
many curious anecdotes not to be met with in any o*
ther work. He died in 1726.
MACLAURIN (Colin), a moft eminent mathema¬
tician and philofopher, was the fon of a clergyman, and
born at Kilmoddan in Scotland in 1-698. He was fent
to the univerfity of Glafgow in 1709 \ where he con¬
tinued five years, and applied hrmfelf to ftudy in a
mol! interife manner. His great genius for mathema¬
tical learning difeovered itfelf fo early as at twelve
years of age; when, having accidentally met with an
Euclid in a friend’s chamber, he became in a few days
mailer of the firil fix books without any affiilance
and it is certain, that in his 16th year he had invent¬
ed many of the propofitions which were afterwards-
publilhed under the title of Geometria organica. In
his 15th year he took the degree of mailer of arts; o»v
which- occafion he compofed and publicly defended a
thefis On the power of Gravity, with great applaufe.
After this he quitted the univerfity, and retired to a’
country-feat of his uncle, who- had the care of his e-
ducation; for his parents had been dead fome time.
Here he fpent two or three years in purfuing his fa¬
vourite ftudies; but, in 1717, he offered himfelf a
candidate for the profefforftiip of mathematics in the
Marifchal college of Aberdeen, and obtained it after
a ten days trial with a very able competitor. In 1719,
he went to London, where he became acquainted with
Dr Hoadly then biftiop of Bangor, Dr Clarke, Sir
. Ifaac Newton, and other eminent men ; at which time
alfo he was admitted a member of- the Royal Society
and In another journey in 1721, he contrafted an in¬
timacy with Martin Folkes,,Efq. the prefident of it,
which lafted to his death.
In 1722, lord Polwarth, plenipotentiary of the king
of Great-Britain at the congrefs of Cambray, engaged1
him to go as a tutor and companion to his eldeftfon, who
was then to fet out on his travels. After a ftiort ftay at
Paris, and vifiting other towns in France, they fixed
in Lorrain ; where Maclaurin wrote his piece On the
Percuffion of Bodies, which gained the prize of the
royaP academy of fciences for tNi year 1724-. But
his pupil dying foon after at Montpelier, he returned
immediately to his profeffion at Aberdeen. He wras
hardly fettled here, when he received an-invitation to
Edinburgh ; the curators of that univerfity being de--
firous that he ftiould fupply the place of Mr James
Gregory', whofe great age and infirmities had render¬
ed him incapable of teaching. He had fome difficul¬
ties to encounter,' arifing from competitors, who had
good intereft wuth the patrons of the univerfity, and
alfo from the want of an additional fun'd for the new
profeffor ; which however at length were all fiirmount-
ed, principally by the means of Sir Ifaac Newton. In-
Nov. 1725., he whs introduced into the univerfity ; as-
was at the fame time his learned colleague and inti¬
mate friend. Dr Alexander Monro, profeffor of ana-
tomv. After this, the mathematical claffes foon be¬
came very-numerous, there being generally upwards of
1OO young gentlemen attending his ledlures every year;
who being of different Hangings and-proficiency, he
was-
[ 39‘ 1
MAC [ W ] M A C
Madaur'n waJ obliged to divide them into four or five claffes, in
w~v™~* each of which he employed a full hour every day,
from the firit of November to the firft of June.
He lived a bachelor to the year 1733 : but being
not lefs formed for fociety than for contemplation, he
then .married Anne, the daughter of Mr Walter Stew-
art folicitor-general to his late majelty for Scotland.
By this lady he had feven children, of whom two fons
and three daughters, together with his wife, furvived
him. In 1734, Berkeley, bilhop of Gloyne, publifh-
ed a piece called “ The Analyft in which he took
occafion, from fome difputes that had arifen concern¬
ing the grounds of the nuxionary method, to explode
the method itfelf, and alfo to charge mathematicians
in general, with infidelity in religion. Maclaurin
thought himfelf included in this charge, and began an
anfwer to Berkeley’s book: but, as he proceeded, fo
many difcoveries, fo many new theories and problems
occurred to him, that inftead of a vindicatory pamph¬
let, his work came out, A complete fyflem of Fluxions,
with their application to the moft conliderable pro¬
blems in geometry and natural philofophy. This work
was publifhed at Edinburgh in 1742, 2 vols ^to ; and
as it coil him infinite pains, fo it is the moft coniider-
able of all his works, and will do him immortal ho¬
nour. In the mean time, he was continually obliging
the public with fome performance or obfervation of
his own ; many of which were publifhed in the fifth
and fixth volumes of the “ Medical Eifays” at Edin¬
burgh. Some of them were likewife publiihed in the
Philofophical Tranfa&ions; as, the following : 1. Of
the conftrutlion and meafure of curves, N 356. 2.
A new method of defcribing all kinds of curves,
359. 3. A letter to Martin Folkes, Efq; on equa¬
tions with impoflible roots, May 1726, N' 394. 4.
Continuation of the fame, March 1729, N° 408. 5.
December the 21ft, 1732, on the defcription of
curves ; with an account of farther improvements, and
a paper dated at Nancy, Nov. 27, 1722, N1' 439.
6. An account of the treatife of fluxions, Jan. 27,
1742, N° 467. 7. The fame continued, March 10,
1742, N° 469. 8. A rule for finding the meridional
parts of a fpheroid with the fame exadtnefs as of a
fphere, Auguft 1741, ^461. 9. Of the bafis of
the cells wherein the bees depofite their honey 5 Nov.
3. 1734. 471.
In the midft of thefe ftudies, he was always ready
to lend his affiftance in coptriving and promoting any
fcheme which might contribute to the fervice of his
country. When the earl of Morton fet out in 1739
for Orkney and Shetland, to vifit his eftates there,
he defired Mr Maclaurin to a (lift him in fettling the
geography of thofe countries, which is very errone¬
ous in all our maps; to examine their natural hiftory,
to furvey the coafts, and to take the meafure of 4 de¬
gree of the meridian. Maclaurin’s family affairs, and
other connexions, would not permit him to do this:
he drew, however, a memorial of what he thought
neceffary to be obferved, furnifhed the proper inflru-
ments, and recommended Mr Short, the famous op¬
tician, as a fit operator for the management of them.
He had ftill another fcheme for the improvement of
geography and navigation, of a more extenfive nature;
which was the opening a paffage from Greenland to
the South Sea by the north pole. That fuch a paf-
N0 190.
fage might be found, he was fo fully perfuaded, that Machunn,
he has been heard to fay, if his fituation could admit ——v—
of fuch adventures, he would undertake the voyage,
even at his own charge. But when fehemes for finding
it were laid before the parliament in 1744, and him¬
felf confultcd by feveral perfons of high rank concern¬
ing them, before he could finiih the memorials he pro-
pofed to fend, the premium was limited to the difeo-
very of a North-weft paffage : and he ufed to regret,
that the word Weft was inferted, becaufe he thought
that paffage, if at all to be found, muft lie not far
from the pole.
In 1745, having been very aXive in fortifying the
city of Edinburgh againft the rebel army, he was oiji-
ged to fly from thence to the north of England ;
where he was invited by Herring, then archbifliop of
York, to refide with him during his ftay in this coun¬
try. In this expedition, however, being expofed to
cold and hardftnps, and naturally of a weak and ten¬
der conftitution, he laid the foundation of an illnef#
which put an end to his life, in June 174^, at the
age of 48.
Mr Maclaurin was a very good as well as a very
great man, and worthy of love as well as admiration.
His peculiar merit as a philofopher was, that all his
ftudies were accommodated to general utility ; and we
find, in many places of his works, an application even
of the moft abftrufe theories, to the perfeXing of me¬
chanical arts. He had refolved, for the fame purpofe,
to compofe a courfe of praXical mathematics, and to
refeue feveral ufeful branches of the fcience from the
bad treatment they often met with in lefs ikilful hands.
But all this his death prevented ; unlefs we fhould
reckon, as a part of his intended work, the franflatioi
of Dr David Gregory’s “ PraXical Geometry,’*
which he revifed, aqd publifhed with additions, 1745V
In his lifetime, however, he had frequent opportuni¬
ties. of ferving his friends and his country by his great
flcill. Whatever difficulty occurred concerning the
conftruXing or perfeXing of machines, the working of
mines, the improving of manufaXures, the conveying,
of water, or the execution of any other public work,
he was at hand to refoNe it. He was likewife em¬
ployed to terminate fome difputes of confequence that
had arifer at Glafgow coneerning the gauging of vefi¬
fe] s ; and for that purpofe prefented to the commiffion-
ers of excife two elaborate memorials, with their de-
monftrations, containing rules by which the officers
now aX. He made alfo calculations relating to the
provifion, noto eftablifhed by law, for the children and
widows of the Scots clergy, and of the profeffors in v
the univerfities, intitling them to certain annuities and
films, upon the voluntary annual payment of a certain
fum by the incumbent In contriving and adjufting
this wife and ufeful fcheme, he bellowed a great deal
of labour, and contributed not a little towards bring¬
ing it to perfeXion. It may be faid of fuch a man,
that “ he lived to fome purpofe which can hardly
be faid of thofe, how uncommon foever their abilities
and attainments, who fpend their whole time in ab-
ftraX fpeculations, and produce nothing to the real
ufe and fervice of their fellow creatures.
Of his works, we have mentioned his Geometrid Or-
ganica, in which he treats of the defcription of curve
lines by continued motion. We need not repeat what
has
MAC C 393 3 MAC
Mackennis.has been faid concerning his piece which gained the
^Macquer. prjze Qf t}je r0yal academy of fciences in 1724. In
"» ~ j tbe academy adjudged him a prize, which did
him ftill more honour, for folving the motion of the
tides from the theory of gravity; a queftion which
had been given out the former year, without receiving
any folution. He had only ten days to draw this pa¬
per up in, and could not find leifure to tranferibe a
fair copy ; fo that the Paris edition of it is incorrect.
He afterwards revifed the whole, and inferted it in
his Treatife of Fluxions ; as he did alfo the fubftance#
of the former piece. Thefe, with the Treatife of
Fluxions, and the pibces printed in the Philofophical
Tranfa&ions, of which we have given a lift, are all
the writings which our author lived to publilh. Since
his death, two volumes more have appeared ; his Al¬
gebra, and his Account of Sir Ifaac Newton’s Philo¬
fophical Difcoveries. His Algebra, though not finilh-
ed by himfelf, is yet allowed to be excellent in its
kind; containing, in no large volume, a complete ele¬
mentary treatife of that fcience, as far as it has hither¬
to been carried. His Account of Sir Ifaac Newton’s
Philofophy was occafioned in the following manner:
Sir Ifaac dying in the beginning of 1728, his nephew,
Mr Conduitt, propofed to publifh an account of his
life, and defired Mr Maclaurin’s affiftance. The lat¬
ter, out of gratitude to his great benefactor, cheer¬
fully undertook, and foon finilhed, the hiftory of the
progrefs which philofophy had made before Sir Ifeac’s
time, and this was the firft draught of the work in
hand ; which not going forward, on account of Mr
Conduitt’s death, was returned to Mr Maclaurin.—
To this he afterwards made great additions, and left
it in the ftate in which it now appears. Plis main
defign feems to have been, to explain only thofe parts
of Sir Ifaac's philofophy which have been, and ftill
are, controverted : and this is fuppofed to be the rea-
fon why his grand difcoveries concerning light and
colours are but tranfiently and generally touched upon.
For it is known, that ever fince the experiments, on
which his doftrine of light and colours is founded,
have been repeated with due care, this dedrine has
not been contefted ; whereas his accounting for the
celeftial motions, and the other great appearances of
nature, from gravity, is mifunderftood, and even ridi¬
culed by fome to this day.
MACQUER (Philippe), advocate of the parlia¬
ment of Paris, where he was born in 1 720, being
defeended from a refpedlable family. A weak-
nefs in his lungs having prevented him from en¬
gaging in the laborious exercifes of pleading, he de¬
dicated himfelf to literary purfuits. His works are,
I. L'Abrege Chronologique de I’HiJloire Eccleftajlique%
3 vols. 8vo, written in the manner of the Prefident
Renault's Hiftory of France, but not poflefied of
equal fpirit and elegance. 2. Les Annales Romanes,
1756, 8vo; another chronological abridgement, and
much befter fupported than the former. Into this
wmrk the author has introduced every thing moft
worthy of notice which has been written by Saint
Evremond, Abbe Saint-Real, Prefident Montefquieu,
Abbe Mably, &c. concerning the Romans; and, if
we except a difference of ftyle, which is eafily difeeru-
ible, it is, in other refpeCts, a very judicious compila¬
tion. 3. Abrege Chronologique de I'HiJloire d'Efpagne
Vot. X. Part I.
IA de Portugal, 1759, 1765, in two vols. 8vo. Tins Macquer.
book, in point of accuracy, is worthy of the Pre- 11
fident Henault, by whom it was begun.} but it dif- MacrobU.
plays no diferimination of character nor depth of re- ^ L/
fearch. The author received afliftance from M. La-
combe, whofe talents for chronological, abridgement
are well known. The republic of letters fuftained a
lofs by the death of M. Macquer, which happened on
the 27th of January 1770, at the age of 50. As to his
character, he was induftrious, agreeable, modeft, and
fincere, and an enemy to all foolilh vanity and affecta¬
tion. He had a cold imagiriation, but a correCt tafte.
He had an eager thirfl: for knowledge of every kind,
and he had negleCted no ufeful branch of ftudy. He
had a fhare in the Dictionary of Arts and Profeffions,
in 2 vols 8vo, and in the Tranflation of the Syphilis
of Fracaftor publiftied by Lacombe.
MACttyER (Pierre Joieph), brother to the former,
was born at Paris the 9th of OCtober 1718, and died
there February 16th 1784. He was a member of the
academy of fciences, and late profeffor of pharmacy;
and was erigaged in the Journal des Savans, for the ar¬
ticles of medicine and chemiftry. With the latter
fcience he was intimately acquainted. He had a
lhare in the Pharmacopoeia Pariftenfs, publiftied in 1758,
in 4to. His other works are, i. Elemens de Chimie
theorique; Paris, 1749, 1753, t^mo ; which have been
tranflated into Englilh and German.—2. Element de
Chimie pratique, 1751, 2 vols. !2mo. Thefe two works
were re-publilhed together, in 1756, In 3 vols i2mo.
3. Plan d'un court de Chimie experimentale (A raifonee,
1757, ismo; in the compofition of which he was
affociated with M. Beaume. 4. Formuhe Medicamento~
rum Magijlralium, 1763. 5. L’frt de la Teinture en
Sole, 1763—6. DiSionnaire de Chemie, contenant la theorie
& la pratique de cet art, 1766, 2 vols 8vo ; which
has been tranfiated into German, with notes; and
into Englilh, with notes, by Mr Keir. Macquer has,
by his labours and writings, greatly contributed to
render ufeful an art which formerly tended only to ruin
the health of the patient by foreign remedies, or to
reduce the profeffors of it to beggary, while they
profecuted the idle dreams of converting every thing
into gold.
MACRIN (Salmon), one of the beft Latin poets
of the 16th century, was born at Loudon. His true
name was John Salmon ; but he took that of Macrin,
from his being frequently fo called in ridicule by Fran¬
cis I. on account of his extraordinary leannefs. He
was preceptor to Claudius of Savoy, count of Tende }
and to Honorius the count’s brother 5 and wrote fe-
veral pieces of poetry in lyric verfe, which were fo ad¬
mired, that he was called the Horace of hit tune. He
died of old age, at Loudon, in Charles Macrin,
In’s fon, was not inferior to him as a poet, and furpafs-
ed him in his knowledge of the Greek tongue. He vitas
preceptor to Catharine of Navarre, the filler of Henty
the Great; and perilhed in the maffacre on St Bartho¬
lomew’s day in 1572.
MACROBII, a people of Ethiopia, celebrated
for their juftice, and the innocence of their man¬
ners : alfo a people in the illand Merde. The Hy¬
perboreans were alfo called Macrobii: They ge¬
nerally lived to their 120th year”; and from their lon¬
gevity they obtained their name long life.)
3 D MACRO-
MAC r 394- ] MAC
ivheroMu*, MACROBIUS (Ambrofius Aurelius Tlieodo- fitly to enlarge the interval between the two eyes, fo Microeerei
Macroce- fius^ an ancient Latin writer, who flourilhed to- that the vifual rays turning more to the right and left, II
. p 3>u*‘ wards the latter part of the fourth century the fight wcaild embrace % much larger portion of the
Of what country he was, is not clear : Erafmus, horizon ; the advantage of which they are well ac- ° J a~ /
in his Ciceronianus, feems to think he was a Creek ; quainted with, either in the conftant exei'cife of hunt- ™
and he himfelf tells us, in the preface to his Saturnalia, ing, or on a thoufand other occafions. Ever firtce the
that he was not a Roman, but laboured under the 16th century, the rmffionaries eftablifhed in the coun-
’inconveniences of writing in a language which was tries inhabited by the favages of America, have en-
not natural to him. Of what religion he was, Chrif- deavoured to deflroy this cuftom ; and we find in the
tian or Pagan, is uncertain. Barthius ranks him among fefiions of the third council of Lima, held in 1585, a
the Chriftians; but Spanheim and Fabricius fuppofe a canon which exprefsly prohibits it. But if it has been
him to have been a heathen. This, however, is cer¬
tain, that he was a man of confular dignity, and one
of the chamberlains or mailers of the wardrobe to
Theodofius; as appears from a refcript directed to
Florentius, concerning thofe who were to obtain that
office. He wrote a Commentary upon Cicero’s Som-
■nium Scipionis, and feven books of Saturnalia, which
treat of various fubjefts, and are an agreeable mixture
of criticifm and antiquity. He was not an original wri¬
ter, but made great uie of other people’s works, borrow¬
ing not only their materials, but even their language,
and for this he has been fatirically rallied by fome mo¬
dern authors, though rather unfairly, confidering the
exprefs declaration and apology which he makes on
this head, at the very entrance of his work. “ Don’t
blame me,” fays he, “ if what I have colle&ed from
multifarious reading, I lhall frequently exprefs in
the very words of the authors from whom I have
taken it: for my view in this prefent work is, not
to give proofs of my eloquence, but to colleft and
digeft into fome regularity and order fuch things
as I thought might be ufeful to be known. I lhall
therefore here imitate the bees, who fuck the bell
juices from all forts of-flowers, and afterwards work
them up into various forms and orders, with fome
mixture of their own proper fpirit.” The Somnium
Scipionis and Saturnalia have been often printed ; to
which has been added, in the later editions, a piece inti¬
tuled, De Differentiis & Societatibus Grad Latinique V^erbi,
MACROCEPHALUS, (compounded of */>»«•
M great,” and “ head,” denotes a perfon with
a head larger or longer than the common fize. Ma-
crocephali, or Long- heads, is a name given tp a certain
people, who, according to the accounts of authors,
were famous for the unfeemly length of their heads :
yet cuftom fo far habituated them to it, that inftead of
looking on it as a deformity, they efteemed it a beauty,
and, as foon as the child was born, moulded and fa-
fhioned its head in their hands to as great a length as
poffible, and afterwards ufed all fuch rollers and band¬
ages as might feem moll likely to determine its grow¬
ing long. The greater part of the illanders in the
Archipelago, fome of the people of Alia, and even
fome of thofe of Europe, Hill prefs their childrens
heads out lengthwife. We may obferve alfo, that the
Epirots, many people of America, &c. are all born-
with fome Angularity in the conformation of their
heads; either a flatnefs on the top, two extraordinary
protuberances behind, or one on each fide ; Angularities
which we can only regard as an effedl of an ancient and
ftrange mode, which at length is become hereditary in
the nation. According to the report of many travellers,
the operation of comprefling the head of a child
lengthwife, while it is yet Toft, is with a view infen-
4
reprefled one way, the free iiegroes and Maroons, al¬
though Africans, have adopteil it, fi'nce they have
been ellablilhed among the Caribs, folely with the
view of dillinguiflring their children, w-hich are born
free, from thofe who are bom in flavery. The- Oma-
quas, a people of South America, according to P.
Veigh, prefs the heads of their children fo violently
between two planks that they become quite lliarp at
the top, and flat before and behind. They fay they
do this to give their heads a greater refemblance t®
the moon.
MACROCERCI, a name given to that clafs of
animalcules which have tails longer than their bodies.
MACROCOLUM, or Macrocollum (formed
of “ large,” and “ I join,”) among the
Romans, the largeft kind of paper then in ufe. It
meafured fixteen inches, and frequently two feet.
MACROCOSM, a word denoting the great world'
or univerfe. It is compounded of the Greek words
“ great,” and “ world.”
MACROOMP, or Macroom, a tovvn of Ireland,
in the barony of Muikerry, county of Cork, and pro¬
vince of Munfter, 142 miles from Dublin ; it is iiitu*
ated amongft hills, in a dry gravelly limeftone foil.—
This place is faid to take its name from an old crook¬
ed oak, fo called in Jriih, which formerly grew here.
The caftle was firft built in King John’s time, foon af¬
ter the Englifli conqueil, (according to Sir Richard
Cox) by the Carews, but others attribute it to the
Daltons. It was repaired and beautified by Teague
Macarty, who died in the year 1 J 6 >, and was father ta
the celebrated Sir Cormac Mac Teague mentioned by
Cambden and other writers as an adlive perfon in.
Queen Elizabeth’s time. The late Earls of Glancarty
altered this caftle into a more modern ilru£lure, it be¬
ing burnt down in the wars of i64f. Oppofite to
the bridge, is, the pariffi-church, dedicated to St Col-
man of Cloyne. Here is a barrack for a foot com¬
pany, a market-houfe, and handfome Roman Catholic
chapel. A confiderable number of perfons have been,
employed in this town in combing wool and fpinning
yarn, and fome falt-works have been erefted here. At
half a mile’s diftance is a fpa, that rifes on the very
brink of a bog ; its waters are a mild chalybeate, and
are accounted ferviceable in hypochondriacal cafes, and
in cutaneous eruptions. The fairs are four in the
year.
MACROPYRENIUM, in natural hiftory, a ge¬
nus of foffils confifting of cruftated feptariae, with
a long nucleus Handing out at each end of the mafs.
MACROTELOSTYLA, in natural hiftory, the
name of a genus of cryftals, which are compofed of
two pyramids joined to the end of a column ; both the
pyramids, as alfo the column, being hexangular,
and
MAD l A9S 1 MAD
MaSatjo and the whole body confequently compofed of 18
J1 ^ planes.
Madagaf- M ACT AT IO, in the Roman facrifices, fignifies
the aft of killing the viftim. .This was performed ei.
ther by the prieft himfelf, or fome of his inferior offi¬
cers, whom we meet with under the names of pop#,
agones, cultrarii, and xnS'tmarii; but, before the beaft
was killed, the prieft, turning himfelfto the eaft, drew
a crooked line with hi, knife, from the forehead to
the tail. Among the Greeks, this ceremony was per¬
formed moft commonly by the prieft, or, in his abfence,
by the moft honourable perfon prefent. If the facri-
fice was offered to the celeftial gods, the viftim’s
throat was bent up towards heaven; if to the infernal,
©r to heroes, it was killed with its throat towards the
ground. The manner of killing the animal was by a
ftroke on the head, and, after it was fallen, thrufting
a knife into its threat. Much notice was taken, and
good or ill .fuccefs predifted, from the ftruggles of the
beaft, or its quiet fubmiffion to the blow, from the
flowing of the blood, and the length of time it hap¬
pened to live after the fall, &c.
MACTJLfE, in aftronomy, dark fpots appearing
on the luminous furfaces of the fun and moon, and
even fome of the planets. See Astronomy, n° 30.
and n°58 et feq. and n° 98. and nc 121 etfeq.
MAD-apple. See Solanum.
M A D A G A SC A R, the largeft of the A frican iflands,
is fituated between 430 and 510 of E. Long, and be¬
tween 12° and 26° of S. Lat.; extending in length near
I coo miles from north-north-eaft to fouth-fouth-weft,
and about 300 in breadth where broadeft. It was
difeovefed in 1506 by Laurence Almeyda; but the
Perfians and the Arabians were acquainted with it
from time immemorial under the name of Serandib.
Alphonzo Albukerque ordered Ruy Pereira dy Con-
thinto to vifit the interior parts, and that general in¬
truded Triftan d’Acunha with the furvey. ThePor-
tuguefe called it the ifland of St Laurence’, the French,
who vifited it in the reign of Henry IV. named it IJle
Dauphine ; its proper name is Madegajfe. It is now,
however, by common confent, called Madagafcar.
This large ifland, according to many learned geo¬
graphers, is the Cerne of Pliny, and the Menuthiafde
of Ptolemy. It is every where watered by large rivers,
ftreams, and rivulets, which have their fource at the
foot of that long chain of mountains which runs thro’
the whole extent of the ifland from call to weft. The
two higheft promontories are called Fivagora and Bo-
tiftmene.
• Voyage d Thefe mountains (according to the Abbe Rochon* )
Malaga/- inclofe within their bofoms a variety of precious mine-
plrli-” i ra*s anc* ufeful foflils. The traveller (who for the firft
ar' time rambles over favage and mountainous countries, in-
terfefted with valleys and with hills, where nature left
to herfelf .brings forth the moft Angular and the moft
varied produftions) is involuntarily furprifed and ter¬
rified at the fight of precipices, the fummits of which
are crowned with monftrou trees* that feem coeval
with the world His aftoniftiment is redoubled at the
noife of thofe grand cafcades, the approach to which
is generally inaccefiible. But to thofe views fo fub-
limely pifturefque, rural feenes foon fucceed ; little
bills, gentle rifing grounds, and plains, the vegetation
of which is never repreffed by the intemperance or the Madagif-
vicifiitude of the feafons. The eye contemplates'with caf‘
pleafure thofe vaft favannas which nourifii numberlefs
herds of bullocks and of flieep. You behold a flou-
rifhing agriculture, produced ahnoft folely by the fer-
tilifing womb of nature. The fortunate inhabitants
of Madagafcar do not bedew the earth with their
fweat; they fcarce ftir the ground with a rake, and
even that flight preparation is fufficient. They ferape
little holes at a fmall diftance from each other, into
which they fcatter a few grains of rke* and cover them
with their feet; and fo great in the fertility of the
foil, that the lands fown in this carelefs manner pro¬
duce an hundred fold.
The forefts prefent a prodigious variety of the moft
ufeful and the moft beautiful trees ; ebony, wood for
dydng, bamboos of an enormous tliicknefs, and palm trees
of every kind. The timber employed in fhip-bailding
is no lefs common than thofe kinds fo much prized
by the cabinet-maker. We are told by the French
governor Flaceurt, in his hiftory of this ifland f, chatf #V/? deb
in the year 1650 he fent to France 52,000 weight of
aloes of an excellent quality. All of thefe various trees pa^f^0o.
and ftirubs are furrounded by an infinite number of pa-
rafitical plants : mufhrooms of.an infinite diverfity of
kinds and colours are to be met with every where in the
woods; and the inhabitants know well how to diftinguifh
thofe which are prejudicial to the health. They collect
large quantities of ufeful gums and refms ; and out of
the milky fap of a tree, denominated by them finguiore,
the inhabitants, by means of coagulation, make that
Angular fubftance known to naturalifts by the name of
gum elafiic* (See CaoutchO’UC and Jatropha.)
Befides the aromatic and medicinal herbs which a-
bonnd in the forefts, the ifland produces flax and hemp
of a length and ftrength which furpafs any in Europe,
Sugar canes, wax, honey of different kinds, tobacco,
indigo, white pepper, gum-lac, ambergris, filk, and
cotton, would long fince have been objefts of com¬
merce which Madagafcar would have yielded in pro-
fufion, if the Europeans, in vifiting the ifland, had
furniflied the inhabitants with the neceffary informa¬
tion for preparing and improving thefe feveral pro¬
duftions.
The fugar-canes (as we are informed by another tra-
vellerU ) are much larger and finer than any in the weft || Tvts't
Indies ; being as thick as a man’s wrift, and fo full of voyage u
juice, that afoot of them will weigh two pounds. ^niia>P' l4»
. When the natives travel, they carry a fugar-cane along
with them, which will fupport them for two or three
days. Here are alfo plenty of tamarinds; and fnch
quantities of limes and oranges, that very large caiks
may be filled with their juices at a trifling expence, as
they mayr be purchafed for iron-pots, muikets, powder,
ball, &c. During the ftiort time that Admiral Wat-
fon’s fquadron ftaid here in 1754, Mr Ives preferred
about half a hogihead full of thofe juices, which pro¬
ved afterwards of the greateft fert-ice to the /hips
crews. It muft be obferved, however, that no good
water is to be had at St Auguftine in the fouth-weft
part of the ifland, where fliips ufually touch, unlefs
boats are fent for it four or five miles up the river;
and inftead of filling their calks at low water (as is the
cafe in moft other rivers), they muft begin to fill at
3 D 2 about
MAD
[ 396 1
MAD
about a quarter’s flood : The reafon affigned for this thefe acknowledges a chief; this chief is fometimes
is, that the river has a communication with the fea at
other places befidesthis of St Auguftine’s bay; and it
has been found by experience,that thefea-water brought
into the river by the flood-tide is not difcharged till a
elective, but more ufually hereditary. The lands are
not divided and portioned out, but belong to thofe
who are at the trouble of cultivating them. Thefe
illanders make ufe of neither locks nor keys ; the
quarter’s flood of the next tide in St Auguftine’s bay; principal part of their food confifts in rice, fifti, and
.nd for three miles up the river, the water is always flefh; their rice is moiltened with a foup which is fea-
very brackifti, if not quite fait.
The abundance and variety of provifions of every
kind, which a fine climate and fertile foil can produce,
foned writh pimento, ginger, faffron, and aromatic
herbs. They difplay wonderful cunning in catching
a variety of birds, many of which are unknown in Eu-
on no part of the globe, according to M. Rochon, rope : they have the pheafant, the partridge, the quail.
fuperior to thofe of Madagafcar : game, wild-fowl,
poultry, fifti, cattle, and fruits, are alike plentiful. The
the pintado, the wild duck, teal of five or fix different
kinds, the blue hen, the black paroquet, and the turtle-
oxen, Mr Ives alfo informs us, are large and fat, and dove, in great plenty ; and alfo a bat of a monftrous
have each a protuberance of fat between the ihoulders, fize, which is much prized on account of its exquifite
weighing about 20 pounds. Their fteftt is greatly flavour. Thefe laft are fo hideous in their appearance,
cfteemed by all the European nations trading to In- that they at firft terrify the European failors; but after
dia, and ftiips are fent to Madagafcar on purpofe to they have vanquiftied their repugnance to them, they*
kill and fait them on the ifland. The protuberance prize their flefti infinitely before that of the pullets of
of fat above mentioned is particularly eftemed after their own country. The Melagaches ;ilfa catch an im-
it has lain fome time in fait; but our author fays, menfe quantity of fea-fifti; fuch as the dorado, the
that he could not join in the encomiums either on this
piece or the beef in general; as the herbage on which
the creatures feed gives their flefti a particular tafte,
which to him was difagreeable. The ftieep differ little
from the goats ; being equally hairy, only that their
heads are fomewhat larger: their necks referable that
of a calf, and their tails weigh at leaft ten pounds.
Vaft quantities of locufts rife here from the low lands
in thick clouds, extending fometimes to an incredible
length and l^eadth. The natives eat thefe infefts, and
foie, the herring, the mackarel, the turtle, &c. with,
oyfters, crabs, &c. The rivers afford excellent eels,
and mullets-of an exquifite flavour.
The inhabitants near St Auguftine’s bay, Mr Ives..
informs us, fpeak as much broken Engliftr as enables
them to exchange their provifions for Europeon ar¬
ticles. Thefe, on the part of the Melagaches, are cattle,
poultry, milk, fruit, rice, fait, porcelain, potatoes,
yams, fifh, lances, and ftrells. From, the Europeans
they receive muftcets, powder,, bullets, flints, cloutiesy
even prefer them to their fineft fiftr. Their method (including handkerchiefs, and linen of all kinds).
of drefling them is to ftrip off their legs1 and wings,
and fry them in oil.
The inhabitants (termed Melagaches or Madecajfes)y
M. Rocbon informs us, are in perfon above the middle
fize of Europeans. The colour of the Ik in is different
in different tribes : among fome it is of a deep black,
among others tawney; fome of the natives are of a copper
beads, iron pots, &c.—Silver, which they call Manila*
is in great efteem with them, and is made by them
into bracelets for their wives.
That part of the ifland at which the Englilh fqila-
dron touched, is the dominions of the king of Baba*
who, by the account of Mr Ives, feemed greatly to af-
fedl to be an Eagliftiman. They had no fooner
colour, but the complexion of by far the greateft number touched at the ifland,, than they were waited on by one
is olive. All thofe who are black have woolly hair like
the negroes of the coaft: of Africa: thofe, on the other
hand, who referable Indians and Mulattoes, have hair
equally ftraight with that of the Europeans ; the nofe
is not. broad and flat; the foreliead is large and open;
in (hort, all the features are regular and agreeable.
Their phyfiognomy difplays the appearance of frank-
nefs and of fatisfa&ionthey are defirous only of learn¬
ing fuch things as may adminifter to their neceffities;
that fpecies of knowledge which demands reflection is
indifferent to them; fober, agile, afti.ve, they fpendthe
greateft; part of their time either in fleep or in amufe-
ment. In fine, according to the Abbe, the natives of
Madagafcar, like favages in general, poffeffes a.character
equally devoid of vice and of virtue ;. the gratifications
of the prefent moment folely occupy his reflexions
called Robin Hood, and another perfon, both of whom
bore the office of purfers. Along with thefe were
Philibey the general ; John Anderfon and Frederic
Martin, captains. Nor did the king himfelf and his
family difdain to pay them a vifit; who, in like man¬
ner, were diflinguiftied by Englifh names ;. the king’s.
eldeft fon being called the prince of Wales, and the
court not being without a duke of Cumberland, a
prince Auguftus, princeffes, &c. as ia England. All
thefe grandees cams on board naked,, excepting only
a flight covering about their loins and on their fhoul-
ders, made, of a kind of grafs growing on the ifland ;.
which they had adorned with fmall glafs beads by way
of border or fringe. Their hair, refembled that of the
Indians in being long and black, rather than the wool¬
ly heads of the African negroes- “ The wives of the
he poffeffes no kind of forefight whatever ; and he can- Melagaches (according to our author) take great pains
not conceive the idea that there are men in the world, with their, hufbands hair; fometimes putting it ia
who trouble themfelves about the evils of futurity.
The population of the ifland has been eftimated at
four millions; but this calculation is thought exag¬
gerated by our author, and indeed it appears incredible
to us. Every tribe or fociety inhabits its own can-
large and regular curls ;. at other times braiding it in
great order, and making it fhine with a particular oil.
which the ifland produces.. The men always carry in,
their hands a wooden lance headed with iron, which
is commonly made very neat; and they are fuch ex¬
ton, and is governed by its own cuftoms. Each of cellent markfinen,. that they will ftrike with it a very
6 fmali
MAD r 397 J M A D
MaJsgaf- fmall objefk at 30 or 40 yards diftance. They have
^ alfo commonly a mufket, which they get from Euro-
cans in exchange for cattle, and are always fare to
eep in excellent order. I am forry to fay (continues
Mr Ives) that the Englifh are frequently guilty of
great impofitions in this kind of traffic, by difpofing
of cheap and ill-tempered barrels among the poor in¬
habitants, who fometimes lofe their lives by the burll-
ing of thel'e pieces. Such iniquitous practices as
thefe muft in the end prove injurious to the nation ;
and has indeed already made the name of more than
one half of thefe traders truly infamous among the de¬
luded but hitherto friendly Madagafcarians.
“ They are a civil and good-natured people, but
cafily provoked, and apt to fliow their refentment on
the leaft provocation, efpecially when they think
themfelves injured or flighted. Another characterif-
tic of them is, the very high notions of dignity they
entertam of their king; which is carried to fuch a
height, that they are never more fenfibly hurt than
when they imagine he is treated with incivility or dif-
refpect. This mighty monarch refides in a town
built with mud, about 12 miles up the country from
St Auguftine’s Bay. On the eaft fide of the bay, as
you enter, there refided one Prince William, a rela¬
tion and tributary to the king; but who in moft cafes
adted as an independent prince, and always ufed his
utmofl endeavours with the officers to caufe them buy
their provifions from him, and not from the king or
his fubjetts. In this prince’s territories, not far from
the fea, are the remains of a fort built by Avery the
Pirate.
“ All the women of Madagafcar, excepting the
very poorefl fort, wear a covering over their breafls
and fhoulders, ornamented with glafs beads, and none
go without a cloth about their loins. They common¬
ly walk with a long flender rod or flick. The men
are allowed to. marry as many women as they can
fupport.
“ During our flay at this ifiand (fays Mr Ives), I
©bferved, with great concern, feveral miferable objedls
in the lail flage of the venereal difeafe. They had
not been able to find any cure ; and as far as I could
karn, their dodlors are totally ignorant of medicine.
The only method they ufe for curing all diflempers,
as well external as internal, is the wearing on the arm
or neck- a particular charm or amulet; or befmearing
the part affedled with earth moiftened with the juice
of tome plant or tree, and made up into a foft pafle.
“ I took fome pains to learn their religious tenets;
and find that they worfhip one Univerfal Father;
whom, when they ipeak in Englifh, they call God;
and in whom they conceive all kinds of perfection to
refide. The fun they look upon as a glorious body ;
and, I believe, as a fpiritual being, but created and
dependent. They frequently look up to it with won¬
der, if not with praife and adoration. They make
their {applications to the One Almighty, and offer fa-
cifices to him in their difireffes. 1 had the curiofity
to attend a facrifice, at the Imt of John Anderfon,
whole father had for a long time been afHicled with
ficknefs. About fun-fet an ox was brought into the
yard ; and the fon, who officiated as priefl,. flew it.
An altar was reared nigh, and the poll of it was
fprmkkd with the blood of the victim. The head,
after its being fevered from the body, was placed, Madi
with the horns on, at the foot of the altar : the caul
was burned on the fire, and mofl of the pluck and en¬
trails' boiled in a pot. The lick man, who was brought
to the door, and placed on the ground fo as to face
the facrifice, prayed often, and feemingly with great
fervency. His eyes were fixed attentively towards the
heavens, and his hands held up in a fupplicating po-
flure. The ceremony ended with the fon's cutting up
the ox into fmall pieces ; the greateft part of which
he dillributed among the poor Haves belonging to his
father and himfelf; referving, however, fome- of the
bejl pieces for his own ufe. Upon the whole, I faw
fo many circumllances in this Madagafcarian facrifice,
fo exadlly refembling thofe defcribed in the Old Te-
flament as offered up by the Jews, that I could not
turn my thoughts back to the original, without being
fenfibly flruck by the exaftnefs of the copy.”
When the fquadron firfl arrived at Madagafear, the
king of Baba, a man of about 60 years of age, was
ill of the gout. Having demanded of admiral Wat-
fon fome prefents, the latter complimented him, among
other things, with fome brandy. The monarch then
afked him if he had any do&or with him, and if he
was a great do&or, and a king’s dodlor ? To all which
being anfwered in the affirmative, he defired him to
bring fome mahomets (medicines) for his fick knee.
With this requifition Mr Ives defigned to- comply ;
but having waited until fome officers fhould be ready
to accompany him, his majefly, in the mean time,
took fuch a dofe of brandy as quickly fent the gout
into his head, and occafioned his death. Mr Ives ob-
ferves, that it happened very luckily for him that the
monarch’s deceafe happened without his having taken
any of the medicines intended for him, as t would
have been impoffible to avoid the imputation of ha¬
ving poifoned him, which would certainly have been
refented by his loyal, fubjedls.
The king’s death occafioned great confufion ; the
grandees being defirous that it fhould be concealed for
fome time. This, however, was found impoffible ; on
which they fet off for the Mud Town about 11 o’clock
the fame evening. All the inhabitants of the village
followed their example ; leaving only the dogs, who-
fet up the mofl hideous howling. Captain Frederic
Martin coming to take leave of the Enghrtv, begged
with great earneflnefs for a frefh fopply of gun-povv-.
der; whifpering that the king was dead,, and that
they fhould in all probability go to war about making
another. They had been formerly toldr, that one who-
had the title of duhe of Baba would certainly fucceed
to the throne;. but they afterwards learned, that Phi-
libey the general having efpoufed the caufe of Ra-
phanl the late king’s fon, and taken him under his tu¬
telage and protection, this youth, who was only about
16 years of age, focceeded his father as king of
Baba.
The following is a defeription of the fouthern divi-
fiomof tlie ifland, from the Abbe Rochon..
“ That part of Madagafcar in which fort Dauphin-
is fitnated is very populous. Almofl all the. villages
are placed on eminences, and furrounded with two rows
of ftrong pallifadoes, fomewhat in the manner of fuch.
of our fences as are compofed of hurdles- and turf.
Within, is a parapet of foiid. earth about four feet in-
height;
MAD l 398 ] MAD
&4a.hga^
height; large pointed bamboos placed at the diftance
of five feet from each other, and funk in a pit, form
a kind of loop-holes, which contribute towards the de¬
fence of thefe villages, fome of which are befides for¬
tified with a ditch ten feet in breadth and fix in
depth. The dwelling of the chief is called a denac.
When the chiefs go abroad, they are always provided
with a muiket and a flick arired with iron, and adorn¬
ed at the extremity with a little tuft of cow’s hair.
They wear a bonnet of red wool. It is chiefly by the
-colour of their bonnet that they are diftinguifhed from
their fubjefts. Their authority is extremely limited ;
however, in the province of Carcanojfi, the lands by
cuftom belong to their chiefs, who diftribute them a-
mong their fubjefts for the purpofes of cultivation
they exact a trifling , quit-rent in return, which in their
language is called faenfa.-—The people of Carcanoffi
are not altogether ignorant of the art of writing ; they
even poflefs fome hiftorical works in the Madagafcar
tongue : but their learned men, whont they term Om-
biajfest make ufe .of .the Arabic characters alone. They
have treatifes on medicine, geomancy, and judicial a-
ftrology ; the moft renowned live in the projunce of
Matatane : it is in that diftrict that magic ftill remains
in all its glory ; the Matanes are actually dreaded by
the other Madecaflees on account of their excellence
in this delufive art. The Ombiaffes have public fchools
in which they teach gcomancy and aftrology. The
natives have undoubtedly learned the art of writing
from the Arabians, who made a conquefl of this ifland
about 300 years fince.
“ The people of the province of jdnoJJi, near fort
Dauphin, are lively, gay, lenfihle, and grateful; they
are pafiionately fond of women; are never melancholy in
their company.; and the-ir principal occupation is to
pleafe the fex.: indeed, whenever they meet their wives,
they begin to fing and dance. The women, from being
happy, are always in good humour. Their lively and
cheerful character is extremely pleafing to the Euro¬
peans. I have often been prefent at their aflemblies,
where affairs of importance have been agitated ; I have
obferved their dances, their fports, and their amufe-
ments, and I have found them free from thofe exeeffes
which are but too common among poliflied nations.
Indeed I was too young at this time for my obferva-
tions to be of much weight: but if my experience be
infufficient to infpire ponfidence, I beg the reader will
rather confider the nature of things, than the relations
given by men without principles or intelligence, who
fancy that they have a right to tyrannize over the in¬
habitants of every country which they can fubdue.
If the people of Madagafcar .have fometimes availed
themfelves of treachery, they have been forced to it by
the tyranny of the Europeans. The weak have no
other arms agpinft the ftrong. Cotild they defend them-
Telves by any ■ other means from our artillery and
bayonets ? They are uninformed and helplefs; and we
avail ourfelves of their vveaknefs, in otder to make them
fubmit to our covetoufnefs and caprice. They receive
the moft cruel and oppreffive treatment, in return for
the hofpitality which they generoufly beftow on us ;
and we call them traitors and cowards, when we force
them to break the yoke with which we have been
pleafed to load them.”
Jn the fecond volume of Count Benyowiky’s Me¬
moirs and Travels we have the following, account of
the religion, government, &c. of the people of this
ifland.
“ The Madagafcar nation believe in a Supreme Being,
whom they call Zanbam, which denotes creator of all
things. They honour and revere this Being ; but have
dedicated no temple to him, and much lefs have they
fubftituted idols. They make facri flees, by killing
oxen and fheep, and they addrefs all thefe libations to
God. It has been afferted, that this nation likewife
makes offerings to the devil: but in this there is a de¬
ception ; for. the piece of the facrificed beaft which is
ufually thrown into the fire is not intended in honour
of the devil, as is ufually pretended. This cuftom is
very ancient, and no one can tell the true reafon of it.
With regard to the immortality of the foul, the Ma¬
dagafcar people are perfuaded, that, after their death,
their fpirit will return again to the region in which the
Zanhare dwells; but they by no means admit that the
fpirit of man, after his death, can fuffer any evil. As
to the diftindtion of evil or good, they are perfuaded
that the good and upright man fliall be recompenfed,
in this life, by a good ftate of health, the conftancy
of his friends, the increafe of his fortuhes, the obedi¬
ence of his children, and the happinefs of beholding
the profperity of his family : and they believe that the
wicked man’s fate fliall be the contrary to this. The
Madagafcar people, upon l;hi5 conviction, when they
make oaths, add benedictions in favour of thofe who
keep them, and curfes againft thofe who break them. In
this manner it is that they appeal to the judgment of
Zanhare, in making agreements; and it has never been
known, or heard of, that a native of Madagafcar has
broken his oath, provided it was made in the ufual
manner, which they fay was preferibed by their forefa¬
thers.
“ As to their kings and form of government, &c.
The Madagafcar people have always acknowledged
the line of Ramini, as that to which the rights of Am-
panfacabe or fovereign belongs. They have confider-
ed this line as extindl fince the death of Dian Rami¬
ni Larizon, which happened 66 years ago, and whofe
body was buried upon a mountain, out of which the
river Manangourou fprings ; but having acknowledged
the heir of this line on the female fide, they re-efta-
bliftied this title in the year 1776. The right of the
Ampanfacabe confifts in nominating the Rohandrians
to affift in the cabars, at which all thofe who are cited
are bound to appear, and the judgment of the Am¬
panfacabe in his cabar is decifive. Another preroga¬
tive of the Ampanfacabe is, that each Rohandrian
is obliged to leave him by will a certain proportion
of his property, which the fucceflors ufually purchafe
by a flight tribute or fine. Thirdly, the Ampanfa¬
cabe has a right to exaft from each Rohandrian one
tenth of the produce of his land, and a number of
horned cattle and flaves, in proportion to the riches of
the country poffeffed by each Rohandrian.— The fecond
order is compofed of the Rohandrians, or princes. .Since
the lofs of the Ampanfacabe, three of thefe Rohan¬
drians have affumed the title of kings, namely the Ro¬
handrian of the province of Mahavelou, named Hiavi;
of the province of Voemar, named Lambpuin ; and a
third at Bombetoki, named Cimanounpou. The third
order confifts of the Voadziri, or lords of a diilrift,
compofed
Madagaf*
Mndapaf-
M A 1> l 399 h MAD
compofed of feveral villages. The fourth order con-
fiits of the Lohavohits, or chiefs of villages. The
fifth order, Odzatzi, who* are freemen, and compofe
the attendants or followers of the Rohandrians, Voad-
ziri, or Lohavohits. The fixth order confifts of Om-
bialfes, or learned men ; and this order forms the
warrisrs, workmen, phyficians, and diviners : thefe laft
poffefs no charge. Tire feventh order confifts of Am-
puria.i or Haves.
“ Having made inquiries from Bomhetoki paffing to
the northward, and as far as Itapere, the refult proved
that there are 38 Rohandrians adfually reigning, and
287 Voadziri. With refpeft to the Lohavohits, Ond-
zatzi, and Ombiaftes, it was not poffible to obtain any
accurate determination of their number. Thefe or¬
ders preferve a regular gradation, respecting which it
would be very difficult to give a detailed account.
They live in the manner we read of concerning the
ancient patriarchs. Every father of a family is prieft
and judge in his own houfe, though he depends upon
the Lohavohits, who fuperintends his condudf. This
laft is anfwerable to his Voadziri, and the Voadziri
to the Rohandrian.
“ The Madagafear people having no communication
with the main land of ^Ethiopia, have not altered
their primitive laws ; and the language throughout
the whole extent of the ifland is the fame. It would
be a r9fh attempt to determine the. origin of this na¬
tion ; it is certain that it confifts of three diftindt
races, who have for ages pall formed intermixtures
which vary to infinity. The firft race is that of Zafe
Ibrahim, or defendants of Abraham ; but they have
no veftige of Judaifm, except circumcifion, and fome
names, fuch as Ifaac, Reuben, Jacob, &c. This race
is of a brown colour.—The fecond race is that of Za-
feramini: with refpedf to this, fome books which are
ftill extant among the Ombiaffes, affirm, that it is
not more than fix centuries fince their arrival at Ma¬
dagafear.—With refpedf to the third race of Zafe
Canambou, it is of Arabian extradlion, and arrived
much more lately than the others from the coafts of
^Ethiopia: hence it poffefies neither power nor credit,
and fills only the charges of writers, hiftorians,poets, &c.
“ In regard to arts and trades, the Madagafear na¬
tion are contented with fuch as are neceffary to make
their moveables, tools, utenfils, and arms for defence ;
to conftrudt their dwellings,, and the boats which are
neceffary for their navigation ; and laftly, to fabricate
cloths and fluffs for their cloathing. They, are de-
firous only of poffeffing the neceffary fupplies of im¬
mediate utility and convenience. The principal and
moft refpe&ed bufinefs, is the manufacture of iron
and fteel. The artifts in this way call themfelveS'am-
panefa vihe. They are very expert in fufing the ore,
and forging utenfils, fuch as hatchets, hammers,, an-!
vils, knives, fpades, fagayes, razors, pincers, or twee¬
zers for pulling out the hair, &c. The fecond clafs
confifts of the goldfmiths (smpanefa vela menu J: they caft
gold in ingots,and make up bracelets,buckles, ear-rings,
drops, rings,.&c. The third are called ompavillanga,
and are potters. The fourth are the ompanevattar or
turners in wood, who make boxes called.nafto, plates,
wooden and horn fpoons, bive-hives, coffins, &c. The
fifth, ompan cacafoti, or carpenters. They are very
expert in this bufmefs, and make ufe of the rule, the
plane, the compaffes, &c. The fixth are the empa- Malaga?.
niavi, or rope-makers. They make their ropes of car' ,
different kinds of bark of trees, and likewife of hemp. '
The feventh, ampan lambo, or weavers. This bufinefs
is performed by women only, and it would be reckon¬
ed difgraceful in a man to exereife it. The ombiajfes
are the literary men and phyficians, who give advice
only. The herauvUi are comedians and dancers.
“ The Madagafear people always live in fociety; that
is to fay, in towns and villages. The towns are fur-
rounded by a ditch and pallifades (as already mention¬
ed), at the extremities of which a guard from 12 to
20 armed men is kept. The houfes of private people
confift of a convenient cottage, furrounded by feveral
fmall ones: the mafter of the houfe dwells in the
largeft, and his women or Haves lodge in the fmaller.
Thefe houfes are built of wood, covered with leaves
of the palm-tree or ftraw.
“ The houfes of the great men of the country are
very fpacious; each houfe is compofed of two walls
and four apartments : round about the principal houfe
other fmaller habitations are built for the accommo¬
dation of the women, and the whole family of the
chief; but the Haves cannot pafs the night wdthin
them. Moft of the houfes inhabited by the Rohan¬
drians are built with tafte and admirable fymmetry.”
The. French attempted to conquer and take poffefi*
fion of the whole ifla»d, by order, and for the ufe of,
their Moft Chriftian Majeities-, Louis XIII. and XIV.
and they maintained a footing oa it. from the year
1642 to 1657. Luring this period, by the moft cruel
treachery, they taught the native princes the barba¬
rous traffic in Haves, by villanoufly felling to the
Dutch governor df Mauritius, a number of innocent
people, who had been affifting them in. forming a
fettlement at Fort Dauphin.
The Abbe Rochon tells us, that the infalirbrity of the
air in Madagafear determined his countrymen in i 66410
quit that immenfe ifland, in order to eltablifli them-
felves at fo inconfiderable a place as the Ifle of Bour¬
bon,.which is fcarcely perceptible in a map of the
globe : but it is apparent, from the. account of the.
ftate of the French affairs on the. ifland of Madagafear
in 1661, when Flacourt’s narrative was publilhed, that
their ill treatment of the natives had raifed fuch a ge¬
neral and formidable oppofition to their refidence in
the country, that the French were obliged to abandon
their poffeffions for other reafons than the unhealthy
qualities of the climate. We have not room here for
a detail of all the oppreffive meafures of the French,
which the Abbe himfelf candidly cenfures in the
ftrongeft terms ; but /hall extract the following narra¬
tive, both becanfe it is interefting in itfelf,. and exhi¬
bits the caufes and the itfeans of their expulfion.
La Cafe, one of the French officers employed by
the governor of Fort Dauphin againft the natives,,
was fo fuccefsful in all his enterprifes, that they called
him Deaan Pous, the name of a chief who had for¬
merly conquered the whole ifland. The. French go¬
vernor, jealous of his renown, treated him harihly, and
refufed to allow him the.rank. or. honours due to his
valour. The fovereign of the province of Amboulle,
called Dtaan Ra/citat, taking advantage of his difeon-
tent, prevailed on him to become his general. Fivt*
Frenchmen followed him. Deaan Nong, the daugh¬
ter
MAD [ ago ] MAD
Madagaf. ter of Rafcitat, captivated by the perfon and lieroifm
. car‘ of La Cafe, offered him her hand with the confent of
her father. The chief, grown old, infirm, and arrived
at the laft flage of exigence, had the fatisfa&ion of
fecuring the happinefs of his fubje&s, by appointing
his fon-in-law abfolate mafter of the rich province of
Amboulle. La Cafe, in marrying Deaan Nong, re-
fufed to take the titles and honours attached to the
fovereign power : he would accept of no other cha-
rafter, than that of the firfl fubjett of his wife, who
was declared fovereign at the death of her father. Se¬
cure in tire affeftion of this princefs, who was not
only pofTeffed of perfonal charms, but of courage and
great qualities, he was beloved and refpe&ed by her
family, and by all the people of Amboulle, who reve¬
renced him as a father ; and yet, how much foever he
wifhed it, he was unable to contribute to the profpe-
rity of his countrymen at Fort Dauphin, whom he
knew to be in the utmoft diftrefs. The governor, re¬
garding him as a traitor, had fet a price on his head,
and on the heads of the five Frenchmen who had fol¬
lowed him. The neighbouring chiefs, irritated at this
treatment of a man whom they fo much venerated,
unanimoufly refufed to fupply the fort with provifions.
This occafioned a famine in the place, which, with a
contagious fever and other maladies, reduced the
French garrifon to 80 men.
The eftablilhment at Fort Dauphin, on the point of
being totally deilroyed, was preferved for a fhort time
from ruin by the arrival of a veflel from France, com¬
manded by Kercadio an officer of Brittany, who, with
the affiftance of a young advocate who had been kid¬
napped on board the veflel, prevailed on the envious
and implacable governor Chamargou, to make peace
with La Cafe and his fovereign fpoufe Deaan Nong.
This peace, however, larted but for a Ihort time ; the
'French, reftlefs and infolent to the neighbouring na¬
tions, again drew on them the vengeance of the na¬
tives. Even the fe\tf friends whom they had been able
to acquire by means of La Cafe, were rendered hoftile
to them by the tyrannic zeal of the miffionaries ;
who, not contented with being tolerated and allowed
to make converts, infilled on Deaan Manang fove-
rcign of Mandrarey, a powerful, courageous, and in¬
telligent chief, well-difpofed to the French, to divorce
all his wives but one. This prince, not convinced
of the neceffity of fuch a meafure, alfured them
that he was unable to change his habits and way
of living, which were thofe of his forefathers. “ You
would allow me (fays' he) to have one wife ; but if
the polfeffion of one woman is a bleffing, why Ihould
a numerous feraglio be an evil, while peace and con¬
cord reign among thofe of whom it is compofed ?
Do you fee among us any indications of jealoufy or
hatred? No, all our-women are good ; all try to make
me happy ; and I am more their flave than their ma¬
iler.” This fpeech had no effedl on father Stephen,
fuperior of the Madagafcar miffion. He perempto¬
rily ordered him inilantly to repudiate all his
wives except one ; and threatened, in prefence of the
women, to have them taken from him by the French
foldiers if he hefitated in complying with his com¬
mands. It is eafy to imagine, fays M. Rochon, with
what indignation this language muft have been heard
N° 190.
in the donae or palace of this prince. The females af- Madagsf.
failed the miffionary on all fides 5 loaded him with ex- judder
ecrations and blows ; and, fn their fury, would doubt- . ^ er*«
lefs have afforded him no more quarter than the Thra¬
cian women did Orpheus, if Deaan Manang, notwith-
ftanding his own agitation, had not made ufe of all his
authority to fave him.
In order to free himfelf from the perfecution of this
prieft, he removed with his family 70 or 80 miles up
into the country ; but he was foon followed by Father
Stephen and another miffionary, with their attend¬
ants. The chief, Manang, ftill received them civilly}
but he intreated them no longer to infill on the con-
verfion of him and his people, as it was impoffible to
oblige them to quit the culloms and manners of their
anceilors. The only reply which Father Stephen
made to this intreaty, was by tearing off the c//, and
the amulets and charms which the chief wore as facred
badges of his own religion ; and, throwing them into
the fire, he declared war againft him and his nation.
This violence inilantly coll him and his followers their
lives: they were all maflacred by order of Manang,
who vowed the dellruAion of all the French in the
illand; in which intention he proceeded in a manner
that has been related by an eye-witnefs, who was after¬
wards provincial commiflary of artillery, in a narrative
publifiled at Lyons in 1722, intitled Voyage deMadagaf¬
car. “ Our yoke (fays the Abbe Rochon) was become
odious and infupportable. Hillorians, for the honour
of civilized nations, Ihould bury in oblivion the af-
flidling narratives of the atrocities execrifed on thefe
people, whom we are pleafed to call barbarous, trea¬
cherous, and deceitful, becaufe they have revolted a-
gainll European adventurers, whofe leaft crime is that
of violating the facqed rites of hofpitality.”
It was about the year 1672 that the French were
totally driven from the illand of Madagafcar; and no
conliderabie attempts were made to form frefli ella-
blilhments there till within thefe few years, by M. de
Modave, and by Count Benyowlki; neither of which
was attended with fuccefs, for: reafons given by the
Abbe, but which we have not room to detail.
MADDER. See Rubia.
M, Macquer obferves, that the Hollanders are ob¬
liged to the refugees from Flanders for the know¬
ledge of manufadluring the root of madder ; and that
they generally cultivate it in frelh lands which have
not been ploughed. The commodity, when manufac¬
tured, is dillinguilhed into different kinds, as grape
madder, bunch-madder, &c. The grape-madder is
the heart of the root; the other, befides the heart,
confilts alfo of the bark and fmall fibres proceeding
from the principal root. For that kind called grape-
madder, the finelt roots are picked out, the bark fepa-
rated at the mill, and the infide root kept moift in calks
for three or four years, which makes it more fit for
dyeing than otherwife it would be. Unlefs madder
be kept clofe in this manner, it is apt to fpoil, and lofes
its bright colour in a great meafure. It is yellow at
firll, but grows red and darker with age. It Ihould
be chofen of a fine faffron colour, in very hard lumps,
and of a llrong though not difegreeable fmell.
The madder ufed for dyeing cottons in the Eaff
Indies, is in fome refpe&s different from that of Eu¬
rope.
MAD
. rope. On the eoaft of Coromandel It ha* the name
’ of chat, and grows wild on the coaft of Malabar.
^ The cultivated kind is imported fromVaour and Tuc-
corin, but the moll efteemed is the Perfian chat called .
allb dumas. Another plant, called raye de chaye, or
colour-root, is alfo gathered on the coalt of Coroman¬
del j but this, though fuppofed to be a fpecies of mad¬
der, is a kind of galiwn Jlore albo, which, however,
gives a tolerable good colour to cotton. Another
fpecies of madder, called chive-boya, and chine-ha%ala,
is cultivated at Kunder in the neighbourhood of Smyr¬
na, and fame other countries of Turkey in Afia. It
is more efteemed than the bell Zealand madder
I 4°* ]
MAD
tanias, named Funchal and Maxico, from the towns Madeljit#
of thofe names. The former contains two judicatures,
viz. Funchal and Calhetta ; the latter being a town
with the title of a county, belonging to the family
of Caftello Melhor. The fecond capitania likewife
comprehends two judicatures, viz. Maxico (read Ma-
ftiico) and San Vicente.
Funchal is the only cidade or city in this illand,
which has alfo feven villas or towns ; of which there
are four, Calhetta, Camara de Lobos, Ribeira Braba,
and Ponta de Sol in the capitania of Funchal, which
is divided into 26 garilhes. The other three are in
the capitania of Maxico, which confifts of 17 parifhes;
ported into thefe parts by the Dutch; and experiments thefe towns are called Maxico, San Vicente, and Santa
have Ihown that it is fuperior to any other kind as a Cruz.
dyeing ingredient. The modern Greeks call this The governor is at the head of all the civil and
kind of madder lizari, and the Arabs fonoy. The fine military departments of this ifiand, of Porto-Santo,
colour of thefe madders, however, are by our author the Salvages, and the Ilhas Defartas; which laft only
attributed to their being dried in the air, and not in contain the temporary huts of fome-filhermen, who
refort thither in purfuit of their bufinefs.
The law-department is under the corregidor, who
is appointed by the king of Portugal, commonly fent
from Lilbon, and holds his place during the king’s
pleafure. All caufes come to him from inferior courts
by appeal. Each judicature has a fenate ; and a Juiz
or judge, whom they choofe, prefides over them. At
Funchal he is called Juiz da Fora; and in the ab-
ftoves. Another kind of madder Is produced in Ca¬
nada, where it is called ty/fa-voyana ; its qualities are
nearly the fame with the European kind.
The root of madder impregnates water with a dull
red colour, and fpirit of wine with a deep bright red.
This root, when eat by animals along with their food,
tinges their urine, and their moft folid bones, of a deep
red. Wool previoufly boiled in a folution of alum and
tartar, receives from a hot decoftion of madder and fence, or after the death of the corregidor, a619 ;
tartar a very durable but not a very beautiful red co- his deputy. The foreign merchants elect their own
lour. Mr Margraaf (Berlin Mem. 1771), ftiowshow judges, called the Providor, who is at the fame time
a very durable lake of. a fine red colour, fit for the colle6tor of the king’s cuftoms and revenues, which
purpofes of painting, may be obtained from madder, amount in all to about 12,0001. Sterling. Far the
This procefs is as follows: Take two ounces of the greateft part of this fum is applied towards the
pureft Roman alum, and diffolve it in three French falaries of civil and military officers, the pay of troops,
quarts of diftilled water that has boiled, and in a clean and the maintenance of public buildings. This re¬
glazed pot. Set the pot on the fire ; and when the venue arifes, firft from the tenth of all the produce of
water begins to boil, withdraw it, and add two oun- this ifland belonging to the king, by virtue of his
ces of the beft Dutch madder. Boil the mixture once office as grand mafter of the order of Chrift ; fecondly,
or twice; then remove it from the fire, and filter it from ten per cent, duties laid on all imports, provi-
through a double filter of paper not coloured. Let fions excepted; and laftly, from the eleven per cent.
the liquor thus filtrated Hand a night to fettle, and
pour off the clear liquor into the glazed pot previoufiy
well cleaned. Make the liquor hot, and add to it
gradually a clear folution of fait of tartar in water.
charged on all exports.
The ifland has but one company of regular foldiers
of 100 men: the reft of the military force is a mi¬
litia confifting of 3000 men, divided into companies.
till all the madder is precipitated. Filtrate the mix- each commanded by a captain, who has one lieutenant
ture ; and upon the red precipitate which remains up- under him and one enfign. There is no pay given to
on the filter pour boiling diftilled water, till the water either the private men or the officers of this militia ;
no longer acquires a faline tafte. The red lake is and yet their places are much fought after, on account
then to be gently dried. No other water, neither rain of the rank which they communicate. Thefe troops
nor river water, produces fo good a colour as that are embodied once a-year, and exercifed once a-month.
which has been diftilled, and the quantity required of All the military are commanded by the Serjeante Mor.
this is confiderable. The colour of the above preci- The governor has two Capitanos de Sal about him,
pitate is deep ; but if two parts of madder be ufed to who do duty as aides-de-camp.
one part of alum, the colour will be ftill deeper : one The fecular priefts on the ifland are about 1200,
part of madder and four parts of alum produces a beau¬
tiful rofe colour.
MADEIRAS, a clufter of iflands fituated in the
Atlantic ocean in W. Long. 160, and betwe-n 320 and
many of whom are employed as private tutors. Since
the expulfion of the Jefuits, no regular public fchool
is to be found here ; unlefs we except a feminary,
where a prieft, appointed for that purpofe, inftrmfta
33° N. Lat.—The largeft of them, called Madeira, at\d educates ten ftudents at the king’s expence. Thefe
from which the reft take their name, is about 55 wear a red cloak over the ufual black gowns worn
Englifli miles long, and 10 miles broad; and was firft by ordinary ftudents. All thofe who intend to go
difeovered on the 2d of July, in the year 1419, by into orders, are obliged to qualify themfelves by
Joao Gonzales Zarco, there being no hrftorical foun- ftudying in the univerfity of Coimbra, lately re-efta- /
dation for the fabulous report of its difeovery by one blifhed in Portugal. There is alfo a dean and chap./
Machin an Engliftiman. It is divided into two capi- ter at Madeira, with a bifliop at their head, whofe
Vol.X. Part II. 3E income
MAD L 402 ] MAD
Madeifas. income is confiderably greater than the governor’s ;
it confifts of 110 pipes of wine, and of 40 muys of
wheat, each containing 24 bufhels ; which amounts
in common years to 30001. Sterling. Here are like-
wife 60 or 70 Francifcan friars, in four monafteries,
«ne of which is at Funchal. About 300 nuns live on
the ifland, in four convents, of the order of Merci,
Sta, Clara, Incarnacao, and Bom Jefus. Thofe of
the laft mentioned inftitution may marry whenever they
choofe, and leave their monaftry.
In the year 1768, the inhabitants living in the 43
pariihes of Madeira, amounted to 63,913, of whom
there were 31,341 males and 32,572 females. But
in that year 5243 perfons died, and no more than
2198 children were born ; fo that the number of the
dead exceeded that of the born by 3045. It is high¬
ly probable that fome epidemical diilemper carried off
fo difproportionate a number in that year, as the
ifland would fhortly be entirely depopulated if the
mortality were always equal to this. Another cir-
cumftance concurs to ftrengthen this fuppofition, name¬
ly', the excellence of the climate. The weather is in
general mild and temperate: in fummer, the heat
is very' moderate on the higher parts of the ifland,
whither the better fort of people retire for that fcafon ;
and in the winter the fnow remains there for feveral
days, whilft it is never known to continue above a day
er two in the lower parts.
The common people of this ifland are of a tawney
colour, and well ihaped; though they have large feet,
owing perhaps to the efforts they are obliged to make
in climbing the craggy paths of this mountainous
country. Their faces are oblong, their eyes dark ;
their black hair naturally falls in ringlets, and begins to
crifp in fome individuals, which may perhaps be owing
to intermarriages with negroes; in general, they are
hard-featured, but not difagreeable. Their women
ars too frequently ill-favoured, and want the florid
complexion, which, when united to a pleafing affem-
blage of regular features, gives our northern fair ones
the fuperiority over all their fex. They are fmall,
have prominent cheek-bones, large feet, an ungraceful
gait, and the colour of the darkeft brunette. The
juft proportion of the body, the fine form of their
hands, and their large, lively eyes, feem in fome
meafure to compenfate for thofe defefts. The labour¬
ing men, in fummer, wear linen trowfers, a coarfe
fhirt, a large hat, and boots ; fome have a fhort jacket
made of cloth, and a long cloak, which they fome-
times carry over their arm. The women wear a pet¬
ticoat, and a fhort corfelet or jacket, clofely fitting
their fhapes, which is a Ample, and often not an in¬
elegant drefs. They have alfo a ftiort, but wide
cloak ; and thofe that are unmarried tie their hair on
the crown of their head, on which they wear no co¬
vering.
The country people are exceeding fober and frugal;
their diet in general confifting of bread and onions,
or other roots, and little animal-food. However,
they avoid eating tripe, or any offals, becaufe it is
proverbially faid of a very poor man, “ He is reduced
to eat tripe.” Their common drink is water, or an
infufion of the remaining rind or fl<in of the grape
(after it has paffed through the wine-prefs), which
when fermented acquires fome tartnefsandacidity, but
cannot be kept very long. The wine for which the Madeirae.
ifland is fo famous, and which their own hands prepare, —■v——^
feldom if ever regales them.
Their principal occupation is the planting and raf¬
fing of vines; but as that branch of agriculture re¬
quires little attendance during the greateft part of the
year, they naturally incline to idlenefs. The warmth
of the climate, which renders great provifion againft
the inclemencies of weather unneceffary, and the cafe
with which the cravings of appetite are fatisfied, muft
tend to indolence, wherever the regulations of the
legiflafure do not counteraft it, by endeavouring, with
the profpeft of increafing happinefs, to infufe the fpi-
rit of induftry. It feems the Portuguefe government
does not purfue the proper methods againft this dan¬
gerous lethargy of the ftate. They have lately order¬
ed the plantation of olive trees here, on fuch fpots as
are too diy and barren to bear vines ; but they have
not thought of giving temporary afliftance to the la¬
bourers, and have offered no premium by which thefe
might be induced to conquer their relu&ance to inno¬
vations and averfion to labour.
The vineyards are held only on an annual tenure,
and the farmer reaps but four-tenths of the produce,
fince four other tenths are paid in kind to the owner
of the land, one tenth to the king, and one to the
clergy. Such fmall profits, joined to the thought of
toiling merely for the advantage of others, if improve¬
ments were attempted, entirely preclude the hopes of
a future increafe. Oppreffed as they are, they have
however preferred a high degree of cheerfulnefs and
contentment; their labours are commonly alleviated
with fongs, and in the evening they affemble from
different cottages to dance to the drowfy mufic of a
guittar.
The inhabitants of the towns are more ill-favoured
than the country-people, and often pale and lean.
The men wear French clothes, commonly black, which
do not feem to fit them, and have been in fafliion in
the polite world about half a century ago. Their
ladies are delicate, and have agreeable features: but
the charadteriftic jealoufy of the men ftill locks them
up, and deprives them of a happinefs which the coun¬
try-women, amidft all their diftreffes, enjoy. Many
of the better people are a fort of petite noblejfe,
which we would call gentry, whofe genealogical pride
makes them unfociahle and ignorant, and caufes a
ridiculous affe&ation of gravity. The landed proper¬
ty is in the hands of a few ancient families, who live
at Funchal, and in the various towns on the ifland.
Madeira confifts of one large mountain, whofe
branches rife every-where from the fea towards the
centre of the ifland, converging to the fummit, in the
midft of which is a depreffion or excavation, called the
Val by the inhabitants, always covered with a frelh
and delicate herbage. The ftones on the ifland feem to
have been in the fire, are full of holes, and of a black-
ifh colour ; in ftiort, the greater part of them are lava.
A few of them are of the kind which the Derbyfhire
miners call dunjlone. The foil of the whole ifland is
a tarras mixed with fome particles of clay, lime, and
fand, and has much the fame appearance as fome
earths on the ifle of Afcenfion. From this circum-
ftance, and from the excavation of the fummit of the
mountain, it is probable, that in. fome remote period
MAD [ 403 ] MAD
Madeiras a volcano has produced the lava and the ochreous
* particles, and that the Val was formerly its crater.
Many brooks and fmall rivulets defeend from the
fummits in deep chafms or glens, which feparate the
various parts of the ifland. The beds of the brooks are
in fome places covered with ftones of all fizes, carried
down from the higher parts by the violence of winter-
rains or floods of melted fnow. The water is con¬
duced by wears and channels in the vineyards, where
each proprietor has the ufe of it for a certain time;
fome being allowed to keep a conftant fupply of it,
fome to ufe it thrice, others twice, and others only
once a-week. As the heat of the climate renders this
fupply of water to the vineyards abfolutely neceflary,
it is not without great expence that a new vineyard
can be planted; for the maintenance of which, the
owners muft purchafe water at a high price, from
thofe who are conftantly fupplied, and are thus en¬
abled to fpare fome of it.
Wherever a level piece of ground can be contrived
in the higher hills, the natives make plantations of
eddoes enclofed by a kind of dike to caufe a flag-
nation, as that plant fucceeds beft in fwampy ground.
Its leaves ferve as food for hogs, and the coun¬
try-people ufe the foots for their own nourilh-
xnent.
The fweet potatoe is planted for the fame pur-
pofe, and makes a principal article of diet; toge¬
ther with chefnuts, which grow in extenfive woods,
on the higher parts of the ifland, where the vine
will not thrive. Wheat and barley are likewife
fown, efpecially in fpots where the vines are decaying
* through age, or where they are newly planted. But
the crops do not produce above three months provi-
fions; and the inhabitants are therefore obliged to have
recourfe to other food, befides importing confiderable
quantities of corn from North America in exchange
for wine. The want of manure, and the inaCivity
of the people, are in fome meafure the caufes of this
difadvantage ; but fuppofing hulbandry to be carried
to its perfection here, they could not raife corn fuffi-
cient for their confumption. They make their threfli-
ing-floors of a circular form, in a corner of a field,
which is cleared and beaten folid for the purpofe.
The Iheaves are laid round about it; and a fquare
board, ftuck full of fliarp flints below, is dragged over
them by a pair of oxen, the driver getting on it to
increafe its weight. This machine cuts the ftraw as
if it had been chopped, and frees the grain from the
hulk, from which it is afterwards feparated.
The great produce of Madeira is the wine, from
which it has acquired fame and fupport. Where the
foil, expofure, and fupply of water, will admit of it,
the vine is cultivated. One or more walks, about a
yard or two wide, interfect each vineyard, and are
included by ftone-walls two feet high. Along thefe
walks, which are arched over -with laths about feven
feet high, they erett wooden pillars at regular dif-
tances, to fupport a lattice-work of bamboos, which
flopes down from both fides of the walk, till it is only
a foot and a half or two feet high, in which elevation
it extends over the whole vineyard. The vines are in
this manner fupported from the ground, and the peo¬
ple have room to root out the weeds which fpring up
between them. In the feafon of the vintage, they
creep under this lattice-work, cut off the grapes, Madeira^
and lay them into balkets : fome bunches of thefe ' 1
grapes weigh fix pounds and upwards. This method
of keeping the ground clean and moift, and ripening
the grapes in the lhade, contributes to give the Ma¬
deira wines that excellent flavour and body for which
they are remarkable. The owners of vineyards are
however obliged to allot a certain fpot of ground for
the growth of bamboos ; for the lattice work cannot
be made without them ; and it is faid fome vineyards
lie quite negle&ed for want of this ufeful reed.
The wines are not all of equal goodnefs, and con-
fequently of different prices. The beft, made of a
vine imported from Candia by order of the Infante
of Portugal, Don Henry, is called Madeira Malm fey,
a pipe of which cannot be bought on the fpot for lefs
than 40 or 421. Sterling. It is an exceeding rich
fweet wine, and is only made in a fmall quantity. The
next fort is a dry wine, fuch as is exported for the
London market, at 30 or 311. Sterling the pipe. In¬
ferior forts for the Eaft India, Weft India, and North
American markets, fell at 28, 25, and 201. Sterling.
About 30,000 pipes, upon a mean, are made every
year, each containing no gallons. About 13,000
pipes of the better forts are exported ; and all the reft
is made into brandy for the Brazils, converted into
vinegar, or confumed at home.
The inclofures of the vineyards confift of walls, and
hedges of prickly pear, pomegranates, myrtles, bram¬
bles, and wild rofes. The gardens produce peaches,
apricots, quinces, apples, pears, walnuts, chefnuts,
and many other European fruits ; together with now
and then fome tropical plants, fuch as bananas, goavas,
and pine-apples.
All the common domeftic animals of Europe are
likewife found at Madeira ; and their mutton and
beef, though fmall, is very well tafted. Their horfes
are fmall, but fure-foeted ; and with great agility
climb the difficult paths, which are the only means of
communication in the country. They have no wheel-
carriages of any kind ; but in the town they ufe a fort
of drays or fledges, formed of two pieces of plank
joined by crofs pieces, which make an acute angle be¬
fore ; thefe are drawn by oxen, and are ufed to tranf-
port calks of wine, and other h^avy goods, to and
from the warehoufes.
The animals of the feathered tribe, which live wild
here, are more numerous than the wild quadrupeds;
there being only the common grey rabbit here, as a
reprefentative of the laft-mentioned clafs. Tame birds,
fuch as turkies, geefe, ducks, and hens, are very rare,
which is perhaps owing to the fcarcity of corn.
There are no fnakes whatfoever in Madeira ; but
all the houfes, vineyards, and gardens, fwarm with
lizards. The friars of one of the convents complained
to Mr Forfter, that thefe vermin deftroyed the fruit
in their garden ; they had therefore placed a brafs-
kettle in the ground to catch them, as they are con¬
ftantly running about in queft of food. In this man¬
ner they daily caught hundreds, which could not get
out on account of the fmooth fides of' the kettle, but
were forced to perilh.
The Ihores of Madeira, and of the neighbouring
Salvages and Defertas, are not without filh; but as
they are not in plenty enough for the rigid obfervance
3E 2 of
MAD [ 404 1 MAD
Madia* ©f Lent, pickled herrings are brought from Gottenburg
IJ in Englifh bottoms, and faked cod from New York
Madrepora an(j ot}jCr American ports, to fupply the deficiency.
MADIAN, (anc. geog.) a town of Arabia Pe-
tr*a, near the Arnan ; fo called from one of the fona
of Abraham by Ketura, in ruins in Jerome’s time.
Jerome mentions another Madian, or Midian, be¬
yond Arabia, in the defart, to the fouth of the Red
Sea : and hence Madianai, and Madianitai, the peo¬
ple ; and Madiawea Rcgio, the country.
MADNESS, a moft dreadful kind of delirium,
without fever. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medi¬
cine.
MADOX (Dr Ifaac), an ingenious and worthy
prelate, born of obfcure parents about the year 1696,
who placed him apprentice to a paltry-cook ; but not
reliihing this employment, and having an inclination
to learning, he was put to fchool by fome friends, and
completed his ftudies at Aberdeen. He entered into
orders; and having the good fortune to be made chap¬
lain to Dr Bradford bifhop of Chichefter, he married
his niepe, a very fenfible and worthy lady. From
this time his preferment may be dated ; he was made
king’s chaplain, clerk of the clofet to queen Caroline,
and about the year 1736 bifliop of St Afaph; from
whence, in 1743, he was tranflated to Worcefter. He
was an excellent preacher, and a great promoter of
public charities; particularly the Worcelter infirmary,
and the hofpital for inoculating the fmall-pox at Lon¬
don : his fermon in favour of this latter inftitution,
preached in 1752, was much admired, and contributed
greatly to extend the pra&ice of inoculation. He
publilhed fome other fingle fermons, and a Defence of
the Do&rine and Difcipline of the Church of England,
in anfwer to Mr Neale’s Hiilory of the Puritans.—
Dr Madox died in 1759.
MADRAS. See St George.
MADRE de Popa, a town and convent of South
America, in Terra Firma, feated on the river Grande.
It is almoft as much reforted to by pilgrims of Ame¬
rica as Loretto is in Europe ; and the image of the
Virgin Mary is faid to have done many miracles in
favour of the fea-faring people. W. Lon. 76. ©. N. Lat.
11.0.
MADREPORA, in natural hiftory, the name of a
genus of fubmarine fubftances; the characters of which
are. That they are almoft of a ftony hardnefs, refem-
bling the corals, and are ufually divided into branches,
and pervious by many holes or cavities, which are fre¬
quently of a ftellar figure.
In the Linnaean fyftem, this is a genus of litho-
phyta: The animal that inhabits it is the Medufa ;
it comprehends 39 fpecies. According to Donati,
the madrepora is like the coral as to its hardnefs,
which is equal to bone or marble ; the colour is white
when polilhed ; its furface is lightly wrinkled, and the
wrinkles run lengthwife of the branches; in the centre
there is a fort of cylinder, which is often pierced thro’
.its whole length by two or three holes. From this
cylinder are detached about 17 laminas, which run to
the circumference in ftraight lines ; and are tranfverfe-
ly interfered by other laminse, forming many irregular
cavities ; the cellules, which are compofed of thefe la¬
minae ranged into a circle, are the habitations of little
polypes, which are extremely tender animals, generally
tranfparent, and variegated with beautiful colours. Madreport, i
M. de Peyflbnel obferves, that thofe writers who only Madrid,
confidered the figures of fubmarine fubftances, denomi- * 1 f
nated that clafs of them, which feemed pierced with
holes, pora ; and thofe, the holes of which were large,
they called madrepora He defines them to be all
thofe marine bodies which are of a ftony fubftance,
without either bark or cruft, and which have but one
apparent' opening at each extremity, furnifhed with
rays that proc ed from the centre to the circumference.
He obferves that the body of the animal of the madre¬
pora, whofe' flefti is fo foft that it divides upon the
gentleft touch, fills the centre; the head is placed in
the middle, and furrounded by feveral feet or claws,
which fill the intervals of the partitions obferved in
this fubftance, and are at pleafure brought to its head,
and are furnifhed with yellow papillae. He difeovered
that its head or centre was lifted up occafionally above
the furface, and often contracted and dilated itfelflike
the- pupil of the eye : he faw all its claws moved, as
well as its head or centre. When the animals of the
madrepora are deftroyed, its extremities become white.
In the madrepora, he fays, the animal occupies the ex¬
tremity ; and the fubftance is of a ftony but more loofe
texture than the coral. This is formed, like other
fubftances of the fame nature, of a liquor which the
animal difeharges ; and he farther adds, that there are
fome fpecies of the polype of the madrepora which
are produced fingly, and others in clufters.
MADRID, a town of New Caftile in Spain, and
capital of the whole kingdom, though it never had
the title of a city, is fituated in W. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat.
40. 26. It ftands in the centre of a large plain, fur-
rounded with mountains, and in the very heart of
Spain, on the banks of the little river Manzanares,
which is always very low and ihallow, except when it
is fwelled by the melting of the fnow on the moun¬
tains. The city is in general well laid out; the ftreets
are very handfome; and the houfes are fair and lofty,
but built of brick, with lattice-windows, excepting
thofe of the rich, who have glafc in their windows j
only, during the fummer-heats, they ufe gauze, or
fome fuch thin ftuff, inftead of it, to let in the frelh air.
There are two ftately bridges here over the Manza¬
nares, a great many magnificent churches, convents,
hofpitals, and palaces. The royal palace, which ftands
on the weft fide 6j. the town, on an eminence, is fpaci-
ous and magnificent, confifting of three courts, and
commanding a fine profpeft. At the eaft end of the
town is the prado, or pardo ; which is a delightful plain,
planted with regular rows of poplar trees, and watered
with a great many fountains; where the nobility and
gentry take the air on horfeback, or in their coaches,
and the common people on foot, or divert themfelves
with a variety of fports and exercifes. Almoft all the
ftreets of Madrid are ftraight, wide, clean, and well
paved. The largeft and moft frequented are the ftreet
of Alcala, that of Atocha, that of Toledo, and the
Calk grande or great ftreet. Madrid has alfo feveral
fquares, which in general are not very regular. The
principal are thofe of San Joachim, Sol, Lafganitas,
San Domingo, La Cevado, and the Plaza Mayor.
The latter efpecially deferves notice for its fpacioufnef*
and regularity, and the elegant and lofty houfes it con¬
tains. It is fifteen hundred and thirty-fix feet in cir¬
cuit.
MAD C 4^5 J MAE
Madrid, ciut. The houfes, of which there are 136, are of
five ftories, ornamented with balconies; the firft of
which, fupported by pillars, form a piazza round the
fquare, where the inhabitants may walk under cover.
In the middle of the fquare a market is kept.—The
ftreets and fquares of Madrid, except the Plaza Mayor
which has been juft defcribed, are ornamented with
fountains in a very ill tafte. Thofe moft to be diftin-
guifhed in this particular are the fountain of the fmall
irregular fquare called Plaza di Antonio Martin, and
that of the fquare named Puerto del Sol. The others
are not more magnificent though lefs ridiculous. The
water of all thefe fountains is excellent; and the air
of Madrid, though the weather be variable and uncer¬
tain, is extremely pure. It was this purity of the air
and excellent quality of the water which induced Phi¬
lip II. and his fucceffors to fix their refidence in this
city. It is alfo well fupplied with provifions of all
kinds at reafonable rates; and the court, with the re¬
fort and refidence of the quality, and the high colleges
and offices that are kept here, occafion a briik trade
and circulation of money.
The facred edifices in this city have nothing re¬
markable in their architefture: thofe of St Pafqual,
St Ifabella, and the Carmelites, contain highly valu¬
able collections of pictures which may be feen with
admiration even after the paintings of the Efcurial
and the new palace. The church of St Ifidro, which
heretofore belonged to the Jefuits, has a portal which
has efcaped the contagion of the age in which it was
built. There is another church much more modern,
which on account of its mafs has a venerable appear¬
ance, but which true tafte may juftly difavow : it is
that of St Salefas, or the vifitation, founded by Ferdi¬
nand VI. and the queen Barbara his wife.—The con¬
vent of St Francis has already been fome years build-
• Hourgo- ing *, and there are hopes that it will become one of the
anm's Trc- fineft productions of architecture in the capital.—Be-
veh in Spain, a varjety 0f charitable foundations, there are here
7 three confraternities, the revenues of which are ap¬
propriated to the fuccour of the wretched ; and an in-
ftitution fimilar to the Mont de Piete in Paris, the
principal objeCt of which is to advance money to the
neceffitous.
The city of Madrid contains 15 gates, 18 pariffies,
35 convents of monks, and 31 of nuns; 39 colleges,
hofpitals, or houfes of charity; 7398 dwelling-houfes,
and about 140,000 inhabitants. The Lombard tra¬
veller, Father Caimo, tells us, that 50,000 ffieep and
12,000 oxen are annually confirmed there ; to which
his editor has added a ludicrous eftimate of the onions
and leeks devoured there, which he fays amount to
970000000000000000000000000000045. But this
writer (M. Bourgoanne obferves) would not at prefent
have any reafon to complain of the difagreeable fmells
©f the Itreets, nor would he find all the perfumes of
Arabia neceffary to defend himfelf from them. By
the vigilance of the modern police, for which (M.
Bourgoanne informs us) it is indebted to the count
D’Aranda, it is rendered one of the cleaneft cities in
Europe.
There are four academies in Madrid: The firft is
the Spanilh academy founded in 1714, in imitation of
the French academy, and cOnfifting of 24 members,
including the prefident. Its device is a crucible on,
burning coals, with the motto limpia, fixa, y da efpltn- Madrid
dor; “ it purifies, fixes, and gives luftre.” Its firft M ander
objeft was the compilation of a dictionary of the Spa- ^ \
nifh language, which was publilhed in fix volumes folio,
and of which a new edition, with great additions, has
been lately put to the prefs. The fame academy is
alfo employed on a fuperb edition of Don Quixotte,
adorned with elegant engravings far fuperior to the
laft, and collated with all the former editions. The
fecond is the academy of hiftory ; which owes its ori¬
gin to a fociety of individuals, the object of whofe
meetings was to preferve and illuftrate the hiftorical
monuments of the kingdom of Spain. Their labours
met the approbation of Philip V. who in 1738 con¬
firmed their ftatutes by a royal cedula. This academy
confifts of 24 members, including the prefident, fecre-
tary, and cenfor. Its device is a river at its fource ;
and the motto, In patriam populumque Jluit. The other
two academies are the academy of the fine arts,
painting, fculpture, and architecture ; and the aca¬
demy of medicine. The latter is held in no great
efteem.
The environs of Madrid contain feveral royal feats;
among which are El Buen Retire, Cafa del Campo, Flo¬
rida, Le Pardo, Sarfuela, and St Ildefonfo ; but the moft
magnificent not only in this country but perhaps in the
whole world is the Efcurial, which takes its name from
a fmall village, near which it Hands, about 2 2 miles
north-weft from Madrid; and of which a defeription is
given under ‘the article Escurial. Another royal
palace, greatly admired particularly for it delicious
gardens and furprifing water-works, is Aranjuez, which
is fituated on the Tagus, about 30 miles fouth of
Madrid. See Aranjuez.
MADRIGAL, a ffiort amorous poem, compofed
of a number of free and unequal verfes, neither con¬
fined to the regularity of a fonnet, nor to the point
of an epigram; but only confifting of fome tender and
delicate thought, expreffed with a beautiful, noble,
and elegant fimplicity.
Menage derives the word from mandra, which, in
Latin and Greek, fignifies “ a fiieep-foid;” imagining
it to have been originally a kind of paftoral or ihep-
herd’s fong; whence the Italians formed their madri-
gale, and we madrigal. Others rather choofe to derive
it from the word madrugar, which in the Spaniffi lan¬
guage fignifies “ to rife in the morning;” the madri-
gales being formerly fung early in the morning by thofe
who had a mind to ferenade their miftreffes.
MADURA, a province of Afia, in the peninful*
on this fide the Ganges; bounded on the eaft by
Tanjour and Marava, on the fouth-eaft by the fea,
on the weft by the Balagate mountains, which fepa-
rate it from Malabar, and on the north by Vifapour
and Carnate. The inhabitants are Gentoos, and of
a thieviffi difpofition. The commodities are rice,
elephants teeth, and cotton-cloth ; of which laft a
great deal is made here, and very fine. The Dutch
have a pearl-fifhery, which brings them in a large fura
annually.
MiEANDER (anc. geog.), a celebrated river of
Afia Minor, rifing near Celasnas. It flows through
Caria and Ionia into the TEgean fea between Miletus
and Priene, after it has been increafed by the waters
of the Marfyas, Lycus- Eudon, Lethjeus, &e. It is.
cele*
MAE [ 406 1 MAE
celebrated among the poets for its windings, which
."Mascci-as. amount to not lefs than 600> and from which all obli-
tpities halve received tUe name of maunders. It forms
in its courfe, according to the obfervation of fome tra¬
vellers, the Greek letters and from its wind¬
ings Dcedalus is faid to have had the firft idea of his
famous labyrinth.
MyE ATjdi, anciently a people of Britain, near Se-
■vcrus’s wall, inhabiting the dillri£t now called Lauder¬
dale, in Scotland.
MAECENAS (Caius Cilnius), the great friend and
eounfeflor of Auguftus Caefar, was himfelf a very po¬
lite fcholar, but is chiefly memorable for having been
the patron and protefior of men of letters. He was
defcended from a moll ancient and illullrious origin,
even from the kings of Hetruria, as Horace often tells
us ; but his immediate forefathers were only of the e-
queftrian order. He is fuppofed to have been born
at Rome, becaufe his family lived there ; but in what
year, antiquity does not tell us. It fays as little about
his education ; but we know it mull have been of the
moll liberal kind, and perfectly agreeable to the digni¬
ty and fplendor of his birth, fince he excelled in every
thing that related to arms, politics, and letters. How
Msecenas fpent his younger years is alfo unknown to
us, any farther than by effefts; thFre being no men¬
tion made of him by any writer before the death of
Julius Caefar, which happened in the year of Rome
709. Then ©dtavius Caefar, who was afterwards call¬
ed Augujlus, went to Rome, to take pofleffion of his
uncle’s inheritance ; and then Maecenas became'firll
publicly known, though he appears to have been Au-
gullus’s intimate friend, and as it Ihould feem guardian,
from his childhood. From that time he accompanied
him through all his fortunes, and was his counfellor
and advifer upon all occafions ; fo that Pedo Albino-
vanus jullly called him Cafaris dextram, “ Caefar’s
right-hand.”
In A. R. 710, the year that Cicero was killed and
Ovid born, Maecenas diftinguilhed himfelf by his cou¬
rage and military Ikill at the battle of Modena, where
the confuls Hirtius and Panfa were flain in fighting
againll Antony ; as he did afterwards at Philippi.
After this laft battle began the memorable friendfhip
between Maecenas and Horace. Horace, as Suetonius
relates, was a tribune in the army of Brutus and Caf-
fius, and upon the defeat of thofe generals made a pri-
* foner of war. Maecenas, finding him an accompli Ihed
man, became immediately his friend and proteflor;
and afterwards recommended him to Auguftus, who
reftored to him his eftate with no fmall additions. In
the mean time, though Maecenas behaved himfelf well
as a foldier in thefe and other battles, yet his principal
province was that of a minifter and counfellor. He
was the advifer, the manager, the negociator, in every
thing that related to civil affairs. When the league
was made at Brundufium between Antony and Au¬
guftus, Maecenas was fent to a& on the part of Au-
gullus. This we learn from Horace in his journey to
Brundufium:
Hue venturus erat M/tcenas optimus, atque
Cocceius, mijfi magnis de rebus uterque
Legati, averfos foliti componere amicos. Sat. v. I. I.
Awl afterwards, when this league was near breaking,
through the fufpicions of each party, Maecenas was Maecenas
fent to Antony to ratify it anew. —‘ 'mi
In the year 717, when Auguftus and Agrippa went
to Sicily to fight Sextus Pompeius by fea, Maecenas
went with them ; but foon after returned, to appeafe
fome commotions which were rifing at Rome : for
though he ufually attended Auguftus in all his mili¬
tary expeditions, yet, whenever there was any thing
to be done at Rome either with the fenate or people,
he was always difpatched thither for that purpofe.
Upon the total defeat of Antony at Actium, Mje-
cenas returned to Rome, to take the government into
his hands, till Auguftus could fettle fome neceffary af¬
fairs in Greece and Afia. Agrippa ibon followed
Maecenas; and when Auguftus arrived, he placed thefe
two great men and faithful adherents, the one over his
civil the other over his military concerns. While Au¬
guftus was extinguiftiing the remains of the civil war
in Afia and Egypt, young Lepidus, the fon of the
triumvir, was forming a fcheme to affaffinate him at
his return to Rome. This confpiracy was difeovered
at once, by the extraordinary vigilance of Maecenas;
who, as Velleius Paterculus fays, “ obferving the rafli
councils of the headftrong youth with the fame tran¬
quillity and calmnefs as if nothing at all had been do¬
ing, inftantly put him to death, without the leaft
noife and tumult; and by that means extinguiftied an¬
other civil war in its very beginning.”
The civil wars being now at an end, Auguftus
returned to Rome; and from this time Maecenas in¬
dulged himfelf at vacant hours in literary amufements,
and the converfation of men of letters. In the year
734 Virgil died, and left Auguftus and Maecenas heirs
to what he had. Maecenas was exceffively fond of this
poet, who, of all the wits of the Auguftan age, ftood
higheft in his efteem; and if the Georgies and the
.Eneid be owing to the good tafte and encouragement
of this patron, as there is fome reafon to think, po-
flerity cannot commemorate him with too much gra- '
titude. Horace may be ranked next to Virgil in Mae¬
cenas’s good graces: we have already mentioned how
and at what time their friendlhip commenced. Pro¬
pertius alfo acknowledges Maecenas for his favourer
and proteftor, lib. h. eleg. 7. Nor muft Varius be
forgot, though we have nothing of his remaining; fince
we find him highly praifed by both Virgil and Horace.
He was a writer of tragedies; and Quintilian thinks
he may be compared with any of the ancients. In a
word, Maecenas’s houfe was a place of refuge and wel¬
come to all the learned of his time; not only to Virgil,
Horace, Propertius, and Varius, but to Fundarius,
whom Horace extols as an admirable writer of come¬
dies ; to Fufcus Ariftius, a noble grammarian, and
Horace’s intimate friend; to Plotius Tucea, who
affxfted Varius in corre&ing the YEneid after the
death of Virgil; to Valgius, a poet and very learned
man, who, as Pliny tells us, dedicated a book to Au¬
guftus, De ufu Herbarutn; to Afinius Pollio, an excel¬
lent tragic writer ; and to feveral others, whom it
would be tedious to mention. All thefe dedicated
their works, or fome part of them at leaft, to Maece¬
nas, and celebrated his praifes in them over and over :
and we may obferve farther, what Plutarch'tells uS,
that even Auguftus himfelf inferibed his Commenta¬
ries to him and to Agrippa.
Maecenas
MAE [ 4°7 ] MAE
Maecenas, Maecenas continued In Auguftus’s favour to the end
Maelftrom. 0f j^jg jjfe> but not uninterruptedly. Auguftus had
^ an intrigue with Maecenas’s wife: and though the mi-
niifer bore this liberty of his mailer very, patiently,
yet there was a coldnefs on the part of Auguftus,
which, however, foon went off. Maecenas died in the
year 74^; but at what age we cannot precifely deter¬
mine, though we know he mull have been old. He
mull have been older than Augullus, becaufe he was a
kind of tutor to him in his youth : and then find him
often called an old man by Paedo Albinovanus, a co¬
temporary poet, whofe elegy upon his dead patron is
Hill extant. He made Augullus his heir; and recom¬
mended his friend Horace to him in thofe memorable
Jail words, “ Horatil Placet, ut met, mentor ejlo, See.”
Horace, however, did not probably furvive him long,
as there is no elegy of his upon Maecenas extant, nor
any account of one having ever been written, which
there certainly would have been had Horace furvived
him any time. Nay, Father Sanadon, the French edi¬
tor of Horace, will have it, that the poet died before
his patron ; and that thefe lall words were found only
in Maecenas’s will, which had not been altered.
Maecenas is fa id never to have enjoyed a good Hate
of health in any part of his life: and many fingulari-
ties are related of his bodily conflitution. Thus Pliny
tells us, that he was always in a fever; and that, for
three years before his death, he had not a moment’s
fleep. Though he was ceertainly an extraordinary
man, and poffeffed many admirable virtues and quali¬
ties, yet it is agreed on all hands, that he was very
luxurious and effeminate. “ Maecenas (fays Velleius
Paterculus) was of the equeftrian order, but fprung
from a moll illuftrious origin. He was a man, who,
when bufinefs required, was able to undergo any fa¬
tigue and watching; who confulted properly upon all
occafions, and knew as well how to execute what he
had confulted; yet a man who in feafons ofleifure was
luxurious, foft, and effeminate, alqioll beyond a wo¬
man. He wras no lefs dear to Coefar than Agrippa,
but diitinguifhed by him with fewer honours; for he
always continued of the equeltrian rank, in which he
was born : not that he could not have been advanced
upon the leaft intimation, but he never folicited it.”
But let moralills and politicians determine of Mte-
cenas as they pleafe, the men of letters are imder high
obligations to celebrate his praifes and revere his me¬
mory: for he countenanced, prote<fled, and fupported;
as far as they wanted his fupport, all the wits and
learned men of his time; and that too, out of a pure
and difinterefted love of letters, when he had no little
views of policy to ferve by their meanswhence it is
no wonder, that all the proteftors and patrons of learn¬
ing, ever fince, have ufually been called Macenas's.
MAELSTROM, a very dangerous whirlpool on
the coaft of Norway, in the 68th degree of latitude, in
the province of Nordland, and the dillricl of Lofoden,
and near the ifland of Molkoe, from whence it alfo
takes the name- of MoJkoe-Jlrom. Its violence and
roarings exceed that of a cataraft, being heard to a
great diftance, and without any intermiffion, except a
quarter every fixth hour, that is, at the turn of high
and low water, when its impetuoiity feems at a Hand,
which fhort interval is the only time the filhermen can
venture in : but this motion foon returns, and, however
calm the fea may be, gradually increafes with fuch a
draught and vortex as abforb whatever comes within
their fphere of aftion, and keep it under water for ——v"
fome .hours, when the fragments, ffivered by the
rocks, appear again. This circumftance, among o-
thers, makes llrongly againfl Kircher and others, who
imagine that there is here an abyfs penetrating the
globe, and iffuing in fome very remote parts, which
Kircher is fo particular as to alfign, for he names the
gulph of Bothnia. But after the moll exaft refearches
which the circumftances will admit, this is but a con-
jedlure without foundation ; for this and three other
vortices among the Ferroc ifiands, but fmaller, have
no other caufe, than the collifion of waves rifing and
falling, at the flux and reflux, againll a ridge of rocks
and fiielvcs, which confine the water fo that it precipi¬
tates itfelf like a catarafl; and thus the higher the
flood riles, the deeper mull the fall be; and the na¬
tural refult of this is a whirlpool or vortex, the pro¬
digious fu£lion whereof is fufficiently known by leffer
experiments. But what has been thus abforbed, re¬
mains no longer at the bottom than the ebb lafts; for
the fudlion then ceafes, and the flood removes all at¬
traction, and permits whatever had been funk to make
its appearance again. Of the fituation of this amazing
Mofkoeilrom we have the following account from Mr
Jonas Ramus, “ The mountain of Helfeggen, in Lo¬
foden, lies a league from the ifland Ver, and betwixt
thefe two runs that large ancf dreadful ftream called
Mojkoejlrom, from the ifland Molkoe, which is in the
middle of it, together with feveral circumjacent ifles,
as Ambaaren, half a quarter of a league northward,
Iflefen, Hoeholm, Kieldholm, Suarven, and Buck-
holm. Mofkoe lies about half a quarter of a mile
fouth of the ifland of Ver, and betwixt them thefe
fmall iflands, Otterholm, Flimen, Sandflefen, Stock¬
holm. Betwixt Lofoden and Molkoe, the depth of
the water is between 36 and 40 fathoms ; but on the
other fide, towards Ver, the depth decreafes fo as not
to afford a convenient paffage for a veffel, without the
rifle of fplitting on the rocks, which happens even in -
the calmell weather : when it is flood, the ftream runs
up the country between Lofoden and Molkoe with a
boifterous rapidity ; but the roar of its impetuous ebb
to the fea is fcarce equalled1 by the loudeft and moll
dreadful catarafts; the noife being heard fevcral leagues
off, and the vortices or pits are of fuch an extent and
depth, that if a Ihip comes within its attraction, it is
inevitably abforbed andr carried down to the bottom,
and there beat to piece’s againft the rocks -; and when
the water relaxes^ the fragments thereof are thrown up
again. But thefe intervals of tranquillity are only at
the turn of the ebb and flood, and calm weather: and
laft buf a quarter of an hour, its violence gradually re¬
turning. When the ftream is moll boillerous, and its
fury heightened by a llorm, it is dangerons to come
within a Norway mile of it; boats, flrips, and yachts
having been carried away, by not guarding againft it
before thty were within its reach. It likewife happens
frequently, tlrat whales come too near the ftream, and
are overpowered by its violence ; and then it is.impof-
fible to deferibe their bowlings and bellowings in their
fruitlefs ■ llruggles to difengage themfelves. A bear
once attempting to fwim from Lofoden to Molkoe,.
with a defign of preying upon the Iheep1 at pafture in
the ifland, afforded the like fpeClacle to the people;
the ftream caught him, and bore.itim down, whilft he
X roared!
MAE [ 408 ] MAG
J.T.rma&e- roared terribly, fo as to be heard on /bore. Large
ri^ ftocks of firs and pine trees, after being abforbed by
„ "the current, rife again, broken and torn to fuch a de-
l, ^ m‘ gree as if briftles grew on them. This plainly (hows
the bottom to confift of craggy rocks, among which
they are whirled to and fro. This dream is regulated
by the flux and reflux of the fea ; it being condantly
high and low water every fix hours. In the year
1645, early in the morning of Sexagefima Sunday, it
raged with fuch noife and impetuofity, that on the
ifland of Molkoe, the very dones of the houfes fell to the
ground.”
MiEMACTERIA, facrifices offered to Jupiter at
Athens in the winter month Maema&erion. The god
furnamed Msmadfes was intreated to fend mild and
temperate weather, as he prefided over the feafons,
and was the god of the air.
MiEMACTERION was the fourth month of the
Athenian year, containing twenty-nine days, and an-
fwering to the latter part of our September, and the
beginning of O&ober. It received its name from the
fedival MemaBeria, which was obferved about this
time. This month was called by the Boeotians Alal-
comenius.
MjENA, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
MiENALUS (anc. geog.) a mountain of Arca¬
dia facred to the god Pan, and greatly frequented by
ffiepherds. It received its name from Msenalus a fon
of Lycaon. It was covered with pine trees, whofe e-
cho and (hade have have been greatly celebrated by all
the ancient poets.
MiEONIA, or Moeonta, a country of Afia Minor,
and forming part of Lydia ; namely the neighbour¬
hood of mount Tmolus, and the country watered by
the Paftolus. The red on the fea-coad was called Ly¬
dia. See Lydia.
MiEONIDJE, a name given to the Mufes, becaufe
Homer, their greated and worthied favourite, was
fuppofed to be a native of Maeonia.
MiEONIDES, a furname of Homer, becaufe, ac¬
cording to the opinion of fome writers, he was born
in Maeonia, or becaufe his father’s name was Mfeon.
MiEOTIS padus or lacus, Maotka Palus, or
Maoticus Lacus., (anc. geog.), a large lake or part of
the fea between Europe and Afia, at the north of the
Euxine, to which it communicates by the Cimerian
Bofphorus. It was worfliipped as a deity by the Maf-
fagetae. It extends about 390 miles from fouth-wed
to north-ead, and is about 600 miles in circumfe¬
rence. Still called Palus Mentis, reaching from Grim
Tartary to the mouth of the Don.
MiESTLIN (Michael), in Latin Mejllinus, a ce¬
lebrated adronomer of Germany, was born in the
duchy of Wittemberg; but fpent his youth in Italy,
where he made a fpeech in favour of Copernicus’s fy-
dem, which brought'Galilaeo over from Aridotle and
Ptolemy, to whom he had been hitherto entirely de¬
voted. He afterwards returned to Germany, and be¬
came proftffor of mathematics at Tubingen; where,
among his other fcholars, he taught the great Kepler,
who has praifed feveral of his ingenious inventions, in
his AJlronomia Optica, Though'Tycho Brahe did not
affent to Masdlin’s opinion, yet he allowed him to be an
extraordinary perfon deeply (killed in the fcience of
adronomy. Masdlin publiflred many mathematical and
adronomical Works: and died in 1590.
N° 191.
MiESTRICHT, an ancient large, and ftrong Marftneht
town of the Netherlands, ceded to the Dutch by the
treaty of Munder. The town-houfe and the other
public buildings are handfome, and the place is about V
four miles in circumference, and drongly fortified. It
is governed jointly by the Dutch and the biflrop of
Liege ; however, it has a Dutch garrifon. The in¬
habitants are noted for making excellent fire-arms, and
fome fay that in the arfenal there are arms diffident
for a whole army. Both Papids and Protedants are
allowed the free exercife of their religion, and the ma*
gidrates are compofed of both. It is feated on the
river Maefe, which feparates it from Wyck, and with
which it communicates by a handfome bridge. Mse-
dricht revolted from the Spaniards in 1570, but was
reduced in 1579. Louis XIV. became mader of it
in 1673; kut it was redored to the dates by the trea¬
ty of Nimeguen in 1678. E. Long. 5. 50. N. Lat.
51.5.
MAFFiEUS (Vegio), a Latin poet, born in Lom¬
bardy in 1407, was greatly admired in his time. He
wrote epigrams, and a humorous fupplement to Vir¬
gil, which he called The thirteenth booh of the JEneid :
this was as humoroufiy tranflated into Englifh a few
years fince by Mr Ellis. Maflfeus wrote alfo fome
profe works. He was chancellor of Rome towards
the end of the pontificate of Martin V.; and died in
1458.
MAFFEI (Scipio), a celebrated Italian poet, born
of an illudrious and ancient family at Verona, in 167$.
After having finifhed his dudies, he took arms, and
didinguiflied himfelf by his valour at the battle of Do-
nawert; but he more particularly didinguifhed himfelf
by his love of learning, which made him undertake fe¬
veral voyages into France, England, and Germany.
He converfed with the learned in all thofe countries,
and obtained their friendihip and edeem. He was a
member of the academy of the Arcadia at Rome, an
honorary foreign .member of that of Infcriptions at
Paris; and died in 1755. He wrote many works in
verfe and profe, which are edeemed ; the mod known
of which are, 1. The tragedy of Merope, of which
there are two French tranflations in profe. 2. Cere¬
mony, a comedy. 3. A tranflation, into Italian
verfe, of the fird book of Homer’s Iliad. 4. Many
other pieces of poetry, in a colle&ion intitled Rhyme
and Profe, quarto. His principal works in profe,
are, 1. Verona illuflrata. 2. IJloria diplomatica. 3. Scien*
za cavalierefca ; an excellent work, in which he at¬
tacks duelling. 4. An edition of Theatro Italiano. 5.
An edition of Caffiodorus on the Epidles, Adis of
the Apodles, and Apocalypfe. 6. Gallia antiquita-
tes quadam feleEla atque in plures epiflolas dijlributa ; and
feveral other works.
M A GAD A, in mythology, a title under which
Venus was known and worfliipped in Lower Saxony;
where this goddefs had a famous temple, which was
treated with refpedl even by the Huns and Vandals
when they ravaged the country. It is faid to have
been dedroyed by Charlemagne.
MAGADOXO, the capital town of a kingdom of
the fame name, in Africa, and on the coad of Ajan.
It is feated near the mouth of a river of the fame name,
defended by a citadel, and has a good harbour. The
inhabitants are Mahometans. E. Long. 45. 15. N.
Lat. 3. o.
5
MAGAS,
MAG [ 409 ] MAG
'Majras MAGAS, Magadis, (from “ to fing
Magafcir.e.-or play in unifon or o&ave,”) the name of a mufical
w~""v~ inftrument in ufe among the ancients.
There were two kinds, of magades, the one a ftring
inftrument, formed of 20 chords arranged in pairs,
and tuned to unifon or o&ave, fo that they yielded
ten founds; the invention whereof is afcribed by feme
to Sappho 5 by others, to the Lydians; and by fome,
to Timotheus of Miletus. The other was a kind of
flute, which at the fame time yielded very high and
very low notes. The former kind was at leaft much
improved by Timotheus of Miletus, who is faid to
have been_ impeached of -a crime, becaufe by increa¬
sing the number of chords he fpoiled and diferedited
the ancient mufic.
MAGAZINE, a place in which ftores are kept,
x>f arms, ammunition, provilions, &c. Every forti¬
fied town ought to be fumilhed with a large maga¬
zine, which fhould contain ftores of all kinds, fuffi-
cient to enable the garrifon and inhabitants to hold
out a long fiege ; and in which fmiths, carpenters,
wheel-wrights, &c. may be employed in making every
thing belonging to the artillery; as carriages, wag¬
gons, &c.
Powder Magazine, is that place where the powder
is kept in very large quantities. Authors differ great¬
ly both with regard to the fituation and conitruftion 5.
hut all agree, that they ought to be arched and bomb¬
proof. In fortifications, they are frequently placed in
the rampart; but of late they have been built in diffe¬
rent parts of the town. The firft powder-magazines
were made with Gothic arches : but M. Vauban find¬
ing them too weak, conftrufted them in a femicircu-
!ar form ; whofe dimenfions are 60 feet long within,
25 broad; the foundations are eight or nine feet thick,
and eight feet high from the foundation to the fpring
of the arch; the floor is two feet from the ground,
which keeps it from .dampnefs.
One of our engineers of great experience fome time
fince had obferved, that after the centres of femicircu-
lar arches are ftruck, they fettle at the crown and rile
up at the hanches, even with a ftraight horizontal ex-
tiados, and ftill muqh more fo in powder-magazines,
whofe outfide at top is formed like the roof of a houfe,
by two inclined planes joining in an angle over the top
of the arch, to give a proper defeent to the rain; which
effe&s are exa&ly what might be expected agreeable
to the true theory of arches. Now, as this fhrinking
of the arches muft be attended with very ill confequen-
oes, by breaking the texture of the cement after it has
bear in fome degree dried, and alfo by opening the
joints of the vouffoirs at one end, fo a remedy is pro-
■v ided for this inconvenience with regard to bridges,
•by the arch of equilibration in Mr Hutton’s book on
bridges ; but as the ill effect is much greater in pow¬
der-magazines, the fame ingenious gentleman propo-
fed to find an arch of equilibration for them alfo, and
to conftruct it when the fpan is 20 feet, the pitch or
height 10 (which are the fame dimenfions as the fe-
inicircle), the inclined exterior walls at top forming
an angle of 113 degrees, and the height of their an¬
gular point above the top of the arch equal to feven
feet.. This very curious queftion was anfwered in 1 775
by the reverend Mr Wildbore, to be found in Mr Hut¬
ton’s Mifcellanea Mathemaiica.
Vot.X. Part II.
Artillery Magazine. In a fiege, the magazine is Magazine,
made about 25 or 30 yards behind the battery, to- Magda-en.
wards the parallels, and at leaft three feet underground, v
to hold the powder, loaded fhells, port fires, &c. Its
fidesand roof muft be well fecurcd with boards to pre¬
vent the earth from filling in : a door is made to it,
and a double trench or paffage is funk from the ma¬
gazine to the battery, one to go in and the other to
come out at, to prevent confufion. Sometimes tra-
verfes are made in the paffages to prevent ricochet Ihot
from plunging into them.
Magazine, on fhip-board, a clofe room or ftore-
houfe, built in the fore or after part of the hold, to
contain the gunpowder ufed in battle. This apart¬
ment is ftrongly fectired againft fire, and no perfon is
allowed to enter it with a lamp or candle : it is there¬
fore lighted, as occafion requires, by means of the
candles or lamps in the light-room contiguous to it.
Magazine Air-Gun. See A1 E-Gun.
Magazines (Literary); a. well known fpecies of
periodical publications, of which the firft that appeared
was The Gentleman's, fet on foot by the inventor Mr
Edward Cave in the year 1731: (fee the article Cave ).
This, as Dr Kippis obferves*, “maybe confidered * Brg. Brit.
as fomething of an epocha in the literary hiftory ofvo!>
this country. The periodical performances before <"AVE‘
that time were almoft wholly confined to political
tranfadlions, and to foreign and domefticoccurrences;
but the monthly magazines have opened a way for
every kind of inquiry and information. The intelli¬
gence and difeuffiori contained in them are very ex*
tenfive -and various; and they have been the means
of diffufing a general habit of reading through the na¬
tion, which In a certain degree hath enlarged the
public underftanding. Many young authors, who
have afterwards rifen to confiderable eminence in the
literary world, have here made their firft attempts in
compofition. Here too are preferved a multitude
of curious and ufeful hints, obfervations, and fafts,
which otherwife might have never appeared; or if
they had appeared in a more evanefeent form, would
have incurred the danger of being loft. If it were
not an invidious talk, the hiftory of them would be
no incurious or unentertaining fubjeft. The maga¬
zines that unite utility with entertainment, are undoubt¬
edly preferable to tbofe (if there have been any fuch)
which have only a view to idle and frivolous amufe-
ment. It may be obferved, that two of them, The
Gentleman'i and The London, which laft was begun the
year after the former, have amidft their numerous rivals
preferved their reputation to the prefent day. They
have both of them, in general, joined inftruftion with
pleafure; and this likewife hath been the cafe with
fome others of a later origin.”—The original London
Magazine, it is believed, has been difeontinued for fome
years paft.—The next oldeft publication of this kind
is that intitled The Scots Magazine j which was com¬
menced at Edinburgh a few years pofterior to the ap¬
pearance of the Gentleman's at London ; which, like
it, has furvived many rivals; and which ftill fubfifts,
defervedly efteemed for the chaftenefs of its plan and
the accuracy of its information.
MAGDALEN (Mary.) See Mary.
Religious of St Magdalen, a denomination given to
divers communities of nuns, confifting generally of pe-
3 F nitent
MAG [ 410 ] MAG
Magdalen intent courtezans; fometimes alfo called Magdalanettes.
jJ' . Such are thofe at Metz, eftablilhed in 1452; thofe
at in 1492 ; thofe at Naples, firfl eftabliMd in
1324, and endowed by Queen Sancha, to ferve as a
retreat for public courtezans, who Ihould betake
themfelves to repentance ; and thofe of Rouen and
Bourdeaux, which had their original among thofe of
Paris in i6i8. In each of thefe monafteries there are
three kinds of perfons and congregations; the firft
confift of thofe who are admitted to make vows, and
thefe bear the name of St Magdalen ; the congrega¬
tion of St Martha is the fecond, and is compofed of
thofe whom it is not judged proper to admit to vows ;
finally, the congregation of St Lazarus is compofed
of fuch as are detained there by force.
The religious of St Magdalen at Rome were efta-
blilhed by Pope Leo X. Clement VIII. fettled, a
revenue on them; and farther appointed, that the ef-
fects of all public prollitutes, dying inteftate, fhould
fall to them; and that the teftaments of the reft fhould
be invalid unlefs they bequeathed a portion of their
effedfs, which was to be at leaft a fifth part, to them.
MjGnALEN-Hofpital. See London, n° 115.
MAGDALENA, one of the Marquefas iflands,
about five leagues in circuit, and fuppofed to be in
S. Lat. 10. 25. W. Long. 138. 50. It was only
feen at nine leagues diftance by thofe who difeover-
ed it.
MAGDALENE’s Cave, a cave of Germany, and
in Carinthia, 10 miles eaft of Gortz. It appears like
a chafm in a rock, and at the entrance torches are
lighted to conduct travellers. It is divided into feve-
ral apartments, or halls, with a vaft number of pil¬
lars formed by nature, which give it a beautiful ap¬
pearance ; they being as white as fnow,' and almoft
tranfparent. The bottom is of the fame fubftance, in-
fomuch that a perfon may fancy himfelf to be walking
among the ruins of an enchanted caftle, furrounded
with magnificent pillars, fome entire and others bro¬
ken.
MAGDEBURG, a duchy of Germany, in^e
circle of Lower Saxony; bounded on the north by
the duchy of Mecklenburgh, on the fouth and fouth-
weft by the principality of Anhalt and Halberftadt,
on the eaft by Upper Saxony with part of Branden¬
burg, and on the weft by the duchy of Wolfenbuttle.
The Saale circle, and that of Luxkenwalde, are fepa-
rated from the reft, and furrounded on all fides by a
part of Upper Saxony. This country is, for the moft
part, level; but fandy, marfhy, or overgrown with
woods. There are fait fprings in it fo rich, that
they are fufficient to fupply all Germany with jthat
commodity. The Holz circle is the moft fruitful
part of it. In the Saale circle, where wood is fcarce,
there is pit-coal: and at Rothenburg is a copper-mine
worked. The duchy is well watered, for the Elbe
paffes through it; and the Saale, Havel, After, Ohre,
and Elfter, either rife in, or wafh fome part of it in
their courfe. The whole duchy, exclufive of that part
•f the county of Mansfeldt which is connected with it,
is faid to contain 29 cities, fix towns, about 430 vil¬
lages, and 330,000 inhabitants. The ftates of the
country confift of the clergy, the nobility, and de¬
puties of the cities. Before it became fubjeft to
the electoral houfe of Brandenburg, frequent diets
were held in it; but at prefent no diets are held, nor
have the ftates the dire&ion of the finances as for¬
merly. Before the Reformation, it was an arch-
biihopric, fubjeft in fpirituals to the pope alone, and
its prelate was primate of aft Germany; but embracing
the Reformation, it chofe itfelf adminiftrators, till the
treaty of Munfter in 1648, when it was given, togew
ther with the bilhopric of Halberftadt, to the eleftof
of Brandenburg, as an equivalent for the Hither
Pomerania, granted by that treaty to the king of
Sweden. Lutheranifm is the predominant religion
here ; but Calvinifts, Jews, and Roman-catholics, are
tolerated. Of the laft there are five convents, who
never embraced the Reformation. Aft the Lutheran
parilhes, amounting to 314, are fubjeft to 16 infpec-
tors, under one general fuperintendant; only the
clergy of the old town of Magdeburg are under the
direction of their fenior. The Jews have a fynagogue
at Halle. The manufactures of the duchy are clgth,
ftuffs, ftockings, linen, oil-lkins, leather, and parch¬
ment ; of which, and grain of all forts, large quanti¬
ties are exported. The arms of it are, Party per pale,
ruby, and pearl. The king of Pruflia, as duke of
Magdeburg, fits and votes between the eleCtor of
Bavaria, as duke of Bavaria, and the eleCtor palatine^
as palfgrave of Lautern. Of the ftates of the circle
of Lower Saxony he is the firft. His matricular af-
fefiment for the duchy is 43 horfe and 196 foot, or
1300 florins monthly; and to the chamber of Witzlar
343 florins and 40 kruitzers. For the civil govern¬
ment of the duchy there is a council of regency, with
a war aijd demefne chamber; and for the eccleiiaftical,
a confiftory, and general fuperintendant. The reve¬
nues of the duchy, arifing from the falt-works, de-
mefnes, and taxes, fome of which are /very heavy and
oppreffive, are faid to amount to 800,000 rixdollars
annually. With refpeCt to fait, every houfekeeper in
the Pruflian dominions is obliged to buy a certain
quantity for himfelf and wife ; and alfo for eveiy child
and fervant, horfe, cow, calf, and fheep, that he pof-
fefles. The principal places arc Magdeburg, Halle,
and Glauche.
Magdeburg, a city of Germany, in a duchy of
the fame name, of which it is not only the capital,
but that of aft Lower Saxony, and formerly even of
aft Germany. It Hands on the Elbe, in E. Long.
12. 9. N. Lat. 52. 16. It is a city of great trade,
ftrongly fortified, and very ancient. Its name figni-
fies the maiden city ; which, fome imagine, took its
rife from the temple of Venus, which is faid to have
flood here anciently, and to have been deftroyed by
Charlemagne. The founder of the city is fuppofed
to have been Otho I. or his emprefs Editha, daughter
to Edmund the Saxon king of England. The fame
emperor founded a Benediftine convent here, which
he afterwards converted into an archbiftiopric, of
which the archbifhop was a count-palatine, and had
very great privileges, particularly that of wearing the
archiepifcopal pallium, and having the crofs borne
before him, befides many others. The firft tourna¬
ment in Germany is faid to have been appointed near
$iis city, by the emperor Henry the Fowler; but
thefe paftimes were afterwards aboliftied, becaufe they
occafioned fuch envy and animofity among the nobi¬
lity, that feveral of them killed one another upon the
fpot.
MAG [ 4*i 1 M ^ G
Magde- {pot. The fitaation of the city is very convenient and
A/i pleafant, upon the banks of the Elbe> amidft fpacious
. • ° um fruitful plains, and on the. road betwixt High and
Low Germany. It has been a great fufferer by fires
and fieges ; but by none fo much as that fn 1631,
when the emperor’s general, count Tilly, took it by
ftorm, plundered and fet it on fire, by which it was
entirely reduced to alhes, except the cathedral, the
convent of our Lady, and a few cottages belonging
to fifhermen ; of 40,000 burghers, not above 400
efcaping. The foldiers fpared neither age nor fex;
but ripped up women with child, murdered fucking
infants in fight of their parents, and raviflied young
women in the ftreets; to prevent which violation,
many of them flung themfelves into the Elbe, and
others into the fire. The city is now populous, large,
and well built, particularly the broad ftreet and ca-
thedral-fquare. The principal buildings are the king’s
palace, the governor’s houfe, the armoury, guild-hall,
and cathedral. The la ft is a firperb llruCture in the
antique tafte, dedicated to St Maurice, which has a
fine organ, the mafter-pipe of which is fo big, that a
man can fcarce clafp it with both arms ; it alfo con¬
tains the tombs of the emperor Otho and the emprefs
Editha ; a fine marble ftatue of St Maurice, a por¬
phyry f@nt, an altar in the choir of one ftone of di¬
vers colours, curioufly wrought, and many other cu-
riofities. They ftiow here a bedftead and table which
belonged to Martin Luther, when he was an Augu-
ftine friar in a cloyfter of this city before the Refor¬
mation. Among the relifts, they pretend to have
4he bafon in which Pilate walhed his hands after his
condemnation of our Saviour ; the lantern which
Judas made ufe of when he apprehended him ; and
the ladder on which the cock crowed after St Peter
denied him. The chapter confifts of a provoft, 16
major and feven minor canons; befides which, there
are four other Lutheran collegiate foundations, and a
Lutheran convent dedicated to our Lady, in which is
a fchool or feminary. Here is alfo a gymnafium,
with an academy, in which young gentlemen are in-
ftrufted in the art of war. The canons of the chap¬
ter, which, except the change of religion, is upon the
fame footing as before the Reformation, muft make
proof of their nobility. The prebends and dignities
are all ih the gift of the eleftor; and the revenue of
the provoft is computed at 12,000 crowns a-year.
Here is a great trade, and a variety of manufaftures.
The chief are thofe of woollen cloths and ftuffs, filks,
cottons, linen, ftockings, hats, gloves, tobacco and
fnuff. The city was formerly one of the Hanfe and
Imperial towns. Editha, confort to Otho I. on whom
it was conferred as a dowry, among many other pri¬
vileges and advantages, procured it the grant of a
yearly fair. The bargravate of this city was an¬
ciently an office of great power ; having the civil and
criminal jurifdiftion, the office of hereditary cup-bearer
being annexed to it; and was long held as a fief of the
archbifhopric, but afterwards became an imperial fief,
which was again conferred on the archbiftiopric by the
eleftor of Saxony, upon certain conditions.
MAGDOLUM, or Magdalum (anc. geog.), a
town of the Lower Egypt, twelve miles to the fouth
of Pelufium (Herodotus, Antonine), which doubt-
lefs is the Migdol or Magdol of Jeremiah.—Another
Magdalum, or Migdol, denoting literally “ a towtr
or place of ftreiigth,-” near the Red Sea; (Mofes) ; far II
to the fouth of the former. Ma^gi.
MAGELLAN (Ferdinand), a celebrated Portu- *
guefe mariner in the 16th century. He being difla-
tisfied with the king of Portugal, went into the fer-
vice of the emperor Charles V. and failed from Seville
with five yeffels in 1519, when he difeovered and paffed
the ftrait to which he gave his own name, and failed
through the South Sea to the Ladrone lilands, when,
according to fome authors, he was poifoned in 1520;
though others fay that he was killed in a mutiny of
his people in the iflai>d of Mutan, on account of his
feverity. His voyage round the world was written
by one on board, and has been frequently printed in
Englifh. His fuddenly converting to the Chriftian
religion people whofe language was unknown to him,
as his was to them, is an abfurdity that diferedits this
work.
Straits of Magellan, a narrow paffage between
the ifland of Terra del Fuego and the fouthern ex¬
tremity of the continent of America. This paffage
was firft difeovered by Ferdinand Magellan, who failed
through it into the South Sea, and from thence to
the Eaft Indies. Other navigators have paffed the
fame way ; but as thefe ftraits are exceedingly diffi¬
cult, and fubjeft to ftorms, it has been common to
fail by Cape Horn, rather than through the Strait*
of Magellan. See Straits Le Maire, and Terra
del Fuego.
MAGELLANIC-clouds, whitilh appearances
like clouds, feen in the heavens towards the fouth pole,
and having the fame apparent motion as the ftars.
They are three in number, two of them' near each
other. The largeft lies far from the fouth pole ; but
the other two are not many degrees more remote from
it than the neareft confpicuous ftar, that is, about 1 r
degrees. Mr Boyl conjeftures, that if thefe clouds
were feen through a good telefcope, they would ap¬
pear to be multitudes of fmall ftars, like the milky-
wa?.
MAGGI (Jerome), in Latin Magius, one of the
moft learned men of the 16th century, was born at
Anghiari in Tufcany. He applied himfelf to all the
fciences, and even to the art of war; and diftinguiflied
himfelf fo mueh in this laff ftudy, that the Venetians
fent him into the ifland of Cyprus in uality of judge
of the admiralty. When the Turks ^efieged Fama-
gu'fta, he performed all the fervices that could be ex¬
pected from the moft excellent engineer : he invented
mines and machines for throwing fire, by means of
which he deftroyed all the works of the befiegers, and
in an inftant overthrew what had coft the Turks infi¬
nite labour. But they had their revenge ; for, taking
the city in 1571, they plundered his library, carried
him loaded with chains to Conftantinople, and treated
him in the moft inhuman and barbarous manner. He
neverthelefs comforted himfelf from the example of
aEfop, Menippus, Epiftetus, and other learned men ;
and, after paffing the whole day in the meanelf
drudgery, he fpent the night in writing. He com-
pofed, by the help of his memory alone, treatifes filled
with quotations, which he dedicated to the Imperial
and French ambaffadors. Thefe minifters, moved by
compaffion for this learned man, refolved to purchafe
3 F 2 hi*
MAG [ 412 1 MAG
Maggot- him: but while they were treating for his ranfom,
‘"“■'V—'"' Maggi found means to make his efcape, and to get to
the Imperial ambaffador’s houfe ; when the ‘ Grand
, Vizir being enraged at his flight, and remembering
the great mifchief he had done the Turks during the
fiege of Famagufta, fent to have him fiezed, and
caufed him to be ftrangled in prifon in 1572. His
principal works are, i. A treatife on the bells of the
ancients. 2. On the deftru&ion of the world by fire.
3. Commentaries on iEmilius Probus’s lives of illu-
flrious men. 4. Commentaries on the inftitutes.
Thefe works are written in elegant Latin. He alfo
wrote a treatife on fortification in Italian; and a book
on the fituation of ancient Tufcany.
He ought not to be confounded with his brother
Bartholomew Maggi, a phyfician at Bologna, who
Wrote a treatife of gun-fhot wounds ; nor with Vincent
Maggi, a native of Brefie, and a celebrated profeffor
of humanity at Ferrare in Padua, who was the au¬
thor of feveral works.
MAGGOT, the common name of the fly-worm
bred in flefh, from the egg of the great blue flefh-fly.
Notwithftanding the diftalle for this animal, its figure
and ftrutture of parts are greatly worth attending to;
and may ferve as a general hiflory of the clafs of
worms produced from the eggs of flies.
This animal is white and flefliy : its body is com-
pofed of a number of rings, like the bodies of cater¬
pillars and other fimilar infe&s; and is capable, at the
pleafure of the animal, of affuming differenc figures ;
being at times more or lefs extended in length, and
confequently more or lefs thick.
Notwithftanding that this animal has no legs, it is
able to move itfelf very fwiftly ; and in its firft attempt
. to move its body, is extended to its greateft length,
and affumes fomething of the figure of a pointed cone.
The pointed part of the cone is the head of the ani¬
mal, and is not feparated from the next ring by any
deeper furrow than the reft of the rings are from one
another. In fome ftates of the animal, one may fee
two fhort horns thmft out from the head ; but more
enerally two fcaly hooks are obfervable: thefe are,
owever, fometimes hid, and have each of them a cafe
or (heath; into which the animal can retraft them at
pleafure. Thefe hooks are bent into an arch, the con¬
cavity of which is towards the plane on which the crea¬
ture is placed; and they are thickeft at their infer-
tion in the head, and thence diminifti gradually, till
they terminate in a fine {harp point.
Thefe two hooks are placed in a parallel dire&ion,
and can never come together, and therefore cannot
ferve in the place of teeth for grinding the food ; but
merely to pull and fever it in pieces, that it may be of
a proper fize for the mouth of the creature. Befides
thefe hooks the maggot has a kind of dart, which is
about a third part of their length, and is placed at an
equal diftance between them. This alfo is brown and
fcaly like them ; it is quite ftraight, and terminates in
a fine point. Fhe hooks have as it were two fcaly
thorns at their points ; and this dart feems intended,
by reiterated ftrokes, to divide and break the pieces
of flefli thefe have feparated from the reft into fmaller
parts. Immediately below the apertures for the egrefs
of the hooks, is placed the mouth of the animal; the
creature does not {how this little opening unlefs pref-
fed : but if the preffurc is properly managed, it wilt
fufficiently open it, and there may be difeovered with- i Mag:,
in it a fmall protuberance, which may very naturally
be fuppofed either the tongue or the fucker of the ani¬
mal. The hooks in thefe creatures not only fupply
the place of teeth, but alfo of legs; fince it is by fa¬
ttening thefe hooks into the fubftance it is placed on,,
and-then drawing up its body to it, that it pulls itfelf.
along.
The back of this creature lowers itfelf by degrees aa
it approaches the extremity of the belly; and near the
place where the back begins to lower itfelf, are placed,
the creature’s two principal organs of refpiration. One
may perceive there two fmall roundifh brown fpots:.
they are very eaiily diftinguilhable by the naked eye,-
becaufe the reft of the body of the creature is white ^
but if we take in the afiiltance of glafles, each of thefii
fpots appears to be a brown circular eminence raifed-
a little above the reft of the body. On each of thefe-
fpots one may alfo d; Lover three oblong oval cavities,
fomething of the fhape of button-holes ; thefe are ii-
tuated in a parallel direction to one another, and their
length nearly in a perpendicular dire&ion to that of
the body of the animal. Thtfe apertures are fo many
ftigmata or air-holes ; openings deftined to admit the
air neceffary to the life of the animal. It has fix of
thefe .ftigmata, three in each fide of its body.
The great tranfparency of the body of this animal
gives us an opportunity alfo to diftinguiflr that it has
on each fide a large white velfel running the whole
length of the body. It is eafy to follow the courfe of
thefe veffels through their whole length, but they are,
moft diftinft of all towards its hinder part; and they,
are always feen to terminate each in the brown fpot
above mentioned: this leaves us no room to doubt that
they are the two principal trachese.
The ramifications of the two great trachese are very
beautifully feen in this creature, efpecially on its belly;
and it is remarkable, that no velfel analogous to the
great artery in the caterpillar clafs can be difeover¬
ed in thefe; though, if there were any. fuch, their great
tranfparence mutt needs make them very eafily diftin-
guifhable ; nor could its dilatations and contradfions,,
if fo confiderable as in that clafs of animals, be lefs fo.
See Eruca.
Malpighi imagined, that this artery in the caterpil¬
lar clafs was a feries of hearts; in its place, however,,
there may be feen in thefe animals a true heart. It is
eafy to obferve in thefe creatures* about the fourth
ring of their body, a fmall fleftiy part, which has al¬
ternate contrattions and dilatations ; and is not only
difcoverable in the body by means of its .tranfparence,
but on making a proper fedtion of them in the fecond,.
third, and fourth, will be thrown out of the body of
the creature, and continue its beats for fome time af¬
terwards.
MAGI, or Magians, an ancient religious feft in
Perfia, and other eaftern countries, who maintained
that there were two principles, one the caufe of all
good, the other the caufe of all evil: and, abominating
the adoration of images, they worihipped God only by
fire ; which they looked upon as the brighteft and moft
glorious fymbol of Oromafdes, or the good God; as
darknefs is the trueft fymbol of Arimanius, or the evil
god. This religion was reformed by Zoroafter, who
main-
MAG l 4
Wag's, maintained that there was one fupreme independent
'•“-v— Being ; and under him two principles or angels, one
the angel of goodnefs and light, and the other of evil
and darknefs: that there is a perpetual ftruggle be¬
tween them, which (hall laft to the end of the world ;
that then the angel of darknefs and his difciples ftiall
go into a world of their own, where they (hall be pu¬
nched in everlafting darknefs; and the angel of light
and his difciples (hall alfo go into a world of their own,
where they (hall be rewarded in everlalting light.
The priefts of the magi were the moft Ikilful ma¬
thematicians and philofophers of the ages in which
they lived, infomuch that a learned man and a magian
became equivalent terms. The vulgar looked on their
knowledge as fupernatural; and hence thofe who prac-
tifed wicked and mifchievous arts, taking upon them-
felves the name of magiar/s, drew on it that ill fig-
nilication which the word magician now bears a-
tnong us.
This fe& ft ill fubfifts in Perfia under the denomina¬
tion of gaursy where they watch the facred fire with
the greateft care, and never fuffer it to be extinguifn-
cd.
MAGIC, Magia, Mateia, in its ancient fenfe,.
the fcience or difcipline and do&rine of the magi, or
wife men of Perfia. See Magi.
The origin of magic and the magi is afcribed to
Zoroafter. Salmafius derives the very name from Zo-
roailer, who, he fays, was fui named Mogy whence
Magus. Others, inftead of making him the. author of
the Perfian philofophy, make him only the reftorer
and improver thereof; alleging, that many of the Per¬
fian rites in ufe among the magi were borrowed from,
the Zabii among the Chaldeans, who agreed in many
tilings with the magi of the Perfians; whence fome
make the name magus common both to the Chaldeans
and Perfians. Thus Plutarch mentions, that Zoroafter
inftituted magi among the Chaldeans, in imitation
whereof the Perfians had theirs too..
Magic, in a more modern fenfe, is a fcience which
teaches to perform wonderful and furprifing effects.
. The word magic originally carried with it a very
innocent, nay, laudable meaning ; being ufed purely
to fignify the ftudy of wifdom, and the more fublime
parts of knowledge ; but in regard the ancient magi
engaged themfelves in aftrology, divination, forcery,
&c; the term magic in time became odious, and was
only ufed to fignify an unlawful and diabolical kind of
fcience, depending on the affiftance of the devil and
departed fouls.
If any wonder how fo vain and deceitful a fcience
fhould gain fo much credit and authority over mens
minds, Pliny gives the reafon of it. It is, fays he,
becaufe it has pofTeffed itfelf of three fciences of the
moft efteem among men ; taking from each all that
is great and marvellous in it. Nobody doubts but it.
had its firft origin in medicine j and that it infmuated
itfelf into the minds of the people, under pretence of
affording extraordinary remedies. To thefe fine pro-
mifes it added every thing in religion that is pompous
and fplendid, and that appears calculated to blind and
captivate mankind. Laftly, it mingled judicial aftro¬
logy with the reft ; perfuading people, curious of fu¬
turity,, that it faw every thing to come in the heavens,.
13 } M A G
Agrippa divides magic into three kinds 5 natural, ce- Migie-
leftial, and ceremonial or fuperftitious. ——y—
Natural Magic is no more than the application of
natural adlive caufes to paffive fubjedls; by means
whereof many furprifing, but yet natural, effedls are
produced.
In this way many of our experiments in natural
philofophy, efpecially thofe of eledlricity, optics, and
magnetifm, have a kind of magical appearance, and
among the ignorant and credulous might eafily pafe
for miracles. Such, without doubt, have been fome
of thofe miracles wrought by ancient magicians, whofe
knowledge of the various powers of nature, there is
reafon to believe, was much greater than modern va-.
nity will fometimes allow f. | See
Baptifta Porta has a treatife of natural magic, or ling fleet's
of fecrets for performing very extraordinary things by Orpines fe¬
ll at ural caufes. The natural magic of the Chaldeans-‘'T‘e’boo*i
was nothing but the knowledge of the. powers of6'2*
fimples and minerals. The magic which they called
theurgia, confifted wholly in the knowledge of the cere-
moniesto be obfervedin the worfhipof the gods, in or¬
der to be acceptable. By virtue of thefe ceremonies they
believed they could .converfe with fpiritual beings, and
cure difeafes.
Celtjlial Magic, borders nearly on judiciary aftro-
logy : it attributes to fpirits a kind of rule or domi¬
nion over the planets, and to planets a dominion over
men ; ^nd on thofe principles builds a ridiculous kind .
of fyftem. See Astrology.
Superjlitious or. Gaelic Magic, confifts in the invo¬
cation of devils. Its effetts are ufually evil and wick¬
ed, though very ftrange, and feemingly furpaffing the
powers of nature ; fuppofed to be produced by virtue
of fome compact, either tacit or exprefs, with evil fpi¬
rits : but the truth is, thefe have not all the power that
is ufually imagined, nor do they produce thofe effefts
ordinarily afcribed to them.
This fpecies of magic, there is every reafon to be¬
lieve, had its origin in Egypt, the native country of
paganifm. The firft magicians. mentioned in hiliory
were Egyptians; and that people fo famed for early
wifdom believed not only in the exiftence of daemons,
the great agents in magic (fee Daemon), but alfo that
different orders of thofe fpirits prefided over the ele¬
ments of earth, air, fire, and water, as well as over the -
perfons and affairs of men. Hence they afcribed every
difeafe with which they were afflifted to the immedi¬
ate agency of fome evil daemon. When any perfon was
feized with a fever, for inftance,. they did not think
it neeeffary to fearch for any natural caufe of the dif¬
eafe ; it was immediately attributed to fame daemon
which had taken poffeffion of the body of the patient,
and which could not be cje&ed but by charms and in¬
cantations.
Thefe fuperftitious notions, which had fpread from
Egypt over all the eaft, the Jews imbibed during their
captivity in Babylon. Hence we find them in the
writings of the New Teftament attributing almoft eve¬
ry difeafe to which they were incident to the immedi¬
ate agency of devils (fee Possession). Many of
the fame impious fuperftitions were brought from E-
gypt and Chaldea by Pythagoras, and tranfmitted by
him and his followers to the Platoaifts in Greece. This
MAG [ 4H ] MAG
is apparent from the writers of the life of Pythagoras.
■“~v Jamblicus, fpeaking of the followers of that philofo-
pher, fays exprefsly, that they cured certain difcafes
by incantations ; and Porphyry adds, that they cured
difeafesboth of the rnind and of the body by fongs and
incantations. This was exaftly the practice of the
Egyptian pfiefts, who were all fuppofed to keep up
a conftant intercourfe with daemons, and to have the
power of controuling them by magical charms and fa-
cred fongs. Agreeably to this practice of his mailers,
we are told that Pythagoras directed certain difeafes
of the mind, doubtlefs thofe which he attributed to
:the agency of daemons, to be cured partly by incanta¬
tions, partly by magical hymns, and partly by mujic.—
r.a.1 tz; vorrsuvtaf Tccps/uuSulo TOV( piiv ixcifuif X.CC1 ftcc-
yucuc rovs if ftovo-ix.*.
That there’ are different orders of created fpirits,—
whether called daemons or angels,—whofe powers in-
telledtual and active greatly furpafs the powers of man,
reafon makes probable, and revelation certain. Now
it was the univerfal belief of the ancient nations, fays
f See His e- the learned Moiheim f, and efpecially of the orientals,
that certain founds and words, for the moil part bars-
barous, were highly grateful, and that others were
equally difagreeable, to thefe fpirits. Hence, when
they wiihed to render a daemon propitious, and to em¬
ploy him on any particular office, the magicians com-
pofed their facred fongs of the words which were be¬
lieved to be agreeable to him ; and when it was their
intention to drive him from themfelves or others, they
fung in a ftrain which they fancied a daemon could not
hear but with horror. From the fame perfualion arofe
the cuftom of fufpending from .the neck of a Tick per-
fon, whofe difeafe was fuppofed to be infli&ed by a
daemon, an amulet, fometimes made of gold and fome-
times of parchment, on which was written one or more
of thofe words which daemons could not bear either to
hear or to fee : and in a didactic poem on the healing
art Hill extant, we are taught by Serenus Sammonicw,
that the word Abracadabra is an infallible remedy
for a femitertian fever or ague ; and to banifh grief of
heart, Marcellims thinks nothing more effectual than
the word In more modern times, as we are
informed by Agrippa, the words ufed by thofe in com¬
pact with the devil, to invoke him, and to fucceed in
what they undertake, arcq Dies, mies, jefquet, benedoe-
fet, douvima, enitemaus. There are an hundred other
formulas of words compofed at pleafure, or gathered
from feveral different languages, or patthed from the
Plebrew, or formed in imitation of it. And among
the primitive Chriftians there was a fuperftitious cuf
tom, of which we fufpedt fame remains may yet be
found among the illiterate-vulgar in different countries,
of fattening to the neck of a lick perfon, or to the
bed on which he lay, fome text from the New Tefta-
ment, and efpecially the firtt two or three verfes of
the gofpel of St John, as a charm undoubtedly effi¬
cacious to banilh the difeafe.
That magicians who could thus cure the lick, were
likewife believed to have the power of inflidling dif¬
eafes, and of working miracles, by means of their fub-
fervient daemons, need not be doubted Ancient wri¬
ters of good credit are full of the wonders which they
performed. We lhall mention a few of thofe which
are bell attefted, and inquire whether they might not
dition of
Cudivortb’s
IntelleSiual
Syjlem.
have been effe&ed by other means than the interpofition
of daemons.
The firft magicians of whom we read’ are thofe
who in Egypt oppofed Mofes. And we are told, that,
when Aaron call down his rod, and it became a fer-
pent, they alfo did the like with their inchantments ;
“ for they call down every man his rod, and they be¬
came ferpents.” This was a phenomenon which, it
mutt be confeffed, had a very miraculous appearance ;
and yet there feems to have been nothing in it which
might not have been effefted by flight of hand. The
Egyptians, and perhaps the inhabitants of every coun¬
try where ferpents abound, have the art of depriving
them of their power to do mifchief, fo that they may
be handled without danger. It was eafy for the magi¬
cians, who were favoured by the court, to pretend that
they changed thcTV roads into ferpents, by dexterouf-
ly fubftituting one of thofe animals in place of the rod.
In like manner they might pVetend to change water
into blood, and to produce frogs ; for if Mofes gave
in thefe inftances, as we know he did in others, any
previous information ofr the nature of the miraclea
which were to be wrought, the magicians might eali-r
ly provide themfelves in a quantity of blood and num¬
ber of frogs fufficient to anfwer their purpofe of de¬
ceiving the people. Beyond this, however, their
power could not go. It Hopped where that of all
workers in legerdemain mutt have ftopt—at the failure
of proper materials to work with. Egypt abounds'
with ferpents; blood could be eaftty procured; and
without difficulty they might have frogs from the ri¬
ver : But when Mofes produced lice from the dull of
the ground, the magicians, who had it not in their
power to collect a fufficient quantity of thefe animals,
were compelled to own this to be an effeft of divine
agency.
The appearance of Samuel to Saul at Endor is the
neXt miracle, feemingly performed by the power of ma¬
gic, which we Ihall confider. It was a common pre¬
tence of magicians, that they could raife up ghofts
from b.elow, or make dead perfsns appear unto them
to declare future events ; and the manner of their in¬
cantation is thus deferibed by Horace :
  Pallor utrafque
Fecerat horrendas afpedttu. Scalpere terram
Unguibus, et pullam divellere mordicus agnam
Coeperunt: cruor in foffam confufus, ut inde
Manes elicerent, animas refponfa daturas.
“ With yellings dire they fill’d the place,
And hideous pale was cither’s face.
Soon with their nails they ferap’d the ground.
And fill’d a magic trench profound
With a black lamb’s thick-ftreaming gore,
Whofe members with their teeth they tore ;
That they might charm the fprights to tell
Some curious anecdotes from hell.”
Francis.
Whether the witch of Endor made ufe of fuch infer¬
nal charms as thefe, the facred hiftorian has not in¬
formed us; but Saul addreffed her, as if he believed
that by fome form of incantation fhe could recal
from the ftate of departed fpirits the foul of the
prophet who had been for fome time dead. In the
fubfequent apparition, however, which was produced,
fome
Mlgifo
MAG [41
Magic, fome have thought there was nothing more than a
"—v-— trick, by which a cunning woman impofed upon Saul’s
credulity,-making him believe that fome confident of
her own was the ghoft of Samuel. But had that been
the cafe, fhe would undoubtedly have made the pretend¬
ed Samuel’s anfwer as pleafing to' the king as pofiible,
both to fave her own life, which appears from the con¬
text to have been in danger, and likewife to have pro¬
cured the larger reward. She would never have told
her fovereign, (he durft not have told him, that he
himfelf (hould be (hortly (lain, and his fons with him ;
and that the holt of Ifrael (hould be delivered into the
hands of the Philiftines. For this reafon many critics,
both Jewiflr and Chriltian, have fuppofed that the ap¬
parition was really a daemon or evil angel, by whofe
afiiilance the woman was accuftomed to work wondersj
and to foretel future events. But it is furely very
incredible, that one of the apoftate fpirits of hell (hould
have upbraided Saul for applying to a forcerefs, or
fhould have accofted him in fuch words as thefe: “Why
had thou difquieted me, to bring me up ? Wherefore
doll thou a (It of me, feeing the Lord is departed from
thee, and is become thine enemy ? For the Lord hath
rent the kingdom out of thine hand, and given it to
thy neighbour, even to David. Becaufe thou obeydeft
not the voice of the Lord, therefore the Lord hath done
this thing to thee this day.” It is to be obferved far¬
ther, that what was here denounced againft Saul was
really prophetic, and that the event anfwered to the
prophecy in every particular. Now, though we do
not deny that there are created fpirits of penetration
vaftly fuperior to that of the moft enlarged human un-
derftanding ; yet we dare maintain, that no finite intel¬
ligence could by its own mere capacity have ever found
out the precife time of the two armies engaging, the
fuccefs of the Philiftines, the confequences of the
victory, and the/cry names of the perfons that, were
to fall in battle. Saul and his fons were indeed men
of tried bravery, and therefore likely to expofe them-
felves to the greateft danger ; but after the menaces
which he received from the apparition, he would have
been impelled, one (hould think, by common prudence,
either to chicane with the enemy, or to retire from
the field without expofing hirtifelf, his fons, and the
whole army, to certain and inevitable deftruftion ; and
his adfing differently, with the confequences of his
conduft, were events which no limited underftanding
could either forefee or certainly foretel.- If to thefe
circumftances we add the fuddennefs of Samuel’s ap¬
pearance, with the effeft which it had upon the for¬
cerefs herfelf, we (hall find reafon to believe, that the
apparition was that of no evil daemon. There is not,
we believe, upon record, another inftance of any per-
fon’s pretending to raife a ghoft from below, without
previoufly ufing fome magical rites or fome form of
incantation. As nothing of that kind is mentioned in
the cafe before us, it is probable that Samuel appear¬
ed before he was called. It is likewife evident from
3
j ] MAG
the narrative, that the apparition was not what the M-if
woman expe&ed; for we are told, that “ when (he —~v
faw Samuel, (he cried out for fear.” And when the
king exhorted her not to be afraid, and allied what (lie
faw, “ the woman faid, I fee gods (eloh'm) afeending
out of the earth.” Now, had (he been accuftomed to
do fuch feats,, and known that what (he faw was only
her fubfervient daemon, it is not conceivable that (he
could have been fo frightened, or have miftaken her
familiar for elohim in any fenfe in which that word can
be taken. We are therefore ftrongly inclined to adopt
the opinion of thofe who hold that it was Samuel him¬
felf who appeared and prophefied, not called up by
the wretched woman or her demons, but, to her utter
confufion, and the difgrace of her art, fent by God
to rebuke Saul’s madnefs in a moft affecting and mor¬
tifying way, and to deter all others from ever ap¬
plying to magicians or dsemons for affiftance when re-
fufed comfort from heaven. For though thishypo-
thefis may to a fuperficial thinker feem to tranfgreis
the rule of Horace—Nec deus inierjit, &c.—which is
as applicable to the interpretation of feripture, as to
the introduction of fupernatural agency in human com-
pofitions; yet he who has ftudied the fheocratical con-
ftitution of Ifrael, the nature of the office which
was there termed regal, and by what means the admi-
niftration was in emergencies conducted, will have a
different opinion, and-at once perceive the dignus vlndice
nodus.
The fudden and wonderful deftruCtion of the army
of Brennus the Gaul, has likewife been attributed to-
magic, or, what in this inquiry amounts to the fame-
thing, to the interpofition of evil fpirits, whom the
priefts of Apollo invoked as gods. Thofe barbarians
had made an inroad into Greece, and invefted the temple
of Apollo at Delphi, with a view to plunder it of the
facred treafure. Their numbers and courage over¬
powered all oppofition ; and they were juft upon the
point of making themfelves matters of the place, when,
Juftin informs us, that, to encourage the befieged, the
priefts and prophetefs “ adveniffe deum clamant; eum-
que fe vidiffe defilientem in templum per culminis a-
perta faftigia. Dum omnes opem dei fuppliciter im-
plorant, juvenem fupra humanum modum infignis
pulchritudinis, comitefque ei duas armatas virgines,,
ex propinquis duabus Diance -Minervaeque aedibus oc-
curriffe, nec oculis tantum haec fe perfpexiffe; audiffe
etiam ftridorem arcus, ac ftrepitum armorum : pro-
inde ne cunCfarentur, diis antefignanis, hoftem caedere, .
et viCforise deorum. fpcios fe adjungere,” fummis obfe-
crationibus monebant, Quibus vocibus incenfi, omnes
certatim in praelium profiliunt. Praefentiam Dei et ipfi
ftatim fenfere : nam et terras motu portio mentis
abrupta Gallorum ftravit exercitum, et confertiffimi
cunei non fine vulneribus hoftium diffipati ruebant.
Infecuta deinde tempeftas eft, quae grandine et frigorc
faucios ex vulneribus abfumpfit (a).”
This was unqueftionably an extraordinary event;
and
“ (a) Called aloud that the god had arrived . That they had feen him leap into the temple through the aper¬
ture in the roof: That whilft they were all humbly imploring his help, a youth of more than human beauty,
accompanied by two virgins in armour, had run to their affiftance from the neighbouring temples of Diana
and
K! A G r 4
Magic. -anA it mufl; be afcribed either to the immediate inter-
t'1 ' » pofition of the Supreme Being, to natural means, or
to the agency of daemons: there is no other alterna¬
tive. But it is altogether incredible that the Supreme
Being (hould'have miractiloufly interpofed to defend
the temple of a pagan divinity. It is very difficult to
fuppofe that an earthquake, produced in the ordinary
tourfe of nature, Ihould have been foretold by the
priefts, or that it could have happened fo opportunely
for the prefervation of their treafure from the hands
•of fierce babarians. Nothing, therefore, it has been
faid, remains, but either to allow the earthquake to
have been produced by evil fpirits, or to deny the
truth of the hiftorian's relation. But the cataftrophe
of Brennus’s army is recorded in the fame manner by
fo many ancient writers of good credit, that we can¬
not call in queflion their veracity: and therefore, be¬
ing unwilling to admit the agency of daemons into this
affair, it will be incumbent on us to ffiow by what
human contrivance it might have been effefted ; for its
arrival at fo critical a junfture will not eafily fuffer us
to fuppofe it a mere natural event.
The inclination of a Pagan prieft (fays Bifhop
Julian. Warburton'f) to affift his god in extremity, will
hardly be queftioned ; and the inclination of thofe at
Delphi wzi wot ill feconded by their public manage¬
ment and addrefs. On the firft rumour of Brennus’s
march againft them, they iffued orders, as from the
• oracle, to all the region round, forbidding the coun¬
try people to fecrete or bear away their wine and pro-
vifions. The effects of this order fucceeded to their
expeftations. The half-ftarved barbarians finding, on
their arrival in Phocis, fo great a plenty of all things,
made fhort marches, difperfed themfelves over the
country, and revelled in the abundance that was pro¬
vided for them. This refpite gave time to the friends
and allies of the god to come to his affiftance. Their
advantages of fituation likewife fupported the meafures
which they had taken for a vigorous defence. The
town and temple of Delphi were feated on a bare and
cavernous rock, defended on all Tides with precipices
•initead of walls. A large recefs within affumed the
•form of a theatre ; fo that the ffiouts of foldiers, and
'the founds of military inftruments, re-echoing from
xock to rock, and from cavern to cavern, increafed the
clamour to an immenfe degree ; which, as the hifto-
rian obferves, could not but have great effedls on ig-
N° 191-
16 1 M A Cr
norant and barbarous minds. The playing off thefe Magic,
panic terrors was not indeed of itfelf fufficient to re r-
pulfe and diffipate a hoft of fierce and hungry invaders,
but it enabled the defenders to keep them at bay till
a more folid entertainment was provided for them, in
the explojion and fall of that portion of the rock at
the foot of which the gteater part of the army lay en¬
camped.
“ Among the caverns in the facred rock, there was
one which, from an intoxicating quality difeovered
in the fleam which iffued from it, was rendered very
famous by being fitted to the recipient of the prieftefs
of Apollo (a). Now, if we only fuppofe this, or any
other of the vapours emitted from the numerous fif-
fures, to be endowed with that unftuous, or otherwife
inflammatory quality, which modern experience iliows
to be common in mines and fubterraneous places, wfl
can eafily conceive how the priefts of the temple
might, without the agency of daemons, be able to
work the wonders which hiftory fpeaks of as effefted
in this tranfaftion. For the throwing down a lighted
torch or two into a chafm whence fuch a vapour
iffued, would fet the whole into a flame; which, by
fuddenly rarifying and dilating the air, would,
liked fired gun-powder, blow up all before it. That
the priefts, the guardians of the rock, could be long
ignorant of fuch a quality, or that they would divulge
it when difeovered, cannot be fuppofed. Strabo re¬
lates, that one OnomarchuS) with his companions, as
they were attempting by night to dig their way
through to rob the holy treafury, were frightened
from their work by the violent (baking of the rock ;
and he adds, that the fame phenomenon had defeated
many other attempts of the like nature. Now, whe¬
ther the tapers which Onomanhus and his companions
were obliged to ufe while they were at work, inflamed
the vapour, or whether the priefts of Apollo heard
them at it, and fet fire to a countermine, it is certain
a quality of this kind would always ftand them in (lead.
Such then (prefumes the learned prelate) was the expe¬
dient ( b ) they employed to diftodge this neft of hornets,
which had fettled at the foot of their facred rock 5 for
the ftorm of thunder, lightning, and hail, which fol¬
lowed, was the natural effedl of the violent concuffions
given to the air by the explofion of the mine.”
Two inftances more of the power of ancient ma
gic we (hall juft mention, not becaufe there is any
thing
’and Minerva ; and that they had not only beheld thefe things with their eyes, but had alfo heard the whizzing
of his bow and the clangor of his arms. They therefore earneftly exhorted the befieged not to neglect the
■heavenly fignal, hut to Tally out upon their enemies, and partake with the divinities of the glory of the vie-
-tory.” With thefe words the foldiers being animated, eagerly rufhed to battle : and were themfelves quickly
fenfible of the prefence of the god ; for part of the rock being torn away by an earthquake, rolled down upon
the Gauls ; whofe thickeft battalions being thus thrown into confuiion, fled, expofed to the weapons of their
enemies. Soon afterwards a temped arofe, which by cold and the fall of hailftones cut off the wounded.
(a) “ In hoc rupis anfraftu, mediaferme montis altitudine, planities exigua eft, atque in ea profundum terrae
foramen, quod in oraculo patet, ex quo frigidus fpiritus, vi quadam velut vento in fublime expulfus, mentes
vatum in vecordiam vertst, impletafque deo refponfa confulentibus dare cogit.” Just. lib. 24. c. 10.^
(b) The learned author, by arguments too tedious to be here enumerated, confirms the reatoning which we
have borrowed from him ; and likewife fhowB from hiftory, that the priefts, before they came to extremities
with the facred rock, had entered into treaty with thofe barbarians, and paid them a large tribute to decamp
and quit the country. This adds greatly to the probability of his account of the explofion ; for nothing but
the abfolute impoffibility of getting quit of their befiegers by any other means, could have induced the prieft*
to hazard an experiment fo big with danger to themfelves as well as to their enemies.
Migic.
f See Pri-
iteaux's Con-
Brocket's
Uijtory of
Philofofby,
and Mo-
Jbeim's Notes
cn Cud-
MAG r 41
tiling particular or important in the fa ft s, but becaufe
fome credit feems te have been given to the narration
by the difeerning Cudworth. Philollratus, in his life
of Apollonius Tyanaeus, informs us, that a laughing
Demmiac at Athens was cured by that magician,
who ejefted the evil fpirit. by threats and menaces;
and the biographer adds, that the daemon, at his de-
Sarture, is -faid to have overturned a ftatue which
ood before the porch where the cure was perform¬
ed. The other inftance is of the fame magician free¬
ing the city of Ephefus from the plague by Honing to
death an old ragged beggar whom Apollonius called
the plague, and who appeared to be a damon by his
changing himfelf into the form of a Jhagged dog.
That fuch tales as thefe rtiould have been thought
worthy of the flighteft notice by the incomparable au¬
thor of the Intelleftual Syftem, is indeed a wonderful
phaenomenon in the hiftory of human nature. The
whole ftory of Apollonius Tyanasus, as is now well
known, is nothing better than a colleftion of the
moil extravagant fables but were the narrative fuch
•as that credit could be given to the fafts here related,
there appears no neceffity in either cafe for calling in
the agency of evil fpirits by the power of magic.—
The Athenians of that age were a fuperftitious peo¬
ple. Apollonius was a flirewd impoitor, long prac-
1 tifed in the art of deceiving the multitude. For fuch
a man it was eafy to perfuade a friend and confidant
. to aft the part of the laughing demoniac ; and without
much difficulty the ftatue might be fo undermined as
inevitably to tumble upon a violent concuffion being
given to the ground at the time of the departure of
the pretended dsemon. If fo, this feat of magic
dwindles down into a very trifling trick performed by
means both Ample and natural. The other cafe of the
poor man at Ephefus, who was Honed to death, is
exaftly fimilar to that of thofe innocent wo¬
men in our own country, whom the vulgar in the laft
century were inftigated to burn for the fuppofed
crime of witchcraft. We have no reafon to fuppofe
that an Epheflan mob was lefs inflammable or credu¬
lous than a Britifh mob, or that Apollonius played
his part with lefs (kill than a Chriftian daemonologift :
and as the fpirits of our witches, who were facri-
ficed to folly and fanaticifm, were often fuppofed to
migrate from their dead bodies into the bodies of hares
or cats accidentally palling by, fo might this impoftor
at Ephefus perfuade his cruel and credulous inftru-
ments, that the fpirit of their viftim had taken poflef-
fion of the body of the Jhagged dog.
Still it may be faid, that in magic and divination e-
vents have been produced out of the ordinary courfe
of nature ; and as we cannot fuppofe the Supreme
Being to have countenanced fuch abominable praftices
by the interpofttion of his power, we muft neceffarily
attribute thofe effefts to the agency of daemons, or
evil fpirits. Thus, when Aineas confulted the. Sybil,
the agency of the infpiring god changed her whole
appearance :
 Pofcere fata
Tempus,” ait: “ Deus,ecce,Deus.” Cui talia fanti
Ante fores, fubi’to non vultus, non color unus,
Non comptae manfere comae : fed peftus anhelum,
Et rabie fera corda tument: majorque videri,
Vol. X. Part II.
7 ] MAG
Nec mortale fonans: afflata eft numine quando Magic.
Jam propiore Dei.  ' v
 “ Aloud Ihe cries,
“ This is the time, inquire your deftinies.
He come-, behold, a god!” Thus while fhe faid.
And fhivering at the facred entry ftaid,
Her colour chang’d, her face was not the fame,
And hollow groans from her deep fpirit came :
Her hair ftood up ; convulfive rage poflefs’d
Her trembling limb -, and heav’d her lab’ring breaft;
Greater than human kind fhe feem’d to look,
And with an accent more than mortal fpoke.
Her flaring eyes with fparkling fury roll,
When all the God came rufhiog on her foul.”
Dryden.
•In anfwer to this, it is to be obferved, that the
temple of Apollo at Cumas was an immenfe excava¬
tion in a fqlid rock. The rock was probably of the
fame kind with that on which the temple of Delphi
was built, full of fiflures, out of which exhaled per¬
petually a poifonous kind of vapour. Over one of
thefe fiflures was the tripod placed, from which the
prieftefs gave the oracle. Now we learn from* St
Chryfoftom, that the prieftefs was a woman : “ Qme
intripodes fedens expanfa malignumfpiritumper interna
immiflum, et per genitales partes fubeuntem excipiens,
furore repleretur, ipfaque refolutis crinibus bacchare-
tur, ex ore fpumam emittens, et fic furoris verba loque-
batur.” By comparing this account with that quo¬
ted above from Jullin, which is confirmed both by
Paufanias and by Strabo, it is evident, that what
Chryfoftom calls maliynum fpiritum was a particular
kind of vapour blown forcibly through the fiflure of
the rock. But if there be a vapour of fuch a quality
as, if received per partes genitales, would make a woman-
furious, there is furely no neceffity for calling intot
this feene at Cumse the agency of a daemon or evil fpi¬
rit. Befides, it is to be remembered, that in all my-
ftical and magical rites, fi|ch as this was, both the
priefts’ and the perfons confulting them prepared
themfelves by particular kinds of food, and fometimes,
as there is reafon to believe, by human facrificesj, for j vide
the approach of the god or daemon whole aid they in-cani Pbarfa-
voked. On the prefent oceafion, we know from the^“’^^j U
poet himfelf, that a cake was ufed which was compo- ’q.J™ jy,'
fed of poppy-feed and honey ; and Plutarch fpeaks ofi, ’
a Ihrub called leucophyllus, ufed in the celebration of
the myfteries of Hecate, which drives men into a kind (
of frenzy, and makes them confefs all the wickednefs
which they had done or intended. This being the
cafe, the illufions of fancy occaiioned by poppy will
fufficiently account for the change of the fybil’s ap¬
pearance, even though the inhaled vapour Ihould nob
have poflefled that efficacy which Chryfoftom and
Juftin attribute ,to it. , Even fome forts of our Ordi¬
nary food occafipn ftfange dreams, for which onions
in particular are remarkable. Exceffive drunkennefs,
as is well known, produces a diforder named by the
bacchanalians of this country the blue devils, - which
confifts of an immenfe fueceffion of fpeftres, accompa¬
nied with extreme , horror to the perfon who fees
them. From thefe fafts, which cannot be denied,
there muft arife a fufpicipn, that by ufing- vejy unna¬
tural food, fuch as human blood, the vileft of infefts,
3 G ferpents.
MAG £ 4
Magic, ferpents, and medicated cakes, by (hutting themfelves
—-y—up in folitudes and caves, and by devifing every me¬
thod to excite horrid and dreadful ideas or images in
the fancy, the ancient magicians might by natural
means produce every phenomenon which they attri¬
buted to their gods or demons. Add to this, that in
ancient times magic was ftudied as a fcience. Now,
as we cannot fuppofe that every one who ftudied it
intended abfolutely nothing, or that all who believed
in it were wholly deceived ; what can we infer, but
that the fcience conlifted in the knowledge of thofe
drugs which produced the phantoms in the imagina¬
tion, and of the method of preparing and properly
employing them for that purpofe ? The celebrated
Friar Bacon indeed, as far back as the 13th century,
wrote a book de Nullitute MagU: but though we Ihonld
allow that this book proved to demonftration, that in
his time no fuch thing as magic exifted, it never could
prove that the cafe had always been fo. At that
time almoft all the fciences were loft ; and why not
magic as well as others ? It is likewife an undoubted
fa£t, that magic at all times prevailed among the A-
Jiatics and Africans more than among the Europeans.
The reafon doubtlefs was, that the former had the re-
quifites for the art in much greater perfection than
we. Human facriftces were frequent among them; they
had the moft poifonous ferpents, and the greateft va¬
riety of vegetable poifons, together with that power-
1 ful narcotic opium ; all which were of effential ufe in
tnyftical and magic rites. They had, befides, a burn¬
ing fun, frightful defarts and folitudes ; which, toge¬
ther with extreme failing, were, all called into their
affiftance, and were fufficient to produce, by natural
means, the moft wonderful phenomena which have ever
been attributed to magical incantations. Even in our
own days, we have the teftimony of two travellers,
•whom we cannot fufpedt to be either liars or enthufi-
afts, that both the Indians and Africans perform' feats
for which neither they nor the moft enlightened Eu¬
ropeans can account. The one is Mr Grofe, who vi-
fited the Eall Indies about the year 1762 t and the
other is Mr Bruce, who informs us, that the inhabi¬
tants of the weftern coail of Africa pretend to hold
a communication with the devil, and verify their affer-
tions in fuch a manner that neither he nor other tra¬
vellers know what to make of it: but it does not from
this follow, that Mr Bruce believed that communica¬
tion to be real- We have all feen one of the moft il¬
literate men that ever affumed the title of DoSor, per¬
form feats very fuvpriftng, and fuch as even a philo-
fopher would have been puzzled to account for, if he
had not been previoufty let into the fecret; and yet no
man fuppofes that Katterfelto holds any communica¬
tion with the devil, although he has fometimes pre¬
tended it among people whofe minds lie fuppofed un¬
enlightened.
Still it may be objefted, that we have a vaft num¬
ber of hiftories of witches, who in the laft century
confeffed, that they were prefent with the devil at cer¬
tain meetings; that they were carried through the air,
and faw many ftrange feats performed, too numerous
and too ridiculous to be here mentioned. The beft
8 ] MAG
anfwer to this ebje&ion feems to be that given by Dr Magic.
Ferrier in his effay on Popular Illdftons *. “ The fo-
lemn meeting of witches (fays he) are fuppofed to be Manch,aer
put beyond all doubt by the numerous confeffions of Tranfuc-
criminals, who- have defcribed their ceremonies, named tiom, vol. 3,
the times and places of their meetings with the per-
fons prefent, and who have agreed in their relations,
though feparately delivered. But I would obferve,
firft, that the circumftances told of thofe feftivals are
in themfelves ridiculous and incredible ; for they are
reprefehted as gloomy and horrible, and yet with a
mixture of childilh and extravagant fancies, more like¬
ly to difgull and alienate than conciliate the minds
of their guefts. They have every appearance of un-
eafy dreams. Sometimes the devil and his fubjedts
fay mafs ; fometimes he preaches to them ; more com¬
monly he was feen in the form of a black goat, fur-
rounded by imps in a thoufand frightful (hapes} but
none of thefe forms are new, they all refemble known,
quadrupeds or reptiles. Secondly, I obferve, that there
is dire& proof furnijhed even by demonologiils, that all
thofe fuppofed journeys and entertainments were no¬
thing more than dreams. Perfops accufed of witch¬
craft have been repeatedly watche4 about the time
they had fixed for their meeting : they have been feen
to anoint themfelves with foporific compofitions ; af¬
ter which they fell into profound deep ; and on awak¬
ing feveral hours afterwards, they have related their
journey through the air, with" their amufement at the
feilival, and have named the perfons whom they faw
there.” This is exaftly conformable to the practice
of the ancient magicians and diviners, and feems to be
the true way of accounting, as well for many of the
phenomena of magic, as for that extravagant ^md
(hameful fuperftition which prevailed fo much during
part of the laft: century, and by which fuch numbers
of innocent men and women were cruelly put to
death (c). We may indeed be aifured, that the devil
has it not in his power to reverfe in a fingle inftance
the laws of nature without a divine permiflion ; and:
we can conceive but one occafion (fee Possession^
on which fuch permiflion could be given confidently
with the wifdom and the goodnefs of God. All the
tales, therefore, of diabolical agency in magic and
witchcraft muft undoubtedly be falfe ; for a power
which the devil is not himfelf at liberty to exert, he
cannot communicate to a human- creature. Were the
cafe otherwife; were thofe powers, “which (according
to Johnfon) only the controul of Omnipotence re-
ftrains from laying creation wafte, fubfervient to the
invocations of wicked mortals ; were thofe fpirits,—
 of which the kaft could wield
The dements, and arm him. with the force
Of all their regions,” permitted to work mi¬
racles, and either to in ft id or to remove difeafes at the
defire of their capricious votaries, how comfortlefs and
wretched would be the life of men! But the matter
has been long ago determined by the failure of Pha¬
raoh’s magicians; who, though by legerdemain they
imitated fome of the miracles of Mofes, could not
form the vileft infedt, or (land before the difeafe
which he inflided upon them as well as upon others.
The
(c). For fome farther account of popular illufions,. fee /Inimal Magnetism,
MAG r 419 ] MAG
Magic The revival of learning, and the fuccefs with which
sHuai'e- the laws of nature have been inveftigated, have long
’’ r " ago banifhed this fpecies of magic from all the en¬
lightened nations of Europe. Among ourfelves, none
but perfons grofsly illiterate pay the leaft regard to
magical charms ; nor are they any where abroad more
prevalent than among the inhabitants of Lapland and
Iceland. Thefe people, indeed, place an abfolute
confidence in the effefts of certain idle words and ac
tions ; and ignorant failors from other parts of the
world are deceived by their affertions and their cere¬
monies. The famous magical drum of the Laplanders
is Itill in conftant ufe in that nation ; and Scheffer, in
his Hiffory of Lapland, has given an account of its
ftru&ure.
This inftrument is made of beech, pine, or fir, fplit
in the middle, and hollowed on the flat fide where the
drum is to be made. The hollow is of an oval figure;
and is covered with a (kin clean dreffed, and painted
with figures of various kinds, fuch as ftars, funs and
moons, animals and plants, and even countries, lakes
and rivers; and of later days, fince the preaching of
Chriftianity among them, the a&s and fufferings of
our Saviour and his apoftles are often added among
the reft. All thefe figures are feparated by lines into
three regions or clufters.
There is, befides thefe parts of the drum, an index
and a hammer. The index is a bundle of brafs or iron
rings, the biggeft of which has a hole in its middle,
and the fmaller ones are hung to it. The hammer or
dmmftick is made of the horn of a rein-deer; and with
this they beat the drum fo as to make thefe rings
move, they being laid on the top for that purpofe. In
the motion of thefe rings about the pictures figured
on the drum, they fancy to themfelves feme prediction
in regard to the things they inquire about.
What they principally inquire into by this inftru¬
ment, are three things. 1. What facrilices will prove
moft acceptable to their gods. 2. What fuccefs they
fhall have in their feveral occupations, as hunting, fifh-
ing, curing of difeafes, and the like ; and, 3. What is
doing in places remote from them. On thefe feveral
occafions they ufe feveral peculiar ceremonies, and
place themfelves in various odd poftures as they beat
the drum; which influences the rings to the one or
the other fide, and to come nearer to the one or the
other fet of figures. And when they have done
this, they have a method of calculating a difeovery,
which they keep as a great fecret, but which feems
merely the bufinefs of the imagination in the diviner
or magician.
Magic Square, a fquare figure, formed of a feries of
1 numbers in mathematical proportion; fo difpofed in
parallel and equal ranks, as that the fums of each row,
taken either perpendicularly, horizontally, or diago¬
nally, are equal.
Let the feveral numbers which compofe any fquare
number (for inftance, 1,2, 3, 4, 5, Ccc. to 25 inclufive,
the fquare number) be difpofed, in their natural order,
after each other in a fquare figure of 25 cells, each in
its cell; if now you change the order of thefe numbers,
and difpofe them in the cells in fuch manner, as that
the five numbers which fill an horizontal rank of cells,
being added together, fhall make the fame fum with
the five numbers in any other rank of cells, whether
horizontal or vertical, and even the fame number with Magic
the five in each of the two diagonal ranks: this dif- ^
pofition of numbers is called a magic fquare, in opposi¬
tion to the former difpofition, which is called a natural
fquare. See the figures following :
One would imagine that thefe magic fquares had
that name given them in regard this property of all
their ranks, which, taken any way, make always the
fame fum, appeared extremely furprifing, efpecially in
certain ignorant ages, when mathematics paffed for
magic ; but there is a great deal of reafon to fufpeft,
that thefe fquares merited their name ftill farther, by
the fuperftitious operations they were employed in, as
the conftru&ion of talifmans, &c., for, according to
the childifh philofophy of thofe days, which attributed
virtues to numbers, what virtues might not be expect¬
ed from numbers fo wonderful ?
However, what w'as at firft the vain practice of ma¬
kers of talifmans and conjurers, has fince become the
fubjeCt of a ferious refearch among mathematicians J
not that they imagine it will lead them to any thing
of folid ufe or advantage. Magic fquares favour too
much of their original to be of much ufe; but only as
it is a kind of play, where the difficulty makes the
merit, and it may chance to produce fome new views
of numbers, which mathematicians will not lofe the oc-
cafion of.
Eman. Mofchopulus, a Greek author of no great
antiquity, is the firft that appears to have fpoken of
magic fquares: and by the age wherein he lived, there
is reafon to imagine he did not look on them merely
as a matfiematician. However, he has left us fome
rules for their conftruftion. In the treatife of Cor.
Agrippa, fo much accufed of magic, we find the fquares
of feven numbers, viz. from three to nine inclufive,
difpofed magically ; and it muft not be fuppofed that
thofe feven numbers were preferred to all the other
without fome very good reafon: in effeCl, it is becaufc
their fquare?, according to the fyftem of Agrippa and
his followers, are planetary. The fquare of 3, for in¬
ftance, belongs to Saturn ; that of 4 to Jupiter ; that
•of 5 to Mars; that of 6 to the Sun; that of 7 to Ve¬
nus ; that of 8 to Mercury; and that of 9 to the
Moon. M. Bachet applied himfelf to the ftudy of
magic fquares, on the hint he had taken from the pla¬
netary fquares ofAgrippa, as being unacquainted with
the work of Mofchopulusvwhich is only in manufeript
in the French king’s library; and, without the affift-
ance of any author, he found out a new method for
thofe fquares whofe root fis uneven, for inftance 25,
49, &c. but he could not make any thing of thofe
whofe root is even.
After him came M. Frenicle, who took the fame
fubject in hand. A certain great algebraift was of
opinion, that whereas the 16 numbers which compofe
the fquare might be difpofed 20922789888000 diffe¬
rent ways in a natural fquare (as from the rules of com-
3 G a binatioa
MAG [ 420 ] MAG
Magic bhiatlon it is certain they may), they could not he
aciu3re' difpofed in a magic fquare above 16 different ways;
i)Ut; M. Frenicle fhowed, that they might be thus dif¬
pofed 878 different ways: whence it appears how
much his method exceeds the former, which only
yielded the 55th part of magic fquares of that of
M. Frenicle.
To this inquiry he thought fit to add a difficulty
that had not yet been conlidered: the magic fquare of
7, for inftance, being conftrucfed, and its 49 cells fill¬
ed, if the two horizontal ranks of cells, and, at the
fame time, the two vertical ones, the moft remote from
the middle, be retrenched ; that is, if the whole bor¬
der or circumference of the fquare be taken away,
there will remain a fquare whofe root will be 5, and
which will only confift of 25 cells. Nowit is not at
all furpriling that the fquare ffiould be no longer ma¬
gical, becaufe the ranks of the large ones were not in¬
tended to make the fame fum, excepting when taken
entire with all the feven numbers that fill their feven
cells; fo that being mutilated each of two cells, arid
having loll two of their numbers, it may be well ex-
pe&ed, that their remainders will not any longer make
the fame fum. But M. Frenicle would not be fatis-
iied, unlefs when the circumference or border of the
magic fquare was taken away, and even any circumfe¬
rence at pleafure, or, in fine, feveral circumferences at
once, the remaining fquare was ftill magical: which
lafl condition, no doubt, made thefe fquares vaftly
more magical than ever.
Again, he inverted that condition, and required that
any circumference taken at pleafure, or even feveral
circumferences, fhould be infeparabie from the fquare;
that is, that it fhould ceafe to be magical when they
were removed, and yet continue magical after the re¬
moval of any of the reft. M. Frenicle, however, gives
no general demonftration of his methods, and frequent¬
ly feems to have no other guide but chance. It is
true, his book was not publifhed by himfelf, nor did
it appear till after his death, viz. in 1693.
In 17 3, M. Poignard, canon of Bruffels, publifh¬
ed a treatife of fublime magic fquares. Before him
there had been no magic fquares made but for feriefes
of natural numbers that formed a fquare; but M.
Poignard made two very confiderable improvements,
j. Inftead of taking all the numbers that fill a fquare,
for inftance the 36 fuceeffive numbers, which would
fill all the cells of a natural fquare, whofe fide is 6, he
only takes as many fucceffive numbers as there are units
in the fide of the fquare, which, in this cafe, are fix;
and thefe fix numbers alone he difpofes in fuch manner
in the 36 cells that none of them are repeated twice
in the fame rank, whether it be horizontal, vertical, or
diagonal; whence it follows, that all the ranks, taken
all the wayspoffible, muft always make the fame fum,
which M. Poignard calls repeated progreffion, 2. In¬
ftead of being confined to take thefe numbers accord¬
ing to the feries and fucceffion of the natural numbers,
that is, in an arithmetical progreffion, he takes them
likewife in a geometrical progreffion, and even in an
harmonical progreffion. But with thefe two laft pro-
greffions the magic muft neceflarily be different to
what it was: in the fquares filled with numbers in
geometrical progreffion, it confifts in this, that the Magic
produfts of all the ranks are equal; and in the har- Square,
monical progreffion, the numbers of all the ranks con- 1 *
tinually follow that progreffion. he makes fquares of
each of thefe three progreffions repeated.
This book of M. Poignard gave occafion to M. de
la Hire to turn his thoughts the fame way, which he
did with fuch fuccefs, that he feems to have well nigh
completed the theory of magic fquares. He firft con-
fiders uneven fquares: all his predeceffors on the fub-
jeril having found the conftrudftion of even ones by
much the moft difficult; for which reafon M. de la
Hire referves thofe for the laft. This excefs of diffi¬
culty may arife partly from hence, that the numbers
are taken in arithmetical progreffion. Now in that
progreffion, if the number of terms be uneven, that in
the middle has fome properties, which may be of fer-
vice ; for inftance, being multiplied by the number of
terms in the progreffion, the produdl is equal to the
fum of all the terms.
M. de la Hire propofes a general method for un¬
even fquares, which has fome iimilitude with the the¬
ory of compound motions, fo ufeful and fertile in me¬
chanics. As that confifts in decompounding motions,
and refolving them into others more fimple ; fo does
M. de la Flire’s method confift in refolving the fquare
that is to be conftrufted into two fimple and primitive
fquares. It muft be owned, however, it is not quite
fo eafy to conceive thofe two fimple and primitive
fquares in the compound or perfeft fquare, as in an
oblique motion to imagine a parallel and perpendicular
one.
Suppofe a fquare of cells, whofe root is uneven, for
inftance 7; and that its 49 cells are to be filled magi¬
cally with numbers, for inftance the firft 7. M. de la
Hire, on the one fide, takes the firft 7 numbers, be¬
ginning with unity, and ending with the root 7 ;
and on the other 7, and all its multiples to 49, exclu-
fively; and as thefe only make fix Humbers, he adds c,
which - makes this an arithmetical progreffion of 7
terms as well as the other; o. 7. 14. 21. 28. 35. 42.
This done, with the firft progreffion repeated, he fills
the fquare of ^he root 7 magically : In order to this,
he writes in the firft feven cells of the firft horizontal
. rank the feven numbers propofed in what order he
pleafes, for that is abfolutely indifferent; and it is
proper to obferve here, that thofe feven numbers may¬
be ranged in 5040 different manners in the fame rank.
The order in which they are placed in the firft hori¬
zontal rank, be it what it will, is that which deter¬
mines their order in all the reft. For the fecond ho¬
rizontal rank, he places in its firft cell, either the
third, the fourth, the fifth, or the fixth number, from
the firft number of the firft rank; and after that writes
the fix others in order as they follow. For the third
horizontal rank, he obferves the fame method with re¬
gard to the fecond'that he obferved in the fecond with
regard to the firit, and fo of the reft. For inftance,
fuppofe the firft horizontal rank filled with the feven
numbers in their natural order, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ;
the fecond horizontal rank may either commence with
3, with 4, with 5, or with 6: but in this inftance it
commences with 3; the third rank therefore muft com-
4 • menee
M A
Mijr’c
Squa.e.
!j_
3_. 4
j_iA
i ;_L
6 1 7
G [42
me nee with e, the fourth
with 7, the fifth with 2,
the fixth with 4, and the
feventh with 6. The com¬
mencement of the ranks
which follow theiirll being
thus determined, the other
numbers, as we have alrea¬
dy obferved, mult be writ-
> 1
M A G
ten down in the order wherein they ftand in the firft,
going on to 5, 6, and 7, and returning to 1, 2, &c.
till every number in the firft rank be found in every
rank underneath, according to the order arbitrarily
pitched upon at firft. By this means it is evident, that
no number whatever can be repeated twice in the fame
rank ; and by confequence, that the feven numbers 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, being in each rank, muft of neceffity
make the fame fum.
It appears, from this example, that the arrangement
of the numbers in the firft rank being chofen at plea-
fure, the other ranks may be continued in four diffe¬
rent manners : and iince the firft rank may have 5040
different arrangements, there are no lefs than 20160
different manners of conftru&ing the magic fquare of
feven number? repeated.
1 I 2
TiT
i}±
4_|_L_
-lLAJ-L
A* 7 _L
jMJLLL
4 mA
6_
 l
3 1 4
4 j
The order of the numbers in the firft rank being de¬
termined ; if in beginning with the fecond rank, the
fecond number 2, or the laft number 7, fhould be pitch¬
ed upon, in one of thofe cafes and repeated ; and in
the other cafe, the other diagonal would be falfe un-
lefs the number repeated feven times Ihould happen
to be 4 ; for four times feven is equal to the fum of
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 : and in general, in every fqnare
confifting of an unequal number of terms, in arithmeti¬
cal progreffioh, one of the diagonals would be falfe
according to thofe two conftrudtions, unlefs the term
always repeated in that diagonal were the middle term
of the progreffion. It is not, however, at aft necef-
fary to take the terms in an arithmetical progreffion ;
for, according to this method, one may conftruift a
magic fquare of any numbers at pleafure, whether
they be according to any certain progreffion or not.
If they be in an arithmetical, progreffion, it will be
proper, out of the general method, to except thofe
two conftruftions which produce a continual repetition
of the fame term in one of the two diagonals, and on¬
ly to take in the cafe wherein that repetition would
prevent the diagonal from being juft ; which cafe be¬
ing a,bfolutely difregarded when we computed that the
fquare of 7 might have 20,160 different conftrudtions,
it is evident that by taking that cafe in it muft have
vaftly more.
To begin the fecond rank with any other number
befides the fecond and the laft, muft not, however, be Magic
looked on as an univerfal rule: it holds-good for the ^ ar<i‘ ,
fquare of 7 ; but if the fquare of 9, for inftance, were " ■'~n
to be conftructed, and the fourth figure of the firft
horizontal rank were pitched on for the firft of the
fecond, the confequence would be, that the fifth and
eighth horizontal ranks would likewife commence
with the fame number, which would therefore be re¬
peated three times in the fame vertical rank, and oc-
cafion other repetitions in all the reft. The general
rule, therefore, muft be conceived thus: Let the
number in the firft rank pitched on, for the commence¬
ment of the fecond, have fuch an exponent of its
quota ; that is, let the order of its place be fuch, as that
if an unit be taken from it, the remainder will not be
any juft quota part of the root of the fquare ; that is,
cannot divide it equally. If, for example, in the fquare
of 7, the third number of the firft horizontal rank be
pitched on for the firft of the fecond, fuch conllruc-
tion will be juft ; becaufe the exponent of the place
of that number, viz. 3, fubtrafting 1, that is, 2 can¬
not divide 7. Thus alfo might the fourth number of
the fame, firft rank be chofen, becaufe 4—1, viz. 3,
cannot divide 7 ; and, for the fame reafon, the fifth
or fixth number might be taken : .but in the fquare of
9, the fourth number of the firft rank muft not be ta¬
ken, becaufe 4—x, viz. .3, does divide 9. The rea¬
fon of this rule will appear very evidently, by confi-
dering in what manner the returns of the fame num¬
bers do or do not happen, taking them always in the
fame manner in. any given feries. And hence it fol¬
lows, that the fewer divifions the root of any fquare
to be conftrudled has, the more different manners of
conftrufling it there are ; and that the prime numbers,,
he. thofe which have no divifions, as 5, 7, 11, 13,
&c. are thofe whole fqua.res will admit of the moft va¬
riations in proportion to their quantities.
The fquares conftructed according to this method
have fome particular properties not required in the
problem; for the numbers that compofe any rank pa¬
rallel to one of the two diagonals, are ranged in the
fame order with the numbers that compofe the diago¬
nal to which they are parallel. And as any rank pa¬
rallel to a diagonal mull neceffarily be ffiorter, and have
fewer cells than the diagonal itfelf,, by adding to it the
correfpondent parallel, which has the. number of cells
by. which the other falls fliort of the diagonal, the
numbers of thofe two parallels, placed as it were end
to end, ftill follow the fame Firft Primitive,
order witlethofe of the dia¬
gonal : befides that their
fums are likewife equal; fo
that they are magical on
another, account. Inftead
of the fquares, which we,
have hitherto formed by ho¬
rizontal ranks, one might
alfo form them by vertical
IjJjJjJ-l —
JLtiJjL'A1-!-
.iIALtJjJa
ALA-LLi L£
AJ.ijLli.lA
± J.IA Ail
ALtJjlIjJ 3
the cafe is the fame in both.
All we have hitherto faid regards only the firft pri¬
mitive fquare, whofe numbers, in the propofed ex¬
ample,.were 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7; here ftill .remains the
fecond.
MAG [ 422 1 MAG
Majiic Second Primitive. fccond primitive, whofe num¬
bers are o, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35,
42. M. de la Hire proceeds
in tlie fame manner here as in
the former ; and this may like-
wife be conftrudted in 20,160
different manners, as contain¬
ing the fame number of terms
with the firft. Its conftrudtion
being made, and of confequente
all its ranks making the fame fum, it is evident, that if
we bring the two into one, by adding together the num¬
bers of the two correfponding cells of the two fquares,
that is, the two numbers of the firft of each, the two
numbers of the fecond, of the third, Sic. and difpofe
them in the 49 correfponding cells of a third fquare, it
will likewife be magical in regard to its rank, formed by
the addition of equal fums to equal fums, which muft
of neceffity be equal among themfelves. All that re¬
mains in doubt Is, whether or no, by the addition of
the correfponding cells of the two firft fquares, all the
cells of the third will be filled in fuch manner, as
that each not only contains one of the numbers of
the progreffion from 1 to 49, but alfo that this num¬
ber be different from any of the reft, which is the end
and defign of the whole operation.
As to this it muft be obferved, that if in the con-
ftruclion of the fecond primitive fquare care has been
taken, in the commencement of the fecond horizontal
rank, to obferve an order with regard to the 'firft dif¬
ferent from what was obferved in the conftru&ion of
the firft fquare ; for inftance, if the fecond rank of
the firft fquare began with the
third term of the’'firft rank,
and the fecond rank of the fe¬
cond fquare commence with
the fourth of the firft rank, as
in the example it actually does ;
each number of the firft fquare
may be combined once, and on¬
ly once, by addition with all
tire numbers of the fecond.
And as the numbers of the firft are here x, 2, 3, 4, 5,.
6, 7, and thofe of the fecond, o, 7, 14, 21, 28, 3?,
42, by combining them in this manner we have all
the numbers in the progreffion from 1 to 49, without
having any of them repeated; which is the perfect
magic fquare propofed. *
The neceffity of conftrufting the two primitive
fquares in a different manner does not at all hinder but
that each of the 20,160 conftru&ions of the one may
be combined with all the 20,160 conftrudlions of the
other: of confequence, therefore, 20,160 multiplied
by itfelf, which makes 406,425,600, is the number of
different conftru&ions that may be made of the per-
fe£t fquare, which here confifts of the 49 numbers of
the natural progreffion. But as we have already ob¬
ferved, that a primitive fquare of feven numbers re¬
peated may have above 20,160 feveral conftru&ions,
the number 406,42 5,600 muft come vattly (liort of ex-
preffing all the poffible conftruftions of a perfect ma¬
gic fquare of the 49 firft numbers.
As to the even fquares, he conftrtnfts them like the
uneven ones, by two primitive fquares ; but the Con-
Perfeft Square.
41
l37
33
J
46
20 28
3646
ftruftion of primitives is different in general, and may
be fo a great number of ways: and thofe general dif¬
ferences admit of a great' number of particular varia¬
tions, which give as many different conftrudtions of
the fame even fquare. It fcarce feems poffible to de¬
termine exa&ly, either how many general difference*
there may be between the conftruftion of the primi¬
tive fquares of an even fquare and an uneven one, nor
how many particular variations each general difference
may admit of; and, of confequence, we are ftill far
from being able to determine the number of different
conftrudlions of all thofe that may be made by the
primitive fquares.
The ingenious Dr Franklin feems to have carried
this curious fpeculation farther than any of his prede-
ceffors in the fame way. He has conftrudted not only
a magic fquare of fquares, but likewife a magic circle
of circles, of which we (hall give fome account for
the amufement of our readers. The magic fquare of
fquares is formed by dividing the great fquare, as in
Plate 294. fig. 1. The great fquare is divided
into 2 56 fmall fquares, in which all the numbers from
1 to 256 are placed in 16 columns, which maybe ta¬
ken either horizontally or vertically. The properties
are as follow:
1. The fum of the 16 numbers in each column,
vertical and horizontal, is 20 56.
2. Every half column, vertical and horizontal, makes
1028, or half of 2056.
3. Half a diagonal afeending added to half a dia¬
gonal defeending, makes 2056 ; taking thefe half dia¬
gonals from the ends of any fide of the fquare to the
middle thereof; and fo reckoning them either upward
or downward, or fidewife from left to right hand, or
from right to left.
4. The fame, with all the parallels to the half dia¬
gonals, as many as can be drawn in the great fquare :
for any two of them being directed upward and down¬
ward, from the place where they begin to that where
they end, their fums will make 2056. The fame
downward and upward in like manner: or all the fame
if taken fideways to the middle, and back to the fame
fide again. N. B. One fet of thefe half diagonals and
their parallels is drawn in the fame fquare upward and
downward. Another fuch fet may be drawn from
any of the other three fides.
5. The four corner numbers in the great fquare,
added to the. four central numbers therein, make
1028 ; equal to the half fum of any vertical or hori¬
zontal column which contains 16 numbers; and equal
to half a diagonal or its parallel.
6. If a fquare hole (equal in breadth to four of
the little fquares) be cut in a paper, through which
any of the 16 little fquares in the great fquare may be
feen, and the paper be laid on the great fquare, the
fum of all the 16 numbers, feen through the hole, is
equal to the fum of the 16 numbers in any horizontal
or vertical column, viz. to 2056.
The magic circle of circles (fig. 2.) is compofed
of a feries of numbers from 12 to 75 inclulive, di¬
vided into eight concentric circular fpaces, and ranged
in eight radii of numbers, with the number 12 in the
centre ; which number, like the centre, is common
to all thefe circular fpaces, and to all the radii.
6 The
Msgie
Square.
MAG’ l 423
The numbers are fo placed, that the fum of all thofe
• in either of the concentric circular fpaces above men-
"" tioned, together with the central number 12, make
360 ; equal to the number of degrees in a circle.
The numbers in each radius alfo, together with the
central number 12, make juft 360.
The numbers in half of any of the above circular
fpaces, taken either above or below the double hori¬
zontal line, with half the central number ij, make
180 ; equal to the number of degrees in a femicircle.
If any four adjoining numbers be taken, as if in a
fquare, in the radial divifions of thefe circular fpaces,
the fum of thefe, with half the central number, make
180.
There are, moreover, included, four fets of other
circular fpaces, bounded by circles which are eccentric
with refpeft to the common centre ; each of thefe fets
containing five fpaces. The centres of the circles
which bound them are at A, B, C, and D. The fet
whofe centre is at A is bounded by dotted lines; the
fet whofe centre is at C is bounded by lines of fhort
, uncorine&ed ftrokes ; and the fet round D is bounded
by lines of unconnedfed longer ftrokes, to diftinguifti
them from one another. In drawing this figure by
hand, the let of concentric circles (hould be drawn
with black ink, and the four different fets of eccentric
circles with four kinds of ink of different colours ; as
blue, red, yellow, and green, for diftinguilhing them
readily from one another. Thefe fets of eccentric
circular fpaces interfedi thofe of the concentric, and
each other; and yet the numbers contained in each
of the eccentric fpaces, taken all around through any
of the 20 which are eccentric, make the fame fum as
thofe in the concentric, namely 360, when the central
number 12 is added. Their halves alfo, taken above
or below the double horizontal line, with half the
central number, make 180.
Obferve, that there is not one of the numbers but
what belongs at leaft to two of the circular fpaces,
feme to three, feme to four, fome to five; and yet
they are all fo placed as never to break the required
number 360 in any of the 28 circular fpaces within
the primitive circle.
To bring thefe matters in view, all the numbers as
above mentioned are taken out, and placed in feparate
columns as they ftand around both the concentric and
eccentric circular fpaces, always beginning with the
©utermoft and ending with the innermoft of each fet,
and alfo the numbers as they ftand in the eight radii,
from the circumference to the centre ; the common
central number 12 being placed the loweft in each co¬
lumn.
1. In the eight concentric circular fpaces.
65
\$6o {360
360 I360 t36<r 360
360
MAG
2. In the eight radii.
360 360
360 (360
360 I360
360
360
360
36°
36°
36°
360 I360
3^ 360
360
360
360
360
36° '31
36°
360
360
360
69
3^0
If, now, we take any four numbers, as in
a fquare form, either from N° 1. N° 2. (as
we fuppofe from N"1 1.) as in the margin,
and add half the central number x 2 to them,
14 ,72
25 63'
6
MAG [ 424 1 MAG
Mao-ic the fum will be 180; equal to half the numbers in
tanietn. any c;rcu]ar fpace taken above or below the double ho-
' , rizdntal line, and equal to the number of degrees in a
^hi* 6 feinicircle. Thus, 14, 72, 25, 63, and6, make 1*0.
to*—v——; Magic Lantern. See Dioptrics, art. x, p. 37.
MAGICIAN, one who praftices magic, or hath
the power bf doing wonderful feats by the agency of
fpirits.
Among the eaftern nations it feems to have been
formerly common for the princes to have magicians
about their court to confer with upon extraordinary
occailons. And concerning thefe there hath been much
deputation : fome fuppoiing that their power was only
feigned, and that they were no other than impoftors
who impofed on the credulity of their fovereigns; while
others have thought that the'y really had fome un¬
known connexion or correfpondence with evil fpirits,
and could by their means accomplifh what otherwife
would have been impoffible for men. See the article
Magic.
MAGINDANAO, or Mindanao. See Minda¬
nao.
MAGISTERY, in chemiftry, a name given to al-
moft all precipitates. Thus, magiftery and precipitate
are fynonymous : but chepiiils chiefly ufe precipitates
as a general term, and apply that of magJlcry to
fome particular precipitates only which are ufed in
medicine and in the arts. Such are, the magilteries of
bifmuth, -coal, crabs-eyes, fulphur, &c.
Magistery of Bifmuth. See Cuemsistry, n° 766.
MAGISTRATE, any public ofiicer to whom
the executive power of the law is -committed either
wholly or in part.
MAGLIABECHI (Antony), a perfon of great
learning, and remarkable for an amazing memory, was
born at Florence in 1633. His father died when he
was only feven years old. His mother had him taught
grammar and drawing, and then put him apprentice
to one of the bell goldfmiths in Florence. When he
was about 16 years old, his.paffion for learning began
to lhow itfelf; and he laid out all his money in buy¬
ing books. Becoming acquainted with Michael Er-
mini, librarian to the cardinal de Medicis, he foon per-
fe6led himfelf by his afliltance in the Latin tongue,
and in a little time became mailer of the Hebrew.
His name foon became famous among the learned. A
prodigious memory was his dillinguifhing talent; and
he retained not only the fenfe of what he had read,
but frequently all the words, and the very manner of
fpelling. It .is faid that a gentleman, to make ti;ial
of the force of his memory, lent him a manufeript he
was going to print. Some time after it was returned,
the gentleman, coming to him with a melancholy coun¬
tenance, pretended it was loll, and Yequelled Maglia-
bechi to recolledl what he remembered of it; upon
■which he wrote the whole, without milling a word.
■ He generally Ihut himfelf up the whole day, and open¬
ed bib doors in the evening to the men of letters who
•came to converfe with him. His attention was fo ab-
forbed by his lludies, that he often forgot the moll ur¬
gent wants of nature. Cofmo III. grand duke of Flo¬
rence, made him his librarian ; but-he Hill continued
negligent in his drefs, and Ample in his manners. An
-old cloak ferved him for a morning-gown in the day
and for bed-cloaths at night. The duke, however,
N° 19/.
provided for him a commodious apartment in his palace, Magloire
which he was with difficulty perfuaded to take pof- II
feffion of; but which he quitted four months after, MacnanJ*
and returned to his houf He was remarkable for his m‘ty‘ i
extraordinary modelty, his Ancerity, and his beneA-
cence, which his friends often experienced in their
wants. He was a patron of men of learning ; and had
the higheit pleafure in affilting them with his advice
and information, and in furnilhing them with books
and manuferipts. He had the utmoll averAon at any
thing that looked like conftraint ; and therefore the
grand duke always difpenfed with his perfonal atten¬
dance, and fent him his orders in writing. Though he
lived a moll fedentaiy life, he reached the 8 ill year of
his age ; and died in the midll of the public applaufe,
after enjoying, during the latter part of his life, fuch
affluence as few have ever procured by their learning.
By his will, he left a very Ane library to the public,
with a fund for its fupport.
MAGLOIRE (St), a native of Wales in Great
Britain, and couAn-german to St Sampfon and St Mal-
lo. He embraced a monallic life, and went into France,
where he was made abbot of Dol, and after that a pro¬
vincial bilhop in Brittany. He afterwards founded a
monallery in the ifland of Jerfey, where he died on the
14th of OHober 57$, about the age of 80. His re¬
mains were tranfported to the fuburbs of St Jacques,
and depoAted in a monallery of Benedidlines, which
was ceded to the fathers of the oratory in 1628. It
is now the feminary of St Magloire, celebrated on ac¬
count of the learned men whom it has produced.
This faint cultivated poetiy with confiderable fuccefs:
the hymn which is fung at the feall of All Saints
was compofed by him ; Cielo quos eadem gloria confe-
crat, &c.
MAGNA assisa eligenda, is a writ anciently
direfted to the Iheriff for fummoning four lawful
knights before the jullices of affize, in order to choofe
12 knights of the neighbourhood, &c. to pafs upon
the great affize between fuch a perfon plaintiff and
fuch a one defendant.
Magna Charta. See Charta.
MAGNANIMITY, denotes greatnefs of mind,
particularly in circumliances of trial and adverAty. —
Mr Stretch J well obferves of it, that it is the good 1 Beauties
fenfe of pride, and the noblell way of acquiring ap-
plaufe. It renders the foul fuperior to the trouble,4^
diforder, and emotion which the appearance of great
danger might excite ; and it is by this quality that
heroes maintain their tranquillity, and preferve the
free ufe of their reafon in the moil furpriAng and
dreadful accidents. It admires the fame quality in its
enemy ; and fame, glory, couquefts, defire of oppor¬
tunities to pardon and oblige their oppofers, are what
glow in the minds of the brave. Magnanimity and
courage are infeparable.
1. The inhabitants of Privernum being fubdued and
taken prifoners after a revolt, one of them being afked
by a Roman fenator, who was for putting them all
to death, v. hat punifhment he and his fellow captives
deferved ? anfwered with great intrepidity, “ We de-
ferve that punifhment which is due to men who arc
jealous of their liberty, and think themfelves worthy
of it.” Plautinus perceiving that his anfwer exafpe-
rated fome of the fenators, endeavoured-to prevent
MAG [ 425 1 MAG
Ma?nani- the ill effe&s of it, by putting a milder queftion to the
micy- prifoner: “How would you behave (fays he) if
• ' Rome rtiould pardon you?” “ Our conduit (replied
the generous captive) depends upon yours. If the
peace you grant be an honourable one, you may de¬
pend on a conftant fidelity on our parts : if the terms
of it be hard and diliionourable, lay no itrefs on our
adherence to you.” Some of the judges conftrued
thefe words as menaces ; but the wifer part finding
in them a great deal of magnanimity, cried out, that
a nation whofe only defire was liberty, and their only
fear that of loling it, was worthy to become Roman.
Accordingly, a decree paffed in favour of the prifon-
ers, and Privernum was declared a municipium. Thus
the bold fincerity of one man faved his country, and
gained it the privilege of being incorporated into the
Roman ftate.
2. Subrius Flavius, the Roman tribune, being im¬
peached for having confpired againfl: the life of the
emperor Nero, not only owned the charge, but glori¬
ed in it. Upon the emperor’s afking him what pro¬
vocation he had given him to plot his death ? “ Becaufe
I abhorred thee (faid Flavius), though there was not
in the whole army one more zealoufiy attached to thee
than I, fo long as thou didft merit affe&ion ; but I
began to hate thee when thou becameft the murderer
of thy mother, the murderer of thy brother and wife,
a charioteer, a comedian, an incendiary, and a ty¬
rant.” Tacitus tells us, that the whole confpiracy af¬
forded nothing which proved fo bitter and pungent
to Nero as this reproach. He ordered Flavius to be
immediately put to death, which he fuifered with
amazing intrepidity. When the executioner defired
him to ftretch out his neck valiantly, “ I wilh (re¬
plied he) thou may eft ftrike as valiantly.”
3. When the Scythian ambafladors waited on A-
lexander the Great, they gazed attentively upon him
for a long time without fpeaking a word, being very
probably furprifed, as they formed a judgment of men
from their air and ftature, to find thathisdid not anfwer
the high idea they entertained of him from his fame.
At laft, the oldeft of the ambafladors (according to
Curtius) addrefled him thus : “ Had the gods gi¬
ven thee a body proportionable to thy ambition, the
whole univerfe would have been too little for thee.
With one hand thou wouldft touch the eaft, and
with the other the weft ; and, not fatisfied with this,
thou wouldft follow the fun, and know where he hides
himfelf. But what have we to dp with thee ? we ne¬
ver fet foot in thy country. May not thofe who in¬
habit woods be allowed to live, without knowing who
thou art, and whence thou comeft ? We will neither
command over, nor fubmit to, any man. And that
thou mayeft be fenfible what kind of people the Scy¬
thians are, know, that we received from heaven as a
rich prefent, a yoke of oxen, a ploughfhare, a dart, a
javelin, and a cup; Thefe we make ufe of, both with
our friends and againft our. enemies. To our friends
we give corn, which we procure by the labour of our
oxen j with them we offer wine to the gods in our
cup ; and with regard to our enemies, we combat them
at a diftance with our arrows, and near at hand with
our javelins. But thou, who boafteft thy coming to
extirpate robbers, thou thyfelf art the greateft robber
Vol. X. Part II.
upon earth. Thou haft plundered all nations thou Mighani-
overcameft : thou haft poffeffed thyfelf of Lydia, in- m.tty
vaded Syria, Perfia, and Bafiriana; thou art forming Maj;nefu.
a defign to march as far as India; and now thou comeft ..
hither to feize upon our herds of cattle. The great
poffeffions thou haft, only make thee covet more ea¬
gerly what thou haft not. If thou art a god, thou
oughteft to do good to mortals, and not deprive them
of their poffeffions. If thou art a mere man, refleft
always on what thou art. They whom thou fhalt not
mold! will be thy true friends, the ftrongeft friend-
fhips being contra&ed between equals ; and they are
efteemed equals who have not tried their ftrength
againft each other: but do not imagine that thofe
whom thou conquereft can love thee.”
4. Richard I. king of England, having inveftedthe LapinsHifi
caftle of Chains, was Ihot in the ftioulder with an ar-an'11
row; an unfkilful furgeon endeavouring to extrad the
weapon, mangled the flefh in fuch a manner, that a
gangrene enfued. The caftle being taken, and per¬
ceiving he fhould not live, he ordered Bertram de
Gourdon, who had fhot the arrow, to be brought
into his prefence. Bertram being come, “ What
harm (faid the king) did ever I do thee, that
thou fhouldft kill me ?” The other replied with great
magnanimity and courage, “ You killed with your
own hand my father and two of my brothers, and you
like wife defigned to have killed me. You may now
fatiate your revenge. I fhould cheerfully fuffer all
the torments that can be infli&ed, were I fure of ha¬
ving delivered the world of a tyrant who filled it with
blood and carnage.” This bold and fpirited anfwer
ftruck Richard with remorfe. He ordered the pri¬
foner to be prefented with one hundred fhillings, and
fet at liberty; but Maccardec, one of the king’s
friends, like a true ruffian, ordered him to be flayed
alive.
5. The following modern inftance is extrafted
from a late French work intitled, Ecole hijlorique &
morale du foldat. See. A mine, underneath one of the
outworks of a citadel, was intrufted to the charge of
a ferjeant and a few foldiers of the Piedmontefe
guards. Several companies of the enemy’s troops had
made themfelves mailers of this work ; and the lofs of
the place would probably foon have followed had they
maintained their poll in it. The mine was charged,
and a fingle fpark would blow them all into the air.
The ferjeant, with the greateft coolnefs, ordered the
foldiers to retire, defiring them to requeft the king to
take care of his wife and children ; ftruck fire, fet
a match to the train, and facriliced himfelf for his
country.
I&AGNESA, or Magnesia, (anc. geog.) a town
or a diftrift of Tbeffaly/ at the foot of mount Pe-
lius, called by Philip, tne fon of Demetrius, one of
the three keys of Greece, (Paufanias.)
MAGNESIA, o/Magnes-ia alba, in mineralo¬
gy and chemiftry, A kind of earth only difeovered
fince the beginningof this century. It firft began to
be known at Rone by the name of the Count de Pal¬
ma's powder, wl^/ch a canon there offered as a general
remedy for all d/orders. It washy many confidered as
a calcareous ea/th ; but F. Hoffman fhowed it to be
effentially difti/ct. The fame was afterwards done by
3 H Dr
MAG C 4*6 ] MAG
Mignefia. Dr Black of Edinburgh and M. Margraaf of Berlin,
jthough unknown to each other at the time. When
, pure, it is extremely white, loofe, and light; the fpe-
cific gravity about 2.330. It is one of the mod infu-
lible fubilances in nature ; neither melting, nor even
hardening nor cohtrafting, in the focus of the
moft powerful burning-glafs An experiment was
made on fome of this earth in the fummer of 1782
by M. Magellan, with Mr Parker’s burning-glafs; the
effefts of which are more powerful than tliofe of any
other, though its diameter is only 32 inches. The event
feemed at firft to be-unfavourable to the concluilon
above mentioned ; for a cubic inch of magnefia, a
quarter of an inch each fide, being put into its focus,
was hardened, and reduced to lefs than a third part of
its bulk each way, viz. from .25 of an inch to .08.
On applying a fimilar cube of magnefia, however, from
Mr Henry’s manufa&ure at Manchefier, it neither
became harder nor fenfibly fliminifhed irt'fize. Berg¬
man infotms us, that magnefia, unlefs precipitated by
the volatile alkali, or that by the neat alkalifed tartar,
always contains fome filiceousor calcareous earth. Al-
moft the fame thing happens when It is feparated by
calcination from the remaining lixiviations of the ni¬
trous and marine acids; in which cafe, by. fuch a
violent fire, it'adheres together, and even fliows a ten¬
dency to vitrify.
Notwithftanding this extreme refractorinefs of mag¬
nefia by itfelf, it melts eafily with borax, though fcarce
affe&ed by alkalies or the calces of lead ; when mixed
with other earths it produces hard maffes of various
kinds ; when mixed with calcareous, argillaceous, or
filiceous earths, it melts in the fire ; and if four times
its weight of green glafs be added to it, the mafs forms
a kind of porcelain fo hard as to ftrike fire with fteel.
But neither tpi equal part of the above earths, nor of
ponderous earth, glafs of lead, vegetable alkali, nor vi-
triolated tartar, added feparately to magnefia, will
melt in the fire : however, when mixed with common
argillaceous earth, it melts into a hard mafs. Mag¬
nefia differs from calcareous earth in having a much
fmaller attraction for fixed air. In this refpedt it is
inferior even to fixed alkaline falls ; fo that it will not
render any of thefe cauflic, though it will do fo to the
volatile alkali. It alfo parts very readily with its own
fixed air by mere heat; and it was by making expe¬
riments on this fubftance that Dr Black made his firft
difeoveries concerning fixed air. In its calcined ftate,
however, it does not {how any of the caufticity of
lime, but may be fafely taken internally; and is
even preferred by fome to that which contains fix¬
ed air- In this ftate it is much lefs foluble than
when combined with fixed air, and does not effervefee
with any acid. When mixed with water, a very fmall
degree of heat is excited, and in about 7962 times its
weight of water it totally diflalves. It diffolves alfo
very readily in aerial acid; by which means it is fre¬
quently united with frefh water. For the fame reafon,
when we mix a fblution of perfeftir mild alkali, either
fixed or volatile, with a folution ,of magnefia, no pre¬
cipitation follows ; becaufe the greatquantity of fixed
air extricated by the union of the ac'd and alkali, in-
ftantly diffolves the precipitate as faf. as it is formed.
But if we put this mixture over the fie, it will grow
thick, and coagulate as foon as it is h ated to a cer¬
tain degree ; becaufe the magnefia is unable to retain, Magnefia,
in any confiderable heat, as much fixed air as is necef- v—^
fary for its folution.
On putting magnefia into water, and afterwards
drying it, it is found to retain of its weight of
aqueous fluid ; but when fully faturated with aerial
acid, it will abforb and retain t-?o of the fame. When
fully faturated with aerial acid, it is move foluble in
cold than in hot watefc; becaufe the heat of the latter
diffipates part of the fixed air, as was obferved con¬
cerning the alkali ne falts*
Magnefia, when combined with different acids,
forms falts exceedingly different from thofe produced
by calcareous earth under fimilar circumflances ; and
of which an account is given under the article Che¬
mistry. It is ufually prepared either from the bit¬
tern of fea-falt, or from the fait prepared from that
liquid under the name of Epfom fait. The magneiii
prepared direftly from the bittern, however, is by no
means equal in purity to that produced from the finer
kinds of Epfom fait. Hence, in order to have pure
magnefia, Bergman gives the following directions:
“ Let Epfom fak, in well-formed'cryftals, be diffol-
ved in diftilled water ; and from this the magnefia is
to be precipitated by mild volatile alkali. Some of
this earth that remains fufpended in the folution, by
means of aerial acid, may be eafily precipitated by a
fimple ebullition. An hundred pounds of this mag¬
nefia, when rightly prepared, contains near 25 parts
of fixed air, 30 of water, and 4$ of pure earth. Its
fpecific gravity is then 2.155. This method of prepa¬
ration may anfwer very well for having a very pure
magnefia ; but when it is required to have it very light
andfpongy, which, by thofe who ufe it, is looked up¬
on to be the only criterion of its goodnefs, we muft
ufe the following method :
Take any quantity of Epfom fait, diffolve it in boil¬
ing water, and filter the folution. Diffolve alfo half
the quantity of good peari-afh, and filter this folfition.
Both of thefe folutions ought to be fomewhat diluted;
and it will be proper to ufe twice the quantity of wa¬
ter which would fairly diffolve the falts. Mix the two
folutions when nearly cold, and ftir them very well to¬
gether. Let the’ mixture Hand for fome hours until
the precipitate^ has fallen to the bottom in form of a
coarfe gritty powder. Put the whole then into a clean
copper kettle, under which a moderate fire is made.
Stir the matter inceffantly with a large wooden fpatula,
to prevent the powder from flicking to the bottom.
As the mixture heats, the powder begins to iefe its
fandy appearance, and to increafe greatly in quan¬
tity ; fo that, though at firft the "mixture was quite
thin, with only a fmall portion of fandy matter amongfl
it, before it has attained the boiling heat it will be
fo thick that it can fcarce be flirred. When the grit-
tinefs is quite gone, the matter muft be put upon a fil¬
tering cloth, and warm water poured Upon it till it
runs infipid. The magnefia is then to be put upon
chalk ftones, which will abforb the greatefl part of
the moifture; and it may at laft be fully dried in a
ftove.
Magnefia alba is a good abforbent; and undoubted¬
ly to be preferred to crab’s-eyes, on account of its pur¬
gative quality w'hen united with an acid, which the
other has not. It has been efteemed hurtful in_ bi¬
lious
MAG [ 427 ] MAG
'Miignefia, lions habits where there is a difpofition in the ftoraach
* contrary to acidity. /Fhis, however, according to Mr
Henry, is doubtful: and where putrid bile is to be cor¬
rected, he thinks good purpofes may be anfwered by
taking magnefia with an acid in a ftate of effervefcence;
as the fixed air, thus extricated, will correCt the-putri-
dity of the contents of the inteftines, while they are at
the fame time evacuated downwards. He is alfo of
opinion, that in cutaneous difeafes it may enter the
circulation in form of a neutral fait, and, by aCting as a
diaphoretic and diuretic, prove an excellent alterative.
For fome medical purpofes, magnefia is ufed in a
calcined ftate ; in which cafe it is deprived of its fixed
air, and then it proves nearly as aperient as a double
quantity of magnefia in its uncalcined ftate. Mr Hen¬
ry is of opinion, that it may be ufeful in difteufions of
the bowels arifing from flatus ; that it may befuccefs-
fully employed as a cathartic with patients labouring
tinder the ftone, who are ufing the lixivium fapona-
ceum ; and that, joined with warm aromatics, it may
be of fervice in correcting the great flatulency which
fd much affliCts people of a gouty difpofition. From
feveral experiments made by the fame author, it alfo
appears that magnefia has a considerable antifeptic
power. The like virtue he afcribes to all kinds of te-
ftaceous powders: whence he concludes, that me¬
dicines of this kind are by no means improper in fe¬
vers of a putrefcent type ; that where bile is fufpeCted
to be the caufe of any putrid difeafe, thofe antifep-
tics fhould be prefcribed which particularly impede its
corruption; that, as calcined magnefia is a more power¬
ful antifeptic than moft other abforbents, it merits a
preference to thefe ; and that where an acid cacochy-
my prevails, magnefia or other abforbents, taken im¬
mediately before or after meal-time, may, by inerea-
fing the putrefaCfive fermentation of animal-food, be
of very great fervice. He hath alfo found, that mag¬
nefia hath a power of promoting the folution of reft-
nous gums in water; and.thus we have an elegant and
eafy method of preparing aqueous tinCture^ from thefe
fubftances. Such tinCtures, however, are calculated
only for extemporaneous prelcription, as moft of them
•depofit a fediment when they have been kept a week
or two.
Black Magnbsja. See Manganese.
MAGNF.SIA (anc. geog.), a maritime diftriCt of
Theflaly, lying between the fouth part of the Sinus
Thermaicus and the Pegafaeus to the fonth, and to
the eaft of the Pelafgiotis. Magnetes, the people. Mag-
nefuis and MagneJJus, the epithet; (Horace).
Magnesia, a town of Afia Minor on the Maean-
der, about 15 miles from Ephefus. Themiftocles died
there : it was one of the three towns given him by
Artaxerxes, with thefe words, “ to furnifti his table
with bread.” It is alfo celebrated for a battle which
was fought there, 190 years before the Chriftian asra,
between the Romans and Antiochus king of Syria.
The forces of Antiochus amounted to 70,000 men ac¬
cording to Appian, or 70,000 foot and 12;ooo horfe
Recording to Livy, which has been exaggerated by
’Floras to 3-00,000 men ; the Roman army confifted
of about 28 or 30,000 men, 2000 of which w’ere
employed in guarding the camp. The Syrians loft
50,000 foot and 4600 horfe; and the Romans only
5
300 killed, with 25 horfe. It was founded by a co¬
lony from Magnefia in Thefialy ; and was commonly
called Magnefia ad Maandrum, to diftinguilh it from
another, called Magnefia ad Sipylum in Lydia at the
foot of mount Sipylus.
Magnesia ad Sipylum, anciently Tantalis, the refi-
dence of Tantalus, and capital of Masonia, where now
ftands the lake Sale. A town of Lydia, at the foot
of mount Sipylus, to the eaft of the Hermus ; adjudg¬
ed free under the Romans. It was deitroyed by an
earthquake in the reign of Tiberius.
MAGNET (Magncs)Tyhz Loadstone: a fort of
ferruginous ftone, in weight and colour refembling
iron ore, though fomewhat harder and more heavy ;
endowed with various extraordinary properties, attrac¬
tive, directive, inclinatory, &c. See Magnetism.
The magnet is alfo called Lapis Htraclaus, from
Heraclea, a city of Magnefia, a port of the ancient
Lydia, where it is faid to have been firft Found, and
from which it is ufually fuppofed to have taken its
name. Though others derive the word from a ftiep-
herd named Magnet, who firft difcovei'd it with the
iron of his crook on mount Ida. It is alfo called La¬
pis Nauticus, by reafon of its ufe in navigation; and
fide rites, from its attracting iron, which the Greeks
call a-iJrtf®-.
The magnet is ufually found in iron mines, and
fometimes in very large pieces half magnet half iron.
Its colour is different according to the different coun¬
tries it is brought from. Norman obferves, that the
belt are thole brought from China and Bengal, which
are of an irony or fanguine colour ; thofe of Arabia
are reddifh; thofe of Macedonia blackilh; and thofe of
Hungary, Germany, England, &c. the colour of un-
wrought iron. Neither its figure nor bulk is deter¬
minate, it is found of .all forms and fizes.
The ancients reckoned five kinds of magnets, diffe¬
rent in colour and virtue; the Ethiopic, Magnefian,
Boeotic, Alexandrian, and Natolian. They alfo took
it to be male and female : but the chief ufe they made
of it was in medicine; efpecially for the cure of burn*
and defluxions on the eyes.—The moderns, more hap¬
py, employ it to conduct them in their voyages. Sec
Navigation.
The moft difiinguilhing properties of the magnet
are, That it attraCls iron, and that it points to the poles
of the world ; and in other circumftances alfo dips or
inclines to a point beneath the horizon, dire&ly under
the pole ; and that it communicates thefe properties,
by touch, to iron. On which foundation are built the
mariner’s needles, both horizontal and inclinatory.
At tractive Power of the Magnet was known to the
ancients; and is mentioned even by Plato and Euri¬
pides, who call it the Herculean Jlone, becaufe it com¬
mands iron, which fubdues every thing elfe : but the
knowledge of its directive power, whereby it difpofes
its poles along the meridian of every place, and occa-
fions needles, pieces of iron, &c. touched with it, to
point nearly north and fouth, is of a much later date;
though the exa& time of its difeovery, and the difeo-
verer himfelf, are yet in the dark. The firft tidings we
hear of it is in 1260, when Marco Polo the Venetian
is faid by fome to have introduced the mariner’s com-
pafs; tho’ not as an invention of his own, but as deri-
3 H 2 ved
Magner.
MAG [ 42S ] M A G -
Magnet, ved from the Chinefe, who are faid to have had the
'1 ufe of it long before; though fome imagine that
the Chinefe rather borrowed it from the Europeans.
Fl&vio de Gioia,- a Neapolitan, who lived in the 13th
century, is the perfon ufually fuppofed to have the belt
title to the difcovery : and yet Sir G. Wheeler men¬
tions, that he had feen a book of aftronomy much old¬
er, which fuppofed the ufe of the needle ; though
not as applied to the ufes of navigation, but of aftro¬
nomy. And in Guyot de Provins, an old French
poet, who wrote about the year 1180, there is an
exprefs mention made of the loadftone and the com-
M A G N
npHE power by which the loadftone is influenced,
A- manifefting itfelf by certain attractive and direc¬
tive virtues, and which may be underftood from the
following phenomena afterwards mentioned, which are
common to all magnetical bodies.
Chap. I. Phenomena and Laws of Magnetifm.
§ I. Phenomena of the Magnet.
X. A magnet, whether natural or artificial, attracts
iron, and all fubftances which contain it in its metallic
ftate. A pure calx of iron is but litt-le attracted ; but
if the calx be heated ftrongly in conjunction with char¬
coal duft, it will then be attracted, though it has not
regained its metallic fplendour, and is quite deftitute
of malleability. The femimetal called nickel, and
perhaps fome others, are attracted by the magnet,
though freed from iron as much as pofiible. From
fome accounts it has been fufpeCted that brafs was in
a fmall degree affeCted by the magnet, and even that all
very minute bodies are fomewhat under its influence ;
but this feems not yet to be fufficiently afeertained.
2. If a magnet be fufpended by a thread, nicely
placed on a pivot, or fet to float in a bafon of water,
it will turn one and conftantly the fame fide nearly
towards the north pole of the earth, the other of
- courfe turning towards the fouth. Hence thefe parts
of the magnet have been called its poles, taking the
defignations of north and fouth from thofe parts of
the world towards which they turn. This property is
called the polarity of the magnet; and when it is in the
aft. of turning itfelf into this pofition, it is faid to
traverfe. A plane drawn perpendicular to the hori¬
zon through both poles of a magnet, after it has
turned itfelf, is called the magnetic meridian ; and the
angle it makes with the meridian of the place is
called the declination of the magnet or of the magnetic
needle.
. 3. When either the north or the fouth poles of two
magnets are placed near to each other, they repel; but
a north and a fouth pole attraCI each other.
4. A magnet placed in fuch a manner as to be en¬
tirely at liberty, inclines one of its poles to the hori¬
zon, and of courfe elevates the other above it. This
property is called the inclination or dipping of the mag¬
net; and is moft confpicuous in artificial magnets or
needles, which may be accurately balanced before the
magnetic virtue is imparted to them.
5. By proper management any magnet may be
pafs; and their ufe in navigation obliquely hinted at. Magnet.
The Variation of the Magnet, or its declination -J
from the pole, was firft difeovered by Seb. Cabot, a
Venetian, in 1500; and the variation of that varia¬
tion, by Mr Gellibrand, an Englifliman, about the
year 1625. See Variation.
Laftly, the dip or inclination of the needle, wheo
at liberty to play vertically, to a point beneath the ho¬
rizon, was firft difeovered by another of our country¬
men, Mr R. Norman, about the year 1576. See the
article Dipping-NEEDLE.
MAGNETICAL needle. See Magnetical Needle.
E T I S M;
-made to communicate its virtue to a piece of fteel or
iron, which virtue it will retain for a longer or fltorter
time according to circumftances.
§ 2. Of the different Subffances attracted hy the Magnet.
It has already been faid, that iron is the only fub-
ftance which the magnet particularly attradts, and that
too when in its metallic ttate. Neverthelefs this metal
is fo univerfally diffufed, that there are few fubftances
which do not contain a fufficient quantity of it to be
in fome degree affe&ed by the magnet. Iron itfelf is
attracted with-different degrees of force according to
the ftate in which it is with regard to malleability—•
Even the pureft calx or folution that can be made, is
faid to be in fome degree affedled by the magnet;
but of all fubftances foft iron is attra&ed with the
greateft force when clean and of an uniform texture.
Hardened fteel is attrafted with much lefs force than
iron ; but the feales feparated from red-hot iron, the
fufed globules from flint and fteel, or the finery cinder,
are attra&ed as much as iron itfelf. The black calx
of iron is attrafted but very weakly; and the red calx
or ruft fo little, that it is generally faid to be quite
infenfible to the magnetic attradlion ; though this is
not found to be ftriftly true, even when the calx is
prepared by fire, and purified in the moft careful
manner. Sometimes the feales and calx are capable
of acquiring a polarity, though weakly. Ores of iron
are attracted with greater or lefs force according to
the ftate of the metal in them, and according to
the quantity of it they contain; though the attrac¬
tion is always manifeft even when they contain fuch
a final! quantity as fcarcely to deferve -the name of
ores. They are generally much more attracted after
calcination than before ; becaufe this operation com¬
municates to them a portion of phlogifton by which
they approach to a metallic ftate. Ores of lead, tin, and
copper, are likewife attracted, as well as native cinnabar,
on account of the quantity of iron they contain ; and it
is remarkable, that though pure lead in its metallic ftate
is not in the leaft attracted, its calx is fo in fome de¬
gree. The calx of tin is alfo attra&ed, though in a
ftill fmaller degree than that of lead. Zinc, bifmuth,
and cobalt, but efpecially the pres of thefe femimetals,.
are attracted; but not antimony, unlefs it be firft exr
pofed to a gentle heat; and arfenic is not attracted at
all. One kind of bifmuth is faid to be abfolutely re¬
pelled by the magnet. Almoft all other minerals are
attra&ed, at leaft after having been expofed to the ac-
1 lion
Chap. I. M A G N
Subftances tion of fire. Calcareous earth is attrafted lefs than
at traded any and the fdiceous earth the moft fre-
hU 'net quently. Sand, efpecially the black kind, is general-
v a^I>t ' ly attracted ; and amber aa well as other combultible
fubftances have the fame property, after being burn¬
ed. Ahnoft every part of animal and vegetable bodies
is afletted by the magnet after being burned ; but un¬
burned animal or vegetable fubltances are very feldom
if ever perceptibly attracted. It is alfo remarkable,
that even foot, of the dull which falls upon any thing
left expofcd to the atmofphere, are feniibly attracted.
Colourlefs precious Itones, as the diamond and cryf-
tals, are not attracted; neither the amethylt, topaz,
chalcedony, or fuch as are deprived of their colour
by fire; but all others, as the ruby, chryfolite, and
tourmalin, are attracted. The emerald, and parti¬
cularly the garnet, are not only attracted, but fre¬
quently acquire an evident polarity. The opal is at-
tradted but weakly.
The attradtion of fo many different-fubftances (hows
the univerfal diffufion of iron throughout almoft all
terreltrial fubltances; for to this we are with the
greateft probability to afcribe the attradtion of fo
many fubftances by the magnet. How fmall a quan¬
tity of iron indeed will give a fubftance this property,
is evident from the following experiment related by
Mr Cavallo. “ Having chofen a piece of Turky-
ftone which weighed above an ounce, 1 examined it
by a very fenfible magnet needle, but did not find
that it was affedted in the leaft. A piece of fteel was
then weighed with a pair of fcales, which would turn
with the 20th part of a grain, and one end of it drawn
over the ftone in various diredtions. After this ope¬
ration the fteel was again weighed, and found to have
loft no perceptible part of its weight; yet the Turky-
ftone, which had acquired only this very fmall quan¬
tity of fteel, now aftedted the magnetic needle very
fenfibly.” In making his obfervations on this expe¬
riment, he propofes the magnet as a teft ol iron in
different fubftances, being capable of deteaing a
fmaller quantity than.any method that chemiftry can
yet afford.
Our author has been at confiderable pains to inve-
ftigate the magnetic properties of brafs and other me¬
tals ; having made many experiments upon the fub-
jedt, of which the following are the refults: i. Ham¬
mered brafs is much more generally attradled by the
magnet than other kinds ; and fuch as is not influen¬
ced in this manner, acquires the property by being
hammered. 2. A piece of brafs rendered magnetic
by hammering, lofes the property on being made red
hot fo as to become foftened ; by a fecond hammer¬
ing it becomes again magnetic ; and thus may be made
to lofe its property and recover it alternately. 3. Suf-
pedting that the magnetic property might be occalion-
ed by a fmall quantity of iron abraded from the ham¬
mer, the pieces of brafs were beat between two pieces
of card-paper ; notwithftanding which precaution, it
acquired the magnetic property as before. 4. Some¬
times an evident degree of magnetifm was communi-
£ T I S M. 429,
cated by two or three ftrokes, and with the card-paper Subftances
not above 30 ftrokes were given to make the brafs attracted
fenfibly magnetic. 5. A piece of brafs was hardened signet,
by beating it between two large flints, ufing one for 1
the hammer and the other for the anvil; but ftill it
acquired a magnetic property, tho’ lefs than with “the
iron hammer, which might be explained by the rough-
nefs of the flints, and their not coming into uontadt
fufficiently with the metal. Neither of the flints was.
found to have acquired the fmalleft degree of magne¬
tic power either before or after the experiment. 6. By
melting the brafs in a crucible, it was found to have
entirely loft its magnetifm. 7. A piece of brafs de¬
prived of its magnetic property by fire, regained it
after a few ftrokes of the hammer, though laid be¬
tween two pieces of copper. 8. Moft of the pieces of
brafs tried by our author became magnetic by ham¬
mering ; but fome, though rendered equally hard with
the reft, did not affe6t the needle in the leaft ; but thefe
could not originally be diftinguilhed from fuch as are
capable of becoming magnetic. 9. As, notwithftand¬
ing the precautions made ufe of in the above'experi¬
ments to.prevent the iron of the hammer from being
in any manner of way communicated to the brafs, an
objection might arife, thht fome quantity of the calx
might be diffufed through the metal, and acquire
phlogifton by hammering, he tried the following ex¬
periment, which feemed decifive. A piece of brafs
which would acquire no magnetifm by hammering,,
was put upon an anvil with a confiderable quantity of
crocus martis, which had no effedt upon the needle.
It was then hammered for a long time, turning it fre¬
quently, fo that the crocus was beat intd the fubftance
of the brafs, and gave it a red colour ; .neverthelefs, it
affected the needle in this ftate no more than before.
10. A hole of about an eighth part of an inch in
length, and little more than one 50th of an inch in¬
diameter, was drilled in a piece of brafs which could
not be rendered magnetic by hammering ; after which
the hole was filled with crocus martis, and hammered
as before, but ftill it Ihowed no figns of magne¬
tifm (a). XI. On making this piece of brafs, con¬
taining the crocus, red hot, it then affedted the needle, *■
but only in that place where the crocus was. 12. On
repeating this experiment with black calx of iron in-
ftead of crocus martis, the brafs was weakly attracted
in that place where the calx was, and this attradtion
was neither augmented nor diminiftied by calcination.
13. On mixing a fmall quantity of iron with four
times its weight of brafs which could not be made
magnetic by hammering,, the whole was rendered
powerfully magnetic ; but on again mixing this com¬
pound with 50 times its weight of the fame brafs, the
attradtion became fo weak , as to be fcarcely percep¬
tible ; and was neither augmented by hammering nor
diminiftied by; foftening, 14, On repeating moft of
his experiments, by letting the pieces of brafs float
upon quickfilver in the manner hereafter defcribed, he
found that very few of themwere not affedted ; and-
even the indifference of any of them did not ft cm to
be
(a) Thefe two experiments feem inconfiftent without author’s affertion, _that calces of iron zxe-always a£-~
fecitd in fome degree by the magnet.
43°
Sul.fiances
attracted
by the
Magnet.
M A G N E
be very well nfeertained; though thefe did not ac¬
quire any additional magnetifm by hammering.
From all thefe experiments Mr Cavallo draws the
. following conclulions. x. Moft brafs becomes mag¬
netic by hammering, and lofes that property by an¬
nealing or foftening in the fire ; or at leatt its magne¬
tifm is fo far weakened by it, as afterwards to be only
difeovered when floating on quickfilver. 2. The ac¬
quired magnetifm is not owing to particles of fron
naturally or artificially mixed with the brafs. 3. The
pieces of brafs v/hich have that property retain it with¬
out any diminution after a great number of repeated
trials; but he found ho method of giving magnetifm to
brafs which had it riot naturally. 4. A large piece
of brafi has generally a ftronger magnetic power than
a fmall one ; and the fiat furface draws the needle more
powerfully than the edge or corner. 5. If only one
end of a piece of brafs be hammered, then that end
alone will difturb the magnetic needle. 6. The mag¬
netic power which brafs acquires by hammering has
a certain limit, beyond which it cannot be increafed
by farther hammering. This limit is different
in different pieces of brafs, according to their
thicknefs or quality. 7. In the courfe of his expe¬
riments, the following circumflance was twice obler-
ved : A piece of brafs which had the property of be¬
coming magnetic by hammering, and of lofing that
■property by annealing, loft its magnetic power entirely
by being left in the fire till partially melted, but re¬
covered it again on being fully fo. 8. A long conti¬
nuance in a ftrong fire, which alters the texture of the
metal, making it what fome workmen call rotten, ge¬
nerally deflroys the magnetic property alfo ; whence
this property feems to be -owing to fome particular
configuration of its parts. 9. When brafs is ufed in
magnetical inftruments, it ought either to be left en¬
tirely foft, or ehofen of fuch a fort as wall not become
magnetic by hammering. 10. There are few fub-
ifances in nature, which, when floated upon quick¬
filver, are not affefted in fome degree by the mag¬
net. '
Our author next proceeded to try the magnetic
power of other metals, particularly the component
parts of brafs, See. copper, and z.inc. With the former
the refult was doubtful; and though pieces of ham¬
mered copper would fometimes attradf the needle, yet
the attradlion was always exceedingly weak. Zinc-
had no efle&, either in its natural ftate or hammered
as much as it could bear without breaking. A mix¬
ture of it with tin had no effeft. The fame was ob-
ferved of a piece of a broken refledtor of a telefcope
made of tin and copper ; a mixture of tin, zinc, and
copper ; a piece of lilver whether foft or hammered ;
a piece of pure gold whether foft or hammered ; a
mixture cf gold and filver, both hard and foft; and ano¬
ther mixture of much filver, a little copper, and a Hill
lefs quantity of gold.
The magnetic property of nickel has been men¬
tioned by feveral authors ; but Mr Cavallo fays he has
found fome pieces which did not affeft the needle in
the leaft. “ It is probable (fays he) that thefe pieces
were not pure nickel, and perhaps fome cobalt was
contained in them ; but I fee no reafon why the nic¬
kel, when alloyed with a little cobalt, Ihould Ihow no
attraction towards the magnet, if that property did
T I S M. Chap, T.
really and eflentially belong to it.” Our author, Atr-aclion
laftly, made feveral experiments upon platina; the mag- tovvari»
netic properties of which were found to be very fisni- lra‘1, .
lar to thofe of brafs ; the native grains becomirig mag¬
netic by hammering, and lofing that property by
heat; but the precipitate from aqua-regia, fufed in a
violent fire, or rather concreted together by this
means, Ihowed no fign of attra&ion whatever.
5 3- OJ the Attraction of thrMagnet towards Iron ‘in its
various States of Exijlencc.
I. Th e firft experiment which naturally occurs on this
fubjeft is, Whether mere heat can make any change in
the magnetic properties of iron without dcllroying its
texture or diminilhing the power of the magnet to
which it is applied. Kircher fays, that he tried this
experiment, and found that a piece of iron heated to
fuch a degree as to be fcarcely difcernible from a
burning coal, was in that Hate as powerfully attraded
as if if had been cold. Mr Cavallo found the effect
dire&ly the reverfe ; for, having heated a piece of
fteel red hot, and in that ftate prefented it to the mag¬
net, fo as to touch it repeatedly in various places, not
the leaft fign of attraction could be perceived. In this
experiment, the rednefs of the iron could plainly be
perceived in day-light; and our author acknowledges,
that iron, tho’ its rednefs be perceptible in the dark,
will ftiil be attraded by the magnet. The refult was
the fame on repeating the experiment a number of
times over; but the attradion became as. ftrong as
ever a little after the rednefs ceafed in the dark. The
attradion feemed to begin fooner in fteel than in iron.
Our author does not pretend to fay, that by heating
iron to a red, or even to a white heat, the attraction
of the magnet for it is abfolutely annihilated; but it
certainly was fo far dimiuilhed that it did not affed
the magnetic needle.
II. It was now tried what would be the effed of de-
comppfing iron ; and with this view an earthen veffel,
containing about two ounces of iron-filings, was pla¬
ced near the fouth end of the needle of the compafs,
by which the latter was drawn a little out of its direc¬
tion. On adding fome water, and then vitriolic acid,
the attradion leemed to be increafed, and the needle
came nearer the veffeh This fuperior attradion con¬
tinued till the effervefcence began to ceafe ; and at
laft it was found to be inferior to what it had been
originally. To obviate fome objedions which might
ariie from the motion of the iron-filings, the experi¬
ment was repeated with fteel-wire twitted in various
diredions, fo as to prelent a large furface to the acid;
and being placed at a proper diltance from the needle,
it attraded it out of its diredion from 281° to 280°.
After adding the diluted vitriolic acid, a ftrong effer-
vefcence eniued, and the needle was moved to 279°
47'; five minutes after that it flood at 279^ 35'; and
in five minutes more at 279“ 33'; feeming even to
come fomewhat nearer in a little time after: but as it
then appeared to have gained its maximum of attrac¬
tion, the pot was removed, and the needle went back
to its original ftation of 281'.
On repeating this experiment with different acids, '
it was found that the vitriolic increafed the attradion
more than either the nitrous or marine. With the
former of thefe the maximum of attradion was fooner
gained
f
Chap. T.
MAGNETISM.
'Attra&ion Iriar*ne t^ie attrai^!'on was weakeft of all; which,
^ ' however, our author imputes to his not being able
to raife a fufficient effervefcence with this acid.
III. ^he degree of magnetic attraction depends'upon
the ftrength df the magnet itfelf, the weight and fnape,
of the iron prefented to it, the magnetic or unmag-
netic Hate of the body, and the diftance between them.
A piece of clean and foft iron is more powerfully at¬
tracted than any other ferruginous fubftance of the
fame iize and lhape. Steel is attrated lefs powerful¬
ly. The attratioh is ftrongeft at the poles, dimi-
nifhing according to the diitance from them, and en¬
tirely ceafing at the equator or middle point betwixt
the poles. It is ftrongeft near the furface of the mag¬
net, diminifliing as we recede from it; but the pro¬
portion in which this diminution takes place has not
been exactly determined. M. Mufchenbroeck made
the following experiments in order to determine this
point.
i. A cylindrical magnet, two inches long, and
weighing 16 drams, was fufpended by an accurate ba¬
lance above a cylinder of iron exactly of the fame
fhape and dimenfions, and the degree of attraftion
betwixt the two meafured by weights put into the
oppofite fcale ; the magnet being fucceffively placed
at different diftances from the iron. The refults were
as follow :
Diftance in Attraction in
inches.
6
IV. Uling' a globe of iron of the fame diameter 1
with the magnet inftead of the cylinder, the refults ^
were: ‘
431
Diftance in
inches
8 -
7 -
6 -
5 —
4 —
3 -
Attraction in
grains.
64
290
grams.
3x
2. A fpfyerical magnet of the fame diameter with
the cylindrical one, but of greater ftrength, was affix-
In the experiments with the cylinder, it was found
that the magnet, attracted a fhorter cylinder with lefs
force, but in the fame proportion.—From the others,
it appears, that one magnet attracts another with lefs
force than a piece of iron, but that the attraction be¬
gins from a greater diftance; whence it muft follow a
different law of decreafe.
IV. The attraction between the magnet and a piece
of iron is fubjeCt to variation from the mere fhape of
the latter, there being a limit in the weight and fhapfr
of the iron, in which it will attract it more forcibly
than any other; but this can only be determined by
aCtual experiment.
V. It has already been obferved, that magnetic at¬
traction takes place only between the oppofite poles
of two magnets: however, it frequently happens, that
though the north pole of one magnet be prefented to
the north pole of another, that they fhow neither at¬
traction nor repulfion ; but that when placed very near
each other, they will attraCt. This is explained by
our author in the following manner : “ When a piece
of iron, or any other fubftance that contains iron, is
brought within a certain diftance of a magnet, it be¬
comes itfelf a magnet, having the poles, the attractive
ed to one of the feales of the balance, and the cylin- power, and, in fnort, every property of a real magnet.
drical magnet ufed in the former experiment placed
upon the table with its fouth pole upwards, facing
the north pole of the fpherical magnet; when the at¬
tractions were found as follow :
Diftance i
inches.
6
5
4
3
Attraction i
grains.
21
27
34
44
■64
- ICO
260
3. Changing the cylindrical magnet for the ire
cylinder abovementioned, the refult was as follows :
Diftance in Attraction in
inches.
grains.
— — h
— “ J5
— — 25
— — 45
— — 92
— — 34°
That part of it which is neareft to the magnet ac¬
quires a contrary polarity ; but it often happens that
one of the magnets, being more powerful than the
other, will change the pole of that other magnet in
the fame manner as it gives magnetifm to any other
piece of iron which is expofed to its influence ; and
then an attraction will take place between two poles
apparently of the fame names; though, in faCt, it is
an attraction between poles of different names, be-
caufe one of them has actually been changed. Thus,
fuppofe that a powerful magnet has been placed with,
its north pole very near the north pole of a weak mag¬
net, it will be found, that, inftead of repelling, they
will attraCt each other, becaufe that part of the weak
magnet which before was a north pole, has beea
changed into a fouth pole by the aCtion of the llrong
magnet.”
VI. Neither the attraction nor the repulfion of mag¬
netifm is fenfibly afteCted by the interpolition of bo¬
dies of any fort, excepting iron or ferruginous fub-
^dtances in general. Thus fuppofe, that, when a mag¬
net is placed at an inch diftance from a piece of iron,
an ounce, or any determinate weight, is required to
move it; the fame will be required, though a plate of
metal,
432
B',l-reef3 metal, glafs, or any other fubftance excepting iron be
AHratftioii *nterP°^* Neither the abfence nor prefence of air
■ has any effect upon it.
VII. By heat, the power of a magnet is weakened ;
and when it arrives at that degree called a white heat,
it is entirely deftroyed. On the other hand, the at-
tra&ion is increafed confiderably by adding more and
i more weight to the magnet: for thus it will be found
that the magnet will keep fufpended this day a little
more weight than it did the day before ; which addi-
•.tional weight being added to it on the following day,
or fome day after, it will be able to fufpend a weight
ftill greater, and fo on as far as a certain limit. On
the other hand, by an improper fituatian, or by dimi-
nifhingthe quantity of iron appended to it, the power
will decreafe very confiderably.
VIII The magnetic attraction is communicable to
any given piece of heel only in a certain degree ; and
therefore if a magnet is llrong enough to give; the
maximum of attra&ion to the piece, it cannot be af¬
terwards rendered more powerful by applying another
magnet, however; itrong. Thus, indeed, the Heel may
be made Itronger for a few minutes; but this overplus
of attraction begins to go off as foon as the llrong
magnet is withdrawn; and the power, continuing gra¬
dually to diminilh, fettles in a (hort time at that de¬
gree which is its limit ever after.
IX. Some have alferted, that in the northern parts of
the world, the north pole of the magnet is ftronger
than the fouth pole, and that in the fouthern parts
the contrary takes place; others are of a quite con¬
trary opinion, affirming, that in the northern regions
the fouth pole is ftronger than the north one: but nei¬
ther of thefe opinions have yet been fufficiently con¬
firmed by experience.
X. If a piece of iron be held to one of the poles
of a magnet, the attractive power of the other pole
-will thus be augmented: Hence we may underftand
why a magnet will lift a greater weight from a piece
of iron than from wood or any other fubftance, viz.
that the iron appended to the magnet becomes itfclf a
magnet while it remains in that fituation ; and thus,
having two poles, the iron which is placed near the
one increafes the attractive power of the other
which adheres to the magnet, and enables it to fuf-
tain a greater weight than it would otherwife do.
XI. Soft iron acquires the magnetic power by be¬
ing appended to a magnet; but it lalts only while the
iron remains in that fituation, vaniffiing as foon as the
.magnet and iron are feparated from each other. With
hard iron,, but efpecially Heel, the cafe is quite diffe¬
rent ; and the harder the ir on or Heel is, the more per¬
manent is the magnetifm which it acquires ; though in
proportion to this fame hardnefs it is difficult to im¬
pregnate it with the virtue.
XII. The fmalleft natural magnets generally poffefs
the greateft proportion of attractive power; fo that
there have frequently been feen magnets not weighing
more than 20 or 30 grains, which would take up 40
or 50 times their owm weight; but the greateft pro¬
portion of attractive power, perhaps ever known, be¬
longed to the magnet worn by Sir Ifaac Newton in his
j-ing. It weighed only three grains, and was able to take
up 746 grains,or nearly 250 times its own weight; and
Mr Cavallo has feen one which could not weigh more
N° 191.
Chap. I.
than fix or feven grains, and yet was capable of lift- polarity
ing 300. A femicircular fteel magnet made by Mr °f the
Canton, weighing one ounce and 13 penny-weights, iMaanet- .
took up 90 ounces; but magnets of above two pounds '““"v—
feldom lift more than five or fix times their own
weight, or indeed feldom fo much. It frequently
happens, that a piece cut off from a large natural mag¬
net will lift more than the ftone itfelfdid when whole;
which is to be attributed to the heterogeneous nature
of the ftone itfelf; for if part of it be impure, it is
plain that this can do nothing elfe than obftruCt the
virtue of the remainder, which confequently muft
aCt more powerfully when the obftruCtion is remo¬
ved.
13. As the two magnetic poles taken together are
capable of lifting a much greater weight than a fingle
one, and as they are generally fituated in oppofite
parts of its furface, it has been cuttomary to adapt
two broad pieces of foft iron to them, letting the pie¬
ces projeCt on one fide of the magnet; becaufe, in
that cafe, the pieces themfelves being rendered mag¬
netic, another piece of iron could be conveniently
adapted to their projections fo as to let both poles aCt
in concert. Thefe pieces of iron are generally held
fall upon the magnet by means of a brafs or filver
box; in which cafe the magnet is faid to be armed, and
the pieces of iron are called, its armature. For the
fame purpofe, and to avoid the armature, artificial
magnets have been commonly made in the lhape of a
horfe-fhoe, having their poles in the two extremities.
This is by far the belt ffiape for magnets; and the
horfe-lhoe ones are always more powerful than ftraight
magnetic bars.
§ Of the Polarity of the Magnet.
Though, properly fpeaking, no magnet can have
more than two poles, viz. a north and a fouth one,
yet it frequently happens that both the natural and
artificial kind are divided as it were into feveral mag¬
nets ; each of which having likewife a north and fouth
pole, the whole appears to have a number of poles,
fome of one denomination and fome of the other.—
This plurality of poles arifes fometimes from the fhape,
but more commonly from the heterogeneous nature, of
the magnet itfelf: and with refpeCt to thofe which
have more than two poles, the following laws have
been obferved : 1. That the parts adjacent to one pole
are endowed with a contrary polarity. 2. That the
poles of one denomination are not always equal in
number, but that they never differ by more than one :
thus if the magnet has four fouth poles, it will either
have three, four, or five north poles. Good and proper¬
ly ffiaped magnets, however, have only twopolesdireCtly
oppofite to one another ; though in truth it is always
one half, or at leaft a great part of die magnet, that
poffefs one kind of polarity, the other having the
contrary kind ; the two points, which we call the
poles, being only thofe where the attractive virtue is
ftrongeft. Thofe two points, in good magnets, arc
joined by a line palling through the centre, which
line is called the axis of the magnet; and a circle whofc
plane is perpendicular to the axis encompaffing the
middle of the magnet is called its equator; and to
complete the fuppofed fimilarity between the terraque¬
ous globe and magnetical bodies, the latter have fre¬
quently
MAGNETISM.
MAGNETISM
Plate ccLxxyi
Chap. IT.
M A G N
Theory quently been formed of a fpherical fhape, with the
-"-“Y poles and equator marked upon their furface ; in \vhich
cafe they have got the name of terrellas or fmall
earths. On breaking a magnet into two or three
parts, each one becomes a perfect magnet, though
they have not always an equal number of poles of the
fame denomination. The poles of the broken pieces
generally anfwer to thofe of the whole magnet which
Were neareft them, though this does not always hold
good.
A magnet with two poles will very readily place
itfelf in the magnetic meridian, if fufpended by a fine
thread, or otherwife left at liberty to turn ; but when
there are more than two poles, it may happen that their
oppofite tendencies will counteraft each other in fuch a
Planner that the magnet cannot traverfe ; though it
' will flill attract and repel as though it had only two.
Thus, fuppofe that an oblong magnet has a north po¬
larity at both ends and a fouth polarity in the mid¬
dle ; if the north poles are both equally ftrong, then
k is plain, that neither of them can point towards
that quarter in preference to the other ; but if a mag¬
net of this kind be broken in the middle, the two
parts will traverfe very readily. It very feldom hap¬
pens, however, that both poles are equally ftrong ; in
which cafe one of them will always get the better of the
other, and the magnet will traverfe notwithftanding
its having more than two poles. The polarity of the
magnet is its moft valuable property, as upon it de¬
pends the conftru&ion of the magnetic needle or ma¬
riner’s compafs fo ufeful in navigation ; for an account
of which, fee the article Compass, and Needle.
For the variation of the needle, or its declination
from the true north and fouth direction, fee the ar¬
ticle Variation.
An account of the inclination of dipping of the
magnetic needle is given under the article Dipping
Needle.
The dire&ive, or polar power of a magnet, extends
farther than its attractive power : thus if a magnet, free¬
ly fufpended, be placed in the neighbourhood of ano¬
ther, it will be found that they can affeft each other’s
direction when their attraction towards iron or to¬
wards each other cannot be perceived. This may be
eafily tried by placing one of them in a fcale of a ba¬
lance and the other at a diftance below k.
Chap. II. Theory of Magnet i/m.
Thephenomena of magnetifm,like thofe of eleCtricity,
depend on a caufe fo little fubjeCt to the inveftigation of
our fenfes,4hat any regular apd well fupported theory can
as yet fcarcely be expeCled. The fubjeft indeed is ftill
more difficult than that of eleCtricity ; for in the latter
4he fluid is often made vifible and otherwife percepti¬
ble by our fenfes; but no experiment could ever render
the caufe of magnetifm perceptible otherwife than
by its effeCts. The idea of its being occafioned by a
fluid entering in at one pole and palling but at ano¬
ther, took its rife, and became pretty generaf, from
the following experiment: Having put a fmall artifi¬
cial magnet among fome iron-filings laid upon a piece
of paper, give the table a few gentle knocks with
your hand, fo as to lhake the filings a little, and they
will difpofe of themfelves as reprefented in fjg. x.
Vol. X. Part II .
E T I S M.
435
where A B and C D reprefent the two poles of thfi Theory,
magnet, and the dotted lines the difpofition of the
filings. But Mr Cavallo obferves, that this experi¬
ment cannot be any proof of the fluid’s circulation ;
“ becaufe if the fluid, of whatever nature it may be,
did really circulate from one pole to the other, and'"G*V
had any aCHon on the filings, thefe would be all
driven towards that pole to which the fluid directed
its courfe. The true caufe of the difpofition of the
filings is their becoming a&ually magnetic, and their
two extremities being poffeffed of contrary polarities.
Now, when there are marty particles of Iron near the
magnet, thofe which touch its furface are rendered
magnetic ; confequently they attraCf other particles,
and thefe being alfo rendered magnetic, attrad others,
and fo on, forming firings*of fmall magnets, which
gradually increafe ift power as they recede from the
magnet. As each of thefe particles has two magnetic
poles, by a little confideration it will appear, that
the fartheft ends of thefe firings or lines which pro¬
ceed from the parts adjacent to one of the poles of
the magnet, for inftance the north, are likewife pof¬
feffed of the north polarity ; and the fartheft extremi¬
ties of thofe which proceed from the parts adjacent
to th? fouth pole of the magnet, are poffeffed of
the fouth polarity: hence, when they come fuffi-
ciently near, they attrad the extremities of the for¬
mer firings, and confequently form the curves deline¬
ated on the figure. The ftiaking of the table in this
experiment ferves to ftir the filings, by making them
jump up a little way, and thus place themfelves
in the proper fituation ; otherwife the adio.t of the
magnet will not have power fufficient to difpofe pro¬
perly thofe particles which Hand at a confiderable dif¬
tance.”
The late difeoveries in eledricity have naturally
fuggefted another theory, viz. that the magnetic phe¬
nomena may be occafioned by a fluid analogous to the
eledric, or perhaps by the very fame : and with a view
to inveftigate this theory, the phenomena of magnetifm
and eledricky have been accurately compared with
each other, and the analogy between them carefully
marked. This analogy is found to confift principally
in the following particulars :
1. Eledricky is of two kinds, pofitive and nega¬
tive, each of which repels its own kind, and attrads
the oppofite. In magnecics, the north and fouth
poles do the fame ; each being repulfive of its own
kind of magnetifm, and attrading the oppofite.
2. In eledricity, whenever a body in its natural
Hate is brought near an eledrified one, it becomes it¬
felf eledrified, and poffeffed of the contrary eledrici
ty ; after which an attradion takes place. In like
manner, when a piece of iron or fteel is brought with¬
in the influence of a magnet, it becomes itfelf poffef¬
fed of a magnetifm contrary to that which the mag¬
net poffeffes, and is of courfe attraded.
3. One fort of eledricity cannot be produced
without the other, neither is it poffible to produce
one kind of magnetifm without the other alfo.
4. The eledric power may be stained by certain
fubftances, as amber, glafa, &c. but eafily pervade*
other fubftances, which are therefore called conduSors.
Magnetifm has a fimilar condudor in foft iron ; for
by means of it the virtue may be extended farther
3 I tffian
434 M A G N E
Theory, than can be done without it; at the fame time that
the iron itfelf lofes all magnetic power the moment it
is fepa:ated from the magnet. Hardened iron, caft-
iron, and fteel, perform a part analogous to that of
ele&rics ; for the virtue does not eafily pervade
them, but is retained, and may be communicated
by them to other unmagnetic pieces, in like manner as
the ele&ric virtue may be communicated to bodies by
means of an excited eleftric. With regard to other
fubftances, they feem not to be properly conduftors
of magnetifm, becaufe the fluid pervades them as
though nothing were prefent, and they cannot tranf-
mit the virtue farther than it would go without them.
With foft iron it is otherwife. Thus, if to one of
the poles of a magnet we append a piece of iron of
confiderable length, the end farthefl: from the magnet
will likewife attradl iron with much more force than
the magnet could do at that diftance without it, while
at the fame time this attraftive power is plainly that
of the magnet itfelf, and not any way inherent in the
iron, as it vaniflies the moment we feparate them. If
a piece of hard fteel of an equal length with the iron
be appended to the magnet by one of its ends, we
will find that the diftant end will not manifeft any at¬
traction, and it will be a capfiderable time before the
magnetic virtue can diffufe itfelf for any diftance along
i:; but when the feparation is made, the fteel will be
found to be magnetic, and will preferve its virtue for
a long time.
5. The eleftric virtue exerts itfelf moft powerfully
on points, which are found to carry it off or receive
it in vaft quantities. In like manner a magnet will
hold a piece of iron more powerfully by a corner, or
) unt point, than by a flat furface. On (harp points
indeed the magnet has but little hold by rcafon of the
deficiency of furface.
6. From fome experiments related under the article
Electricity, it appears pofiible to fuperinduce the
negative and pofitive electricities upon one ano¬
ther ; and in magnetics it is poflible to do the fame.
Thus, if we place a wire of fome length upon a pi¬
vot, fo that it can turn very eafily, by touching both
ends of it upon the poles of a magnet it will acquire
a polarity ; one end being repelled by one pole and
attracted by the other. If now we give the north
end, for inftance, a very flight touch with the north
pole of the magnet, we will find that it has a fmall
degree of fouth magnetifm fuperinduced upon it, fo
that on approaching the fouth pole of the magnet it
will be repelled;but % approaching the magnet nearer,
©r holding the wire for a little from flying away, the
fouth magnetifm of the wire will be entirely deftroy-
ed, and the north magnetifm appear as before. This
Experiment is not very eafily made; its fuccefs de¬
pends on having the firft magnetifm as ftrong and
the fecond as weak as poflible.
Thefe are the moft remarkable particulars in which
magnetifm and eleCtricity are found to agree; but the
differences between them are no lefs remarkable than
thofe particulars. The magnetic power affeCts none
of our fenfes, and moft perceptibly at leaft attraCts
only iron ; while eleCtricity attraCts and repels bodies
of every kind indiferiminately. The eleCtric virtue
refides on the furface, but that of the magnet pervades
the whole fubftance. A magnet lofes nothing of its
f ewer by communicating its virtue to other bodies,
T I S M.
Chap. II.
but eleCtricity always does: and, laftly, the magnetic Theory,
virtue is permanent; whereas that of eleCtricity, with- —
out the greateft care, is exceedingly perirtiable, and
capable of being diflipated.
Notwithftanding thefe difagreements, however, the
analogies betwixt magnetifm and eleCtricity are fo
great, that the hypothefis of a magnetic as well as of
an deCtric fluid has now gained general credit; and
upon this hypothefis Profeflbr iEpinus has attempted
to folve the phenomena of magnetifm in the following
manner :
x. This fluid is fufficiently fubtile to penetrate the
fubftance of all terreftrial bodies, and like the eleCtric
fluid is fuppofed to be repulfive of itfelf.
2. T here is a mutual attraction between the mag*
netic fluid and iron, but an indifference betwixt it and
all other bodies.
3. There is a great refemblance betwixt ferrugi¬
nous bodies and eleCtrics, as the magnetic fluid paf-
fes with difficulty through the former.
4. Iron and all ferruginous fubftances contain a
quantity of magnetic fluid equably difperfed through
their fubftance when thofe bodies are not magnetic.
In this ftate they (how neither attraction nor repul-
fion, becaufe the repulfion between the particles of
magnetic fluid is balanced by the attraction between
the matter of thofe bodies and the fluid; in which
cafe thefe bodies are faid to be in a natural ftate:
but when in a ferruginous body the quantity of mag¬
netic fluid is driven to one, then the body become*
magnetic; one extremity of it being now overcharged
with magnetic fluid and the other undercharged. Bodies
thus conftituted, viz. rendered magnetic, exert a repul¬
fion between their overcharged extremities in virtue
of the repulfion between the particles of that excefs
of magnetic fluid, which is more than overbalanced
by the attradion of their matter. There is an at¬
traction exerted between the overcharged extremity
of one magnetic body and the undercharged extre¬
mity of the other, on account of the attraction be¬
tween that fluid and the matter of the body : but to
explain the repulfion which takes place betwixt their
undercharged extremities, we muft either imagine
that iron when deprived of the magnetic fluid is re¬
pulfive of itfelf, or that the undercharged extremities
appear to repel each other only becaufe either o£
them attrafts the oppofite overcharged extremities.
A ferruginous body, therefore, according to this
hypothefis, is rendered magnetic by having the e-
quable diffufion of magnetic fluid through its fubftance
difturbed, fo as to have an overplus of it in one or
more parts and a deficiency in others, its magnetifm
remaining as long as its impermeability prevents the
reftoration of the balance between the overcharged and
undercharged parts. A piece of iron is rendered
magnetic by the vicinity ef a magnet; becaufe when
the overcharged part or pole of the magnet is pre-
fented to it, the overplus of the magnetic fluid in
that pole repels the fluid away from the neareft ex¬
tremity of the iron ; which therefore becomes under*
charged, or poffeffed of the contrary polarity, to the molt
remote part of the iron, which confequently becomes
overcharged, or pofiefled of the fame polarity as the
prefented pole of the magnet. When the piece of
iron is rendered magnetic by prefenting it to the un¬
dercharged extremity or pole of the magnet, then the
Past
cL £
ir. M A (J N
part of the iron which is neareft to it becomes over-
" charged, See. becaufe that part of the magnet, being
deprived of its magnetic fluid, attracts the magnetic
fluid of the iron to that extremity of the iron which
lies neareft to itfelf.
Hence, in order to give magnetifm to a piece of
fteel, the ftrength of the magnet employed muft be
fuch as to overcome the refiftance which the fubftance
of the fteel makes againft the free paffage of the mag¬
netic fluid : hence a piece of foft fteel is rendered mag¬
netic more eafily than a hard one, and a ftrong mag¬
net will render magnetic fuch bodies as a weak one
cannot affeft. When two magnets of equal power
have their oppofite poles prefented to each other,
they mutually preferve and ftrengthen the powers of
each other; but when poles of the fame denomina¬
tion are forced together, if the powers are equal, they
mutually weaken each other; or if unequal, the weak¬
er will have its poles altered, or perhaps its attractive
power entirely deftroyed in a ftiort time.
Before we make any remarks upon this hypothefls,
it will be neceflary to take notice of another, which
Mr Cavallo confiders as fo well eftablifhed, “ that
there can hardly be a philofopher fceptical enough to
doubt of its truth.” This is, that the earth itfelf is
a magnet} which pofition, he fays, is proved almoft
to a demonftration in the following manner.
x. Almoft all the phenomena which may be ex¬
hibited with a common magnet may alfo be exhibited
with- the earth, as far as it can be tried. And,
2. Vaft mafles of iron or ferruginous matter ac¬
tually magnetic are dug out of the earth almoft in
every part of it.
In fupport of the above pofition, he adduces the
phenomena of the compafs, dipping-needle, and the
magnetifm (to be afterwards explained) which foft
iron receives when properly fituated. All thefe may
be imitated by a common magnet or terrella. An ob¬
jection, however, occurs, that the moft remarkable
phenomenon of all, viz. the attraction of iron, is want¬
ing. No experiment has yet ftiown that this metal
is attracted more powerfully near the poles than at
the equator itfelf; yet this ought very notably to be
the cafe in fuch a large magnetic body. Our author
indeed is of opinion, that if the experiment were tried
with fufficient accuracy, the weight of the iron would
be augmented by proceeding a confiderable way either
fouthward or northward. But befides that this hy-
pothefis is as yet entirely unfupported by experiment,
the difference he even fuppofes is quite trifling and
infignificant. The dipping of the needle may indeed
(how that in this hemifphere there is a fuperiority of
attraction between one end of the needle and the
earth : but it remains to be proved whether this fu¬
periority refides in the needle or in the earth itfelf.
The following conflderation indeed feems evidently
to Ihow that the power, whatever it is, refides In the
needle itfelf ; namely, that at the equator, the needle
oughttoremain in an eaft andweft direction, if fo placed;
becaufe of the equal attraction of the north and fouth
poles. Were the needle carried to the pole itfelf, we can
only fuppofe that it would point perpendicularly down¬
wards; in every other cafe, the attraction will not be per¬
pendicular, but oblique: and fuppofmg us torecede from
the point of perpendicular attraction only a few miles.
E T I S M.
the obliquity would become fo gfeat, that ho attrac¬
tion or repulfion towards that point would be diftin-
guifliable from an horizontal direction. The incli¬
nation of the needle therefore fliows, that it is not ac¬
tuated by the influence of a diftant point in the earth;
but by fome power in the atmofphere immediately
aCting upon the needle, and directing its courfe either
to the earth, or from it, in a certain pofition.
Thofe who maintain the magnetifm of the earth,
have been confiderably embarraffed with fome of the
natural phenomena. The variation of the compafs
firft ftiowed that the needle was not influenced by
thofe points on which the earth turns round in its
diurnal courfe : but this was eafily folved by another
hypothefis, viz. that the earth had two magnetical
poles by which the needle is influenced, and two
others round which it turns on its axis. This hypo¬
thefis was likewife embarraffed by the continual Ihift-
ing of the variation either to the eaftward or weft-
ward. Hence another fuppofition was made by Dr
Halley; namely, that there is a large magnet inclofed
within the body of the earth, which not being fixed
to the external part, moved with refpeCI to it, and
of confequence occafioned the variation. This was
likewife overthrown, by obferving that the variation of
the compafs was irregular, and differed fo much in
different parts of the world, that it could not be owing
to any regular caufe diffufed over the whole. Four
magnetic poles were then fuppofed to lie within the
earth, and to be moveable with refpeCt to each other;
and that therefore the variation, whofe theory would
now be very intricate, ought to be derived from all their
aCrions conjointly : but, notwithftanding all this com¬
plication of poles, it might ftill be objected, that fome
kind of regularity, not obferved in the variation of the
magnetic compafs, ought to have taken place. So
that as yet there is no theory which feems to explain
the variation wuth any kind of certainty.
The different hypothefes on this fubjeCt are more
fully confidered under the article Variation : here
we fliall only obferve, that with refpect to the
magnetifm of the earth, the particulars already
related feem to decide againft its exiftence. The
moft unequivocal proof we have of the exitience of
magnetifm is the attraction of iron; and this capi¬
tal mark is deficient, or at leaft has never be enproved,
in the earth. The poles of all the magnets, we know,
are fixed and invariable; nor are w-e obliged to have
recourfe to magnets within magnets, or other uncouth
fuppofitions, to account for tht?ir phenomena : if the
e^rth is a magnet, therefore, the magnetifm it poffef-
fes muft be of a kind fo different from the property
ufually diftinguiflied by that name, that we can in no
refpeft determine them to be the fame.
Mr Cavallo is of opinion that “ the magnetifm of
the earth arifes from the magnetifm of all the mag¬
netic fubftances contained in it, and intermixed with
other bodies; that the magnetic poles of the earth
may be confidered as the centres of the polarities of
all the particular aggregates of the magnetic fub¬
ftances; and that thofe principal poles muft change
place relatively to the furface of the earth, according
as the particular aggregates of magnetic fubftances
within the earth are in fome manner or other altered,
fo as to have their power diminilhed, increafed, ap-
3X2 preached*
41?
Theory.
436 M A G N
Theory, preached, or removed from the principal poles.” But
'“""'v this feems not by any means fufficient to account for
the phenomena. The magnetic needle is indeed af-
fefted by iron at a diftance, but that diftance is by
no means conliderable. A magnet or needle in a
houfe in one ftreet will not be affedled by a fmith’s
fhop or iron warehoufe in another ; and there is an
undoubted certainty that the magnetic needle is af-
fefted on fume parts of the fea where no magnetic bo¬
dies can be prefent unlefs at a great diftance on land,
or below the unfathomable depths of the ocean. Be-
fides, let us imagine as many of thefe bodies as we
pleafe within the furface of the earth, they muit be
fuppofed, in order to account for the phenomena of
the needle, to have their poles lying all nearly the
fame way ; which can by no means be proved to be
the cafe : not to mention that the attraction of iron
would in fome places be very perceptible, which has
never yet been experienced in any part of the world.
Laftly, the hypothefis of the magnetifm of the earth
feems to be entirely overthrown by the following cu¬
rious method of giving magnetifm inftantaneouily to
an iron-bar. Take a bar of foft iron two or three
feet long, and between an half and two inches thick;
which defeription is very well anfwered by fome kit¬
chen pokers. Place it in the magnetical line, i. e..
the pofture affumed by the dipping needle ; or if a
needle of this- kind is not at hand, place it ftraight up
in any degree of north or fauth latitude beyond 40",
or horizontally if nearer to the equator. Prefent
then a magnetic needle to various parts of the bar;
and it will be found, that in this country the lower
half of the bar will repel the north end of the needle,
and the upper half attraft it. In fouth latitudes the
cafe will be reverfed ; for the lower end will attraft
the north pole of the needle, and the upper end re¬
pel it. If the bar be not very ftiort, its extremities
will alfo attraCf fmall bits of iron, as filings, &c. On
turning it upfide down, the end which repelled the
north pole of the needle before will now attracl it;
the reafon of which is, that in the northern hemi-
fphere the end which is neareft the earth always be¬
comes a north pole, and in the fouthern hemifphere
a fouth one. Now it is plain, that confidering the di¬
ftance of both poles of the earth from the iron-rod,
any kind of pofture in which we can place it muft
” make a difference fo trifling, that we cannot fuppofe
the one to influence it more than the other. The
whole phenomenon fhows that there is in the atmo-
fphere a current of fluid either going into the
earth, or coming out from it, which influences iron
when held in the direttion in which itfelf moves. That
it Hoes not influence the metal when lying horizontal¬
ly, may be owing to its want of fufficient breadth to
render the effedt perceptible. The earth therefore
is not a magnet, but is furrounded by a fluid whofs
motion is produdfive of magnetifm in iron; and moft
probably, though it produces this as it were acciden¬
tally, will be found to anfwer much more important
purpofes in the economy of nature. The next que-
ftion then is with regard to the fluid itfelf: and this,
from many articles in this work, will appear to be
the fame with that of eledtricity. Under the article
Aurora Borealis. .<.thquake, Electricity, &c.
it is fhown, that the folar light, abforbed by the
equatorial regions of the earth, becomes fubjedt to
E T I S M. Chap
new laws of motion, adting in fhort as if it were ano¬
ther fluid, in which ftate we call it eleSricity, or the
ehtiric jluld. In this ftate it paffes through the fub-
ftance of the earth from the equator towards the polar
regions, getting out again in the vicinity of the poles,
afeending into the high atmofpherical regions, and
then returning to the equatorial parts from whence
it came. On this fuppofition, which appears to be
greatly confirmed by various natural phenomena, it is
eafy to fee, why in the northern and fouthern parts
the direction of the currents iffuing from the earth,
fliould always become more and more perpendicular
to the earth as -we approach the poles, and on the
contraiy why their diredtion muft be horizontal or
nearly fo in the equatorial parts. The difeovery of
this general caufe therefore feems to be the neareft.
approach we can as yet make to the knowledge of
the origin ef magnetical phenomena. In what manner.
iron more than other metals is influenced by this fluid,,
or why the diredlion of a current of eledlric matter
either to or from the earth, ihould caufe fuch ftrong
attradlions as magnetical bodies are fometimes endowed
with, we have as yet no data for underftanding.
^Epinus’s theory of an accumulation of the eledlric
fluid in one pole, and a deficiency of it in the other,,
feems not to be teuible in any refpedt. It is, invpof-
fible to ftiow why the mere turning of a bar upfide
down fhould accumulate the fluid, unlefs it was a gra¬
vitating one in the end next the earth ; and though
we fhould even make this extravagant fuppofition, it
will be as difficult to account for the very fame fluid
being repelled by the earth in the fouthern hemi¬
fphere : for if we account the north magnetifm. an ac¬
cumulation, we muft count the fouth one a deficiency;
or if the fouth magnetifm is an accumulation, the
oppofite one miift be. a deficiency; and whichever
fuppofition we adhere to, the difficulties are equally
great and unfurmountable.
Chap. III. Practice of Magnetifm.
T h is confifts in communicating the magnetic vir¬
tue from one body to another ; making artificial
magnets, compafles, dipping-needles, &c. and invefti-
gating the various phenomena refulting from bodies
placed in different fituations.
$ I. To communicate Magnetifm by the Loatlfone.
Magnetifm is communicated merely by prefenting
a piece of iron or fteel to one of the poles, of a mag¬
net or loadftone, even without touching it; though a
ftrong and permanent power cannot be given without
contadl, or even ftroaking the one upon the other for a
number of times. In this, operation, that part of the
ferruginous body which touches the pole of the magnet
acquires the contrary magnetifm; tlmt is, if it touches
the north pole, it will turn towards the fauth, et
vice verfa. The power acquired is ftrongeft when
foft iron is applied, weaker with hardened iron, and
weakeft of all with hard fteel: but the permanency
of it follows juft the reverie of this rule ; for fteel or
hardened iron will preferve its virtue for many years,
but foft iron lofes it the moment we withdraw the
magnet. . When we defire a ftrong and permanent
virtue, therefore, it is beft to ufe the hardeit fteel,
and to impregnate it by means of one ot more pow-
2 erful
Chap. III. M A G N
Practice, erful magnets 5 taking care that the north pole of
v*—' the magnet which gives the virtue be applied to that
end of the fteel whith is to be made the fouth pole.
The fame method may be employed in rendering a
weak magnet more powerful than before, or in re-
ftoring the virtue to one which has loft it.
The operation of communicating magnetifm to
pieces of fteel or iron, is called touching them ; and as
this is of the utmoft utility in navigation, for the pur-
pofe of giving polarity to needles, very confiderable
pains have been beftowed upon the fubject, in order to
difcover the methods of giving them the magnetic vir-
tue in the moft effectual and permanent manner.—
CCLXXVI When only one magnetic bar is to be made ufe of,
one of its poles muft be applied as reprefented fig. 2.
where C D reprefents the needle or fteel bar to be im¬
pregnated. The magnet A B is then to be drawn all
along the furface of it, till it reaches the extremity
D. The magnet Being then removed, muft be ap¬
plied to the extremity C, and drawn over the needle
as before. Thus the needle muft be rubbed feveral
times; by which means it will acquire a confiderable de-
greeof magnetifm. In. this method, that other extremity
of the needle which the magnet touched laft acquires
the contrary magnetifm ; that is, if B be the north
pole of the magnet, C will be the north pole, and D
the fouth of the needle. This method, however, is
never found to be equally effectual with that in which
two magnets, or both poles of one magnet, are made
afe of.
To communicate magnetifm by means of two mag¬
netic bars, place the bar or needle A Bj fig. 3. upon
a table; then fet the two magnetic bars C D, E F,
ftraight upright upon it at a little diftance, equal on
both fides from the middle of the bar A B, and in
fuch a manner that the fouth pole D of one of the
bars maybe neareft to that end of the bar A B which
is to become the north pole, &c. Thefe tw© bars
muft then be 11 id;gradually towards one extremity of
the bar, keeping them conftantly at the fame diltanee
from each other ; and when one of them, for in fiance
CD, is arrived at A, then they muft be flid the contrary-
way, till E F arrives at B ; and thus the bar A B
muft be rubbed a greater or fmaller number of times,
till it will be found by trial to have acquired a confi¬
derable power. When the magnetic bars are power¬
ful, and the bar A B of very good fteel, and not very
large, a dozen offtrokes are fully fufficient; but when
the bars are to be removed from the bar A B, care
muft be taken to bring them- to the fame fituation
where they were firft placed ; viz. at a little and equal
diftance from the middle of the bar A B, from whence
they may be lifted up.
If it be required to communicate the greateft mag¬
netic power poffible, w'e may proceed in the following
manner : 1. The magnetic bars may- be joined at top,
as in fig. 4. interpofing a piece of wood, or any other
fubftance excepting iron ; for thus the oppcfite poles
being contiguous in the upper part, ftrengthen each
other, and of ^onfequence the lower ones are alfo
ftrengthened. 2. The bar to be rendered magnetic may
be placed between the bars of foft iron, as fhown
in the fame figure. 3. The magnetic bars may be in¬
clined the contrary way, as recommended by Mr iE-
pinus, making an angle of about 15 degrees with the
E T I S M. 437
bar A B. $ec fig. 5. In the fame manner may a PraAice.
bar be rendered magnetic by an armed or horfe-lhoe »T " j
magnet. In any of the methods hitherto mentioned,
however, the bar to be rendered magnetic muft be
ftroked on every fide ; and to let the magnetic centre
fall juft in its middle, care muft be taken to ftroke one
half of the bar juft as much as the other. Whenever
a fteel bar, or, in general, any piece of ferruginous
matter, is rendered magnetic by the application of two
bars, or by the two poles of one magnet, the operation,
is called the double touch, but the fingle touch when on¬
ly one bar is applied.
Artificial magnets of a femicircular form, or lhaped
like a horfe-fhoe, have the magnetifm communicated
to them in the fame manner with thofe which are
ftraight, only the magnetic bars ufed for this purpofe
muft follow the curvature of the bar to be impreg-
nated. Thus, fuppofe it is required to impregnate’
the crooked piece of fteel ABC, fig. 6. lay it flat on
a table, and to its extremities apply the magnets DF^_
E G, joining their extremities F G with the conduc¬
tor or piece of foft iron F G. Apply then the mag¬
netic bars H I to the middle of the piece A B .
and ftroke it;with them from end to end, following,,
the diredtion of the bent'fteel, fo that on one fide of.
it the magnetic: bars may ftand as reprefented by the
dotted lines L K- When the piece of fteel has been,
thus rubbed aTufScient number of times on one fide,
it is then to be turned, and; rubbed in like manner on
the other, until it has acquired a.fuffieient degree of
magnetifm.
From confidering that foft iron, or foft fteel, ac-.
quires magnetifm very eafily, though it lofes it with
equal facility, Mr Cavallo was induced to fuppofe, that.
if magnetifm were to .be communicated to a piece of
hard fteel while foftened by heat, and the metal were
then to be hardened by pouring cold. water upon it
while, in the aft of receiving the. magnetifm, it was
poffible the virtue might be firft communicated to them,
in a very high degree, and then be fixed by means of
the hardening of the fteel. To determine this matter,
fix magnetic bars were placed in an oblong earthen
veffel, in .fuch a manner that the north moles of three
of them might be oppofite to the foutli poles of the
three others, forming two parcels of bars lying in the
fame direftion, and about three indies afunder, which
was nearly the length of the fteel-bar intended to be
rendered magnetic. The bar. was made quite red hot,
and in that Hate was placed between the magnetic bar?.
Cold water was then immediately poured upon it; by
which it was hardened to fuch a degree that the file
could not touch it; but though it had thus received,
a canfiderable degree of magnetifiu, the power was.
not fuperior to what might have been communicated
in the ordinary way. On repeating the experiment
with Heel-bars of different fizes, it was found that
fiiort bars receive a proportionaWy greater degree or
power than long ones, and .that, becaufe the latter,
cannot be fufficiently penetrated by the magnetic pow. r
when the magnets-are placed at their ends; and if a.
number of magnets be placed along the fides, in order
to communicate a greater degree of virtue, it frequent¬
ly happens that the bar acquires a number of pole:.
Our author is neverthelefs of opinion, that this me-f
thod is of confiderable ufe t though by it we caimnr.
comm 1
33s M A G N
vPra&'ce. communicate any extraordinary degree of magnetifm,
- " it is yet very ufeful in conftruiting large artificial mag¬
nets. For thus they will acquire a confiderable degree
of power, without any additional trouble to the work¬
man, and mqy then be fully impregnated in the ufual
way, which fcannot be done without a great deal of
labour when the operation ia begun upon bars which
have no Virtue at all.
$ 2. To co'mmumcatt the Magnetic Virtue ’without any
Magnet either natural or artificial.
This may be done with a foft iron-bar in the man¬
ner already related, viz. by turning it in a pofition
perpendicular to the furface of the earth, or any other
excepting a line dire&ly perpendicular to the dipping-
needle. The -magnetifm thus acquired, however, is
always weak, and is inftantaneoufly loll; while a fteel-
bar will not receive any perceptible degree of magne¬
tifm by this method. But if an iron-bar be made red
hot, and left to cool in the magnetic line, or if it be
repeatedly {truck with a hammer while in that line,
it will acquire a fmall degree of permanent magnetifm;
though this alfo will foon vanifir by leaving the bar in
an improper pofition, or by inverting and ftriking it
again. The magnetifm lafts longer in proportion to the
hardnefs of the iron : but a longer time will be requi¬
red to give it the degree of virtue it is capable of re¬
ceiving by this method. If an iron bar is left for a
long time in the direction of the magnetic line, or
even in a perpendicular pofture, it will fometiraes ac¬
quire a great degree of power. Mr Boyle makes men¬
tion of an iron-bar, ten feet long, which had acquired
fo much virtue by Handing in this pofture, that it ex¬
ceeded a loadftone of three pounds and an half weight,
and would turn the needle at eight or ten feet diftance.
Even tongs, pokers, and other kitchen utenfils, by be¬
ing often heated, and fet to cool again in an ereft po¬
fture, are frequently obferved to gain a magnetic vir¬
tue. Sometimes iron-bars, which were not capable
of receiving permanent magnetifm on account of their
foftnefs, have, merely by expofure to the atmofphere
For a great length of time, acquired a confiderable de¬
gree of power ; at the fame time it has been remark¬
ed, that thefe bars became much harder by this ex¬
pofure ; the caufe of which has not yet been difco-
vered.
Iron or fteel acquires a very perceptible degree of
magnetifm by drilling, hammering, or other methods
by which they are put into violent action. The caufe
of this magnetifm Mr Cavallo looks’ for in the earth
itfelf, the changeable nature of the metal by heat or
cold, and tha vibratory motion into which its parts are
accidentally put. “ For the fame reafons (fays he)
it feems that magnetifm, in certain cafes, is produced
by ele&ricity ; the particulars obferved concerning
which are the following :—When the bar or needle is
laid horizontally in the magnetic meridian, whichever
way the (hock of an eledtric jar or batteiy enters, the
end of the needle which lies towards the north acquires
the north polarity, viz. the power of turning towards
the north when freely fufpended, the other end ac¬
quiring the fouth polarity. If the bar before it re¬
ceives the (hock has fome polarity, and is placed with
its poles contrary to the ufual direction, then its ori¬
ginal polarity is always diminilhed, and fometimes re-
E T I S M. Chap. III.
verfed. When the needle is {truck Handing perpendi- Practice,
cularly in this hemifphere, the lower end becomes the '-v—d
north pole, even when it had fome magnetifm before,
and receives the (hock while Handing with its fouth
pole downwards. When all other circumftances are
alike, the degree of magnetifm received feems to be
the fame, whether the needles are (truck while {land¬
ing horizontally in the magnetic meridian or perpen¬
dicular to the horizon. When a needle is placed in
the magnetic equator, a (hock .through its length very
feldom renders it magnetic ; but if the (hock be paf-
fed through its width, it acquires the virtue, the extre¬
mity which lay towards the weft generally becoming
the north pole. If a needle or bar ftrongly magnetic,
or a natural magnet, be {truck by the elcdtric (hock,
its power is thereby diminifiied. When the (hock is
too ftrong, fo that the needle is thereby rendered con-
fiderably hot, it acquires either no magnetifm at all
or a very fmall degree of it. Hence a ftroke of light¬
ning often renders pieces of iron or fteel magnetic, as
well as thofe bodies which naturally contain iron, aa
fome bricks, &c.”
There are various methods of communicating a per¬
manent magnetifm to ferruginous bodies, by means of
a bar rendered magnetic by the earth ; of which the
moft fimple is that defcribed by Mr Marcel, whofe ex¬
periments were made in the year 1726. Being em¬
ployed in making fome obfervations on the magnetic
power which he found in great pieces of iron, he took
a large vice weighing 90 pounds, in which he fixed *
fmall anvil weighing 12 pounds. The fteel to which
he wifired to give the magnetic virtue was laid upoi*
the anvil in a north and fouth pofition, which happen¬
ed to be the diagonal of the fquare furface of the lat¬
ter. He then took a piece of iron an inch fquare, and
33 inches long, weighing about eight pounds, having
one end rounded and brightly polifhed, the other be¬
ing tapered. Holding then the fteel fall upon the
anvil with one hand, he took the iron-bar in the other;
and holding it perpendicularly, he rubbed the fteel
hard with the rounded part towards him from north
to fouth, always carrying the bar far enough round
about to begin again at the north. Having thus given
1 o or 12 ftrokes, the fteel was turned upfide down,
and rubbed as much on the other fide. Proceeding in
this manner till it had been rubbed 400 times, the
fteel was as ftrongly magnetic as if it had been touch¬
ed by a powerful loadftone. The place where he be¬
gan to rub was always the north pole. In thefe ex¬
periments it fometimes happened that the virtue was
imparted by a few ftrokes ; nay, by a fingle one, a
fmall needle was made to receive a very confiderable
power. Thus he imparted to two compafs needle*
fuch a degree of magnetic power, that one took up
^ths and another a whole ounce of iron ; and though
thefe needles were anointed with linfeed oil to keep
them from rufting, and a hard coat was thus formed
upon them, they neverthelefs retained their virtue.
Thus alfo a knife was made fo ftrongly magnetical,
that it would take up an ounce and three quarters of
iron. Four fmall pieces of fteel, each an inch long
and Ath of an inch broad, as thin as the fpring. of a
watch, were thus impregnated with the magnetic vir¬
tue, and then joined into a fmall artificial magnet;
which at its firft formation took up eight times its
own
I Chap. in.
MAGNETISM.
Practice. 0wn weight of iron ; and after being fix years kept in fine powder, the next thing was to a make pafte of it, Pi-ad;
 the moft carelefs manner, was found to have rather and that with fome vehicle which would contain a
gained than loft any thing of its virtue. In the courfe confiderable quantity of the phlogiftic princip'e : for
of his experiments, Mr Marcel found, that the end at this purpofe, he had recourfe to linfeed oil in preference
which he began to rub was always the north pole, to all other fluids. With thefe two ingredients only
whatever pofition the fteel was laid in. On rubbing a he made a ftiff pafte, and took particular care to knead
piece of fteel from one end to the middle, and then it well before he moulded it into convenient ftiapes.
from the other end to the middle, it acquired two Sometimes, while the pafte continued in its foft ftate
north poles, one at each end, the middle being a fouth he would put the imprefiion of a feal upon the feveral
pole. Beginning to rub from the middle towards pieces; one of which is in the Britilh Mufteum. This
each end, he found a north pole in the middle and a pafte was then put upon wood, and fometimes on tiles,
fouth pole at each extremity. in order to bake or dry it before a moderate fire, at
Magnetifm may be communicated to a fmall piece about the diftance of a foot or thereabouts. He found
of foft fteel in the following manner. Take two iron that a moderate fire was moft proper, becaufe a greater
Plate bars of about an inch fquare, and upwards of three degree of heat made the compofition frequently crack
(BpLXXVI feet in length, keep them in the magnetical line, or in many places. The time required for the baking or
in a pependicular pofture, as reprefented fig. 7. Let drying of this pafte was generally about five or fix
the piece of fteel CB be either fattened to the edge of hours before it attained a fufficient degree of hardnefs.
a table or held by an afliftant; and placing the lower When that was. done, and the feveral baked pieces
extremity of the bar AB, and the upper extremity of were become cold, he gave them their magnetic virtue
the bar CD, on oppofite fides, and in the middle of in ,any direction he pleafed, by placing them between
the fteel, ftroke the latter from the middle towards its the extreme ends of his large magazine of artificial
extremities, moving both bars at the fame time. When magnets for a few feconds or more as he faw occafion.
both are arrived at the extremities of the fteel, re- By this method the virtue they acquired was fuch,
move them from it, and apply them again to the mid- that, when any of thofe pieces were held between two
die. Do fo for 40 or 50 times, and the fteel will be of his beft ten-guinea bars, with its poles purpofely
found to have a confiderable degree of magnetic power, inverted, it immediately of itfelf turned about to reco-
Care, however, muft be taken, in removing the bars, ver its natural direflion, which the force of thofe very
not to draw them along the furface of the fteel, or the powerful bars was not fufficient to counteraift.
experiment will not fucceed, becaufe the magnetifm In the 66th volume of the Philofophical Tranfac-
is deftroyed by the contrary ftrokes. tions we have the following account, from Dr Fother-
The late Dr Godwin Knight poflefled a furpri- gill, of Dr Knight’s method of imitating natural mag-
fing fkill in magnetifm, being able to communicate nets, but which is by Mr Cavallo fuppofed to be
an extraordinary degree of attra&ive or repulfive owing to fome miftake or mifinformation. “ I do
virtue, and to alter or reverfe the poles atpleafure; not know (fays he), that ever the doftor (Dr Knight)
but as he refufed to difeover his methods upon any left behind him any defeription of a compofition he
terms whatever (even, as he faid, though he fhould had made to form artificial loadftones. I have feen
receive in return as many guineas as he could carry), in his pofleffion, and many other of his friends have
thefe curious and valuable fecrets have died with him. likewife feen, fuch a compofition ; which retained the
In the 69th volume of the Philofophical Tranfadtions, magnetic virtue in a manner much more fixed than
however, Mr Benjamin Wilfon hath given a procefs either any real loadftone or any magnetic bar how-
which at leaft difeovers one of the leading principles ever well tempered. In the natural ones he could
of Dr Knight’s art, and may perhaps be a means of change the poles in an inftant, fo likewife in the hard-
difeovering the whole to thofe who fhall be lefs refer- eft bars; but in the compofition the poles were im-
ved. The dodtor’s procefs, according to Mr Wilfon, moveable. He had feveral fmall pieces of this com-
was as follows. Having provided himfelf with a great pofition which had ftrong magnetic powers. The
quantity of clean iron-filings, he put them into a large largeft was about half an inchin breadth, very little
tub that was more than one third filled with clean wa- longer than broad, and near a quarter of an inch
ter; he then, with great labour, worked the tub to thick. It was not armed, but the ends were power-
and fro for many hours together, that the fridlion fully magnetic ; nor could the poles be altered, tho’
between the grains of iron by this treatment might it was placed between two of his largeft bars, and they
break off fuch fmaller parts as would remain fufpended were very ftrongly impregnated. The mafs was not
in the water for a time. The obtaining of thefe very very heavy, and had much the appearance of a piece
fmall particles in fufficient quantity feemed to him to of black lead, though not quite fo ftiining. I believe
be one of the principal defiderata in the experiment, he never divulged this compofition ; but I think he
The water being by this treatment rendered very once told me, the bafis of it was filings of iron redu-
muddy, he poured the fame into a clean iron veffel, ced by long continued attrition to a perfeftly impal-
leaving the filings behind ; and when the water had pable ftate, and then incorporated with fome pliant
flood long enough to become clear, he poured it out matter to give it due confiftence.”
carefully, without difturbing fuch of the fediment as From thefe accounts it appears that the bafis of
flill remained, which now appeared reduced almoft to Dr Knight’s artificial loadftones was the black pow-
impalpable powder. This powder was afterwards remo- der to which iron filings are reduced by water, and
ved into another veffel in order to dry it; but as he which is known among the apothecaries by the name of
had not obtained a proper quantity thereof by this Martial JEthiops : whence Mr Cavallo gives the fol-
cne ftep, he was obliged to repeat the procefs many lowing rece.pt for imitating the natural magnets.—
times. Having at laft procured enough of this very *< Take fome martial sethiops, or, which is more
cafily-
43$
A G N E T I S M,
.415.40 M
Pra&lce ' eaHly procnred, reduce into very fine powder the feales
—v~~~ 0f iron which fall from red-hot iron when hammered,
and are found abundantly in fmiths ftiops. Mix this
.powder with drying linfeed oil, fo as to form it into
a very ftiff pafte, and fliape it m a mould fo as to
.give it any form you require ; whether of a terrella,
a human head, or any other. This done, put it into
a warm place for fome weeks, and it will dry fo as
to become very hard ; then render it magnetic by
rthe application of powerful magnets, and it will ac¬
quire a confiderable power.”
As tc the method of making artificial magnets of
fteel, none has fucceeded in it better than Mr Canton,
-whofe procefs is as follows.
Procure a dozen of bars; fix ef foft fteel, each three
inches long, one quarter of an inch broad, and one
twentieth of an inch thick ; with two pieces of iron,
£ each half the Length of one of the bars, but of the
-fame breadth and thic-knefs-: alfo fix pieces of hard
fteel, each five inches and a half long, half an inch
broad, and three-twentieths of an inch thick ; with
two pieces of iron of half the length, but the whole
breadth and thicknefs of one of the hard bars; and let
Pla'e ^ kars t>e marked with a line quite round them at
aOCLXXVI‘one en(b Then take an iron .poker and tongs (fig. 8.),
or two bars of iron, the'larger they are and the longer
they have been ufed, the better; and fixing the po-
ier. upright' between the knees, hold to it, near the
top, one of the foft bars, having its marked end down¬
wards, by a piece of fewing filk, which muft be pull¬
ed tight by the left hand, that the bar may not Aide:
then grafping the tongs with the right hand, a little
below the middle, and holding them nearly in a ver¬
tical pofition, let the bar be ftroked by the lower end
from the bottom to the top, about ten times on each
fide, which will give it a magnetic power fufficient to
-lift a fmall key at the marked end : which end, if the
bar was fufpended on a point, would turn towards the
north, and is therefore called the north pole; and the
unmarked end is, for the fame reafon, called thefouth
pole. Four of the foft bars being impregnated after
this manner, lay the two (fig. 9.) parallel to each o-
ther, at the diftance of one fourth , of an inch, be¬
tween the two pieces of iron belonging to them, a
north and a fouth pole againft each piece of iron : then
take two of the four bars already made magnetical, and
place them together fo as to make a double bar in
thicknefs, the north pole of one even with the fouth
pole of the other : and the remaining two being put to
thefe, one on each fide, fo as to have two north and
two fouth poles together; feparate the north from the
fouth poles at one end by a large pin, and place them
perpendicularly with that c:.d downward on the middle
of one of the parallel bars, the two north poles to¬
wards its fouth and the two fouth poles towards its
north end : Hide them backward and forward three or
four times the whole length of the bar, and removing
them from the middle of this, place them on the
middle of the other bar as before directed, and go
‘over that in the fame manner ; then turn both the bars
■the other fide upwards, and repeat the former opera¬
tion : this being done, take the two from between the
pieces of iron ; and, placing the two outermoft of the
-touching bars in the room, let the other two be the
-outermoft of the four to touch thefe with ; and this
procefs being repeated till each pair of bars have been
191.
Chap. IF.
touched three or four timrs over, which will give them Practice.
a confiderable magnetic power, put the half-dozen to-  
gether after the manner of the four (fig. 10.), and
touch them with two pair of the hard bars placed be¬
tween their irons, at the diftance of about half an
inch from each other : then lay the foft bars afide ; and
with the four hard ones let the other two be impreg¬
nated (fig. 11.), holding the touching bars apart at the
lower end near two tenths of an inch; to which diftance
-let them be feparated after they are fet on the parallel
bar, and brought together again before they are taken
off: this being obferved, proceed according to the
method deferibed above, till each pair have been
touched two or three times over. But as this vertical
way of touching a bar will not give it quite fo much
of the magnetic virtue as it will receive, let each pair
be now touched once or twice over in their parallel po-
fition between the irons (fig, 12.), with two of the bars
held horizontally, or nearly fo, by drawing at the fame
time the north pole of one from the middle over the
fouth end, and the fouth of the other from the middle
over the north end of a parallel bar; then bringing them
to the middle again, without touching the parallel
bar, give three or four of thefe horizontal ftrokes to
each fide. The horizontal touch, after the vertical,
will make the bars as ftrong as they poflibly can be
made, as appears by their not receiving any addition¬
al ftrength, when the vertical touch is given by a
great number of bars, and the horizontal by thofe of
a fuperior magnetic power. This whole procefs may
be gone through in about half an hour 5 and each of
the large bars, if well hardened, may be made to lift
28 Troy ounces, and fometimes more. And when
thefe bars are thus impregnated, they will give to an
hard bar of the fame fize its full virtue in lefs than
two minutes ; and therefore will anfwer all the pur-
pofes of magnetifm in navigation and experimental
philofophy much better than the loadftone, which is
known not to have a lufficient power to impregnate
hard bars. The half dozen being put into a cafe
(%• 13-) *n a manner as that two poles of the
fame denomination may not be together, and their
irons with them as one bar, they will retain the vir¬
tues they have received; but if their power (hould,
by making experiments, be ever fo far impaired, it
may be reitored without any foreign afliftance in a
few minutes. And if, out of curiofity, a much larger
fet of bars ftiould be required, thefe will communicate
to them a fufficient power to proceed with; and they
may, in a Ihort time, by the fame method, be brought
to tlveir full ftrength.
To expedite the procefs of making magnets, the
bars ftiould b$ fixed in a groove, or between brafspins,
to prevent them from Aiding ; or they may be kept
fteady by mians of a weight and ruler, as in fig, 11.
f 3. Apparatus for making Experiments in Magnetifm,
with an Account of various Experiments tending to il-
hflrate and prove the Laws already laid down.
The apparatus neceffary in magnetics is but fmall;
confifting only of a few magnets pr magnetic bars, a
magnetic horizontal needle or compafs, and a dipping
needle. For thofe who do not ifitend to be very ac¬
curate, a common artificial horfe-ihoe magnet and a
few fewing needles may be fufficient; but where great¬
er accuracy is required, it will then be neceffary to
have
Chap. nr.
MAGNETISM.
441
Pra&ice. have a good fet ot magnetic bars, commonly fix ; a not be perceived in this way, it ittuft be put to fwim Pradtce.
   few fmall magnetic needles, a larger needle in a box upon water in an earthen or wooden veffel, by means —v““—J
with a graduated circle, and a dipping needle ; to of a piece of wood or cork. In this way the attrac-
which may be added feme pieces of fteel-wire, a few tion will be much more eafily manifefted by the body
bars of foft iron, &c. coming towards the magnet when approached to it.
The magnetic bars ought to be made of the beft It will fometimes be neceffary to bring the magnet
fleel, and tempered quite hard. There is not, how- within one-tenth part of an inch of the body to be
ever, any method known as yet by which we can di- attracted; and as the latter advances, care muft be ta-
ftinguiih the kind of fteel which is beft for magnetical ken to withdraw the magnet; for if they be fuffered
purpofes. It will be proper, therefore, previous to the to ftrike againft each other, the body, if hard, will
conftru&ion of the bars, to try the quality of the metal generally recede ; and it will likewife be proper to
in the following manner: Take a piece of it about prefent the magnet to the body when the latter is at
three inches long and a quarter of an inch thick, reft.
no matter whether round or fquare ; make it red-hot, By letting the fubftanees to be attracted fwim upon
and in that condition plunge it into cold water, which quickfilver, a ftill fmaller degree of attraftion can be
hardens it fo that a file will not touch it. Apply then perceived. In ufing this fluid, the following particu-
two powerful magnetic bars; holding the north pole lars muft be attended to. r. The aperture of the veflel
of one to one extremity of the fteel, and the fouth-pole in which the quickfilver is kept muft be at leaft fix in-
of the other magnet to the other extremity of the dies in diameter. The reafon of this is, that, as the fur-
fteel. Having kept them in this pofition for about face of the quickfilver defcends near the fides of the vef-
a minute, feparate them from the fteel, and then try fel, the curvature of furface formed by that defeent is
whether it will keep fufpended a key or other piece proportionably greater in the narrow veflels than larger
of iron which may be at hand. By treating in this ones. If the veflel is only three or four inches in diame-
manner pieces of different fteel, it will eafily be per- ter, the body to be attracted will perpetually run from
ceived which is capable of lifting the greateft weight, one fide to another: a common foup-plate, however, will
and confequently the moft proper for the conftrudtion be found a very convenient veffel for this purpofe. 2. It
of the bars. will be neceffary to have the quickfilver very pure; and
Having determined the quality of the material, the as it is very difficult to preferve it in that ftate, it
next thing to be conlidered is the ffiape of the bars ; muft be frequently paffed through a piece of writing
for unlefs the length and breadth of them bear a cer- paper rolled up conically, and having a fmall aperture of
tain proportion to each other, they will not be ca- about j^th of an inch diameter in the lower part. 3. The
pable of receiving their utmoft power. The beft ffiape, neighbouring air muft not be difturbed, that the body
according to Mr Cavallo, is when the length is ten may be kept without motion; and, while in this ftate,
times the breadth and 20 times the thicknefs. The one of the poles of the magnet is to be prefented to it
ufual dimenfions are five inches in length, half an inch in the fame manner as when the experiment is tried
in breadth, and a quarter of an inch in thicknefs. Cy- with water. It was in this manner that Mr Cavallo
lindrical bars are lefs convenient.—It is not abfolutely made his experiments on the magnetifm of brafs and
neceffary to poliffi thefe bars; though it will be better other metals, of which we have already given an ac-
to do fo, they being in this ftate much lefs liable to count.
ruft. One extremity is generally marked with a line If it be fufpefted that the given body have fome
all round, to diftinguiffi one pole from another ; and magnetifm already, the very fame procefs is required ;
it is the north pole which is ufually marked in this only obferving to prefent a piece of foft and clean iron
manner. When kept together, the magnetic bars to the body when fwimming upon water or quick-
muft be placed alternately with the marked end of one filver. A piece of iron about half an ounce weight,
contiguous to the unmarked end of the other. Two and an inch in length, will be very proper for this
pieces of foft iron called fupports always belong to purpofe.
each fet of bars. Each of thefe is equal in fize to the 2. To Jind the poles of a magnetic body.—Prefent the
half of one of the bars ; fo that when placed contigu- various parts of the body fucceffively to one of the
ous to one another in one direction, they may equal poles of a magnetic needle, and it will foon be difeo-
one of the bars. Thefe are ufeful when other bodies vered which parts of the given body are poffeffed of
are to be rendered magnetic. For the conftruftion of a contrary polarity by the needle’s Handing perpendi-
the Compass and DipewG-Needley fee thefe articles. cularly towards them. One of the poles being thus
.. . . , . , difeovered, turn the oppolite pole of the magnetic
Experiments with the above dofenbed Apparatus. needie towards the body, and it will foon find out its
I. To determine whether any fubftance is attraSled by other pole. When the magnetifm of the body to be
the magnet or not.—If the fubftance to be examined examined is very weak, there will be danger of rever-
contains iron, the attraction will evidently ffiow it- fing the polarity by bringing the needle too near; and
felf on bringing near it one of the magnetic bars, as the diftance at which this effedt will take place can-
The quantity of attraction will always be known by not be determined, it will always be proper to keep it
the force requilite to feparate them, and its proportion fo far diftant that it can only fenfibly affeCt the needle,
is eftimated by the degree of that force. Thus if Where there are only two poles, they may be found
two ounces are required to feparate a magnet from out merely by fprinkling fome iron-filings upon the
any fubftance, the degree of attraction is reckoned body ; for thefe will ftand ereCt upon the polar points,
double to that which requires only one ounce to fepa- They may be diftinguiffied by fetting the body to float
rate them. If the attraction be fo finall that it can- in water, or tying it to a thread and letting it hang
Vot. X. Part II.
freely.
.442 M A G N
Pra&ke. freely, (o that one may turn towards the north and
the other towards the fouth. This method, however,
will not fucceed. when there are more than two poles,
nor even very well in that cafe, unlefs they lie in parts
direftly oppofite to one another.
3. Effects of the magnet on foft iron,—Having placed
a magnetic needle upon a table, bring a bar of fofr~
iron about eight inches long and a quarter of an inch
thick, lb near that it may draw one end of the needle a
little out of the way. In this iituation approach gra¬
dually the north' pole of a magnet to the other extre¬
mity of the bar, and the north end of the needle will
recede from the bar more and more in proportion as
the magnet is brought nearer the bar. If the expe¬
riment be repeated with die other pole of the maguet,
the north end of the needle will then be attra&ed by
the bar. The realon of this is, that when we bring
the north pole of the magnet towards one end of the
bar, the latter acquires a fouti polarity, and the other
one of courfe a north polarity. Hence the needle is
repelled, be’caufe magnetic poles of the fame kind re¬
pel one another ; but when the fouth pole is brought
near the end of the bar, that end which it approaches
receives the north polarity, and the other of courfe
the fouth ; whence the needle, inltead of being re¬
pelled, is now attratted. By approaching a fmall
magnetic needle to different parts of the bar, it will
be found that one half of it pofTeffes one kind of po¬
larity, and the other the contrary kind ; the magnetic
centre, however, or the limit betwixt the two pola¬
rities, is not always in the middle of the bar, but is
generally nearer that end which is prefented to the
magnet. The difference increafes as the bar is lengthen¬
ed ; and when the latter exceeds a certain length, it ac¬
quires feveral poles. This depends bn the ilrength of
the magnet; and when it happens, the iirft magnetic
centre comes very near to the end of the bar which
Hands next the magnet, and fucceffive centres are
formed betwixt every two poles. Thus, fuppofing
the north pole of a magnet to be brought to the end
of fiich a bar, the end it touches becomes a fouth pole;
a few inches farther a north polarity takes place, after
that a fouth polarity, and fo on. The poles become
weaker and weaker as they recede from the end which
the magnet touches; fo that if the bar be of conii-
derable length, they totally vanifh long before they
come to the other end. Hence, by applying a mag¬
net to one end of a long bar, we will not thereby give
any magnetifm to the other; and this will happen when
a magnet capable of lifting two pounds of iron is applied
to a bar of about an inch fquare and five feet long.
4. The a8ion of magnetifm Jhotun by the repulfon of
t<wo pieces of were.—Tie two pieces of foft wire each
to a feparate thread, and having fufpended them clofe
by each other, bring one of the poles of a magnet
under them, and they will immediately repel; the di¬
vergency becoming greater as the magnet is brought
nearer within a certain limit, and will decreafe as the
magnet is removed. If fteel-wires or common fewing
needles he ufed, the repulfion will continue for a con-
fiderable time after the magnet is removed ; and this
divergency will even be greater after the removal of
the magnet, as its attraction tends to draw them near¬
er each other ; and, if brought too near, no repulfion
will be fhown by them. The experiment'may be a-
E T I S M. Chap. Ilf.
greeably diverfified by ufing four or more needles, and Praftice.
prefenting a north pole to one pair and a fouth pole to —
another, &c.
5. In what circumjiances a magnet can lift the grtatejl
weight.—By means of a crooked wire we may fiiowC(^^xV1
that the power of a magnet varies according to cir-
-eumftances. Thus, let a piece of wire about a quar¬
ter of an inch in diameter, and four or five inchea
long, be bent in the manner reprefented by ACB,
fig. 14. with a fharp corner at C. Tie it fail to a
crofs bar, or let it be held by an affiilant with the
corner downwards. Then apply either pole of the
magnet DE to one of its extremities ; and if in this
fituation a fmall piece of iron, as H, be put to the
corner C, it will remain fufpended. On applying the
contrary pole of another magnet to the other extre¬
mity of the wire, the piece of iron will immediately
fall off; but if a pole of the fame kind be applied,
it will not only be Hill kept fufpended, but be more
Hrongly attracted than before. .
In the cafe juH mentioned, the firft magnet is af-
Hfted by the a£lion of the fecond; but in order to
Hrengthen a magnet in this manner, it does not appear
neceflary to ufe a magnet at all. Thus, having found
by trial how much a magnetic bar can lift, procure
an oblong piece of iron about four inches long, and
fomewhat heavier than the bar can bear. Apply one
end of this to the pole of the bar, holding it with
your hand till you place under the other end a larger
piece of iron. It will then be found that the mag¬
net will fupport the piece of iron which it could not
do before. The lower piece of iron is to be placed
between an half and three quarters of an inch below
the under part of the oblong piece which hangs at
the' magnet. The fame effedl will be produced by the
oppofite pole of another magnet; but a pole of the
fame denomination would weaken the attra&ion.
6. The generation of poles, and of magnetic centres in
the parts of a broken magnet.—Take a magnetic bar
about fix or eight inches long and a quarter of an inch
diameter, whofe magnetic centre will be in the middle,
or near it. Break off about one third part by a fmart
ftroke of an hammer, and it will be found that the
broken part, though in the magnet it had but one
polarity, will now have acquired a north and fouth
pole, with a magnetic centre, as if it were a dulindt
magnet. The experiment may be diverfified as fol¬
lows : Having made a Heel bar about fix inches long
and a quarter of an inch thick quite hard, break it
into two unequal parts. Join thefe, and prefs them
hard together, giving it the magnetic virtue at the
fame time by means of two powerful magnets : while
the parts remain in this pofition, fo that the bar looks
as if it had not been broke, it will have only tw*
poles; but as foon as they are feparated, each part
will be found to become a diHindi magnet, having a
north and fouth pole proper to itfelf.
7. To remove the magnetic centre in a magnet.—This
may he done in various ways ; as, by Hriking a mag¬
netic bar repeatedly, heating it, hard rubbing, &c. j
but in all thefe methods the magnetifm of the bar is
diminifhed at the fame time that the centre is removed 5
fo that they ought not to be continued beyond what
is neceffary to produce a fenfible removal of the mag¬
netic centre.
Chap. HI. M A G N E
Pra&ice. 8. 'The clifadvantages of ujing magnets of unequal power.,
and of fleet not properly h a rdened.—H a v i ng communi¬
cated the magnetic virtue to a fteel-bar by means of a
magnet of any given power, then rub it with a weak¬
er magnet, and it w ill be found, that the power of
the bar, inftead of being augmented, will now be di-
minilhed ; being no ftronger than if it had been rub-
ted only with the weak magnet. The impropriety
«f ufing foft fteel in making artificial magnets may be
underfiood from the following example: Take two
wires about 14 inches long, and one eighth of an inch
in thicknefs ; let one be of very hard fteel, the other
of foft fteel or iron, though not of the fofteft fort:
then, by means of magnetic bars, give the virtue to
thofe wdres, treating them both in the fame manner,
and it will be generally found that the hard wire will
have only two poles, but the other a greater number.
•9. To weaken or dejlroy the magnetifm of a,wire by
lending.—Having communicated the magnetic virtue
to an iron or foft fteel wire of about four or five inches
long and one-twentieth of an inch in diameter, roll it
round a flick fo as to make four or five revolutions.
When taken off the flick it will be found to have its
virtue quite deflroyed, or at leaft very much weaken¬
ed by the bending. This effect cannot be produced
hut when the texture of the wire is ftrained by the
bending ; for if it be of fuch an elaflic nature as to
recover its ftraightnefs after being once rolled roundthe
flick, little change is made on the magnetic power.
When only the middle of the wire is bent, little or
no change takes place in the magnetic power. If a
piece of magnetic wire be cleft, or fplit lengthwife,
the parts will fometimes have the fame poles, and fome-
times the contrary ; but when one part is much thin¬
ner than the other, the flender part will generally have
its poles reverfed.
10. To improve natural magnets.—This may be done
by the fame methods which are ufed to communicate
the virtue to fleel-bars or to iron-ores : but the natu¬
ral magnets being generally very fhort, we can feldom
do more than place them between two ftrong magne¬
tic bars : How'ever, when they are of fufficient length,
they mu ft be rubbed with other bars befides thofe be¬
tween wbich they are put 5 ufing the fame precautions
as in making artificial magnets. When fubje&ed to
this operation, it will always be proper to remove the
armature from them.
11. To arm natural or artifcial magnets.—The firft
flep towards this operation is to find out the poles of
the magnet, after which it is to be properly ihaped :
that of a paxallelopipedon is the beft : in which cafe
care mufl be taken to let the poles fall about the middle
of two oppofite furfaces ; and in this direction the
magnet ought to have the greateft length poflible ; for
a natural magnet is weakened much more by having
a part cut off from its length than its breadth. This
being done, provide two plates of foft iron, equal in
breadth to thofe furfaces where the poles ftand, and
projecting a littls on one fide of the (lone, as fhown
by fig. 15. The projections marked DD muft be
much narrower than the breadth of the plates;' from
a quarter to half an inch being fufficient for the larger
magnets, and about one tenth of an inch for fmall
ones, for the purpofe of applying to them the furface of
the iron F. The thicknefs of the plates CD CD mult be
T I S M. 443
proportioned to the ftrength of the magnet A B ; and Petite,
this proportion cannot eafily be determined without an —v*—
a&ual experiment. The beft method, therefore, is
to make them fomewhat thick at firft, and then keep
filing them down as long as the power of the magnet
increafes ; after which the filing is to be difeontinued.
The armature may be kept on either by tying or by
a box ; which laft is the preferable method. The ar¬
mature of Ipherical magnets muft be adapted to their
fiiape, and each large enough to cover a quarter of it.
In like manner may artificial magnets be armed, and
thus a compound magnet may be produced much more
powerful than any Angle one. Thus Dr Knight con-
ilrudted two very powerful artificial magnets, or ma¬
gazines of magnetic bars, which are now in the repo^
litory of the Royal Society. Each of thefe confifts
of 240 bars difpofed in four lengths, fo as to form
a parallelopipedon, each length containing 60 bars.
They are all kept together by iron braces, and the
w'hole fufpended on pivots, with a wooden pedeftal or
carnage, by which they may be eafily placed in any
required petition. If the artificial magnets be made
in the ftiape of a horfe-fhoe ora femicircle, they have
no occafion for armature, it being fufficiei*. to join
them either by rivetting or by means of a box ; and
indeed even when ftraight bars are ufed, a compound
magnet may be made without armature ; but then as
the poles cannot a£l in the fame plain, it is neceffary
to have two magazines in order to give magnetifm the
more conveniently to other bodies. The power of a
magnet is rather augmented by being armed, for the
fame reafon that it is increafed by a piece of iron af¬
fixed to it. E is a brafs ring, by which it may be fuf¬
pended with the iron adhering to it, which is the beft
method for preferving its virtue.
12. Magnetifm requires feme time to penetrate through
iron. Having placed a bulky piece of iron, fuppofe
one weighing 40 or,50 pounds, fo near a magnetic
needle as to draw it a little out of its dire6tion, ap¬
ply one of the poles of a ftrong magnet to the other
extremity of the iron, and you will find that it re¬
quires fome feconds before the needle can be affefled
by it. The interval is greater or lefs according to the
lize of the iron and the ftrength of the magnet.
Chap. IV. Entertaining Experiments.
Conftru&ion of the Magnetic Perspective-
glass.J Provide an ivory tube, about two inches p!ate
and a half long, and of the form expreffed in fig. 16. CCLXXVt
The fides of this tube muft be thin enough to admit
a confiderable quantity of light. It is to open at one
end with a fcrew ? at that end there mull be pla¬
ced an eyc-glafs of about two inches focus, and at
the other end any glafs you pleafe. Have a fmall
magnetic needle, like that placed on a compafs.
It muft be flrongly touched, and fo placed at the
bottom of the tube that it may turn freely round.
It is to be fixed on the centre of a fmall ivory circle C,
of the thicknefs of a counter, which is placed on the
object-glafs D, and painted black on the fide next it.
This circle muft be kept fall by a circular rim of
pafteboard, that the needle may not rife off its pivot,
after the fame manner as in the compafs. This tube
will thus become a compafs, fufficiently tranfparent to
3 K 3 fliovv
444 M A G N
Entertain- fhow th“ motions of the needle. The eye-glafs ferves
ing Expert- more ciearly to diltinguifh the direction of the needle ;
. tnent!1, anj the glafs at the other end, merely to give the
tube the appearance of a common perfpeftive. It
will appear from the laws of magnetifm already laid
down, that the needle in this tube, when placed over,
and at a fmall diftance from, a magnet, or any ma¬
chine in which it is contained, will neceffarily place
itfelf in a polition directed by that magnet, and con-
fequently fhow where the north and fouth pole of it is
placed; the north end of the needle conftantly point¬
ing to the fouth end of the magnet. This effedt will
take place, though the magnet be inclofed in a cafe
©f wood, or even metal, as the magnetic effluvia pe¬
netrates all bodies. You mult obferve, however, that
the attrafting magnet muft. not be very far diftant
from the needle, efpecially if it be fmall, as in that
«afe its influence extends but to a fhort diftance. This
tube may be differently conftrudted, by placing the
needle in a perpendicular diredlion, on a fmall axis of
iron, on which it muft turn quite freely, between two
fmall plates of brafs placed on each fide the tube : the
two ends of the needle fhould be in exadl equilibrium.
The north and fouth ends of this needle will, in like
manner, be attracted by the fouth and north ends of
the magnetic bar. The former conftrudtion, however,
appears preferable, as it is more eafily excited, and
the fituation of the needle much more eafily diftin-
guifhed.
Exp. I. The magnetic paradox.
Having placed a fmall piece of iron wire not above
a tenth part of an inch long upon a table AB, fig. 17.
Plate Hold the magnetic bar EF about four or five inches
ecLxxvn. above the table, with either of its poles pointing to
the table, and fo that the perpendicular let fall from
the pole may touch the table at G, two or three inches
from the wire j which diftances, however, are fubject
to variations arifing from the power of the magnet—
When the magnet is held in a proper pofition with
refpett to the iron, the latter will elevate one of its
ends, as is ihovvn at CD, forming an angle with the
table, which is larger the nearer the wire comes to the
point G, where it Hands quite upright. Knock the
table gently, and the wire CD will gradually proceed
towards G, every knock making it jump up and ad¬
vance a little way. This will naturally be attributed
to the attraction of the magnet; which not being fuf-
ficiently ftrong to draw the wire direftly towards it,
is juft able to bring it gradually towards G when the
motion of the table lifts it up. But if, inftead of hold¬
ing the magnet over the table, it be placed below it
at HI, the wire will now make an obtufe angle to¬
wards G ; as is ihown at KL, and, on knocking the
table, will recede from the magnet as if repelled,
though in truth it is as much attrafted as before.
The caufe of this feeming repulfion will be under-
ftood from fig. 18. where the wire is reprefented by
KL and the magnet by H. The former being ren¬
dered magnetic by the proximity of the magnet H,
is inclined to it according to the laws already laid
down; but, by reafon of its weight, arid being fup-
ported only at one end, it inclines lefs than it would
do if it were freely fufpended by its centre. Let MN
fee a line paffing through the centre of the wire ; then,
E T I S M. Chap. IV.
by the motion of the table, the wire being lifted up, Enteruin-
the end K will be at liberty to defeend farther in the ‘n8 E*Per‘-
direftion in which it is attracted by the magnet than nient5, .
it was before. It will then take the pofition repre¬
fented by r Q, its centre remaining nearly in the fame
perpendicularMN. We fay nearly, becaufe the ac¬
tion of the magnet will undoubtedly move the whole
wire fomewhat nearer to itfelf; and the motion of
the centre will be a diagonal compounded of the forces
of gravity and of the magnet. The latter, however,
being much fmaller, will, by confpiring with the ac¬
tion of gravity, draw down the neareft end of the
wire r fo far, that a perpendicular line PO let fall
from the extremity of it will touch the table in a point
farther diftant from the magnet than K. In this per¬
pendicular the wire will depend very nearly, and then
refume its proper fituation, parallel, or nearly fo, to
KL ; when a fecond knock will remove it a little
farther off, for the reafon already afiigned. The for¬
mer part of the experiment may be eafily explained
upon the fame principles. The whole may be diver-
fified by ufing iron-filings inftead of the wire. In this
cafe, when the magnet is held over the table, they
will be gradually collected about the point G, and
difperfed from it while the magnet is held under.
2. The communicative croton.
Take a crown-piece, and bore a hole in the fide of
it; in which place a piece of wire, or a large needle,
well polilhed, and ftrongly touched with a magnet.
Then clofe the hole with a fmall piece of pewter, that
it may not be perceived. Now the needle in the mag¬
netic perfpeftive before deferibed, ’when it is brought
near to this piece of money, will fix itfelf in a direc¬
tion correfpondent to the wire or needle in that piece.
Defire any perfon to lend you a crown-piece, which
you dexteroufly change for one that you have prepared
as above. Then give the latter piece to another per¬
fon, and leave him at liberty either to put it privately
in a fnuff-box,‘ or not; he is then to place the box ott
a table, and you are to tell him, by means of your
glafs, if the crown is or is not in the box. Then,
bringing your perfpeCtive clofe to the box, you will
know, by the motion of the needle, whether it be
there or not; for as the needle in the perfpedtive will
always keep to the north of itfelf, if you do not per¬
ceive it has any motion, you conclude the crown is
not in the box. It may happen, however, that the
wire in the crown may be placed to the north, in
which cafe you will be deceived. Therefore, to be
fure of fuccefs, when you find the needle in the per-
fpedtive remain ftationary, you may make fome pre¬
tence to defire the perfon to move the box into ano¬
ther pofition, by which you will certainly know if the
crown-piece be there or not.—You muft remem¬
ber, that the needle in the perfpedtive muft here be
very fcnfible, as the wire in the crown cannot poflibly
have any great attractive force.
3. The magnetic table.
Under the top of a common table place a magnet
that turns on a pivot; and fix a board under it, that
nothing may appear. There may alfo be a drawer un¬
der the table, which you pull out to fhow that there,
is nothing concealed. At one end of the table there
muft
jyOT*&Ls
<V>r
'
^LVG^ETI?
Chap. IV.
Entertain- muft be a pin that communicates with the magnet,
ing Experi-an(j which it may be placed in different pofitions :
. nients- , this pin muft be fo placed as not to be vifible to the
v " fpeftators. Strew feme fteel-filing» or very fmall
nails over that part of the table where the magnet is.
Then afk any one to lend you a knife, pr a key,
which will then attract part of the nails or filings.
Then placing your hand in a carelefs manner on the
pin at the end of the table, you alter the pofition of
the magnet; and giving the key to any perfen, you
defire him to make the experiment, which he will then
not be able to perform. You then give the key to
another perfon ; at the fame time placing the magnet,
by means of the pin, in the firft pofition, when that
perfon will immediately perform the experiment.
4. The myjlerious watch.
You defire any perfon to lend you his watch, and
afk him if he thinks it will or will not go when it is
laid on the table. If" he fay it will, you place it over
the end of the magnet, and it will prefently flop (a).
You then mark with chalk, or a pencil, the precife
point where y#u placed the watch ; and moving the
pofition of the magnet, as in the laft experiment, you
give the watch to another perfon, and defire him to
make the experiment; in which he not fucceeding, you
give it to a third perfon, at the fame time replacing
the magnet, and he will immediately perform the ex¬
periment
The magnetic dial.
Provide a circle of wood or ivory, of about five or
fix inches diameter, as fig. 19.which muft turn quite free
on the ftand B (fig. 20.) in the circular border A : on
the circle muft be placed the dial of pafteboard C (fig.
19.) whofe circumference is to be divided into 12 e-
qual parts, in which muft be inferibed the numbers from
1 to 12, as on a common dial. There muft be a fmall
groove in the circular frame D, to receive the pafte¬
board circle : and obferve, that the dial muft be made
to turn fo free, that it may go round without moving
the circular border in which it is placed. Between the
pafte-board circle and the bottom of the frame, place a
fmall artificial magnet E (fig. 21.), that has a hole in
its middle, or a fmall protuberance. On the outfide of
the frame place a fmall pin P, which ferves to ftiow
where the magnetic needle I, that is placed on a pivot
at the centre of the dial, is to ftop. This needle muft
turn quite free on its pivot, and its two fides fhould be
in exadt equilibrium. Then provide a fmall bag, that
has five or fix divifions, like a lady’s work-bag, but
fmaller. In one of thefe divifions put fmall fquare pieces
of pafteboard, on which are wrote the numbers from
1 to 12, and if you pleafe you may put feveral of
each number. In each of the other divifions you muft
put 12 or more like pieces; obferving, that all the pieces
in each divifion muft be marked with the fame num¬
ber. Now the needle being placed upon its pivot, and
turned quickly about, it will neceffarily ftop at that
point where the north end of the magnetic bar is pla"ed,
and which you previoufly know by the fituation of the
fmall pin in the circular border. You therefore pre-
445
fent to any perfon that divifion of the bag which con* Entertain-
tains the feveral pieces on which is wrote the number in£ E*Per*'
oppofite to the north end of the bar, and tell him to f
draw any one of them he pleafes. Then placing the
needle on the pivot, you turn it quickly about, and it
will necefiarily ftop, as we have already faid, at that
particular number.
Another experiment may be made with the fame
dial, by defiring two perfons to draw each of them
one number out of two different divifions of the bag ;
and if their numbers, when added together, exceed 12,
the needle or index will ftop at the number they ex¬
ceed it; but if they do not amount to 12, the index
will ftop at the fum of thofe two numbers. In order
to perform this experiment, you muft place the pin
againft the number 5, if the two numbers to be drawn
from the bag be I o and 7 ; or againft 9 if they be 7
and 2.—If this experiment be made immediately after
the former, as it ealily may, by dexteroufly moving the
pin, it will appear the more extraordinary.
6. The dexterous painter.
Provide two fmall boxes, as M and N (fig. 22),
four inches wide, and four inches and a half long.
Let the box M be half an inch deep, and N two-thirds
of an inch. They muft both open with hinges, and
fhut-Avith a clafp. Have four fmall pieces of light
wood, (fig. 23, 24, 25, 26.) of the fame fize with
the infide of the box M (fig. 22.), and about one
third of an inch thick. In each of thefe let there be
a groove, as AB, EF, CD, GH j thefe grooves muft
be in the middle, and parallel to two of the fides. In
each of thefe grooves place a ftrong artificial magnet,
as fig. 27. The poles of thefe magnets muft be properly
difpofed with regard to the figures that are to be paint¬
ed on the boards ; as is expreffed in the plate. Cover
the bars with paper, to prevent their being feen ; but
take care, in pafting it on, not -to wet the bars, as they
will thereby ruft, which will confiderably impair their
virtue. When you have painted fuch fubjefts as you
choofe, you may cover them with a very thin clear glafs.
At the centre of the box N, place a pivot (fig. 28.),
on which a fmall circle of pafteboard OPQR (fig. 29.)
is to turn quite free j under which is to be a touched
needle S. Divide this circle into four parts, which are
to be difpofed with regardto the poles of the needle, as
is expreffed in the figure. In thefe four divifions you
are to paint the like fubjefts as are on the four boards,
but reduced to a fmaller compafs. Cover the infide of
the top of this box with a paper M, (fee fig. 22.) in
which muft be an opening D, at about half an inch
from the centre of the box, that you may perceive, fuc-
ceffively, the four fmall pidtures on the pafteboard circle
juft mentioned. This opening is to ferve as the cloth,
on which the little painter is fuppofed’to draw one of
the pidtures. You may cover the top of the-box, if
you pleafe, with a thin glafs. Then give the firft box-
to any perfon, and tell him to place any one of the four
pidtures in it privately, and, when he has clofed it, to
give it you. You then place the other box over it j
when the moveable circle, with the needle, will turn
till it comes in the fame pofition with the bar in the
I. firft.
MAGNETISM.
(a) To perform this experiment, you muft ufe a ftrong magnetic bar ; and the bidance of the watch rouft
not be of brafs, but fteel.
446
Kntcrtav
ing Eif «
inents.
M A G N
• firil box. It will then appear that the little dexterous
‘‘painter has already copied the picture that is inclofed
__ in the firft box.
. 7. The cylindrk oracle.
Provide a hollow cylinder of about fix inches high
and three wide,asAB,fig.30. Its cover CD muftbe made
to fix on any way. On one fide of this box or cylin¬
der let there be a groove, nearly of the fame length
with that fide; in which place a fmall fteel bar (fig. 31.)
that is ftrongly impregnated, with the north pole next
the bottom of the cylinder. On the upper fide of the
cover deferibe a circle ; and divide it into ten equal
parts, in which are to be wrote the numbers from 1
to 10, as is expreffed in fig. 32. Place a pivot at
the centre of this circle, and have ready a magnetic
needle. You are then to provide a bag, in which there
are feveral divifions, like that deferibed in exper. 5. In
each of thefe divifions put a number of papers, on
which the fame or fimilar queftions are wrote. In
the cylinder put feveral diiferent anfwers to each que-
ftion, and feal them up in the manner of fmall let¬
ters. On each of thefe letters or anfwers is to be
wrote one of the numbers of the dial or circle at the
top of the box. You are fuppofed to know the num¬
ber of the anfwers to each queftion. You then offer
one of the divifions of the bag, obferving which divi-
fion it is, to any perfon, and defire him to draw one of
the papers. Next put the top on the cylinder, with
that number which is wrote on the anfwer dire&ly over
the bar. Then placing the needle,on the pivot, you
turn it brilkly about, and it will naturally ftop at the
number over the bar. You then defire the perfon who
drew the queftion to obferve the number at which the
needle ftands, and to fearch in the box for a paper
with the fame number, which he will find'to contain
the anfwer.—You may repeat the experiment by of¬
fering another divifion of the bag to the fame or ano¬
ther perfon ; and placing the number that correfponds
to the anfwer over the magnetic bar, proceed as be¬
fore.
It is eafy to conceive of feveral anfwers to the fame
queftion. For example, fuppofe the queftion to be,
Is it proper to marry ?
Anfwer 1. While you are young, not yet; when you
are old, not at all.
2. Marry in hafte, and repent at leifure.
3. Yes, if you can get a good fortune ; for fome-
thing has fome favour, but nothing has no flavour.
4. No, if you are apt to be out of humour with
yourfelf; for then you will have two perfons to quar¬
rel with.
5. Yes, if you are fure to get a good huiband (wife);
for that is the greateft blefling of life. But take care
you are fure.
6. No, if the perfon }mu would marry is an angel;
unlefs you will be content to live with the devil.
8. The enchanted ewer.
Fix a common ewer, as A, (fig. 33.) of about 12
inches high, upon a fquare ftand BC; in one fide of
which there muft be a drawer D, of about four
inches fquare and half an inch deep. In the ewer
place a hollow tin cone, inverted, as AB, fig. 34.
of about four inches and a half diameter at top, and
E T I S M. Chap. IV.
two inches at bottom ; and at the bottom of the Entertain-
ewer there muft likewife be a hole of two inches ing ExVeri'
diameter. , nie'lts- .
Upon the ftand, at about an inch diftance from the Y
bottom of the ewer, and dire&ly under the hole, place
a fmall convex mirror H, of fuch convexity that a per-
fon’s vifage, when viewed in it, at about 15 inches di¬
ftance, may not appear above two inches and a half
long.
Upon the ftand likewife, at the point I, place a pi¬
vot of half an inch high, on which muft be fixed a
touched needle RQ^ inclofed in a circle of very thin
pafteboard OS, fig. 35. of five inches diameter. Divide
this pafteboard into four parts, in each of which draw
a fmall circle : and in three of thefe circles paint a
head as x, y, z, the drefs of each of which is to be dif¬
ferent, one, for example, having a turban, another a
hat, and the other a woman’s cap. Let that part
which contains the face in each picture be cut out, and
let the fourth circle be entirely cut out; as it is ex¬
preffed in the figure. You muft obferve, that the poles
of the needle are to be difpofed in the fame manner as
in the plate.
You are next to provide four fmall frames of wood
or pafteboard, n" 1, 2, 3, 4, each of the fame fize
with the infide of the drawer. On thefe frames muft:
be painted the fame figures as on the circular pafte¬
board ; with this difference, that there muft be no part
of them cut out. Behind each of thefe pictures place
a magnetic bar, in the fame dire&ion as is expreffed
in the plate ; and cover them over with paper, that
they may not be vifible. Matters being thus prepa¬
red, you firft place in the drawer the frame n° 4. on
which there is nothing painted. You then pour a final!
quantity of water into the ewer, and defire the com¬
pany to look into it, afkingthem if they fee their own
figures as they are. Then you take out the frame n t>4.
and give the three others to any one, defiring him to
choole in which of thofe dreffes he would appear.
Then put the frame with the drefs he has chofe in the
drawer; and a moment after, the perfon looking in¬
to the ewer will fee his own face funounded with the
drefs of that picture. For, the pafteboard circle (di¬
vided, as above deferibed, into four parts, in three of
which are painted the lame figures as on three of the
boards, and the fourth left blank) containing a'mag¬
netic needle, and the four boards having each a con¬
cealed magnet; therefore, when one of them is put in
the drawer under the ewer, the circle will correfpond
to the pofition of that magnet, and confequently the
perfon looking into the top of the ewer will fee his
own face furrounded with the head-drefs of the figure
in the drawer.—This experiment, well performed,
is highly agreeable. As the pafteboard circle can
contain only three heads, you may have feveral fuch
circles, but you muft then have feveral other frames:
and the ewer muft be made to take off from the
ftand.
9. The box of metals.
Provide a wooden box, about 13 inches long and
feven wide, as ABCD (fig. 36.). The cover of this
box fhould be as thin as poflible. Have fix fmall boxes
or tables, about an inch deep, all of.the fame fize
and form, as EFGHIK, that they may indiferimi-
j nately
Chap. IV. M A G N
Entertain- nately g& into fimilar holes made in the bottom of the
ir.g Experi- iarge jj0X> xn each 0f thefe tablets is to be placed a
■ 1Tie”ts' fmall magnetic ball, and their poles are to be difpofed
as exprelfed in the figure. Cover each of thefe tablets
with a thin plate of one of the fix following metals,
viz. gold, filver, copper, iron, pewter, and lead. You
mult alfo have a magnetic perfpe&ive, at the end of
Plate which is to be two circles, one divided into fix equal
ccLxxvm parts, and the other into four, as in fig. 37. from the
centre of which there muft be drawn an index N,
whofe point is to be placed to the north. Therefore,
when you are on the fide CD of the box, and hold
your perfpe&ive over any one of the tablets that are
placed on the holes E, F, G, fo that the index drawn
on the circle is perpendicular to the fide A13, the
needle in the perfpedfive will have its fouth pole di¬
rected to the latter that denotes the metal contained in
that tablet. When you hold the perfpedtive over one
of the boxes placed in the holes H, I, K, fo that the
index drawn on the circle is perpendicular to the fide
CD, the fouth pole of the needle will in like manner
exprefs the name of the metal inclofed. If the un¬
der fide of any one of the tablets be turned upwards,
the needle will be flovrer in its motion, on account of
the greater diftance of the bar. The gold and filver
will Hill have the fame dire&ion ; but the four other
metals will be expreficd by the letters on the interior
circle. If any one of the metals be taken away, the
needle will not then take any of the above diredh'ons,
but naturally point to the north ; and its motion will
be much flower. You therefore give the box to any
one, and leave him at liberty to difpofe all the tablets
in what manner and with what fide upward he pleafe,
and even to take any one of them away. Then, by
the aid of your perfpeftive, you tell him immediately
the name of the metal on each tablet, and of that he
Jias taken away.
This box of metals will, on comparifon, be found
far to exceed that which has been publicly exhibited :
for that, being cbmpofed of fix tablets, of which two
enly differ in form, admits but of fix different difpofi-
tions, whereas in this the tablets may be placed 720
different ways. In the other, you muft alfo know the
particular fide of the box, which in this is not at all
neceffary. Nay, you may here diftinguifh each me¬
tal, though the box be completely covered with pa¬
per ; for the effeft of the needle will be always the
fame. The experiments with this box are therefore
much more extraordinary, and its conftru&ion at the
fame time more fimple.
10. The magnetic planetarium.
Construct a round box, ILMN, (fig. 38,) of eight
or nine inches diameter, and half an inch deep. On
its bottom fix a circle of pafteboard, on which draw
the central circle A, and the feven circumjacent circles
B, C, D, E, F, G, H. Divide the central circle into
feven equal parts by the lines AB, AC, AD, AE,.
AF, AG, and AH, which muft pafs through the
centres of the other circles, and divide each of them
into two equal parts. Then divide the circumference
of each of thofe circles into 14 equal parts, as in the
figure. You are likevvife to have another pafteboard
of the fame figure, and divided in the fame manner.
E T I S M. 447
which muft turn freely in the box by means of an axis .
placed on a pivot; one end of which is to be fixed in in£ I’ xPeri*
the centre of the circle A. (See fig. 39.) On each of mLL''b' j
the feven fmaller circles at the bottom of the box,
place a magnetic bar, two inches long, in the fame di-
reflion with the diameters of thofe circles, and their
poles in the fituations expreffed in the figure. There mufl:
be an index O (fig. 39.), like that of the hour-hand of
a dial, which is to be fixed on the axis of the central
circle, and by which the pafteboard circle iu the box
may be turned about. There muft be alfo a needle P,
which muft turn freely on the axis, without moving
the circular pafteboard.—In each of the feven divi-
fions of the central circle write a different queftion f
and in another circle, divided into 12 parts, you may
write the names of the 12 months. In each of the fe¬
ven circles write two anfwers to each queftion, obfer-
ving that there muft be but feven words in each au-
fwer ; in the following manner. In the firft divifion
of the circle G fig. 3 7. which is oppofite to the firft que¬
ftion, write the firft word of the firft anfwer. In the
fecond divifion of the next circle, write the fecond
word ; and fo on to the laft word, which will be in the
feventh divifion of the feventh circle. In the eighth di-
vifion of the firft circle, write the firft word of the fe¬
cond anfwer; in the ninth divifion of the fecond circle,,
write the fecond word of the fame anfwer ; and fo on
to the 14th divifion of the feventh circle, which mult
contain the laft word of that anfwer. The fame
muft be done for all the feven queftions; and to
each of them muft be afligned two anfwers, the
words of which are to be difperfed through the fe¬
ven circles. At the centre of each of thefe circles,
place a pivot; and have two magnetic needles, the
pointed end of one of which muft be north, and the
other fouth, Qftl, (fig. 39.) Now, the index of the cen¬
tral circle being direfted to any one of the queftions, if
you place one of the two magnetic needles on each of
the feven leffer circles, they will fix themfelves accord¬
ing to the direction of the bars on the correfpondent
circles at the bottom of the box, and confequently
point to the feven words that compofe'the anfwer. If
you place one of the other needles on each circle, it
will point to the words, that are diametrically- oppofite
to thofe of the firft anfwer, the north pole being in the
place of the fouth pole of the other.—You therefore
prefent this planetarium to any perfon, and defire him
to choofe one of the queftions there wrote j and you
then fet the index of the central-circle to that queftion,
and putting one of the needles on each of the feven
circles, you turn it about; and. when they all fettle,
they will point to the feven words that compofe the
anfwer. The two anfwers may be one favourable and
the other unfavourable ; and the different needles will
ferve to diverfify the anfwers when you repeat the
experiment.
There may be alfq a moveable needle to place againll
the names.of the months; and when the party hax fix¬
ed upon a queftion, you place that-needle againft the
month in which he Was born,, which will give the bu-
ftnefe an air of more myftery. On the centre of the
large circle may be the figure of the fun; and on each
of the feven fmaller circles one of the charafters of the
five planets, together with the earth &nd moon. This
expe-
448 M A G N E
Entertain* experiment* well executed, is one of the moft enter-
ments6”"4^1”11® tira* magnetifm has produced.
11. 7ht fugacious f<wan.
Plate ?xovide a box XY, 18 inches long, 9 wide, and z
«clixviii. deep, the top of which is to Hide on and off at the
fig. 4°* en(j y. Toward the end X, defcribe a circle of
fix inches diameter, round which are to be fixed fix
fmall vafes of wood or ivory, of one inch and a half
high; and to each of them there muff be a cover. At
the end Y place an egg B, of ivory or other matter,
of about three inches and a half high, with a cover
that {huts by a hinge, and fattens with a fpring. It
mutt be fixed on the Hand C; through which, as well
as the bottom of the egg, and the part of the box di-
reftly underneath, there mutt pafs a hole of one-third
of an inch in dianseter. In this cavity place an ivory
cylinder F, that can move freely, and rifes or falls by
means of the fpring R. You mutt have a thin copper
bafon A, of fix inches diameter, which is to be placed
on the centre of the circle at X, and confequently in
the middle of the fix vafes. Let a proper workman
conftrudl the movement expreffed by fig. 41. which is
compofed of a quadrant G, that has 16 teeth, and is
moveable about an axis in the Hand H, that has an el¬
bow, by which it is fcrewed to the bottom of the box
at L. To the quadrant there mutt be joined the
ftraight piece K. The horizontal wheel M has 24
teeth; and is fupported by the piece S, which is fcrew¬
ed to the end of the box next Y. On the axis of this
wheel place a brafs rod OP, five inches long ; and at
the part O place a large bar or horfe-fhoe, of a femi-
circular form, and about two inches and a half diame¬
ter, ftrongly impregnated. The fteel rod ,V, takes at
one end the teeth of the quadrant G, by the pinion
F, and at the other end the wheel M, by the perpen¬
dicular wheel N, of 30 teeth ; the two ends of this
rod are fupported by the two ftands that hold the
other pieces. Under the piece K, that joins to the
quadrant, mutt be placed the fpring R, by which it is
raifed, and putties up the cylinder that goes through
the ftand C into the egg. You mutt alfo have fix fmall
etwees or cafes, as Y,Y, Y,Y, Y,Y. They mutt be of the
fame circumference.with the cylinder in the Hand, and
round at their extremities : their length mutt be dift'e-
rent, that, when they are placed in the egg, and the
lower end enters the hole in which is the cylinder,
they may thruft it down more ar lefs, when the top
of the egg, againft which they prefs, is fattened down;
and thereby lower the bar that is fixed to the end of
the quadrant, and ccnfequently, by means of the pi¬
nion Z and wheels NM turn the horfe-flioe that is
placed upon the axis of the laft wdieel. The exaft
length of thefe etwees can be determined by trials on¬
ly ; which trials, however, may be made with round
pieces of wood. In each of thefe etwees place a dif¬
ferent queftion, wrote on a flip of paper and rolled up,
and in each of the vafes put the anfwer to one of the
queftions; as you will know, by trials, where the mag¬
netic bar or horfe-flioe will flop. Laftly, provide a
fmall figure of a fwan, or what other you pleafe, made
x>f cork or enamel, in which you mutt fix a touched
needle, of the largeft fize of thofe commonly ufed in
fewing.
N0 192.
T I S M. Chap. IV.
Being thus prepared, you offer a perfon the fix et- Entertairr-
wees, and defire him to choofe any one of them him-inB ExPeri-
felf, and conceal the others, or give them to different ment*' f
perfons. He is then to open his etwee, read the que¬
ftion it contains to himfelf, and return the etwee to
you, after replacing the queftion. tYou then put the
etwee in the egg, and placing the fwan upon the wa¬
ter in the bafon, you tell the company flie will pre-
fently difeover in which of the vafes the anfwer is con¬
tained. The fame experiment may be repeated with
all the etwees.
12. The multifarious verfs.
The eight words that compofe this Latin verfe,
Tot funt tibi dotes, quot cccli Jidera, virgo ( a ),
being privately placed in any one of the different com¬
binations of which they are fufceptible, and which are
40320 in number, to tell the order in which they are
placed.
Provide a box that fliuts with hinges, and is eight rig- 4-*
inches long, three wide, and half an inch deep. Have
eight pieces of wood about one third of an inch thick,
two inches long, and one and a half wide, which will
therefore, when, placed clofe together, exactly fill the
box. In each of thefe pieces or tablets place a mag¬
netic bar, with their poles as is expreffed in the figure.
The bars being covered over, write on each of the ta¬
blets, in the order they then ftand, one of the word*
of the foregoing Latin verfe. On a very thin board of
the fame dimenfions with the box, draw the eight
circles, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, (fig. 43.) whofe
centres fliould be exaftly over thofe of the eight ta¬
blets in the box when the board is placed upon it. Di¬
vide each of thofe circles into eight parts, as in the fi¬
gure ; and in each of thofe diviiions write one of the
words of the Latin verfe, and in the precife order ex¬
preffed in the plate ; fo that, when the board is placed
over the box, the eight touched needles placed at the
centre of the circles may be regulated by the poles of
the bars in the box, and confequently the word that
the needle points to in the circle be the fame with that
inferibed on the tablet. Cover the board with a glafs,
to prevent the needles from rifing off their pivots, as is
done in the fea-compafs. Over the board place four
plates of glafs, I, L, M, N, fig. 44. which will give
the machine the figure of a truncated pyramid, of
eight inches high. Cover it with a glafs, or rather a
board, in which are placed two lenfes, O O, of eight
inches focus, and dittant from each other about half
an inch. Line the four plates of glafs that compofe
the fides with very thin paper, that will admit the
light,Jand at the fame time prevent the company from
feeing the circles on the board.
Thefe preparations being made, you give the box ta
any one ; and tell him to place the tablets on which the
words are wrote, privately, in what pofition he thinks
proper, then to clofe the box, and, if he pleafe, to wrap
it up in paper, feal it, and give it you. Then placing
the board with the pyramid upon it, you immediate¬
ly tell him the order in which the tablets are placed,
by reading the words to which the needles on the
circles point.
MAG-
(a) i. e. Thy virtues, virgin, ate as numerous as the ftars of heaven,
IMTAG^vTE TISM..
♦
MAG [ 449 ] MAS
w*"'"*! r AmmalMdaHMTim, a fympatliy lately fuppofed by Dedon was lefs fcrupnlous, and explained Ac prln- Animal
7, g ‘ iomc perfons to exift between the magnet and the hu- ciples of his art in the following manner : ’ M*gnetifm
man body ; by means of which the former became ca- i. Animal jnagnetifm is an univerfal fluid, confti. ’ v  
pable of curing many difeafes in an unknown way, tuting an abfolute plenum in nature, and the medium
fomething refembling the performances of the old ma- of all mutual influence between the celellial bodies
gicians. . ^ and betwixt the earth and animal bodies.
The fanciful fyftem, to call it by no worfe name, 2. It is the molt fubtile fluid in nature ; capable of a
of animal magnetifm, appears to have originated, in flux and reflux, and of receiving, propagating, and con-
I774> from a German philofopher named Father tinuing all kinds of motion.
Nehl, who greatly recommended the ufe of the mag- 3. The animal body is fubjefted to the influences
net in medicine. M. Mefmer, a phyfician of the of this fluid by means of the nerves, which are im-
fame country, by adopting the principles of Held, mediately affefted by it.
became the direft founder of the fyftem; but, after- 4. The human body has poles and other properties
wards deviating from the tenets of his inftruftor, he analogous to the magnet.
loft his patronage, as well as that of Dr Ingenhoufz, 5. The a&ion and virtue of animal mao-netifm may
which he had formerly enjoyed. Mefmer had already be communicated from one body to another, whether
diftinguifhed himfelf by “ Adiffertation on the influence animate or inanimate.
of the Stars upon the human body,” which he publicly . 6. It operates at a great diftanc* without the inter-
defended in a thefts before the univerfity of Vienna; vention of any body.
but he was fo unable to Hand before the oppofition of 7. It is increafed and refkaed by mirrors ; com-
Hehl and Ingenhoufz, that his fyftem fell almoft in- municated, propagated, and increafed by found ; and
ftantly into difrepute. Mefmer appealed to the aca- may be accumulated, concentrated, and tranfported.
demy of fciences at Berlin; but they rejefted his prin- 8. Notwithftanding the univerfality of this fluid,
ciples as deftitute of foundation, and unworthy of the all animal bodies are not equally aftefted by it; on
fmalleft attention. He then made a tour through the other hand, there are fome, though but few in
Germany, publiftiing every where the great cures he number, the prefence of which deftroys all the effeds
performed by means of his animal magnetifm, while of animal magnetifm.
his enemies every where purfued him with detedions 9. By means, of this fluid nervous diforders are
°f hlS afl'ertions. cured immediately, and others mediately ; and its
Mefmer, ftill undaunted by fo many defeats, re- virtues, in~ihort, extend to the univerfal cure and
turned to Vienna ; but meeting there with no better prefervation of mankind.
fuccefs than before, he retired to Paris in the begin- From this extraordinary theory, Mefmer, or M
ning of the year 1778. Here he met with a very dif- Deflon, had fabricated a paper, in which he Hated
-ferent reception. He was firft patronifed by the au- that there was in nature but one difeafe and one cure,
thor of the Diaionnaire des Mervetlles de la Nature ; in and that this cure was animal magnetifm • and laftly
which work a great number of his cures were publifh- M. Deflon engaged, X. To prove to the commiffioners!
cd, Meitner himfelf receiving hkewife an ample tefti- that fuch a thing as animal magnetifm exifted ;
mony of his candour and folid reafonlng. Our phyfi- 2. To prove the utility of it in the °cure of difeafes \
cian foon collefted fome patients; and in the month after tvhich he was to communicate to them all that
of April 1778 retired with them to Creteil, from he knew upon the fubjeft. The commiflTioners accord-
whence he in a fliort time returned with them perfectly ingly attended in the room where 1 he patients under¬
cured. His fuccefs was now as great as his difap- went the magnetical operations.. The apparatus con-
pointment had been before. Patients increafed fo fifted of a circular platform made of oak, and raifed
rapidly that the Doftor was foon obliged to take in about a foot and an half from the ground; which
Pupils to aflift him in his operations. Thefe pupils platform was called the laquet. At the top of it were
fucceeded equally well as Mefmer himfelf; and fo well a number of holes, in which were iron rods with
did they take care of their own emolument, that one moveable joints for the purpofe of applying them to
of them, named M. Deflon, realized upwards of any part of the body. The patients were placed in
.L. 100,000 Sterling. In 1779 Mefmer publiflied a circle round, each touching an iron rod, which he
a memoir on the fubjeft of Animal Magnetifm, could apply to any part of the body at pleafure ; they
promiftng afterwards a complete work upon the fame, were joined to one another by a cord palling round
which Ihould make as great a revolution in philofophy their bodies, the defign being to increafe the effect by
as a™y ^one medicine. communication. In the corner of the room was a
The new fyftem now grained ground daily; and foon piano forte, on which fome airs were played, occa-
became fo falhionable, that the jealoufy of the faculty fionally accompanied with a fong. Each of the pa-
iwas thoroughly awakened, and an application con- tients held in his hand an iron rod ten or twelve fpet
cermng it was made to government. In confequence long; the intention of which, as Deflon told the
■of this a committee was appointed to inquire into the comniifiioners, was to concentrate the magnetifm in
matter, confifting partly of phyficians and partly of its point, and thus to rentier its effeits more fenfible,
members of the royal academy of fciences, with'Dr Sound is another condu&or of this magnetifm ; and
Benjamin Franklin at their head. This was a thun- in order to communicate the magnetifm to the piano
oerltroke to the fupporters of the new doftrine.-  forte, nothing more is neceffary than to bring the iron
Melmer himfelf refufed to have any communication rod near it. Some magnetifm is alfo furnilhedby the
with the committee f but his moft celebrated pupil perfon who plays it; and this magnetifm is tranfmit-
Vox.. A. Fart II. 3 L te(!
MAO t 450 3 MAG
Animal ted to tlie patients by the founds. The internal part
JAagnetiim of the 'platform was faid to be fo contrived -as to
*“ v ' concentrate the magnetifm, and was the refervoir
whence the virtue diffufed itfelf among the patients.
Its ftrufture, however, is not mentioned; but the
committee fatisfied themfelves, by means of a needle
and ele&rometer, that neither common magnetifm nor
ele&ricity was concerned.
Befides the different ways of receiving the magnet¬
ifm already mentioned, viz. by the iron, cord, and
piano forte, the patients alfo had it direftly from the
Dottor’s finger, and a rod which he held in his hand,
and which he carried about the face, head, or fuch
parts of the patient as were difeafed ; obferving al¬
ways the direftion of what he called the poles. The
principal application of magnetifm, however, was by
preffure of the hands or fingers on the hypochondria
or lower regions of the ftomach.
The effetls of thefe operations upon Deflon’s pa¬
tients were very different. Some felt nothing, nei¬
ther had the magnetifm any effedd whatever upon
them. Some fpit, coughed, fweat, and felt, or pre¬
tended to feel, extraordinary heats in different parts
of the body. Many women, but very few men, had
convulfions, which Deflon called their crifis, See.—
The commiffioners at laft found that they could come
to no fatisfa&ory conclufion while they attended in
tins public way, and therefore determined to try the
experiments themfelves privately. As the fluid itfelf,
however, was totally imperceptible by any of the fenfes,
they could only afeertain themfelves of its exiftence
by ultimately curing difeafes, or by its obfervable ef-
fedfs upon the human body. Being well affured,
however, that though many difeafes were cured, it
would not amount to any proof of the exiftence of
animal magnetifm, they determined to obferve its ef-
fedfs on the animal ceconomy. For this purpofe they
made the following experiments :
1. They tried it upon themfelves, and felt no-
thing.
2. Seven of Deflon’s patients were magnetifed at
Dr Franklin’s houfe, four of whom felt nothing;
three felt, or affected to feel fomething.
3. Several perfons in a higher fphere of life were
magnetifed, and felt nothing.
4. The commiflioners, now determined to difeover
what fhare imagination had in this bufinefs, blind¬
folded feveral of the common people, and made them
fometimes think that they were magnetifed, at other
times they magnetifed them without letting them
know that they did fo : the confequence was, that
when they fuppofed themfelves magnetifed, the pa¬
tients likewife thought they felt fomething, and vice
verfa.
5. A magnetifed tree was faid to produce convul-
fions ; a young man, blindfolded, fell into convulfions
\yhen he imagined hirafelf near the tree, though he
ilvas really at a conliderable diftance from it. Deflon
accounted for this on the principle of all trees being
magnetic: but in this cafe, every one, fufceptible of
magnetifm, would be feiaed with convulfions when
lie approached a tree. The fame influence of imagi¬
nation was obferved in a woman accuftomed to have
convulfions when magnetifed. They came on when
nothing was done to her, on being told, when blind- Animal
ed, that flie was magnetifed. Magnetifn*
Other inftances are given, from which it was evident, Magnolia,
either that the patients were impoftors, or in fuch a ■ -t—1
moft wretched ftate of debility both of mind and
body, that the moft trifling effihts of the former had
the moft powerful effedfs on the latter. The commif¬
fioners therefore entirely difapproved of the whole:
The touch, imitation, and imagination, they con¬
cluded, were the great caufes of the efleets produced
by Mr Deflon’s operations ; and by means of thefe
they fuppofed that convullions, which in themfelves
are a very violent diforder, might be fpread much far¬
ther than could be wifhed, even through a whole city.
It was obferved that the operator fometimes preffed
ftrongly, and for a length of time, upon different parts
of the body, particularly the hypochondria and pit
of the ftomach ; and it is well known that a ffrong
preffure on thefe parts will produce difagreeable feu ra¬
tions in thofe who enjoy perfedl health.
It is needlefs to add more upon this fubjedf, than
that Mefmer complained of the report of the commif¬
fioners, petitioned parliament, was by them com¬
manded to difeover the myfteries of his dodtrine ; and
that it is now exploded by every man of fenfe.—The
conclufion of the academicians concerning it was, that
it is not entirely ufelefs even to philofophy ; as it is
one feifl more to be configned to the hiftory of the er¬
rors and illufions of the human mind, and a fignal In-
Itance of the power of imagination.
MAGNIEZ (Nicolas), a learned and laborious
ecclefiaftic, who died in the year 1749 at an advan¬
ced age. He is known by his excellent Latin dic¬
tionary, intitled Novitius, printed at Paris 1721,
2 vols 4to. Notwithftanding the great utility of this
didrionary to mailers, and the merited efteem in which
it is held, it has never undergone another edition j
for in that which bears the date of 1733, there is no
circumftance of difference except the frontifpiece. In
this didrionary, befides the words to be met with in
the claffics, we find all thofe which occur in the Bible,
the breviary, and the ecelefiaftical authors, the terms
of art, the names of great men, heathen gods, bifhops,
councils, herefies, &c. ; in fliort, more than 6000
words which are not to be found in the common dic¬
tionaries.
MAGNIFYING, the making of objedls appear
larger than they would otherwife do ; whence convex
lenfes, which have the power of doing this, are called
magnifying g’afes. See Optics.
MAGNITUDE, whatever is made up of parts lo¬
cally extended, or that has feveral dimenfioais ; as a
line, furface, folid, See.
MAGNOLIA, the laurel-leaved tulip tree,
in botany : A genus of the polyginia order, belong¬
ing to the polyandria clafs of plants; and in the natu¬
ral method ranking under the 5 2d order, Coadnahe. The
calyx is triphyllous; there are nine petals; thecapfules
bivalved and imbricated ; the feeds pendulous, and in
the form of a berry.
Species. 1. The glauca, or fmall magnolia, is a na¬
tive of Virginia, Carolina, and other parts of North
America. In moift places it rifes from feven or eight
to ij or 16 feet high, with ft flender ftera. The
wood
MAG [ 451 ] MAG
Ksgnolia. xrobil is'white and fpotigy, the bark fmooth and of a
'—r-*—' greenifh white colour ; the branches garniflied with
thick fmooth leaves, like thofe of the bay ; but of an
eval fhape, fmooth on their edges, and white under¬
neath. The flowers are produced at the extremities of
the branches, are white, compofed of fix concave pe¬
tals, and have an agreeable fcent. After the flowers
are paft, the fruit increafes in .fize till it becomes as
large as a walnut with its cover ; but of a conical
fhape, having many cells round the outfide, in each of
which is a flat feed about the fize of a fmall kidney-
bean. When ripe, the fruit is of a brown colour, the
feeds are difcharged from their cells, and hang by a
{lender thread. 2. The grandiflora, or great magnolia,
is a native of Florida and South Carolina. It rjfes to
the height of 80 feet or more, with a ftraight trunk
upwards of two feet diameter, having a regular head.
The leaves refemble thofe of the laurel, but are larger,
and continue green throughout the year. The flowers
are produced at the ends of the branches, and are of a
purplilh white colour. 3. The tripetala, or umbrella-
tree, is a native of Carolina. It rifes, with a (lender
trunk, to the height of 16 or 20 feet; the wood is foft
and fpongy ; the leaves remarkably large, and produ-
- ced in horizontal circles, fomewhat refembling an um¬
brella, from whence the inhabitants of thofe coun¬
tries have given it this name. The flowers are com¬
pofed of ten or eleven white petals, that hang down
without any order. The leaves drop o(F at the begin¬
ning of winter. 4. The acuminata, with oval, fpear-
(haped, pointed leaves, is a native of the inland parts
of North America. The leaves are near eight inches
long, and five broad ; ending in a point. The flowers
come out early in the fpring, and are compofed of 12
white petals ; the wood is of a fine grain, and an orange
colour.
Culture, &c. All thefe fpecies are propagated by
feeds, which mull be procured from the places where
they grow naturally. They ftioidd be put up in fand,
and fent over as foon as poffible; for if they are kept
long out of the ground, they rarely grow.—The glau-
ca generally grows in a poor fwampy foil, or on wet
meadows. The Englifli and Swedes in Pennfylvania
and New Jerfey call it beaver-tree, beoaufe the root of
it is the dainty of beavers, which are caught by
its means. It drops its leaves early in autumn, though
fome of the young trees keep them all the wdnter. This
tree is feldom found to the north of Pennfylvania, where
it begins to flower about the end of May. The fcent
of its bloflbms is exquifite ; for by it you can difeover,
within three quarters of an Englifli mile, whether
thefe little trees (land in the neighbourhood, provided
the wind be not againft it; for the whole air is filled
with this fwcet and pleafant odour. It is beyond de-
C ription agreeable to travel in the woods about that
time, efpecially towards night. They retain their
flowers for three weeks, and even longer, according to
the quality of the foil on which the trees (land ; and
during the whole time of their being in bloflbm, tlvey
fpread their odoriferous exhalations. The berries like-
wife look very fine when they are ripe ; for they have
■a rich red colour, and hang in bunches1 on (lender
(talks. The cough and other pe61 oral difeafes are cu-
-«ed by putting the berries into rum or brandy, of
-which .a draught every morning-may be taken; the
virtues of this remedy were univerfally extolled, and Mag mi*
even praifed, for their falutary effe&s in confumptions. II
The bark being put into brandy, or boiled in any _ ,
other liquor, is (aid not only to eafe pedloral difeafes,
but likewife to be of fome fervice againll all internal
pains and beat; and it was thought that a decodlion
of it could (lop the dyfentery. Perfons who had
caught cold boiled the branches of the beaver-tree in
water, and drank it to their great relief. Kahn.
MAGNUS (John), archbiflrop of Upfal, was born
at Lincopping in 1488. Being made apoftolical nun¬
cio, he ufed his utmofl endeavours to prevent Gufta-
vus Vafa from becoming king of Sweden, and the in*
trodudlion of Lutheranifm into his dominions; and
(pared no means to attain thefe ends. He died at
Rome in 1549. He wrote a hiftory of Sweden, and
a hiflory of the archbiftiops and bifliops of Upfal.
Magnus (Glaus', archbilhop of Upfal in Sw-eden,
fucceeded his brother John Magnus in x 544. He
appeared with great credit at the council of Trent in
x 546, and fuffered much afterward for the Catholic
religion. We have of his writing, A Hiftory of the
Manners, Cuftoms, and Wars of the Northern Nations
of Europe
MAGNUS camtus, (anc. geog.), a tradl lying
towards Scythopolis, or Bethfan in Gallilee, beyond
which it extends into Samaria ; Jofephns placing the
common boundary between thefe two diftrifts, in the
Campus Magnus. Called alfo F.fdrelon, (Judith) ; 30
miles longhand 18 broad ; having Samaria with mount
Ephraim to the fouth, the lake Genefareth to the eaft,'
mount Carmel to the weft, and Lebanon to the north.
Magnus Portus, (anc. geog.), a port of the Bel-
gte, in Britain, on the Channel. Now thought to be
Portfmouth, in Hampfliire.—Another Portus Mag¬
nus of Btetica in Spain ; a port to the eaft of Ab-
dera.
MAGO, the name of feveral Carthaginian gene¬
rals. See Carthage.
Mago, (anc. geog.) a citadel and town of the Ba-
learis Minor, or Minorca. Now Maon, or Mahon.
E. long. 4° 6'. lat. 390 5'.
MAGONTIACUM, Moguntiacum, or Mo-
gontiacus, truncated afterwards by the poets to Mo-
gontia, Maguntia, and Moguntia : a town of Gallia
Belgica. Now Mentz, capital of the deflorate of
that name ; fituated at the-confluence of the Rhine and
Maine. E. long. 8°, lat. 50°.
MAGOPHONIA (formed from “ magus,’*
and “daughter”), the name ofafeaft among the
ancient Perfians, held in memory of the expulfion
of the Magians. The Magus Smerclis having ufurp-
ed the throne of Perfia, upon the death of Cambyfes,
521 years before Jefus Chrift, (even of the principal
lords of the court confpired to drive him out of it.—
Their defign was executed wiHi good fuccefs : Smer-
dis and his brotlrer, another Magus, called Patizithes,
were killed. Upon which the people alfo rofe, and put
all the Magi to the fword, infomuch that there would
not one have efcaped, had not night come upon them.
Darius, fon of Hyftafpes, was then defted king ; and,
in memory of this maflacre of the Magi, a feaft was
inftituted, fays Herodotus, called Magophonij. See
Magi.
MAGPY, in ornithology. See Corvus.
3 L 2 MAHIE,
MAH [ 452 1 M A H
Mahk MAHIE, the name given by the inhabitants of 0-
11 taheite, or George’s ifland, to their bread-fruit when
Mahomet. ma(je int0 a kind of four pafte, which, in dSonfequen.ce
of having undergone a fermentation, will keep a con-
fiderable time, and fupply them with food, when no
ripe fruit is to be had. When therefore they fee a
great ihew of new fruit on the trees, they ftrip them
all at once of their former crop, of which they make
mahie. This fuccedaneum for ripe bread-fruit is thus
made. They gather the fruit before it be perfectly
ripe, and laying it in heaps cover it clofely with leaves.
In this Hate it ferments, and becomes difagreeably
fvveet; the core is then taken out entire, and th£ reit
of the fruit thrown into a hole in their houfes, dug
on purpofe, and neatly lined in the bottom and fides
with grafs. The whole is then covered with leaves,
and heavy ftones are laid upon them. In this Hate it
undergoes a fecond fermentation, and becomes four;
after which it will fuffer no change for many months.
It is taken out of this hole as it is wanted for ufe,
and being made into balls, it is wrapped up in leaves
and baked, and thus dreffed it will keep for five or fix
weeks. It is eaten, both cold and hot, and the na¬
tives of thofe countries feldom make a meal without
it; but to captain Cook and his company the tafte
was as difagreeable as that of a pickled olive generally
id the firft time it is eaten.
MAHO. See Hibiscus.
MAHOGANY. See Swietenia.
MAHOMET, or Mohammed, ftyled the Impojlor,
was born in the reign of Adtalhirwan the Juft, empe¬
ror of Perfia, about the end of the 6th century of the
Chriftian sera. He came into the world under fome
difadvaptages. His father Abd’allah was a younger
fon of Abd’almotalleb ; and dying very young, and in
his father’s lifetime, left his widow and infant-fon in
yery mean circumftances, his whole fubftance confift-
ing but of five camels and one Ethiopian flie-flave.
Abd’almotalleb was therefore obliged to take care of
his grandchild Mahomet; which he npt only did during
his life, but at his death enjoined his eldeft fon Abu
Taleb, who was brother to Abd’allah by the fame mo¬
ther, to provide for him for the future : which he very
affe&ionately did, and inftrufted him in the bufinefs of
a merchant, which he followed; and to that end he
took him into Syria when he was but 13. He after-
wards recommended him to Khadijah, a noble and
rich widow, for her factor; in whofe fervice he be¬
haved himfelf fo well, that by making him her hufband
flic foon raifed him to an equality with the richeft in
Mecca.
After he began by this advantageous match to live at
his eafe, it was, that he formed the fcheme of eftablilh-
ing a new religion, or,, as he exprefi'ed k, of replant¬
ing the only true and ancient one profefled by Adam,
Noah, Abraham, Mofes, Jefus, and all the prophets,
by deftroying the grofs idolatry into which the gene¬
rality of his countrymen had fallen, and weeding' out
the corruptions and fuperftitions which the latter
Jews and Chriftians had, as he thought, introduced
into their religion, and reducing it to its original pu¬
rity, which confifted chiefty in the worlhip of one
cnly Qod.
Before he made any attempt abroad, he rightly
judged that it was nectffary for him to begin with the.
converfion of his own houfehold. Having therefore Mahomet,
retired with his family, as he had done feveral times «■■■■*
before, to a cave in mount Hara, he there opened the
fecret of his miffion to his wife Khadijah ; and ac¬
quainted her, that the angel Gabriel had juft before ap¬
peared to him, and told him that he was appointed
the apoftle of God: he alfo repeated to her a paftage
which he pretended had been revealed to him by the
miniftry of the angel, with thofe other circumftances
of this firft appearance, which are related by the Ma¬
hometan writers. Khadijah received the news with
great joy ; fwearing by Ivim in whofe hands her foul
was, that ftie trulled he would be the prophet of his
nation ; and immediately communicated what file had
heard to her coufin Warakah Ebn Nawfal, who, be¬
ing a Chriftian, could write in the Hebrew charafter,
and was tolerably well verfed in the feriptures ; and he
as readily came into her opinion, afluring her that the
fame angel who had formerly appeared unto Mofes was"
now fent to Mahomet. The firft overture the prophet
made was in the month of Ramadan, in the 40th year
of his age, which is therefore ufually called the yea?
of his miffion.
Encouraged by fo good a beginning, he refolved to
proceed, and try for fome time what he could do by
private perfuafion, not daring to hazard the whole af¬
fair by expofing it too fuddenly to the public. He foon
made profelytes of thofe under his own roof, viz. his
wife Khadijah, his fervant Zeid Ebn Haretha, to whom
he gave his freedom on that occafion, (which after¬
wards became a rule to his followers), and his coufin
and pupil Ali, the fon of Abu Taleby though then
very young : but this laft, making no account of the
other two, ufed to ftyle himfelf the JirJl of believers.
The next perfon Mahomet applied to was Abd’allah
Ebn Abi Kohafa, furnamed Abu Beer, a man of great
authority among the Koreiffi, and one whofe intereft
he well knew would be of great fervice to him ; as it
foon appeared : for Abu Beer, being gained over, pre¬
vailed alfo on Othman .Ebn Affan, Abd’alraham Ebn
Awf,' Saad Ebn Abbi Wakkas, al Zobeir Ebn al A-
wam, and Telha Ebn Obeid’allah, all principal men of
Mecca, to follow his example. Thefe men were tha
fix chief companions, who, with a few more, were
converted in the fpace of three years: at the end of
which, Mahomet having, as he hoped, a fufficient in¬
tereft to fupport him, made his miffion .no longer a fe¬
cret, but gave out that God had commanded him to
admoniffi his near relations ; and in order to do it with
more convenience and profpeift of fuccefs, he direAeA
Ali to prepare an entertainment, and invite the fons
and defeendants of Abd almotaleb, intending then to
open his mind to them. This was done, and- about 40
of them came ; but Abu Laheb, one of his uncles,
making the company break up before Mahomet had
an opportunity of fpeaking, obliged him to give them
a fecond invitation the next day ; and when they were
come, he made them the following fpeech : “ I know
no man in all Arabia who can offer his kindred a more
excellent thing than I now do you : I offer you happi-
nefs both in this life, and in that which is to come; God
Almighty hath commanded me to call you unto him :
Who, therefore, among you will be afliftant to me
herein, and become my brother and my vicegerent ?”
AH of them hefitating, and declining the matter, AK‘.
MAH [ 453 1 MAH
Mahomet, at length rofe up, and declared that he would be his
■ affiftant; and vehemently threatened thofe who fhould
oppofe him. Mahomet upon this embraced Ati with
great demonftrations of affection, and defired all who
were prefent to hearken to and obey him as his depu¬
ty ; at which the company broke out into a great
laughter, telling Abu Taleb that he mull now pay
obedience to his fon.
This repulfe, however, was fo far from difcouraging
Mahomet, that he began to preach in public to the
people ; who heard him with fome patience till he came
to upbraid them with the idolatry, obilinacy, and per-
verfenefs ofthemfelves and their fathers: which fo highly
provoked them, that they declared themfelves his ene¬
mies ; and would foon have procured his ruin, had he
not been protefted by Abu Taleb. The chief of the
Koreiflr warmly folicited this perfon to defert his ne¬
phew, making frequent remonftrances againft the in¬
novations he was attempting ; which proving ineffec¬
tual, they at length threatened him with an open rup¬
ture, if he did no prevail on Mahomet to defift. At
* this Abu Taleb was fo far moved, that he earneftly
diffuaded his nephew from purfuing the affair-any far-
ther, reprefenting the great danger he and his friends
mull otherwife run. But Mahomet was not to be in¬
timidated ; telling his uncle plainly, that if they Jet the
fun againjl him on his right hand, and the moon on his
left, he would not leave his enterprise: and Abu Ta¬
leb, feeing him fo firmly refolved to proceed, ufed no
further arguments, but promifed to Hand by him a-
gainfl all his enemies.
The Koreifh, finding they could prevail neither by
fair words or menaces, tried what they could do by
force and ill-treatment; ufing Mahomet’s followers fo
very injurioufly, that it was not fafe for them to con¬
tinue at Mecca any 1 nger : whereupon Mahomet gave
leave to fuch of them as had not friends to protedl
them to feek for refuge elfewhere. And accordingly
in the fifth year of the prophet’s miffion, !i6 of them,
four of whom were women, fled into Ethiopia ; and
among them Othman Ebn Affan and his wife Rakiah,
Mahomet’s daughter. This was the firfl flight; but
afterwards feveral others followed them, retiring one
after another, to the number of 83 men and 18 wo¬
men, befides children. Thefe refugees were kind¬
ly received by the Najafhi, or king of Ethiopia ;
who refufed to deliver them up to thofe whom the
Koreifh fent to demand them, and, as the Arab wri¬
ter unanimoufly atteft, even profeffed the Mahome¬
tan religion.
In the fixth year of his m*flIon, Mahomet had the
pleafure of feeing his party ftrengthened by the con-
verfion of his uncle Hamza, a man of great valour and
merit; and of Omar Ebn al Kattab, a perfon highly
eileemed, and once a violent oppofer of the prophet*
As perfecution generally advances rather than obftrudls
the fpreading of a religion, Iflamifm made fo great a
progrefs among the Arab tribes, that the Koreifh, to
fupprefs it effectually if poffible, in the feventh year of
Mahomet’s miflion, made a folemn league or covenant-
againft the Hafhemites and the family of Abd’almo-
taleb, engaging themfelves to contraft no marriages
tvith any of them, and to have no communication with
them; and, to give it the greater fanCtion, reduced it
into writing, and laid it up in the Caaba. Upon this
the tribe became divided into two factions; and the Mahomet;
family of Hafliem all repaired to Abu Taleb, as their ~“~Y—
head; except only Abd’al Uzza, furnamed Ar-
heb, who, out of inveterate hatred to his nephew and
his doCtrine, went over to the oppofite party, whofe
chief was Abu Sofian Ebn Harb, of the family of
Ommeya.
The families continued thus at variance for three
years; but in the tenth year of his miffion, Mahomet
told his uncle Abu Taleb, that God had manifeftly
fhowed his difapprobation of the league which the Ko¬
reifh had made againft them, by fending a worm to
eat out every word of the inflrument except the name
of God. Of this accident Mahomet had probably fome
private notice: for Abu Taleb went immediately to
the Koreifli, and acquainted them with it; offering, if
it proved falfe, to deliver his nephew up to them; but
in cafe it were true, he infilled that they ought to lay
afide their animofity, and annul the league they had
made againlt the Hafhemites. To this they acquiefced;
and going to infpeCl the writing, to their great aflo-
nifhment found it to be as Abu Taleb had laid; and-
the league was thereupon declared void.
In the fame year Abu Taleb died, at the age of’
above fourfcore; and it is the general opinion that he
died an infidel: though others fay, that when he wa»-
at the point of death he embraced Mahoraetanifm; and
produce fome paflages out of his poetical cpmpofitions
to confirm their affertion. About a month, or, as fome
write, three days after the death of this great benefac¬
tor and patron, Mahomet had the additional mortifi¬
cation to lofe his wife Khadijah, who had fo generouf-
ly made his fortune. For which reafon this year is-
Called the year of mourning.
On the death of thefe two perfons, the Koreifh be¬
gan to be more troublefome than ever to their prophet,
and efpecially fome who had formerly been his inti¬
mate friends; infomuch that he found himfelf obliged
to feek for.fhelter elfewhere, and firft pitched upon
Tayef, about 60 miles call from Mecca, for the place
of his retreat. Thither therefore he went, accompa¬
nied by his fervant Zied, and applied himfelf to two
of the chief of the tribe of Thakif who were the inha¬
bitants of that place; but they received him veiy cold¬
ly. However, he flaid there a month 4 and fome of
the more confiderate and better fort of men treated.
him with a little refpeA: but the flaves and inferior
people at length rofe againfl him ; and bringing him
to the wall of the city, obliged him to depart and re¬
turn to Mecca; where he put himfelf under the protec¬
tion of Al Motaam Ebn Adi.
This repulfe greatly difeouraged his followers. How¬
ever, Mahomet was not wanting to himfelf; but boldly
Continued to preach to the public affemblies at the pil¬
grimage, and gained feveral profelytqs; and among-
them fix of the inhabitants of Yathreb of the Jewifh
tribe of Khazraj; who, on their return home, failed
not to fpeak much in commendation of their new reli¬
gion, and exhorted their fellow-citizens to embrace the
fame.
In the 12th year of his miflion it was that Mahomet
gave out that he had made his night-journey from
Mecca to Jerufalem, and thence to heaven, fo much
fpoken of by all that write of him. Dr Prideaux
thiuJss he invented it, either to anfwejr the expectations
MAH [ 454 1 MAH
’Mahomet, of tliofe who demanded feme'miracle as a proof of his
x /—— niiflion ; or elfe, by. pretending to have converfed with
God, to eilablifh the authority of whatever he (houkl
think ht to leave behind by way of oral tradition, and
make his fayings to ferve the fame purpofe as the oral
iaw of the Jews. But it does not appear that Maho¬
met himfelf ever expected fo great a regard ftiould be
paid to his fayings, as Jus • followers -have fmce done ;
and feeing he all along difclaimed any power of per¬
forming miracles, it feems rather to have-been a fetch
of policy to raife his reputation, by pretending to have
actually converfed with God in heaven, as Mofes had
heretofore doneun the mount, and to have received fe-
veral inftitutions immediately from him, whereas be¬
fore he contented himlelf with, perfuading them that
he had all by-the tninillry of Gabriel.
Ho-wever, this fto.ry feemed fo-abfurd and incredible,
that feveral of his followers left-him upon it ; and had
probably ruined the whole deiign, had not Abu Beer
vouched for his-veracity, and declared, that, if Mabo-
jnet affirmed it to be true, he verily believed the whole.
Which happy incident-not only retrieved the. prophet’s
credit, but increafed it to fuch a degree, -that he was
fecure of being able to make his -difciples fwallow
whatever he pleafed to impo'fe on them for the future.
And thisfifhon, notvvithllanding its extravagance, was
one of the molt artful contrivances Mahomet ever put
in practice, and what chiefly contributed to the raifing
of his reputation, to that great height -to which it af¬
terwards arrived.
In this year, called by the Mahometans the accepted
year, 12men of Yathreb or Medina, of whom to were
of the tribe of Khaaraj, and the other two of that of
Aws, came to Mecca, and took an oath of fidelity to
Mahomet at al Akaba, a hill on the north of that city.
This oath was qalled the womens oath; not that any
women were prefent at this time, , but becaufe a man
• was not thereby obliged to take up arms in defence of
Mahomet or his religion ; it being the fame oath that
was afterwards exacted of the women, the form of
which we have in the Koran, and is to this'effeft: viz.
That they ffiould renounce all idolatry; and they
ffiould not fteal, nor commit fornication, nor kill their
children (as the Pagan.Arabs ufed to do when they
apprehended they ffiould not be able to maintain them),
nor forge calumnies; and that they fhould obey the
prophet in all things that were reafonable. When
they had folemnly engaged to all this, Mahomet fent
one of his difciples, named Mafah Ebn Omair, home
with them, to i.nllrud them, more fully in the grounds
and ceremonies of his new religion.
Mafab. being arrived at Medina, by the affiflance of
thofe who had been formerly converted, gained feveral
profelytes, particularly Of aid Ebn Hodeira, a chief
.man of the city, and Saad Ebn Moadh, prince of the
- tribe of Aws ; Mahometanifm fpreading fo fall, that
there was fcarce a. houfe wherein there were not fome
who had embraced it.
The next year,-being the 13th of. Mahomet’s mif-
fion, Mafab returned to Mecca, accompanied by 73
men and two women of Medina who had profefl’t d Illa-
mifm, befides fome others who were as yet unbelievers.
On their arrival, they immediately fent to Mahomet,
l»ad. offered hint their affidance, of which he w as now
in great need ; For his adverfaries were by this time Mabomrt.
grown fo powerful in Mecca, that he could not day - ■—v-—
there much longer without imminent danger. Where¬
fore he accepted their propofal, and met them one
night, by appointment, at al Akaba above mentioned,
attended by his-uncle al Abbas; who, though he was
not then a believer, wiffied his nephew well, and made
a fpeech to thofe of Medina; wherein he told them,
that as Mahomet was obliged to-quit his native city,
and feek an afylum elfewhere, and they had offered
him their proteftion, they would do well not to de¬
ceive him; that if they were not firmly refolved to de¬
fend, and not betray him, they had better declare their
minds, and let him provide for his-fafety in fome other
manner. Upon their protefling their fiucerity, Ma¬
homet fwore to be faithful t-o them, on condition that
they ffiould, protect him agaitift all infults as heartily
as they would their -own wives and families. They
then afked him what recompeuee they wore to expedt
if they fhould happen to be killed in his quarrel ; he
anfwered, Paradife. Whereupon they pledged their
faith to him, and fo returned home ; after Mahomet
had chofen 12 out of their number, who were to have
the fame authority among them as the 12 apoftles of
Ghrifl had among his difciples.
Hitherto Mahomet had propagated his religion by
fair -means; fo that the whole fuccefs of his enterprife,
before his flight to Medina, muft be attributed to per-
fuafion only, and not to compolfion. For before this
fecond oath of fealty or inauguration at al Akaba, he
had no permiffion to ufe any force at all; and in feve¬
ral places of the Koran, which he pretended wrere re¬
vealed during his flay at Mecca, he declares his bufi-
nefs w-as only to preach and admonifh ; that he had no
authority to compel "&ny perfon to embrace his reli¬
gion ; and that, whether people believe or not, was
none of his concern, but belonged folely unto God.
And he was fo far from allowing his followers to ufe
force, that he exhorted them to bear patiently thofe
injuries which were offered them on account of their
faith; and, when perfecuted himfelf, chofe rather to
' quit the place of his birth and retire to Medina, than
to make any reliflance. But this great paffivenefs and
moderation feem entirely owing to his w'ant of power,
and the great fuperiority of his oppofers for the firit
12 years of his million; for no fooner was he enabled,
by the affiflance of thofe of Medina, to make head
againfl liis enemies, than he gave out, that God had
allowed him and his followers to defend themfelves
againfl the infidels; and at length, as his forces increa¬
fed, he pretended to have the divine leave even to at¬
tack them ; and to deitrqy idolatry, and fct up the
true faith by the fword; finding, by experience, that
his defigns would other wife proceed very llowly, if
they were not utterly overthrown ; and knowing, on
the other hand, -that innovators, when they depend
folely on their own flrength, and can compel, foldom
run -any rifle; from whence, fays Maehiavel, it fol¬
lows,, that all the armed prophets have fuc-ceeded, and
the unarmed-ones have failed. Mofes, Cyrus, 1 he feus,
and Romulus, would not have been able to eflablifh the
obfervance ,of their inflitutions for any length of time,
had they not been armed. The firit paffage of the
Koran which gave Mahomet the permiffion of defend-
MAH L 455 ] MAH
Mahomet, jhg himfelf by arms, is faid to have been that in the
‘“—'"v  2 2d chapter; after which a great number to the fame
purpofe were revealed.
That Mahomet had a right to take up arms for his
own defence again ft his unjuft perfecutors, may per¬
haps be allowed; but whether he ought afterwards to
have made ufe of that means for the eftahlifhing of his
religion, it is not 10 eafy to determine. How far the
fecular power may or ought to interpofe in affairs of
this nature, mankind are not agreed. The method of
converting by the fword'gives no very favourable idea
<-f the faith which is fo propagated, and is difailowed
by every body in thofe of another religion, though the
fame perfons are willing to admit of it for the advance¬
ment of their own ; fuppofing that, though a falfe re¬
ligion ought not to be eftablilhed by authority, yet a
true one may; and accordingly force is almoft as con^
ftantly employed in thefe cafes by thofe who have the
power in their hands, as it is conftantly complained of
by thofe who fuffer the violence. It is certainly one
of the moft convincing proofs that Mahometanifm was
no other than a human invention, that it ow'ed its pro-
grefs and. eftablifhment aimoft entirely to the fword ;
and it is one of the itrongeft demonftrations of the di¬
vine original of Chrrftianity, that it prevailed againft
all the force and powers of the world by the mere dint
of its own. truth,, after having ftood the affaults of all
manner of perfectitions, as w'ell as other oppofitions,
for 300 years together, and at length made the Roman
emperors themfelves fubmit thereto; after which time,
indeed, this proof feems-to fail, Chriftianity being then
eftablilhed,.. and Paganifm abolifhed, by public autho¬
rity, which has had great influence in the propagation
of the one and deftru&ion of the other e ver fmce. But
to return.
Mahomet, having provided for the fecurity-of his
companions as well as his own, by the league offenfive
and defenftve which he had now concluded with thofe
of Medina, direfted them to repair thither, which they
accordingly did; but himfelf with Abu Beer and Ali
ftaid behind, haring not yet received the divine per-
miflion, as he pretended, to leave Mecca.- TheKoreiik
fearing the. confequence of this new alliance, began to
think it abfolutely. neccffary. to prevent Mahomet’s
efcape to Medina; and having held a council thereon,-
after feveral milder expedients had been rejected, they
came to a refolution that he fliould .be killed; and
agreed that a .man. fliould be chofen out of every tribe
for the execution of this deftgn; and that each man
fliould have a blow at him-with his fword, that the
guilt of bis blood .might fall-equally on all the tribes,
to wbofe united power .the Hafliemites were much in¬
ferior, and therefore durft not attempt to revenge their
kinfman’s death.
This confpiracy was fcarce formed, when, by fome
means or other, it came .to Mahomet’s knowledge; and
he gave out that it was revealed to him by the angel
Gabriel, who had now ordered him to retire to Me¬
dina. Whereupon, to amufe his enemies, he dire&ed
Ali to lie down in his place, and wrap himfelf up in
his green cloak, which he did; and Mahomet efcaped
miraculoufly, as they pretend, to Abu Beer’s houfe,
unperceived by the confpirators, who had already af-
fembled at the prophet’s door. They, in the mean
iime, looking through the crevice, and feeing Ali,
whom they took to be Mahomet himfelf, afleep, con- Mahomet;
tinued watching there till morning, when Ali arofe, u—
_ and they found themfelves deceived.
From Abu Beer’s houfe Mahomet and he went to
a cave in mount Thur, to the fouth-eaft of Mecca,
accompanied only by Amer Ebn Foheirah, Abu Beer’s
fervant, and Abd’allah Ebn Oreicah, an idolater whom
they had hired for a guide. In this cave they lay
hid three days, to avoid the fearch of their enemies;
which they very narrowly efcaped, and not without
the afliftance of more miracles than one: for fome fay
that the Koreifli were ftruck with blindnefs, fo that
they could not find the cave; others, that after Ma¬
homet and his companions were got in, two pigeons
laid their eggs at the entrance, and a fpider covered*
the mouth of the cave with her web, which mad*
them look no farther. Abu Beer, feeing the prophet
in fuch imminent danger, became very forrowful ; ,
whereupon Mahomet comforted him with thefe words,
recorded in the Koran, Be nit grieved, for God is with
us. Their enemies being retired, they left the cave,
and fet out for Medina, by a by-road ; and having
fortunately, or, as the Mahometans tell us, miracu¬
loufly efcaped fome who were fent to purfue them,
arrived fafcly at t hat city ; whither Ali followed them
in three days, after he had fettled fome affairs at
Mecca-
The firft thing Mahomet did after his arrival at
Medina, was to build a temple for -his religious wor-
fliip, and a houfe for himfelf, which he did on a parcel
of ground which had before ferved to put . camels in,
or, as others tell us, fer- a- burying-ground, and be¬
longed to Sahal and Soheil the fons of Amru, who
were orphans. This a&ion Dr Prideaux exclaims
againft, reprefenting it as a flagrant inftance of in-
juftice; for that, fays he, he violently difpoffeffed
thefe poor orphans,, the fons of an inferior artificer
(whom the author he quotes calls a carpenter), of this
ground, and fo founded the firft fabric of his worfhip
with the like wictednefs as he did his religion. But,
to fay nothing of the improbability that Mahomet _
fhould .a<ft in fo impolitic a manner at his firft coming;
the Mahometan writers fet this affair in a quite diffe¬
rent light: one tells us that he treated with the lads
about the price of the ground, but they defired he
would accept it as a prefent: however, as hiftorians
of good credit allure us, h© a&uaily bought it; and
the money was paid by Abu Beer. Befides, hadf
Mahomet accepted it as a prefent,- the orphans were
in circumftances fufficient to have afforded, it: for
they were of a very good family, of the tribe of Naj-
jer, one of the-moft illuftrious among the Arabs; and
not the fons of a carpenter, as. Dr Prideaux’s author
writes, who took the word Najjer, which fignifies “ a
carpenter,” for an appellative; whereas it is a proper
name.
Mahomet, being feeurely fettled at Medina, and
able not only to defend-himfelf againft the infults of
his enemies, but to attack them, began to fend out
fmall parties to make reprifals on the Koreilli ; the
firft party confifting of no more than nine men, who
intercepted and plundered a caravan belonging to that
tribe, and in the aftion took two prifoners. But what
eftablifhed his affairs very much, and was the founda-t
tion on which he built all his fucceeding gretitnefi,
wits _ ■
MAH [ 456 1 MAH
■Mahomet was the gaining of the battle of Bedr, which was
— f0Ught in the fecond year of the Hegira, and is fo fa¬
mous in the Mahometan hiflory. Some reckon no lei’s
than 27 expeditions wherein Mahomet was perfonally
prefent, in nine of which he gave battle, belides feve-
ral other expeditions in which he was not prefent.
His forces he maintained partly by the contributions
of his followers for this purpofe, which he called by
.the name of zacat or alms, and the paying of which he
very artfully made one main article of his religion;
and partly by ordering a fifth part of the plunder to
be brought into the public treafury for that purpofe,
in which matter he likewife pretended to adl by the
■divine direction.
In a few years, by the fuccefs of his arms (not-
withllanding he fometimes came off by the worft) he
confiderably raifed his credit and power. In the fixth
year of the Hegira he fet out with 1400 men to vifit
the temple of Mecca, not with any intent of commit¬
ting hoftilities, but in a peaceable manner. However,
v'hen he came to al Hodeibiya, which is fituated partly
within and partly without the facred territory, the
Korehh fent to let'him know that they would not
permit him to enter Mecca, unlefs he forced his way;
whereupon he called his troops about him, and they
all took a folemn oath of fealty or homage to him,
and he refolved to attack the city ; but thofe of Mec¬
ca fending Arwa Ebn Mafud, prince of the tribe of
Thakif, as their ambaffador, to defire peace, a truce
was concluded between them for ten years, by which
any perfon was allowed to enter into league either
with Mahomet, or with the Koreilh, as he thought
fit.
It may not be improper, in order to fhow the incon¬
ceivable veneration and refpetl the Mahometans by this
time had fortheir prophet, to mention the account which
the above-mentioned ambaffador gave the Koreilh, at
his return, of their behaviour. He faid he had been
at the courts both of the Roman emperor and of the
king of Perfia, and never faw any prince fo highly re-
fpedted by his fubje&s as Mahomet was by his compa¬
nions : for, whenever he made the ablution, in order
to fay his prayers, they ran and catched the water that
he had ufed ; and, whenever he fpit, they immediately
licked it up, and gathered every hair that fell from him
with great fuperltition.
In the feverith year of the Hegira, Mahomet began
•to think of propagating his religion beyond the
bounds of Arabia ; and fcnt mefiengers to the neigh¬
bouring princes, with letters to invite them to Maho-
metifm. Nor wras this projeft without fome fuccefs.
Khofru Parviz, then king of Perfia, received his let¬
ter with great difdain, and tore it in a pafiion, fend¬
ing away the meffenger very abruptly; which when
Mahomet heard, he faid God Jlalt tear his kingdom.
And foon after a meffenger came to Mahomet from
Badhan king of Yaman, wdio was a dependent on the
Perfians, to acquaint him that he had received orders
to fend him to Khofru. Mahomet put off his anfwer
, till the next morning, and then told the meffenger it
had been revealed to him that night that Khofru was
.flain by his fon Shiruyeh; adding, that he was well
affured his new religion and empire fhould rife to as
great a height as that of Khofru ; and therefore bid
N° 192.
him advife his mailer to embrace Mahometifm. The Mahomet.
meffenger being returned, Badhan in a few days re-" ,—
ceived a letter from Shiruyeh, informing him of his
father’s death, and ordering him to give the prophet
no further dillurbance. Whereupon Badhan and the
Perfians with him turned Mahometans.
The emperor Heraclius, as the Arab;an hiftorians
affure us, received Mahomet’s letter with great refpedl,
laying it on his pillow, and difmiffed the bearer ho¬
nourably. And fome pretend that he would have pro-
feffed this new faith, had he not been afraid of loling
his crown.
Mahomet wrote to the fame effect to the king of
Ethiopia, though he had been converted before, ac¬
cording to the Arab writers; and to Mokawkas, go¬
vernor of Egypt, who gave the meffenger a very fa¬
vourable reception, and fent feveral valuable prefents
to Mahomet, and among the reft two girls, one of
which, named Mary, became a great favourite with
him. He alfo fent letters of the like purport to fe-
veral Arab princes : particularly one to al Hareth Ebn
.Abi Shamer king of Ghaffean, who returning for an¬
fwer that he would go to Mahomet himfelf, the pro¬
phet faid, May his kingdom perijh : another to Hawd-
ha Ebn Ali, king of Yamama, who was a Chriftian,
and, having fome time before profeffed Iflamifm, had
lately returned to his former faith; this prince fent
back a very rough anfwer, upon which Mahomet cur-
fing him, he died foon after : and a third to al Mon-
dar Ebn Sawa, king of Bahrein, tvho embraced Ma¬
hometifm, and all the Arabs of that country followed
his example.
The eighth year of the Hegira was a very fortu¬
nate year to Mahomet. In the beginning of it, Kha-
led Ebn al Walid and Amru Ebn al As, both excel¬
lent foldiers, the firft of whom afterwards conquered
Syria and other countries, and the latter Egypt, be¬
came profelytes to Mahometifm. And foon after the
prophet fent 3000 men againft the Grecian forces, to
revenge the death of one of his ambaffadors, who, be¬
ing fent to the governor of Bofra on the fame errand
as thofe who went to the abovementioned princes,
were flain by an Arab, of the tribe of Ghaffan, at
Muta, a town in the territory of Balka in Syria,
about three days journey eaftward from Jerufalem,
near which town they encountered. The Grecians
being vaftly fuperior in number (for, including the
auxiliary Arabs, they had an army of 100,000 men),
the Mahometans were repulfed in the firft attack,
and loft fucceffively three of their generals, viz. Zeid
Ebn Haretha Mahomet's freedman, Jaafar the fon of
Abu Taleb, and Abdallah Ebn Rawaha : but Khaleb
Ebn al Walid fucceeding to the command, overthrew
the Greeks with a great flaughter, and brought away
abundance of rich fpoil; on occafion of which aftion
Mahomet gave him the title of Seif min foyuf Allah,
“ one of the fwords of God.”
In this year alfo Mahomet took the city of Mecca,
the inhabitants whereof had broken the truce con¬
cluded on two years before. For the tribe of Beer,
who were confederates with the l^oreilh, attacking
thofe of Khozaah, who were allies of Mahomet, killed
feveral of them, being fupported in the a&ion by a
party of the Koriilh themfelves. The confequenee
3
MAH t 457 3 MAH
Mahomet of this violation was fooft apprehended ; and Abu So-
‘“""'v  fian himfelf made a journey to Medina on purpofe to
heal the breach and renew the truce : but in vain ;
for Mahomet, glad of this opportunity, refufed to fee
him: whereupon he applied to Abu Beer and Ali; but
they giving him no anfwer, he was obliged to return
to Mecca as he came.
Mahomet immediately gave orders for preparations
to be made, that he might furprife the Meccans while
they were unprovided to receive him: in a little time
he began his march thither j and by that time he came
near the city, his forces were encreafed to 10,000 men.
Thofe of Mecca, being not in a condition to defend
themfelves againft fo formidable an army, furrendered
at difcretion ; and Abu Sofian faved his life by turning
Mahometan. About 28 of the idolaters were killed
by a party Under the command of Khaled; but this
happened contrary to Mahomet’s orders, who, when
he entered the town, pardoned all the Koreifli on
their fubmiffion, except Only fix men and four wo¬
men, who were more obnoxious than ordinary (fome
of them having apoftatifeil), and were folemnly pro-
fcribed by the prophet himfelf; but of thefe no more
than three men and one woman were put to death,
the relt obtaining pardon on their embracing Maho-
metifm, and one of the women making her efcape.
The remainder of this year Mahomet employed in
deftroying the idpls in and round Mecca, fending fe¬
deral of his generals on expeditions for that purpofe,
and to invite the Arabs to Iflamifm : wherein it is no
wonder if they now met with fuccefs.
The next year, being the ninth of the Hegira, the
Mahometans call the year of embajjies : for the Arabs
had been hitherto expefting the ilfue of the war be¬
tween Mahomet and the Koreiih : but, fo foonasthat
tribe, the principal of the whole nation, and the ge¬
nuine defcendants of Ilhmael, whofe prerogatives none
offered to difpute, had fubmitted, they were fatisfied
that it was not in their power to oppofe Mahomet;
and therefore began to come in to him in great num¬
bers, and to fend embaffies to make their fubmifiions
to him, both to Mecca, while he ftaid there, and alfo
to Medina, whither he returned this year. Among
the reft, five kings of the tribe of Hamyar profef-
fed Mahometifm, and fent ambaffadors . to notify the
fame.
In the xoth year, Ali was fent into Yaman to
propagate the Mahometan faith there; and, as it is
faid, converted the whole tribe of Hamdan in one
day. Their example was quickly followed by all the
inhabitants of that province, except only thofe of
Najran, who, being Chriftians, chofe rather to pay
tribute.
Thus was Mahometifm eftablifhed, and idolatry
rooted out, even in Mahomet’s lifetime (for he died
the next year), throughout all Arabia, except only
Yamama, where Mofeilama, who fet up alfo for a pro¬
phet as Mahomet’s competitor, had a great party, and
was not reduced till the kalifat of Abu Beer : and the
Arabs being then united in one faith, and under one
prince, found themfelves in a condition of making thofe
conquefts which extended the Mahometan faith over
fo great a part of the world.
Mahomet, the name of feveral emperors of the
Turks ; of whom the mod celebrated is,
Vol. X. Part II.
Mahomet II. furnamed the Great, their feventh Mahomet,
fultan. See Turkey. —* "riui
He was born at Adrianople the 24th of March
143°; and is to be remembered chiefly by us for ta¬
king Conftantinople in 1453, and thereby driving ma¬
ny learned Greeks into the Weft, which was a great
caufe of the reftoration of learning in Europe, as the
Greek literature was then introduced here. He was
one of the greateft men upon record, with regard to
the qualities neceffary to a conqueror: for he con¬
quered two empires, twelve kingdoms, and two hun¬
dred confiderable cities. He was very ambitious of
the title of Great, and the Turks gave it him; even
the Chriftians have not difputed it with him; for he
was the firft of the Ottoman emperors whom the We-
ftern nations dignified with the title of Grand Seig¬
nior or Great Turk, which pofterity has preferred to
his defcendants. Italy had fuffered greater calamities,
but (he had never felt a terror equal to that which this
fultan’s victories imprinted. The inhabitants feemed
already condemned to wear the turban : it is certain,
that pope Sixtus IV. reprefented to himfelf Rome as
already involved in the dreadful fate of Conftanti¬
nople ; and thought of nothing but efcaping into Pro¬
vence, and once more transferring the holy fee to A-
vignon. Accordingly, the news of Mahomet’s death,
which happened the 3d of May 1481, was received at
Rome with the greateft joy that ever was beheld there.
Sixtus caufed all the churches to be thrown open,
made the tradefpeople leave off their work, ordered a
feaft of three days, with public prayers and procef-
fions, commanded a difeharge of the whole artillery
of the caftle of St vngelo all that time, and put a
ftop to his journey to Avignon,
He appears to be the firft fultan who was a lover of
arts and fciences ; and even cultivated polite letters.
He often read the Hiftory of . ruguftus, and the o-
ther Caefars ; and he perufed thofe of Alexander^
Conftantine, and Theodofius, with more than ordina¬
ry pleafure, becaufe thefe had reigned in the fame
country with himfelf. He was fond of painting, ma¬
fic, and fculpture; and he applied himfelf to the ftudy
of agriculture. He was much addicted to aftrology ;
and ufed to encourage his troops by giving out, that
the motion and influence of the heavenly bodies pro-
mifed him the empire of the world. Contrary to the
genius of his country, he delighted fo much in the
knowledge of foreign languages, that he not only
fpoke the Arabian, to which the Turkifh laws, and
the religion of their legiflator iahomet, are appropri¬
ated, but alfo the Perfian, the Greek, and the French,
that is, the corrupted Italian. Landin, a knight of
Rhodes, collefted feveral letters which this fultan
wrote in the Syriac, Greek, and Turkilh languages,
and tranllated them into Latin. Where the originals
are, nobody knows; but the tranflation has been pu-
bliihed feveral times; as at Lyons 1520, in 410; at
Bafil 1554, i2mo ; in a colleftion publiftied by Opo-
rinus, at Marpurg 1604, in 8vo ; and at Leipfic 1690,
in izmo. Melchior Junius, profeflbr of eloquence at
Strafburg, publiihed at Montbeliard, 1595, a collec¬
tion of letters, in which there are three written by-
Mahomet II. to Scanderbeg. One cannot difeover
the leaft air of Turkifti ferocity in thefe letters : they
are written in as civil terms, and as obliging a mait-
3 M ner,
MAH [ 458 ] MAH
■Jvfahoir.e- ner, as the moll polite prince in Chriftendom could
. ta’lilin- have written.
v-... ]viaHOMETANISM, or Mahometism, the fy-
llem of religion broached by Mahomet, and Hill ad¬
hered to by his followers. See Mahomet, and Al¬
coran.
Mahometanifm is profeffed by the Turks, Perfians,
and feveral nations among the Africans, and many
among the Eaft-Indians.
The Mahometans divide their religion into two ge¬
neral parts, faith and pra&ice: of which the firft is
divided into fix dillindt branches; Belief in God, in
his angels, in his fcriptures, in his prophets, in the
refurredtion and final judgment, and in God’s abfolute
decrees. The points relating to practice are, Prayer,
with walkings, See. alms, falling, pilgrimage to Mecca,
and circumcifion.
1. Of the Mahometan Faith.'} 1. That both Maho¬
met, and thofe among his followers who are reckoned
orthodox, had and continue to have juft and true no¬
tions of God and his attributes, appears fo plain, from
the Koran itfelf, and all the Mahometan divines, that
it would be lofs of time to refute thofe who fuppofe
the God of Mahomet to be different from the true
God, and only a fidtitious deity or idol of his own
creation.
2. The cxiftence of angels,, and their purity, are
abfolutely required to be believed in the Koran ; and
he is reckoned an infidel who denies there are fuch
beings, or hates any of them, or aflerts any diftindtion
of fexes among them. They believe them to have
pure and fubtile bodies, created of fire ; that they
neither eat nor drink, nor propagate their fpecies;
that they have various forms and offices, fome ado¬
ring God in different poftures, others finging praifes
to him, or interceding for mankind. They hold, that
fome of them are employed in writing down the ac¬
tions of men ; others in carrying the throne of God,
and other fervices.
The four angels, whom they look on as more emi¬
nently in God’s favour, and often mention on account
of the offices afligned them, are, Gabriel, to whom
they give feveral titles, particularly thofe of the ho/y
/pint, and the angel of revelations, fuppofing him to
be honoured by God with a greater confidence than
any other, and to be employed in writing down the
divine decrees ; Michael, the friend and protestor of
the Jews ; Azrael, the angel of death, who feparates
mens fouls from their bodies; and Irafil, whofe office
it will be to found the trumpet at the refurredlion.
The Mahometans alfo believe, that two guardian an¬
gels attend on every man, to obferve and write down
his adlions, being changed every day, and therefore
called al Moahk'ibat, or “ the angels who continually
fucceed one another.”
The devil, whom Mahomet names Ellis, from his
dfpair, was once one of thofe angels who are neareft
to God’s prefence, called A%a%il; and fell, according
to the doftrine of the Koran, for. refufing to pay ho¬
mage to Adam at the command of God.
Befides angels and devils,, the Mahometans are
taught by the Koran to believe an intermediate order
of creatures, which they call jin or genii, created alfo
of fire, but of a grofler fabric than angels, fince they
©at and drink, and propagate their fpecies, and are
fubjedl to death. Some of thefe are fuppofed to be Mahome*
good and others bad, and capable of future falvation tamfm.
or damnation, as men are ; whence Mahomet pre- '•—""v 1 f
tended to be fent for the converfion of genii as well
as men.
3. As to the fcriptures, the Mahometans are taught
by the Koran, that God, in divers ages of the world,
gave revelations of his will in writing to feveral pro¬
phets, the whole and every one of which it is abfo¬
lutely neceffary for a good'Mollem to believe. The
number of thefe facred books were, according to them,
104. Of which 10 were given to Adam, 50 to Seth,
30 to Edris or Enoch, 10 to Abraham; and the other
four, being the Pentateuch, the Plaints, the Gofpel,
and the Koran, were fucceflively delivered to Mole ,
David, Jefus, and Mahomet; which lalt being the
feal of the prophets, thofe revelations are now clofed,.
a»d no more are to be expected. All thefc divine,
books, except the four lalt, they agree to be now en¬
tirely loft, and their contents unknown ; though the
Sabians have feveral books which they attribute to
fome of the antediluvian prophets. And of thofe four,
the Pentateuch, Pfalms, and Gofpel, they fay, have
undergone fo many alterations and corruptions, that,,
though there may pofiibly be fome part of the true
word of God therein, yet no credit is to be given to-
the prefent copies in the hands of the Jews and Chri-
ftians. The Mahometans have alfo a gofpel in Arabic,,
attributed to St Barnabas; wherein the hiftory of
Jefus Chrift is related in a manner very different from
what we find in the true gofpels, and correfpondeht
to thofe traditions which Mahomet has followed in his
Koran. Of this gofpel the Morifcoes in Africa have
a trauffation in Spanifh ; and there is, in the library
of prince Eugene of Savoy, a manufeript of fome an¬
tiquity, containing an Italian tranflation of the fame
gofpel;, made, it is to be fuppofed, for the ufe of re¬
negades. This book appears to be no original forgery,
of the Mahometans; though they have, no doubt, in¬
terpolated and altered it fince, the better to ferve their
purpofe ; and in particular, inftead of the Paraclete,,
or Comforter, they have in this apocryphal gofpel in-
ferted the word Periclyte, that is, the “ famous,” or
“ illuftrious;” by which they pretend their prophet
was foretold by name, that being the fignification of.
Mohammed in Arabic : and this they fay to juftify
that paflage of the Koran, where Jefus Chrift-is for¬
mally aflerted to have foretold his coming, under his
other name of Ahmed, which is derived from the fame
root as Mohammed, and of the fame import. From
thefe, or fome other forgeries of the fame ftamp, it
is that the Mahometans quote, feveral paffages, of
which there are not the leaft foo.tfteps in the New
Teftament.
4. The number of the prophets, which have been.
from time to time fent by God into the world,
amounts to no lefs than 224,000, according to one
Mahometan tradition ;, or to 124,000, according to
another': among whom 313 w'ere apoftles, fent with
fpecial commiffions to reclaim mankind from infidelity
arid fuperftition ; and fix of them brought new laws
or. difpenfations, . which fucceflively abrogated the pre¬
ceding : thefe were Adam, Noah, Abraham, Mofes,..
Jefus, and Mahomet. All the prophets in general,
the Mahometans believe to have been free from great
MAH [ 459 ] MAH
Mahome- fins and errors of confequence, and profeffora of one
tanifm. an(j t}je fame religion, that is, Iflam, notwithftanding
v"' the different laws and inftitutions which they ob-
ferved. They allow of degrees among them, and hold
fome of them to be more excellent and honourable
than others. The firft plate they give to the revealers
and eftablifhers of new difpenfations, and the next to
the apoftles.
In this great number of prophets, they not only
reckon divers patriarchs and perfons named in ferip-
ture, but not recorded to have been prophets (where¬
in the Jewifh and Chriftian writers have fometimts led
the way), as Adam, Seth, Lot, Ifhmael, Nun, Jo-
fhua, &c. and introduce fome of them under diffe¬
rent names, as Enoch, Heher, and Jethro, who are
called, in the Koran, Edris, Hud, and Shoail; but
feveral others whofe very names do not appear in
feripture (though they endeavour to find fome per¬
fons there to fix them on), as Saleh, Khedr, Dhu’lkefl,
&c.
5. The belief of a general refurreclion and a future
judgment.
When a corpfe is laid in the grave, they fay he is
received by an angel, who gives him notice of the co¬
ming of the two examiners; who are two black livid
angels, of a terrible appearance, named Monker and
Nakir. Thefe order the dead perfon to fit upright; and
examine him concerning his faith, as to the unity of
God, and the miflion of Mahomet: if he anfwer right¬
ly, they fuffer the body to reft in peace, and it is re-
frefhed by the air of paradife; but, if not, they beat
him on the temples with iron maces, till he roars out
, for anguifh fo loud, that he is heard by all from call to
weft, except men and genii. They then prefs the
earth on the corpfe, which is gnawed and flung till
„ the refurre&ion by 99 dragons, with feveh heads
, each ; or, as others fay, their fins will become veno¬
mous beafts, the grievous ones flinging like dragons,
the fmaller like fcorpions, and the other like fer-
pents: circumftances which fome underftand in a fi¬
gurative fenfe.
As to the foul, they hold, that, when it is feparated
from the body by the angel df death, who performs his
office with eafe and gentlenefs towards the good, and
with violence towards the wicked, it enters into that
which they call al ber%nkh, or the interval between
death and the refurre&ion. If the departed perfon
was a believer, they fay two angels meet it, who con¬
vey it to heaven, that its place there may be affigned,
according to its merit and degree. For they diftin-
guifti the fouls of the faithful into three clafies : the
firft of prophets, whofe fouls are admitted into para¬
dife immediately; the fecond of martyrs, whofe fpi-
Tits, according to a tradition of Mahomet, reft in the
crops of green birds, which eat of the fruits and
drink of the rivers of paradife ; and the third of other
believers, concerning the ftate of whofe fouls before
the refurredlion there are various opinions.
Though fome among the Mahometans have thought
that the refurreftion will be merely fpiritual, and no
more than the returning of the foul to the place
whence it firft came (an opinion defended by Ebn Sina,
and called by fome the opinion of thephilofopbers'); and
others, who allow man to confift of body only, that
’t will be merely corporeal; the received opinion is.
that both body and foul will be raifed : and their doc- Mahnme-
tors argue ftrenuoufly for the poffibility of the refur- ,
retlion of the body, and difpute with great fubtilty v '
concerning the manner of it. But Mahomet has ta¬
ken care to preferve one part of the body, whatever
becomes of the reft, to ferve for a bafis of the future
edifice, or rather a leaven for the mafs which is to be
joined to it. For he taught, that a man’s body was
entirely confumed by the earth, except only the bone
called al ajb, which we name the os coccygis, or rump-
bone ; and that, as it was the firft formed in the hu¬
man body, it will alfo remain uncorrupted till the laft
day, as a feed from whence the whole is to be renew¬
ed; and this, he fair1*,would be effecled by a forty years
rain, which God (liquid fend, and which would cover
the earth to the height of 12 cubits, and caufe the bo¬
dies to fprout forth like plants. Herein, alfo, is Maho¬
met beholden to the Jews; who fay the fame things of
the bone Luz, excepting that what he attributes to a
great rain, will be effected, according to them, by a
dew, impregnating the daft of the earth.
The time of the refurre&ion the Mahometans allow
to be a perfedl fecret to all but God alone ; the angel
Gabriel himfelf acknowledging his ignorance in this
point, when Mahomet afked him about it. How¬
ever, they fay, the approach of that day may be
known from certain figns which are to precede it.
Thefe figns they diftinguifh into two forts, the leffer
and the greater.
The leffer figns are, 1. The decay of faith among
men. 2. The advancing of the meaneft perfons to
eminent dignity. 3. That a maid-fervant ftiall become
the mother of her miftrefs (or mafter) 5 by which is
meant, either that towards the end of the world men
Ihall be much given to fenfuality, or that the Maho¬
metans fliall then take many captives. 4. Tumults
and feditions. 5. A war with the Turks. 6. Great
diftrefs in the world, fo that a man, when he paffes by
another’s grave, ffiall fay, Would to God I were in
his place. 7. That the provinces of Irac and Syria
Ihall refufe to pay their tribute. And, 8. That the
buildings of Median fhall reach to Ahab, or Yahab.
The greater figns are, 1. The fun’s rifing in the
weft ; which fome have imagined it originally did. 2.
The appearance of the beaft, which ftiall rife out of the
earth, in the temple of Mecca, or on mount Safa, or
in the territory of Tayef, or fome other place. This
beaft, they fay, is to be 60 cubits high; though
others, not fatisfied with fo fmall a fize, will have her
reach to the clouds and to heaven, when her head only
is out; and that ihe will appear for three days, but
fhow only a third part of her body. They deferibe
this monfter, as to her form, to be a compound of
various fpecies ; having the head of a bull, the eyes of
a hog, the ears of an elephant, the horns of a ftag,
the neck of an oftrich, the breaft of a lion, the colour
of a tiger, the back of a cat, the tail of a ram, the
legs of a camel, and the voice of an afs. Some fay
this beaft is to appear three times in feveral places,
and that fhe will bring with her the rod of Mofes and
the feal of Solomon ; and, being fo fwift that none
can overtake or efcape her, will with the firft ftrike all
the believers on the face, and mark them with the
word mumen, i. e. believer ; and with the latter will
mark the unbelievers on the face likewife, with the
3 M 2 word
MAH C 460 ] MAH
Mahome- word Cafer, i. e. infidel, that every perfon may be
tamfm.- known for what he really is. They add, that the fame
~~ T _ beaft is to demonftrate the vanity of all religions
except Iflam, and to. fpeak Arabic. All this ftuff
feems to-be. the refult of a confufed idea of the beaft
in the Revelations. 3. War with the Greeks, and
the taking Conftantinople by *0,000 of the pofterity
of Ifaac, who (hall not win that city by force of arms,
but the walls.fliall fall down while they cry out, There
is no God but God, God is mojl great! As they are di¬
viding the fpoil, news will come to them of thd appear¬
ance of Antichrift; whereupon they (hall leave all, and
return back. 4. The coming of Antichrift, whom the
Mahometans call Mafib al Dqjjaf, i. e. the falfe or lying
Chrift, and fimply al Dajjal. he is to be one-eyed,
and marked on the forehead with the letters C. F. R.
fignifying Cafer, or infidel. They fay that the Jews
ive him the name of Mefjiah Ben David; and pretend
e is to come in the laft days, and to be lord both of
land and fea, and that he will reftore the kingdom to
them. 5. The defcent of Jefus on earth. They pre¬
tend that he is to defcend near the white tower to the
eaft of Damafcus, when the people are returned from
the taking of Conftantinople; tlrat he is to embrace
the Mahometan religion, marry a wife, get children,
kill Antichrift ; and at length die after 40 years, or,
according to others, 24 years continuance on earth.
Under him, they fay, there will be great fecurity
and plenty in the world, all hatred and malice being
laid afide; when lions and camels, bears and (heep,
(hall live in peace, and a child (hall play with ferpents
unhurt. 6. War with the Jews; of whom the Ma¬
hometans are to make a prodigious (laughter, the
very trees and ftones difcovering fuch of them as hide
themfelves, except only the tree called gharhad, which
is the tree of the Jews. 7. The eruption of Gog and
Magog, or, as they are called in the eaft, Tajuj and
Majuj; of whom many things are related in the
Koran and the traditions of Mahomet. Thefe bar¬
barians,. they tell us, having pafied the lake of Tibe¬
rias, which the vanguard of their vaft army will drink
dry, will come to Jerufalem, and there greatly diftrefs
Jefus and his companions; till, at his requeft, Go'd
will deftroy them, and fill the earth with their car-
cafes, which, after fome time, God will fend birds to
carry away, at the prayers of Jefus and his followers.
Their bows, arrows, and quivers, the Modems will
burn for feven years together ; and at laft, God will
fend a rain to cleanfe the earth and to make it fertile.
8. A fmoke which (hall fill the whole earth. 9. An
eclipfe of the moon. Mahomet is reported to have
faid, that there would be three eclipfes before the laft
hour; one t6 be feen in the eaft, another in the weft,
and the third in Arabia. 10. The returning of the
Arabs to the wordrip of Allat and al Uzza, and the
reft of their ancient idols, after the deceafe of everv
one in whofe heart there was faith equal to a grain of
muftard-feed, none but the very word: of men being
left alive. For God, they fay, will fend a cold odo¬
riferous wind, blowing from Syria Damafcena, which
(hall fweep away the fouls of all the faithful, and the
Koran itfelf, fo that men will remain in the grodeft
ignorance for 100 years. 1 r. The difcovery of a
vaft heap of gold and fdver by the retreating of the
Euphrates, which will be the deftruciion of many. Mahwto
12. The demolition of the Caaba, or temple of Mec-
ca, by the Ethiopians. 13. The fpeaking of beads
and inanimate things. 14. The breaking out of fire
in the province of Hejaz.; or, according to others, in
Yaman. 15. The appearance of a man of the defcen-
dants of Kahtan, who (hall drive men before him with
his ftaff. 16. The coming of the Mohdi, or dire&or j
concerning whom Mahomet prophefied, that the world
(hould not have an end till one of his own family
(hould govern the Arabians, whofe name fhould be
the fame with his own name, and whofe father’s name
(hould alfo be the fame with his father’s name ; and
who (hould fill the earth with righteoufnefs. This
perfon the Shiites believe to be now alive, and con¬
cealed in fome fecret place till the time of his mani-
feftation ; for they fuppofe him no other than the laft
of the 12 Imams, named Mahomet Abu’lkafem, as
their prophet was ; and the fon of Hafian al Adteri,
the 1 i th of that fuccedion. He was bora at Serman-
rai, in the 255th year of the Hegira. From this tra¬
dition, it is to be prefumed, an opinion pretty current
among the Chriftians took its rife, that the Mahome¬
tans are in expectation of their prophet’s return. 17.
A wind which (hall fweep away the fouls of all who
have but a grain of faith in their hearts, as has been
mentioned under the tenth fign.
Thefe are the greater figns, which, according to
their do&rine, are to precede the refurredlion, but ftill
leave the hour of it uncertain : for the immediate fign
of its being come will be the firft blaft of the trumpet,
which they believe will be founded three times. The
firft they call the blajl of. corifternation ; at the hearing
of which all creatures in heaven and earth (hall be
(truck with terror, except thofe whom God (hall pleafe
to exempt from it. The effe&s attributed to this firft
found of the trumpet are very wonderful: for they fay,
the earth will be (haken, and not only all buildings,
but the very mountains levelled; that the heavens (hall
melt, the fun be darkened, the liars fall, on the death
of the angels, who, as fome imagine, hold them fui-
pended between heaven and earth; and the fea (hall be
troubled and dried up, orr according to others, turned
into flames, the fun, moon, and ftars being thrown in¬
to it: the Koran, to exprefs the greatnefs of the ter¬
ror of that day, adds, that women who give fuck (hall
abandon the care of their infants, and even the (he ca»
mels which have gone 10 months with young (a mod
valuable part of the fubftance of that nation) (hall be
utterly neglefted. A farther effea of this blaft will
be that concourfe of beads mentioned in the Koran,
though fome doubt whether it be to precede the refur-
reftion or not. They who fuppofe it will precede,
think that all kinds of animals, forgetting their refpec-
tive natural fiercenefs and timidity, will run together
into one place, being terrified by the found of the trum¬
pet and the hidden (hock of nature.
The Mahometans believe that this firft blaft will be
followed by a fecond, which they call the blajl of exina¬
nition; by which all creatures both in heaven and earth
(hall die or be annihilated, except thofe which God
(hall pleafe to exempt from the common fate; and this,
they fay, (hall happen in the twinkling of an eye, nay
in an inftant; nothing furviving except God alone,
with
MAH E 4^i ] MAH
Mafiome- vrith paradifeand hell, and the Inhabitants of thofe two
taiiifm places, and the throne of glory.. Thelail .who fhall
” * ' die will be the angel of death.
Forty years after this will.be heard the blajl of re-
furrefit on, when the trumpet fhall be founded the third
time by Ifrafil,. who, together with Gabriel and Mi¬
chael, will be previoufly reftored to life, and, handing
on the rock of the temple of Jerufalem, fhall, at God’s
command:, call together all the dry and rotten bones,
and other difperfed parts of the bodies, and the very
hairs to judgment. This angel, having, by the divine
order, fet the trumpet to his mouth, and called toge¬
ther all the fouls from all parts, will throw them into
his trumpet, from whence, on his giving the laft found,
at the comnvand of God, they will fly forth like bees,
and fill the whole fpace between heaven and earth, and
then repair to their refpeftive bodies, which the open¬
ing earth will fuffer to arife ; and the firfl: who fhall
fo arife, according to a tradition of Mahomet, will be
himfelf. For this birth the earth will be prepared by
the rain above-mentioned, which is to fall continually
for 40 years, and will refemble the feed of a man, and
be fupplied from the water under the throne of God,
which is called living water ; by the efficacy and vir¬
tue of which the dead bodies fhall fpring forth from
their graves, as they did in their mother’s womb, or
as corn fprouts forth by common rain, till they become
perfetl; after which breath will be breathed into them,
and they will fleep in their fepulchres till they are rai-
fed to life at the lafl trump.
When thofe who have rifen fhall have waited the li¬
mited time, the Mahometans believe God will at length
appear to judge them ; Mahomet undertaking the of¬
fice of interceflor, after it fhall have been declined by
A ’am, Noah, Abraham, and Jefus, who fhall beg de¬
liverance only for-their own fouls. They fay, that on
this folemn occafion God will come in the clouds fur-
rounded by angels, and will produce the books where¬
in the actions of every perfon are recorded by their
guardian angels, and will command the prophets to
bear witnefs againft thofe to whom they have been re-
fpe&ively fent. Then every one will be examined con¬
cerning all his words and actions uttered and done by
him in this life ; not as if God needed any information
in thefe refpefts, but to oblige the perfon to make pub¬
lic confefiion and acknowledgement of God’s juftice.
The particulars of which they fhall give an account,
as Mahomet himfelf enumerated them, are, of their
time, how they fpent it; of their wealth, by what
means they acquired it, and how they employed it; of
their bodies, wherein they exercifed them i of their
knowledge and learning, what ufe they made of them.
To the queftions we have mentioned each perfon fhall
anfwer, and make his defence in the bell manner he
can, endeavouring to excufe himfelf by cafting the
blame of his evil deeds on others ; .fo that a difpute
fhall arife even between the foul and the body, to which
of them their guilt ought to be imputed: the foul fay¬
ing, 0 Lord, my body I received from thee ; for thou
crealedjl me without a hand to lay hold with, a foot to
walk with, an eye to fee with, or an underfunding to
apprehend with, till I came and entered into this body;
therefore punifh it eternally, but deliver me. The body,
on the other fide, will make this apology : 0 Lord,
thou createdf me like a fock of wood, having. neither
hand that I could lay hold with, nor foot that 1 could Mahome-
walk with, till this foul, like a ray orlight, entered into
me, and my tongue began to fpeak, mv eye to fee, and my
foot to walk ; therefore pun: '1: it eternally, but deliver
me. But God will propound to them the following
parable of the blind man and the lame man, which, as
well as the preceding difpute, was borrowed by the.
Mahometans from the Jews. A certain king, having
a pleafant garden, in which were ripe fruits, fet two
perfons to keep it, one of whom was blind, and the
other lame; the former not being able to fee the fruit,,
nor the latter to gather it: the lame man, however,"
feeing the fruit, perfuaded the blind man to take hinv
upon his fhoulders, and by that means he eafily gather¬
ed the fruit; which they divided between them. The
lord of the garden coming fome time after, and inqui¬
ring after his fruit, each began to excufe himfelf: the
blind man faid he had no eyes to fee with ; and the
lame man, that he had no feet to approach the trees.
But the king, ordering the lame man to be fet on the
blind, paifed fentence on and puniflied them both.
And in the fame manner will God deal with the body
and the foul. As thefe apologies will not avail on that
day, fo it will be in vain for any one to deny his evil
aftions; fince men and angels, and his own members,
nay, the very earth itfelf, will be ready to bear witnefs
again ft him.
At this examination, they alfo believe, that each per¬
fon will have the book wherein all the actions of his •
life are written delivered to him: which books the righ¬
teous will receive into their right hand, and read with -
great pleafure and fatisfaction ; but the ungodly will’
be obliged to take them, againft their wills, in their
left, which will be bound behind their backs, their
right hand being tied up to their necks^
To ffrow the exadl juftice. which will be obferved on
this great day of trial, the next, thing they defcribe is
the balance, wherein all things iball be weighed. They
fay it will be held by Gabriel; and that it is of fo valt
a fize, that its two fcales, one of which hangs overpa-
radife, and the. other over hell, are capacious enough
to contain both heaven, and hell. Though fome are
willing to underftand what is faid in the Koran con¬
cerning this balance allegorically, and only.as a figu¬
rative reprefentation of God’s equity; yet the more an¬
cient and orthodox opinion is, that they are to be ta¬
ken literally ; and fince words and actions, being mere
accidents, are not capable of being themfelves weigh¬
ed, they fay that the books wherein they are written
will be thrown into the fcales, and according as thofe
wherein the good or evil adtions are recorded ftiali
preponderate, fentence will be given : thofe whofe
balances laden with good works fhall be heavy, will
be faved ; but thofe whofe balances are light, will be
condemned. Nor will-any one have caufe to complain
that God fuffers any good adtion to pafs unrewarded,
becaufe the wicked for the good they do have their
reward in this life, and therefore can expedt no favour
in the next.*
This examination being paft, and every one’s works
weighed in a juft balance, that mutual retaliation will
follow, according to which every creature will take ven¬
geance one of another, or have fatisfadtiori made them
for the injuries which they have fuffered. And, fince
there will then be no other way of returning like far -
MAH I 462 1 MAH
Mahomfs HJce, the manner of giving this fatisfaflion will be by
tan*rm' taking away a proportional part of the good works of
y him who offered the injury, and adding it to thofe of
him who fuffered it. Which being done, if the angels
(bywhofe miniftry this is to be performed) fay, Loi-J,
rwe have given to every one his due, and there remaineth
of this performs good works fo much as equalleth the weight
of an ant, God will, of his mercy, caufe it to be don-
bled unto him, that he may be admitted into paradife;
but if, on the contrary, his good works be exhaufted,
and there remain evil works only, and there be any
who have not yet received fatisfadlioh from him, God
will order that an equal weight of their fins be added
unto his, that he may be punifiied for them in their
Head, and he will be fent to hell laden with both.
This will be the method of God’s dealing with man¬
kind. As to brutes, after they fhall have likewife ta¬
ken vengeance of one another, he will command them
to be changed into dull; wicked men being referved
to more grievous punifhment, fo that they lhall cry out,
on hearing this fentence paffed on the brutes. Would
to God that we were dufl alfo. As to the genii, many
Mahometans are of opinion, that fuch of them as are
true believers, will undergo the fame fate as the irra¬
tional animals, and have no other reward than the fa¬
vour of being converted into duff ; and for this they
quote the authority of their prophet.
The trials being over, and the affembly diffolved, the
Mahometans hold, that thofe who are to be admitted
into paradife will take the right-hand way, and thofe
who are dellined to hell-fire will take the left; but1
both of them muft firft pafs the bridge called in Arabic
al Strat, which they fay is laid over the midft of hell,
and defcribe to be finer than a hair, and {harper than
the edge of a fword ; fo that it feems very difficult
to conceive how any one fhall be able toftand upon it:
for which reafon, moft of the fe& of the Motazalites
rejefl it as a fable; though the orthodox think it a fuf-
ficient proof of the truth of this article, that it wasfe-
rioufly affirmed by him whomever aflerted a falfehood,
“meaning their prophet: who, to add to the difficulty
of the paflage, has likewife declared, that this bridge
is befet on each fide with briars and hooked thorns :
which will however be no impediment to the good; for
they fhall pafs with wonderful eafe and fwiftnefs, like
lightning, or the wind, Mahomet and his Moflems lead¬
ing the way ; whereas the wicked, what with the flip-
perinefs and extreme narrownefs of the path, the in-
tangling of the thorns, and the extin&ion of the light
which directed the former to paradife, will fooh mifs
their footing, and fall down headlong into hell, which
is gaping beneath them.
As to the punifhment of the wicked, the Maho-
jnetans are taught, that hell is divided into feven fto-
ries or apartments, one below another, defigned for
the reception of as many diftinft claffes of the damned.
T. he firft, which they call Jehennam, they fay, will be
the receptacle of thofe who acknowledged one God,
that is, the wicked Mahometans ; who, after having
there been punifhed according to their demerits, will
at length be releafed. The fecond, named Ladha,
they affign to the Jews ; the third, named al Hotama,
to the Chriftians ; the fourth, named al Sair to the
Sabians; the fifth, named Sakar, to the Magians ;
the fixth, named al Jahim, to the idolaters j and the
feventh, which is the loweft and worft of all, and is Mahome-
called al Hawyat, to the hypocrites, or thofe who tan^m-
outwardly profeffed fome religion, but in their hearts
were of none. Over each of thefe apartments they
believe there will be fet a guard of angels, 19 in num¬
ber ; to whom the damned will confefs the juft judg¬
ment of God, and beg them to intercede with him for
fome alleviation of their pain, or that they may be de¬
livered by being annihilated.
Mahomet has, in his Koran and traditions, been
very exaft in deferibing the various torments of hell,
which, according to him, the wicked will fuffer both
from intenfe heat and exceffive cold. We fhall, how¬
ever, enter into no detail of them here 5 but only ob-
ferve, that the degrees of thefe pains will alfo vary
in proportion to the crimes of the fufferer, and the
apartment he is condemned to ; and that he who is
punifiied the moft lightly of all will be fhod with fhoes
of fire, the fervour of which will caufe his ilcull to boil
like a cauldron. The condition of thefe unhappy
wretches, as the fame prophet teaches, cannot be pro¬
perly called either life or death ; and their mifery will
be greatly increafed by their defpair of being ever de¬
livered from that place, fince, according to that fre¬
quent expreffion in the Koran, they mujl remain therein
for ever. It muft be remarked, however, that the in¬
fidels alone will be liable to eternity of damnation ;
for the Moflems, or thofe who have embraced the true
religion, and have been guilty of heinous fins, will be
delivered thence after they fhall have expiated their
crimes by their fufferings. The time which thefe be¬
lievers fhall be detained there, according to a tradition
handed down from their prophet, will not be lefs than
900 years, nor more than 7000. And, as to the
manner of their delivery, they fay that they fhall be
diftinguifhed by the marks of proftration on thofe
parts of their bodies with which they ufed to touch
the ground in prayer, and over which the fire will
therefore have no power; and that, being known by
this chara&eriftic, they will be releafed by the mercy
of God, at the interceffion of Mahomet and the bleffed;
whereupon thofe who fhall have been dead, will be re-
ftored to life, as has been faid; and thofe whofe bodies
fhall have contracted any footinefs or filth from the
flames and fmoke of hell, will be immerfed in one of
the rivers of paradife, called the river of life, which will
waflr them whiter than pearls.
The righteous, as the Mahometans are taught to
believe, having furmounted the difficulties, and paffed
the fharp bridge abovementioned, before they enter
paradife, will be refrefhed by drinking at the pond of
their prophet, who deferibes it to be an exact fquare
of a month’s journey in compafs; its water, which is
fupplied by two pipes from al Cawthar, one of the
rivers of paradife, being whiter than milk or filver,
and more odoriferous than mufk, with as many cups
fet around it as there are ftars in the firmament; of
which water whoever drinks will thirft no more for
ever. This is the firft tafte which the bleffed will
have of their future and now near-approaching fe¬
licity.
Though paradife be fo very frequently mentioned
in the Koran, yet it is a difpute among the Maho¬
metans whether it be already created, or - to be
created hereafter; the Motazalites and fome other
feftaries
MAH L 463 ] MAH
Mahome- feftaries aflerting, that there is not at prefent any fuch abode Jannat al Naim, “ the garden of pleafure
tanifm. pjaee ;n nature, and that the paradife which the and the like : by which feveral appellations fome un-
^ghteous will inhabit in the next life will be different derftand fo many different gardens, or at leaft places
from that from which Adam was expelled. How- of different degrees of felicity (for they reckon no
ever, the orthodox profefs the contrary, maintaining lefs than 100 fuch in all), the very meaneft whereof
that it was created even before the world, and defcribe will afford its inhabitants fo many pleafures and de-
it, from their prophet’s traditions, in the following lights, that one would conclude they muff even,
manner. hnk under them, had not Mahomet declared, that,
They fay it is fituated above the feven heavens (or in order to qualify the bleffed for a full enjoyment off
in the feventh heaven), and next under the throne of them, God will give to every one the abilities of too
God ; and, to exprefs the amenity oi the place, tell
us, that the earth of it is of the fineft wheat-flour, or
of the pureft muilc, or, as others will have it, of faf-
fron: tliat its ftones are pearls and jacinths, the walls
of its buildings enriched with gold and filver, and
that the trunks of all its trees are of gold : among
which the moft remarkable is the tree called Tuba,, or
the tree of happinefs. Concerning this tree, they fable,
that it Hands in the palace of Mahomet, though a
branch of it will reach to the houfe of every true be¬
liever j that it will be laden with pomegranates, grapes.
6. God’s abfolute decree and predeffination both of
good and evil. 1’he orthodox doflrine is, that what¬
ever hath or {ball come to pafs in this world, whether
it be good, or whether it be bad, proceedeth entirely
from the divine will, and is irrevocably fixed and re¬
corded from all eternity in the preferved table : God
having fecretly predetermined not only the adverfe and
profperous fortune of every perfon in this world, h>
the moft minute particulars, but alfo his faith or in¬
fidelity, his obedience or difobedience, and confe-
dates, and other fruit, of furprifmg bignefs, and of quently his everfefting bappinefs or mifery after .death
taftes unknown to mortals. So that, if a man defire
to eat of any particular kind of fruit, it will imme¬
diately be prefented him; or, if he choofe flefli, birds
ready dreffed will be fet before him, according to Iris
wifh. They add, that the boughs of this tree will
Fpontaneoufly bend down to the hand of the perfon
who would gather of its fruits, and that it will fupply
the bleffed not only with food, but alfo with filken gar¬
ments, and beafts to ride on leady faddled and bridled,
and adorned with rich trappings, which willburft forth
from its fruits; and that this tree is fo large, that
which fate or predeftination it is not poffible by any
forefight or wifdom to avoid.
Of this doftrine Mahomet makes great ufe in his
Koran for the advancement of his defigns; encoura¬
ging his followers to fight without fear, and" even de-
fperately, for the propagation of their faith, by re-
prefenting to them, that all their caution could not
avert their inevitable deffiny,. os prolong their lives-
for a moment ; and deterring them from difobeying or
rejedting him as an impoftor,. by fetting before them
the danger they might thereby incur of being, by the-
perfon, mounted on the fleeteft horfe, would not be juft judgment of God, abandoned'to fedbdtion, hard-
able to gallop from one end of its ftiade to the other in
100 years.
As plenty of water is- one of the greateft additions
to the pleafantnefs of any place, the Koran often fpeaks
of* the rivers of paradife as a principal ornament there¬
of : fome of thefe rivers, they fay, flow with water,
fbme with milk,, fome with wine, and others with
honey; all taking their rife from the root of the tree
Tuba.
But all thefe glories will be eclipfed by the refplen-
dent and ravifhing girls of paradife, called, from then-
large black eyes, Hur al oyun, the enjoyment of whole
company will be a- principal felicity of the faithful.
Thefe, they fay, are created, not of day, as mortal,
women are, but of pure mufkbeing, as their pro¬
phet often, affirms in his Koran, free from all natural
impurities, defedts, and inconveniences incident to the
fex, of the ftridteft modefty, and fecluded from public
view in pavilions of hollow pearls, fo large, that as
fome traditions have it, one of them will be no, lefs
than four parafangs (or, as others fay, 6o miles) long,
and as many broad.
The name which the Mahometans ufually give to
this happy manfion, is al Jannat, or “ the garden
and fometimes they call it, with an addition, Jannat
al Fer(lotus, “ the garden of paradife Jannul ylden,
“ the garden of. Eden,” (though they generally in¬
terpret the word' F.den, not
lion in Hebrew, but accon
©wn tongue, wherein it iig
feual. habitation;”) Jannul
nefs of heart, and a reprobate mind, as a pumfhment
for their obftinacy.
W.. Religious praBice. E. The firft point prayer,,
under which are alfo comprehended thofe legal wafli-
iags or purifications which lire neceffary preparations;
thereto.
Of thefe purifications there are two degrees, one
called ghujt, being a total immerfion or bathing of the
body in water; and the other called tuodu (by the
Perfians, aldejl), which is the wafliing of their faces,,
hands, and feet, after a certain manner. The firft is
required in fome extraordinary cafes only, as after ha¬
ving lain wjth a woman, or being polluted by emiffion
of feed, or by approaching a dead body ; women alfo
being obliged to it after, their courfes or childbirth..
The latter is the ordinary ablution in common cafes,,
and before prayer, and- muft neceffarily be ufed by
every perfon before he can enter upon that duty. It
is performed with certain formal ceremonies, which,
have been defcribed by fome writers, but much eafier
apprehended by feeing them done, than by the bell de-
fcription.
That his followers might be more punctual in this;
duty, Mahomet is faid to have declared, that the prac¬
tice of religion is founded on cleanlinefs, which is the one
half of the faith, and the irv cf prayer, without which-
it will not be heard by God. That thefe expreffions.
■cording to its accepta- maybe the betterunderilood,.al Ghazali reckons four
ng to its meaning in their degrees of purification ; of which the firft is the clean*
iiies “ a ier.tled or perpe- fing of the body from all pollution, filth, and excre-
l Maiva, “the garden of meats; the fecund, the ckanfing of the members of
«s thfc
MAH [ 464 ] M A H
Mahome- the body from all wickednefs and unjuft actions ; the
tainl'm. the cleanfing the heart from all blameable in-
L ’ clinations and odious vices ; and the fourth, the pur¬
ging a man’s fecret thoughts from all affedtions which
may divert their attendance on God; adding, that the
■ body is but as the outward (hell, in refpeft to the heart,
which is as the kernel.
Circumcifion, though it be not fo much as once men¬
tioned in the Koran, is yet held by the Mahometans
to be an ancient divine inftitution, confirmed by the
religion of Iflam, and, though not fo abfolutely necef-
fary but that it may be difpenfed with in Come cafes,
yet highly proper and expedient. The Arabs ufed
this rite for many ages before Mahomet, having pro¬
bably learned it from Ifhmael, though not only his
defendants, but the Hamyarites and other tribes prac-
tifed the fame. The Ifhmaelites, we are told, ufed to
circumcife their children, not on the eighth day, as is
the cuftom of the Jews, but when about 12 or 13
years old, at which age their father underwent that
operation; and the Mahometans imitate them fo far
as not to circumcife children before they may be
able at leaft diftinftly to pronounce that profeffion of
their faith, .There, is no God but Goo, Mahomet is the
apojile of God ; but pitch on what age they pleafe for
the purpofe, between 6 and 16, or thereabouts.
Prayer was by Mahomet thought fo neceflary a
duty, that he ufcd to call it the pillar of religion, and
the key of paradife; and when the Thakifites, who
. dwelt at Tayef, fending, in the ninth year of the He¬
gira, to make their fubmiffion to the prophet, after
the keeping of their favourite idol had been denied
them, begged at leaft, that they might be difpenfed
with as to their faying of their appointed prayers, he
anfwered, That there could be no good in that religion
wherein was no prayer.
That fo important a duty, therefore, might not be
negle&ed, Mahomet obliged his followers to pray five
times every 24 hours, at certain ftated times; viz.
t. In the morning before fun-rife r 2. When noon is
paft, and the fun begins to decline from the meridian :
3* In the afternoon, before fun-fet: 4. In the even¬
ing, after fun-fet, and before day be fhut in 5 and,
5. After the day is ftiut in, and before the firft watch
of the night. For this inftitution he pretended to have
received the divine command from the throne of God
himfelf, when he took his night-journey to heaven ;
and the obferving of the ftated times of prayer is fre¬
quently infilled on in the Koran, though they be not
particularly prefcribed therein. Accordingly, at the
aforefaid times, of which public notice is given by the
Muedhdhins, or Criers, from the fteeples of their
mofques (for they ufe no bells), every confcientious
Mollem prepares himfelf for prayer, which he per¬
forms either in the mofque or any other place, pro¬
vided it be clean, after a prefcribed form, and with a
certain number of praifes or ejaculations (which the
more fcrupuious count by a firing of beads), and ufing
certain poftures of worlhip; all which have been par¬
ticularly fet down and defcribed, though with fome few
miftakes, by other writers, and ought not to be a-
bridged, unlefs in fome fpecial cafes, as on a journey,
on preparing for battle, See.
For the regular performance of the duty of prayer
among the Mahometans, befides the particulars above
192.
mentioned, it is alfo requifite that they turn their fa- Mahome-
ces, while they pray, towards the temple of Mecca; tamfal- .
the quarter where the fame is fituated, being, for that ' ~v '
reafon, pointed out within their mofques by a nich,
which they call al Mehrab ; and without, by the fitu-
ation of the doors opening into the galleries of the
fteeples : there are alfo tables calculated for the
ready finding out their Keblah, or part towards which
they ought to pray, in places where they have no other
direction. ‘JoEL *
2. Alms are of two forts, legal voluntary. The
legal alms are ofipdifpenfable obligation, being com¬
manded by the law, which directs and determines both
the portion vvhich is to be given, and of what things
it ought to be given ; but the voluntary alms are left
to every one’s liberty, to give more or lefs, as he lhall
fee fit. The former kind of alms fome think to be pro¬
perly called %acat, and the latter fadakat; though this
name be alfo frequently given to the legal alms. They
are called zacat, either becaufe they increafe a man’s
ftore by drawing down .ablellingthereon, and produce
in his foul the virtue of liberality ; or becaufe they pu¬
rify the remaining part of one’s fubftance from pollu¬
tion, and the foul from the filth of avarice ; and fada¬
kat, becaufe they are a proof of a man’s fincerity in
the worlhip of God. Some writers have called the
legal alms tithes; but improperly, fince in fome cafes
they fall Ihort, and in others exceed that proportion.
3. Fafiing is a duty of fo great moment, that Ma¬
homet ufed to fay it was the gate of religion, and that
the odour of the mouth of him who fafleth is more grateful
to Goo than that of mufk ; and al Ghazali reckons faft-
ingJo«<? fourth part of the faith. According to the Maho¬
metan divines, there,are three degrees of falling;
I. The reftraining the belly and other parts of the bo¬
dy from fatisfying their lulls; 2. The reftraining the
ears, eyes, tongue, hands, feet, and other’members,
from fin ; and, 3. The falling of the heart from
worldly cares, and reftrKning the thought from every
thing befides God.
The Mahometans are obliged, by the exprefs com¬
mand of the Koran, to fall the whole month of Ra¬
madan, from the time the new moon firft appears, till
the appearance of the next new moon ; during which
time they mull abftain from eating, drinking, and wo¬
men, from day-break till night or fun-fet. And this
injun&ion they obferve fo ftridlly, that, while they
fall, they fuffer nothing to enter their mouths, or other
parts of their body, efteeming the fall broken and
null, if they fmell perfumes, take a clyfter or injec¬
tion, bathe, or even purpofely fwallow their fpittle ;.
fome being fo cautious, that they will not open their
mouths to fpeak left they Ihould breathe the air too
freely : the fall is alfo deemed void, if a man kifs or
touch a woman, or If he vomit defignedly. But after
fun-fet they are allowed to refrelh tlymfclves, and to
eat and drink, and enjoy the company of their wives
till day-break ; though the more rigid begin the fall
again at midnight. This fall is extremely rigorous and
mortifying when the month of Ramadan happens to
fall in fummer (for the Arabian year being lunar, each
month runs through all the different feafons in the eourfe
of 33 years), the length and heat of the days making
the obfervance of it much more difficult and uneafy
than in winter.
4
The
MAH [ 465 1 MAH
The reafon given why the month of Ramadan was So often as they pafs by the black ftone, they either
tanifm. pitched on for this purpofe is, that on that month the kifs it, or touch it with their hand and kifs that.
*"■" Koran was fent down from heaven. Some pretend. The running between Safa and Merwa is alfo per-
that Abraham, Mofes, and Jefus, received their re- formed feven times, partly with a flow pace and partly
fpe&ive revelations in the fame month. running : for they walk gravely tilf they come to a
4. The pilgrimage to Mecca is fo neceflary a point place between two pillars ; and there they run, and
of praftice, that, according to a tradition of Maho- afterwards walk again ; fometimes looking back, and
met, he who dies without performing it may as well die fometimes Hopping, like one who had loft fomething,
a Jew or a Chriftian ; and the fame is exprefsly com- to reprefent Hagar feeking water for her foh ; for the
tnanded in the Koran. ceremony is faid to be as ancient as her time.
The temple of Mecca Hands in the midft of the city, On the ninth of Dhu’lhajja, after morning-prayer,
and is honoured with the title of Masjad al elharam, the pilgrims leave the valley of Mina, whither they
i. e. the JacredM mviSlahk temple. '\Vhat is principal- come the day before and proceed in a tumultuous and
ly reverenceij^Jii this place, ancj givelrfopAity to {he rufliing manner to mount Arafat, where they flay to
whole, is a iquare ftone building,-called tne Caaba ; perform their devotions till fun-fet: then they go to
(fee that article). Mozdalifa, an oratory between Arafat and Mina ;
To this temple every Mahometan, who has health and there fpend the night in prayer and reading the
and means, fufficient, ought, once at leaft in his life, Koran. The next morning by day break they vifit al
to goon pilgrimage ; nor are women excufed from the Majher al Karam, or “the facred monument;” and,
performance of this duty. The pilgrims meet at dif- departing thence before fun-rife, hafte by Batn Mohaf-
ferent places near Mecca, according to the different fer to the valley of Mina; where they throw feven
parts from whence they come, during the months of ftones at three marks or pillars, in imitation of Abra-
Shawal and Dhu’lkaada; being obliged to be there ham, who, meeting the devil in that place, and being
by the beginning of Dhu’lhajja ; which month, as its by him difturbed in his devotions, or tempted to difo-
name imports, is peculiarly fet apart for the celebra- bedience when he was going to facrifice his fon, was
tion of this folemnity. commanded by God to drive him away by throwing
At the place above mentioned the pilgrims properly ftones at him ; though others pretend this rite to be
commence fuch; when- the men put on the Ibram or as old as Adam, who alfo put the devil to flight in the
facred habit, which confifts only of two woollen wrap- 4ame place, and by the fame means,
pers, one wrapped about their middle to cover their This ceremony being over, on the fame day, the
privities, and the other thrown over their fhoulders, tenth of Dhu’lhajja, the pilgrims flay their victims in
having their heads bare, and a kind of flippers which the faid valley of Mina ; of which they and their
cover neither the heel nor the inftep, and fo enter the friends eat part, and the reft is given to the poor,
facred territory in their way to Mecca. While they Thefe victims muft be either fheep, goats, kine, or
have this habit on, they muft neither hunt nor fowl, camels; males, if of either of the two former kinds;
(though they are allowed to filh) ; which precept is and females if of either of the latter; and of a fit
fo punctually obferved, that they will not kill even a age. The facrifices being over, they (have their heads
loufe or flea if they find hem on their bodies : there and cut their nails, burying them in the fame place;
are fome noxious animals, however, which they have after which the pilgrimage is looked on as completed :
permilfion to kill during the pilgrimage, as kites, ra- though they again vifit the Caaba, to take their leave
vens, fcorpions, mice, and dogs given to bite. Du- of that facred building.
ring the pilgrimage, it behoves a man to have a con- The rapid fuccefs which attended the propagation
ftant guard over his words and aftions ; to avoid all of this new religion was owing to caufes that are plain
quarrelling or ill-language, all converfe with women, and evident, and muft remove, or rather prevent, our
and all obfeene difeourfe ; and to apply his whole at- furprize, when they are attentively confidered. The
tention to the good work he is engaged in. tenor of Mahomet’s arms, and the repeated victories
The pilgrims, being arrived at Mecca, immediately which were gained by him and his fucceffors, were,
vifit the temple ; and then enter on the performance of no doubt, the irrefiftible arguments that perfuaded
the preferibed ceremonies, which confift chiefly in go- fuch multitudes to embrace his religion and fiibmit to
ing in proceflion round the Caaba, in running between his dominion. Befides, his law was artfully and mar-
the mounts Safa and Merwa, in making the ftation on velloufly adapted to the corrupt nature of man ; and,
mount Arafat, and flaying the vidlims, and (having in a more particular manner, to the manners and opi-
their. heads in the valley of Mina. nions of the eaftern nations, and the. vices to which
In compafling the Caaba, which they do feven they were naturally addifted : for the articles of faith
times, beginning at the corner where the black ftone which it propofed were few in number, and extremely
. is fixed, they ufe a (hort quick pace, the three fir ft fimple ; and the duties it required were neithel many
times they go round it, and a grave ordinary pace the nor difficult, nor fuch as were incompatible with the
four laft ; which, it is faid, was ordered by Mahomet, empire of appetites and paffions. It is to be obierved
that his followers might (how themfelves ftrong and farther, that the grofs ignorance, under which the A- •
aftive to cut off the hopes of the infidels, Who gave rabians, Syrians, Perfians, and the greateft part of
out that the immoderate heats of Medina had render- the eaftern nations, laboured at this time, rendered
ed them weak. But the aforefaid quick pace they many an eafy prey to the artifice and eloquence of this
are not obliged to ufe every time they perform this bold adventurer. To thefe caufes of the progrefs of
piece of devotion, but only at fome particular times. Mahometifm, we may add the bitter diffenfions and
Vol. X. Fart II. 2 N cruel
M
MAH [ 466 ] MAH
Mahome- cruel animofities that reigned among the Chriilian
tamfm. particularly the Greeks, Neilorians, Eutychi-
Mahwah. ans» anc* Monophyfites ; diflenfions that filled a great
part of the Eaft with carnage, affallinations, and fuch
deteftable enormities, as rendered the very name of
Chriftianity odious to many. We might add here,
that the Monophyfites and Neltorians,full of refentment
againft the Greeks, from whom they had fuffered the
bittereft and moft injurious treatment, afiifted the A-
rabians in the conqueft of feveral provinces, into which,
of confequence, the religion of Mahomet Was after¬
wards introduced. Other caufes of the fudden progrefs
©f that religion will naturally occur to fuch as confi-
der attentively its fpirit and genius, and the ftate of
the world at this time.
MAHOMETANS, thofe who believe in M reli¬
gion and divine miffion of Mahomet. See Mahomet,
Mahometanism, and Alcoran.
MAHRATTA. SeeMAauATTA.
MAHWAH, or Mawee, in botany; an Eaft-
Indian tree, fo called by the natives of Bahar and the
neighbouring countries, but of which the Shanfcrit
name is Madhuca or Madhudruma. According to
Lieut. C. Hamilton, by whom a very particular ac-
} Vol.I. art. count of this tree is given in the Sifiatic Refearches%,
3uy' it is of the clafs of the polyandria-monogynia of Lin¬
naeus, but of a genus not defcribed by him. The caly^is
monophyllous,quadrifid,half divided, and imbricated in
its divided part; the two oppofite and outer parts co¬
vering partially the two oppofite and inner. The corolla
is monopetalous, having an inflated tube for its lower
part, of near an inch long, thick, flefhy, and of a
cream colour: from this arife nine fmall leaves, as it
were, like petals from a calyx, that are imbricated and
twifted, one over the other, from right to left, clafp-
ing the lower part of the ftyle in a point; by which
they feem to ferve, in fome refpedd, like a forceps, to
detach the whole corolla at the feafon of its dropping.
There are no filaments; but the anthene, which are
in number moft commonly twenty-fix, long, fcabrous,
and fpear-headed, are inferred in rows, on the infide
and upper part of the tube of the corolla. The ftyle
is long, round, and tapering, and proje&s about an
inch beyond the corolla ; it is fucceeded by a drupe,
with a thick pericarpium, bilocular, containing two
feeds or kernels covered with a dark brown fldn : there
are often, however, three of thefe, in three feparate
divifions. The flowers rife in bunches, from the ex¬
tremities of the fmaller branches; and have each a pe¬
dicle of about an inch and a half long : thefe are
moftly turned downwards, whence the corollas more
eafily drop off.
The tree, when full grown, is about the fize of a
common Mango tree, with a buftiy head and oval leaves
a little pointed ; its roots fpreading horizontally, are
funk but little in the earth: the trunk, which is
often of a confiderable thicknefs, rifas feldom to any
great height, without giving off branches ; it is, how¬
ever, not uncommon to fee it flioot up clear to the
length of eight or ten feet: the wood itfelf is mode¬
rately hard, fine grained, and of a reddifh colour. By
incifion the tree affords a refinous gum from the bark.
The flowers are of a nature very extraordinary,
“ differing effentially (fays Mr Hamilton) from thofe
of any other plant with which I am acquainted, as they
have not, in any refpcft, the ufual appearance of fuch, Mahwah*
but rather referable berries; and I, like many others,  «  
had long conceived them to be the fruit of the Mah-
wah.” The tree drops its leaves in the month of Fe¬
bruary, and early in March thefe flowers begin to come
out in clufters of thirty, forty, or fifty, from the ex-
tremity of every fmall branch ; and, from this period
till the latter end of April, as the flowers come to
maturity (for they never open or expand), they con¬
tinue falling off, with their anthene, in the mornings,
a little after fun-rife; when they are gathered; and
afterwards dried by an expofure of a few days in the
fun : when thus prepared, they very much referable
a dried grape, both in tafte and flavour. Immediately
after the flowers drop off, frefh (hoots are made for the
new leaves, which foon make their appearance, co¬
ming prefently to their full growth.
The fruit {properly fo called) is of two forts in (hape;
the one refembling a fmall walnut, the other fome-
what larger and pointed : it is ripe towards the middle
of May; and continues dripping from the tree till the
whole fall, which is generally about the beginning or
towards the middle of June. The outer covering, or
pericarpium, which is of a foft texture, commonly burfts
in the fall, fo that the feeds are very eafily fqueezed
out of it; the feeds are fomewhat of the (hape but
longer than an olive. Thefe feeds are replete with a
thick oil, of the confiftence of butter or ghee, which
is obtained by exprelfion.
From this defeription it may eafily be conceived,
that the Mahwah tree and its productions are of Angu¬
lar and general ufe, efpecially in thofe dry and barren
countries, which, from the nature of their fituation,
are not fo well calculated for producing in plenty or
perfection the other neceffaries of life.
The corolla or flowers, after being dried as before
defcribed, are eaten by the natives raw or dreffed with
their curries; and, when even (imply boiled with rice,
they afford a (trengthening and wholefome nourilh-
ment. They are indeed, our author tells us, often ap¬
plied to a lefs laudable purpofe; for being fermented,
they yield by diftillation a ftrong fpirit, which the
people here fell fo very cheap, that for one pice (about
a half-penny) may be purehafed no lefs than a cuicha-
fier (above a pint Englilh) with which any man may
get completely drunk. Thefe flowers make an article
of trade ; being exported from this country to Patna
and elfewhere in no inconfiderable quantities.
The oil yielded by the fruit, as before mentioned;
refembles ghee fo much, that, being cheaper, the na¬
tives often mix it with that commodity. They ufe it
the fame as ghee in their vi&uals, and in the compofi*
tion of fome forts of fweetmeats; and burn it in their
lamps. It is alfo regarded as a falutary remedy, ap¬
plied exteriorly to wounds and all cutaneous eruptions^
It is at firft of the confiftence of common oil, but foon'
coagulates: after being kept for fome time, it acquires
a bitterifh tafte and rancid fmell, which renders it fome¬
what lefs agreeable as an article of food: but this is
an inconvenience which, by the oil being properly cla¬
rified and prepared at firft, might be perhaps avoided-
This oil is alfo exported both in its adulterated and
original ftate to Patna and other parts of the low
country.
The .author does not know any purpofe to which
, the
“MAH [ 467 ] MAH
Mahwah. the gum has ever been applied: but if found upon
trial to be of ufe, he informs us that it might be col¬
lected in large quantities; and that the belt feafon for
this would be in the months of March and April,
about the time the flowers come out, when the tree
feems to be moft replete with it: fuch an operation,
indeed, would probably diminifli its produce in the
fruit and flower ; but where it was fufficiently culti¬
vated, the lofs in thofe could be but little felt.
The wood, from what has been already faid of it,
cannot be expefted to be often had in beams of any
confiderable length, fo as to make it fo very ufeful in
building as it would otherwife be from its not being
liable to be eat by the white ants: Mr Keir, however,
told-our author, that when he was at Chowfee (a vil¬
lage upon the Caramnafla near Buxar), he had beams
of it which were to the bell of his remembrance above
20 feet long : but in many other refpe&s it is a moil
ufeful wood ; and as it is tough, and of a ftrong tex¬
ture, it might perhaps be employed to advantage in
fhip-building; in which cafe, if properly.cultivated in
many grounds that feem well adapted for it and fit
for little elfe, it might thus in time become a valuable
article in that branch at Calcutta, whither it could
tafily be tranfported during the rainy feafon from al-
moft any part of thefe countries, by feveral rivers that
are then fufliciently full to float jt down.
The tree, it is faid, though it does not refufe a rich
foil, will grow in the moft barren ground, even amongft
ftones and gravel, where there is the leaft appearance
of a foil; and it feems to deftroy all the fmaller trees
and brufhwood about it. It does not require much
moifture, feeming to produce nearly as well in the
drieft as in moft favourable years, and in every fitua-
tion ; and is therefore admirably fitted for the conve¬
nience of the inhabitants of thefe hilly countries,
which are peculiarly fubjedt to long and fevere droughts
during the hot months. .
“ Yet, notwithftanding its utility, and the immenfe
quantity of ground that feems fo well adapted to the
growth of it, both here and in the neighbouring pro¬
vinces of Catak, Pacheet, Rotas, &c. (greateft part
of which, indeed, feems fit for no other ufeful pro¬
duction) I have myfelf never obferved (fays our
author), nor can I find any of my acquaintance who
ever have remarked, one Angle tree in its infant ftate.
We can fee, every where, full grown trees in great a-
bundance ; but, never meeting with any young plants,
both I and all whom I have fpoken to on the fubjeCt,
are at fome lofs to conceive how they ftiould have
come here : neither can the country people them-
felves, of whom I have inquired, give any rational
account of this ; although it appears pretty evi¬
dent that numbers of them mull have been cultivated
fome time or other, every village having many of them
growing about it. This is a circumftance which fufli-
ciently marks the true character of the lower order of
natives in their moft fupine indolence and fioth ; owing
chiefly, perhaps, to the ignorance and ftupid rapacity
of their Rajahs, Zemindars, and other landholders,
and their total inattention to the welfare of thofe de-
je&ed wretches from whom they derive their confe-
quence and power. Of their bale indifference to the
interefts of thofe whom they thus affedl to hold be¬
neath their regard, many ftriking inftances occurred to
me in the courfe of my inquiries upon this very fub- Mahwab.
jeft ; and it was not long ago that, a (king fome quef- ’ tJ
tions concerning the mahwah of a Zemindar in this
neighbourhood, he anfwered, that ‘ it was the food of
the poor people, and how (hould he know any thing
about it P
“ It was this ftrange negleft of the culture of it,
and a knowledge of its ufefulnefs (continues our au¬
thor), which firft led me to enquire into the nature of
this tree, from which the bulk of the people herea¬
bouts already draw fuch great benefit, in order to know
whether they might not increafe it without any great
trouble to themielves; and whether thereby the reve¬
nue might not alfo be increafed, and a certain provi-
fion be made againft famines, from which the natives
often fuffer feverely in thefe higher diftridts.
“To effeft this, it would be neceffary to give the
Ryots every pofiible encouragement to raife the tree
from the feeds; but as the torpid apathy of thefe
people, whether natural or acquired, will ever prevent
their being moved to any exertion by a profpedt,
however alluring, of diftant advantage, I apprehend
the only way of bringing this about would be making
the planting and railing of a certain number of mah-
wahs (in proportion to the value of the tenure) an ar¬
ticle in their kabooleats or agreements.
“ The tree, as has been already obferved, will
grow almoft any where: it ought to be fown about the
beginning of the rains, either in beds (to be after¬
wards tranfplanted) or at about thirty or forty feel
diftance, in the ground defigned for it. It is faid that
in feven years the trees will give flowers and fruit; in
ten, they will yield about half of their common pro
duce ; and that in twenty years they come to their full
growth ; after which, if my information be good,
they will laft near one hundred years. This account,
I acknowledge, muft neceffarily be very vague and
uncertain, as I never have met with a Angle perfon
who appeared to have had either opportunity or incli¬
nation to obferve its progrefs. Such, however, is
what the country people fay of it.
“ 1 am told that a good tree will eafily give four
puckha maunds (about three hundred weight avoir¬
dupois) of dried flowers, which will fell here for about
two rupees; and of feeds it will afford about two
maunds; and this, of oil, will yield 26 feers puckha
weight (near 60 lb.) which, in a year like this, when
oil is cheap, will fell at this place for two rupees more.
It is to be obferved, however, that every tree will not
give fo much, neither are the flowers and oil fo clear
in any part of the hills as at Chitra; but, allowing
only a half of this or lefs, to be the prodmft of each
tree (though it might be rendered ftill much greater
by the very leaft care and induftry in the cultivation
of it), within the fpace of 20 years a fubfiftence might
be raifed to the inhabitants, and a confiderable revenue
to the proprietors of the lands throughout an immenfe
traft of country ; the greateft part of which, in its
prefent ftate, is little better than a barren wafte, and
cannot pay one Angle anna to the Zemindar or the
government. That fuch an advantage might be de¬
rived from it, may be proved by the moft moderate
calculation : for i’uppofing the trees to be fown at 40
feet diftance from each other, on each begah /'about
the third of an acre) might (land eight trees; and
3 N 2 fuppofing
MAI [ 468 ] MAI
Maliwah fuppofing the product of each tree to be only half a
.11 rupee, there would be four rupees of annual value on
,Maide]- a begah of ground ; half of which going to the pro-
prietor, it would thus give a far better rent than the
generality of the beft grounds in thefe parts ; and the
labourer would have a produce, without any other
trouble than that of fowing the feed, and fencing the
ground whilft the trees were young; and that of an¬
nually gathering the flowers and preparing the oil
when they anive at their proper fize ; and they would
probably begin to give a produce within lefs than 10
years after the fowing.
“ As this tree will yield nearly Its uTual quantity
of flowers and fruit in feafons when, for want of rain,
every other crop fails; if thus cultivated, it would af¬
ford the inhabitants a fure and certain refource, under
the molt dreadful, and what has hitherto been to them
the moft deftructive, of all calamities, famine. It is
well kneKvn, that the rice and other forts of grain
which form the chief part of their fuftenance, require
a confiderable degree of moifture to bring them to
perfection ; an unufually dry feafon deftroys the har-
veft in thofe articles, and reduces the Ryots in gene¬
ral to the utmoft mifery ; a predicament into which
they could hardly fall, even in the fevereft dearth of
grain, whilit they had plenty of the flowers and fruit
of the mahwah to depend upon.”
MAIA, (fab. hift.), the daughter of Atlas and
Pleione. She was the mother of Mercury by Jupi¬
ter. She was one of the Pleiades, the moft luminous
of thefeven fifters; (fee Pleiades). Alfo, a furname
of Cybele.
MAIDEN, an inftrument for beheading crimi¬
nals.
Of the ufe and form of this inftrument Mr Pennant
gives the following account. “ It feems to have been
confined to the limits of the foreft of Hardwick, or
the 18 towns and hamlets within its precin&s. The
time when this cuftom took place is unknown ; whe¬
ther Earl Warren, lord of this foreft, might have
eftablifhed it among the fanguinary laws then in ufe
againft the invaders of the hunting rights, or whether
it might not take place after the woollen manufactures
at Halifax began to gain ftrength, is uncertain. The
laft is very probable ; for the wild country around the
town was inhabited by a lawlefs fet, whofe depre¬
dations on the cloth-tenters might foon ftifle the efforts
of infant induftry. For the protection of trade, and for
the greater terror of offenders by fpeedy execution,
this cuftom feems to have been eftabliftied, fo as at laft
to receive the. force of law, which was, ‘ That if a
felon be taken within the liberty of the foreft of Hard*
wick, with goods ftolen oyt, or within the faid pre-
cinCts, either hand-habend, back-berand, or confef-
fion’d, to the value of thirteen-pence halfpenny, he
{hall, after three market-days or meeting-days within
the town of Halifax, next after fuch his apprehenfion,
and being condemned, be taken to the gibbet, and
there have his head cut from its body.’
“ The offender had always a fair trial; for as foon as
he was taken, he wa^ brought to the lord’s bailiff at
Halifax : he was then expofed on the three markets
(which here were held thrice in a week), placed in a
{locks, with the goods ftolen on his back, or, if the
theft was of the cattle kind, they were placed by him j
and this was done both to ftrike terror into others, Maiden,
and to produce new informations againft him. The Maiden-!
bailiff then fummoned four freeholders of each town . h _ ,
within the foreft to form a jury. The felon and pro- v
fecutors were brought face to face ; the goods, the
cow or horfe, or whatfoever was ftolen, produced.
If he was found guilty, he was remanded to prifon,
had a week’s time allowed for preparation, and then
was conveyed to this fpot, where his head was ftruck
off by this machine. I fhould have premifed, that
if the criminal, either after apprehenfion, or in the
way to execution, could efcape out of the limits of the
foreft (part being clofe to the towri), the bailiff had no
farther power over him; but if he ftiould be caught
within the precin&s at any time after, he was imme¬
diately executed on his former fentence.
“ This privilege was very freely ufed during the reign-
of Elizabeth : the records before that time were loft.
Twenty-five fuffered in her reign, and at leaft twelve
from 1623 to 1650 ; after which I believe the privi¬
lege was no more exerted.
“ This machine of death is now deftroyed; but I faw
one of the fame kind in a room under the parliament-
houfe at Edinburgh, where it was introduced by the
regent Morton, who took a. model of it as he paffed
through Halifax, and at length fuffered by it himfelf.
It is in form of a painter’s eafel, and about ten feet
high : at four feet from the bottom is a erdfs bar, on
which the felon lays his head, which is kept down by
another placed above. In the inner edges of the
frame are grooves ; in thefe is placed a ftiarp ax, w ith
a vail weight of lead, fupported at the very fummit
with a peg; to that peg is faftened a cord, which the
executioner cutting, the ax falls, and does the affair
effectually, without fuffering the unhappy criminal to
undergo a repetition of ilrokes, as has been the cafe
in the common method. I mull add, that if the
fufferer is condemned for Healing a horfe or a cow,
the firing is tied to the beail, which, on being whip¬
ped, pulls out the peg, and becomes the execu¬
tioner.” ,
Maiden is alfo the name of a machine firfl: ufed in
Yorklhire, and fince introduced into other places, for
wafliing of linen ; confifting of a tub 19 inches high,
and 27 in diameter at the top, in y-hich the linen is
put, with hot water and foap, to wdiich is adapted a
cover, fitting it very clofely, and faftened to the tub
by two wedges ; through a hole in the middle of the
cover paffes an upright piece of wmod^kept at a pro¬
per height by a peg above, and furnuned with two
handles, by which it is turned backward and forward :
to the lower end of this upright piece is faftened a
round piece of Wood, in which are fixed feveral pieces,
like cogs of a wheel. The operation of this machine
is to make the linen pafs and repafs quick through
the water.
M.iiDEN-Rents, in our old writers, a noble paid by
the tenants of fome manors on their marriage. This
was faid to be given to the lord for his omitting the
cuftom of marcheta, whereby he was to have the firft
night’s lodging with his tenant’s wife ; but it feems
more probably to have been a fine for a licence to
marry a daughter.
MAIDENHEAD, a town of Berks, 26 miles
from London, with a Hone bridge over the Thames.
It
MAI [ 469 1 MAI
Maiden- It is governed by a htgh-fteward, a mayor, a fteward,
head an(j 10 aldermen, out of which laft two bridgemafters
.H are chofen every year. Here is a gaol both for debtors
v al^nne- an(j fcions. The town ftands partly in the pariih of
‘ Bray and partly in that of Cookham ; and here is
a chapel peculiar to the corporation, the minifter
whereof is chofen by the inhabitants, and not obli¬
ged to attend the bifhop’s vifitation. Here are fe-
veral alms-houfes and charities. This town, now
fo confiderable, did not begin to flourifh till, by
the building of its bridge, travellers were brought
this way, who before ufed a ferry at that called BaL-
ham's Lnd, two miles north of it. The barge pier-
bridge is maintained by the corporation, for which they
are allowed the tolls both over and under it. The
bridge-pier divides Berks from Bucks. There is a
great trade here in malt, meal, and timber, which
they carry in their barges to London. As this is the
great thoroughfare from thence to Bath, Briftol, and
other fouth-weft parts of England, the adjacent wood
or thicket has been noted for many robberies. The
market here is on Wednefdays ; there are three fairs j
and here are frequent horfe-races.
MAIDSTONE, a town of Kent, in England, 36
miles from London, feated on the river Medway, a
branch of which runs through it. It is a corporation,
arid fends two members to parliament. Its chief trade,
bdides linen-thread, which it makes to great perfection,
is in hops; of which there are great plenty of plantations
about the town, as well as orchards of cherries. The
tide flows quite up to the town, and brings up barges,.
&c. of 50 or 60 tons. It has a fine ftone bridge. One
of the public gaols for the county is kept in this town;
and the cuftody of weights and meafures, renewed by
the ftandard of King Henry VII. was committed to
it by parliament, as being in the centre of Kent: for
which reafon the knights of the fhire are always ele£l-
ed, and the courts of juftice always held here, and
generally the affizes. The archbilhop of Canterbury is
conftant parfon of this parilh, which is his peculiar,
and ferved by his curate. Here are four charity
fchools, in which are above 100 boys and girls, who
are vifited once a week and catechifed by the mini¬
fter. This is fuch a plentiful country, and the lands
hereabouts are fo rich, that London is fupplied with
more commodities from hence than from any market-
town in England ; particularly -with the, large bul¬
locks that come from the Weald of Kent,, which be¬
gins but fix miles off; with timber, wheat, and great
quantities of hops, apples, and cherries ; with a fort
of paving-ftone, eight or ten inches fquare, that is
exceeding durable ; and with the fine white fand for
glafs-houfes and ftatiosers. There are fo many gentle¬
mens feats within 10 miles, that it is rare to find a
town of fo much trade and bufinefs fo full of gentry
and good company. The market here, which is the
beft in the county, is on Thurfday; it has another
on the fecond Tuefday of every month, granted them
by George II. in 17 si ; and fairs 00 February 13th,
May 12th, June 20th (called Garlic fair), and Oc¬
tober 17th. Here was a college or hoTpital, erect¬
ed by Archbilhop Boniface; and a chantry, by
Archbilhop Thomas Arundel, which is now the free
School. ,
MAIENNE, a confiderable, handfome, and po¬
pulous town in France, with the title of a duchy;
feated on a river of the fame name, in W. Long. o.
35. N. Lat. 48. 18.
MAIGNAN (Emanuel), a religious minim, and
one of the greateft philofophers of his age, was born
of an ancient and noble family at Thouloufe in 1601..
Like the famous Pafcal, he became a comnlete ma¬
thematician without the affiftance of a teacher; and
filled the profellbr’s chair at Rome in 1636, where,,
at the expence of Cardinal Spada, he publilhed his
book De Perfpeaiva Horaria. He returned to Thou¬
loufe in 1650, and was created provincial: the king,
who in 1660 entertained himfelf with, the machines
and curiofities in his cell, made him offers by Cardi¬
nal Mazarine, to draw him to Paris; but he humbly
defired to fpend the remainder of his days in a cloy-
fter. He publilhed a courfe of philofophy, 4 vols 8vo,
at Thouloufe ; to the fecond edition of which he ad¬
ded two treatifes, one againft the vortices of Def-
cartes, and the other on the fpeaking trumpet invent¬
ed by Sir Samuel Morland. He is faid to have ftu-
died even in his fleep, his very dreams being employ¬
ed in theorems, the demonftrations of which would
awaken him with joy. He died in 1676.
MAJESTY, a title given to kings, which frequent¬
ly ferves as a term of diftindtion. The word feems
compofed of the two Latin words,, major “ greater,”
and flatus “ ftate.” The emperor is called Sacred
Majefiy, Imperial Majefly, and Cttfarean Majefly : The
king of Hungary is ftyled His Hpoflolic Majefly. The
king of Spain is termed His mojl Catholic Majefly; and
the king of Portugal, His mojl Faithful Majefly. The
king of France ufed to be called. An mnjl ChriJHan Ma-
jefly; and when he treated with the emperor, the word
Sacred was added ; Fie is now plain King of the French.
—With refpedt to other kings, the name of the king¬
dom is added as His Britannic^ Majefly, His Polt/b
Majefly, &c. Formerly princes were more fparing in
giving titles, and more modeft in claiming them : be¬
fore the reign of Charles V. the king of Spain had.
only thetitle of Highnefs; and before that of Hen. VIII.
the kings of England were only addreffed under the
titles of Grace and Highnefs.
Under the Roman republic, the title Majefly (majef-
tas) belonged to the whole body of the people,-and to
the principal magiftrates ; fo that to diminilh or wound
the majefty of the commonwealth, was to be want¬
ing in refpeft to the ftate or to its minifters. But
the power afterwards palling into the hands of a Angle
perfon,, the appellation of Majcfly was transferred to
the emperor and the imperial family. Pliny compli¬
ments Trajan on his being contented with the title of
Greatnefs ; and fpeaks vary invidiouily of thofe who
affedted that of Majefy. And yet this laft feems to
be the moft modeft and juft title that can be attri¬
buted to fovereigns, fince it fignifies no more thaw
the royalty or fovereign power.
MAH iNDUCTio, an ancient cuftom for the prieft
and people of country-villages to go in procelfion to
fome adjoining wood on a May-day morning ; and
return in a kind of triumph, with a May-pole,,
boughs, flowers, garlands, and, other tokens of the
fpring. This May-game, or. rejoicing at the coming
of the fpring, was for a long time obferved, and ftill
is in fome parts of England ; but .there was thought
to
Maignan
Vlaii indue-
MAI [ 470 ] MAI
to be To much heathen vanity in it, that it was con- ported the king’s authority againft the janizaries, and Maillet,
demned and prohibited within the diocefe of Lincoln greatly extended the trade of France into that part of Maim>
by the good old bifliop Grolthead. Africa. As a recompence for his fervices, the king
MAIL ftnai/le), a term primarily applied to the bellowed upon him the confullhip of Leghorn, which
malhes or holes in net-work. is the firll and moll confiderable confullhip in his
Coat of Mail. See Coat. It is called alfo a ha- gift. Being at laft appointed in 1715 to vifit the
lergeon. Anciently they alfo wore fhirts of mail un- fea-ports in the Levant and on the coaft of Barbary,
der the waiftcoat, to ferve as a defence againft fwords he was fo fuccefsful in the execution of his commif-
and poniards. We alfo read of gloves of mail. fion, that he obtained permiffion to retire with acon-
Mail, or Mall, alfo fignifies a round ring of iron; fiderable penfion. He fettled at Marfeilles; where he
whence the play of pall-mall, from palla “ a ball,” died in 1738, in the 79th year of his age. He was a
and maille “ the round ring through which it is to man of a lively imagination, and gentle manners ; in
pafs.” fociety he was very amiable, and he polTefled the
Mail, or Maille, in our old writers, a fmall kind llriCteft probity. He was fond of praife, and very
of money. Silver half-pence were likewife termed anxious about the reputation of genius. During the
mailles, 9 Hen. V. By indenture in the mint, a whole of his life he paid particular attention to the
pound weight of old fterling filver was to be coined ftudy of natural hiftory ; and his principal objeft was
into 360' fterlings or pennies, or 120 mails or half- to become acquainted with the origin of our globe,
pennies, or 1440 farthings. Hence the word mail On this important fubjetl he left fume curious ob-
was derived, which is now vulgarly ufed in Scotland fervations, which have been publiftied in otftavo under
to fignify an annual rent. the title of Telliamed, which is the name de Maillet
Mail, or Mail!, on ftiip-board, a fquare machine written backwards. The editor Abbe Mafcrier has
compofed of a number of rings interwoven net-wife, given to this work the form of dialogue. An Indian phi-
and ufed for rubbing off the loofe hemp which remains lofopher is introduced as explaining to a French mif-
©n lines or white cordage after it is made. fionary his opinion concerning the nature of the globe.
Mail is likewife ufed for the leather bag wherein and the origin of mankind: and, which is very in¬
letters are carried by the poll. credible, he fuppofes it to have come out of the wa-
MAiL-Coaches. See Coach. ters, and makes an abode uninhabitable by man the
AQion of Mails and Duties, in Scots law. See Law, birthplace of the human race. His great objedl is
p.699, $ 7. and p.712, § 20. ' to prove, that all the ftrata of which this globe is
Mail Ul/acl). See Black-Mail. compofed, even to the tops of the higheft mountains,
M A ILL A (Jofeph-Anne-Marie de Moyriac de), a have come from the bofom of the waters ; that they
learned Jefuit, was born in the caftle of Maillac in are the work of the fea, which continually retires to
the Bugey, and appointed a miffionary to China, allow them gradually to appear. Telliamed dedicated
whither he went in 1703. At the age of 28-he had his book to the illuftrious Cyrano de Bergerac author
acquired fo great Ikill in the characlers, arts, fciences, of the imaginary “ Travels to the fun and moon.”
mythology, and ancient books of the Chinefe, as to In the humorous epiftle which is addreffed to him,
aftoniffi even the learned. He was greatly beloved the Indian philofopher infoi ms us that thefe dialogues
and efteemed by the emperor Kam-Hi, who died in are nothing but a collection of dreams and fancies.
1722. He, together with other miffionaries, was He cannot be accufed of having broken his word;
employed by that prince to draw a chart of China but he may well be reproached with not having writs-
and Chinefe Tartary, which was engraved in France ten them in the fame ftyle with his letter to Cy-
in the year 1732. He drew likewife particular charts rano, and with not having difplayed equal livelinefs
of fome of the provinces of this vaft empire ; with and humour. A fubjecl the moft extravagant is
which the emperor was fo pleafed, that he fettled the handled in the graveft manner, and his ridiculous opi-
author at his court. The great annals of China were nion is delivered with all the ferious air of a philofo-
alfo tranflated into French by Father Mailla, and his pher. Of the fix dialogues which compofe the work,
■manufcript was tranfmitted to France in 1737* This the four firft contain many curious obfervations truly
work was publiftied in 12 volumes quarto, under the philofophical and important : in the other two we find
infpeilion of M. Grofier, and is the firft complete nothing but conjeftures, fancies, and fables, fometimes
-hiftory of that extenfive empire. The ftyle, which amufing, but always abfurd. To Maillet we are in-
was full of hyperbole and bombaft, has been revifed debted alfo for “ A Defcription of Egypt,” colledted
by the editor, and the fpeeches which extended to from his memoirs by the editor of Telliamed, 1743,
tod great a length, and had too much famenefs in 4to, or in 2 vols i2mo.
them, have been omitted. Father Mailla, after having MAIM, maihem, or Mayhem, in law, a wound by
refided 45 years in China, died at Pekin on the 28th which a perfon lofes the ufe of a member that might
of June 1748, in the 79th year of his age. Kieu- have been a defence to him; as when a bone isbioken.
Lung the reigning emperor paid the expences of his a foot, hand, or other member cut off, or an eye put
funeral. He was a man of a lively and gentle cha- out; though the cutting off an ear or nofe, or break-
rafter, capable of the moft perfevering labour and the ing the hinder-teeth, was formerly held to be no maim,
molt unremitting aftivity. A maim by caftration was anciently puniffied with
MAILLET (Benoit de), defcended from a noble death, and other maims with lofs of member for mem-
family in Lorrain, was born in 1659, and appointed, ber; but afterwards they were only punilhed by fine
■at the age of 33, conful general for Egypt. He ful- and imprifonment. It is now enafted by the ftatute
Med this office for 16 years with great ability, fup- 22 & 23 Car. II. that if any perfon, from malice
afore-
Maim-
MAI f 471 ] MAI
aforethought, finill difable any limb or member of
any of the king’s fubjetts with an intent to disfigure
him, the offender, with his aiders and abettors, (hall
be guilty of felony without benefit of clergy ; though
no fuch attainder fhall corrupt the blood, or occafion
forfeiture of lands, &c.
MAIMBOURG (Louis), born at Nanci in 1610,
became a Jefuit in 1626 ; and acquired reputation as
a teacher, but yet more by the many hiitories which
he publifhed. The Janfenifts criticifed his hiftory
of Arianifm, and that of the Iconoclajles; and his
hiftory of Calvinifm, publiftied in 1681, ftirred up a
violent paper-war againft him, the operations whereof
he left entjrely to his enemies, without giving him-
felf any trouble offenfively or defenfively. He was
degraded by the general of the Jefuits, on account of
his having declared too boldly in favour of the Gal-
lican church againft the Ultramountains. He re¬
tired into the abbey of St Vi&or, where he died in
1686.
He ought not to be Confounded with Theodore
Maimbourg his coufin ; who embraced Calvinifm, af¬
terwards returned to the Romiftt church, returned
back to the reformed religion, embraced Socinianifm,
and died at London about the year 1693, after ha¬
ving publiftied fome works.
MAIMONIDE£» (Mofes), or Moses the son of
Maimon, a celebrated rabbi, called by the Jews the
eagle of the doctors> was born of an illuftrioiis family at
Cordova in Spain, in 1131. He is commonly named
Mofes JEgyptius, becaufe he fettled in Egypt, where
he fpent his whole life in quality of phyfician to the
fultan. Here he opened a fchool, which was foon
filled with pupils from all parts; from Alexandria
and Damafcus efpecially, whofe proficiency under him
fpread his fame all over the world. He was no lefs
eminent in philofophy, mathematics, and divinity,
than in medicine. Cafaubon affirms it jmay be truly
faid of him, as Pliny of old faid of Diodorus Siculus,
that “ he was the firft of his tribe who ceafed to be
a trifler.” It would be tedious to enumerate all the
works of Maimonides ; fome were written originally
in Arabic, but are now extant only in Hebrew tranf-
lations. “ Thofe (fays Collier),, who defire to learn
the doctrine and the canon law contained in the Tal¬
mud, may read Maimonides’s compendium of it in
good Hebrew, in his book intitled lad; wherein they
will find great part of the fables and impertinencies
in the Talmud entirely difearded. But the More Ne-
ucf/n'm is the molt valued of all his works ; defigned
to explain the obfeure words, phrafes, . metaphors, &c.
in feripture, which, when literally interpreted, , have
cither no meaning or appear abfurd.
MAIN, an epithet ufually applied by failors. to
whatever is principal,, as oppofed to whatever is infer
rior or fecondary. Thus the main land is ufed in con-
tradiftimStion to an ifland. or peninfula; .and the mainr
mall, the main-wale, the main-keel, and the main¬
hatchway, are in like manner diftinguilhed from the
fore and mizen malts, the channel-wales, the falfe keel,
and the fore and after hatchways, &c..
MAINOUR, Manour, or. Meinour (from the
French mavier, i. e. manu trad are), in a legal fenfe de¬
notes the thing that a thief taketh away or ftealeth :
As to be taken with the mainour (i5/. Cor. Sol. 179.),
is to be taken with the thing ftolen about him: And Mair.prifc
again (fol. 194.) it was prefented, that a thief was de-. Ij
livered to the Iheriff or vifeount, together with the Main^nor^
mainour: And again (fol. 186.), if a man be inditt-
ed, that he felonioufly Hole the goods of another,
where, in truth, they are his own goods, and the
goods he brought into the court as the mainour; and
if it be demanded of him, what he faith to the goods,..
and he difclaim them ; though heie acquitted of the
felony, he ffiall lofe the goods: And again (fol. 149.),
if the defendant were taken with the manour, and the
manour be carried to the court, they, in ancient times,
would arraign him upon the manour, without any ap¬
peal or indi&ment. Cowel. See BlackR Comment.
Vol. III. 71. Vol. IV. 303.
MAINPRIZE. See Falfe Imprisonment..
The writ of mainprize, manucaplio, is a writ direct¬
ed to the ffieriff (either generally, when any man is
imprifoned for a bailable offence, and bail hath been
refufed ; or fpecially, when the offence or caufe of
commitment is not properly bailable below), com¬
manding him to take fureties for the prifoner’s ap¬
pearance, ufually called mainpernorsy and to fet hiirv
at large. Mainpernors differ from bail, in that a man's
bail may imprifon, or furrender him up before the fti?
pulated day of appearance; mainpernors can do neither,
but are barely fureties for his appearance at the day :
bail are only fureties that the parties.be anfwerable
for the fpecial matter for which they ftipulate, main¬
pernors are bound to produce him to anfwer all charges
whatever. See Habeas Corpus..
MAINTENANCE, in law, bears a near relation
to Barretr.y ; being an officiousdntermeddling in a
fuit that no way belongs to one, by maintaining or af-
fifting either party with money or otherwife, to pro-
fecute or defend it :.a practice that was greatly encou¬
raged by the firft introduction of ufes. This is an of¬
fence againft public juftice, as it keeps alive ftrength
and contention, and prevents the remedial procefs of
the law into an. engine of oppreffion. And therefore,
by the Roman law, it was a fpecies of the crimen falji, .
to enter into any confederacy, or do any adt to fupr
port another’s law-fuit, by- money, witneffes, or patro¬
nage. A man may, however, maintain the fuit of his
near kinfman, fervant, or poor neighbour, out of cha¬
rity and compaffion, with impunity. Othenvife the
puniftiment by common law is fine and imprifonment;
and by the ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 9-. a forfeiture of
101.
MAINTENON (Madame de), a French lady of
extraordinary fortune,, defeended from an ancient fa¬
mily, and whofe. proper name was Frances Daubigne,
was born in. 1635, Her parents by misfortunes being
ill able to fupport her, fhe fell to the .care of her mo¬
ther’s relations,;. to efcape which ftate.of dependence, .
j(he was induced to marry that famous old buffoon the
Abbe Scarron, who fubiifted himfelf only on a penfion
allowed him. by the court for his wit and parts. She
lived with him many years,, which Voltaire makes no
fcrnple to call the. happieft years of her life; but wheu
he died in 1660, ^fte found herfelf as indigent as Ihe
was before, her marriage. Her friends indeed endea¬
voured to get her huiband’s penfion continued to her,
and prefented fo many petitions to the king about it>
all beginning with “ The widow Scarron.moft humbly
prays
MAI [ 472 ] MAT
Major, prays your majefty’s, See.” that he Waa quite weary
0f them, and has been heard to exclaim, “ Muft I al¬
ways be peftered with the widow Scarron ?” At laft,
however, through the recommendation of Madame de
Montefpan, he fettled a much larger penfion on her,
with a genteel apology for making her wait fo long;
and afterward made choice of her to take care of the
education of the young duke of Maine, his fon by Ma¬
dame de Montefpan. The letters fhe wrote on this oc*
cafion charmed the king, and were the origin of her
advancement; her perfonal merit effected all the reft.
He1 bought her the lands of Maintenon, the only eftate
ftie ever had ; and finding her pleafed with the acqui-
fition, called her publicly Madam de Maintenon; which
was of great fervice to her in her good fortune, by re •
leafing her from the ridicule attending that of Scar¬
ron. Her elevation was to her only a retreat; the
king came to her apartment every day after dinner,
before and after fupper, and continued there till mid¬
night: here he did bufinefs with his minifters, while
Madam de Maintenon, employed in reading or needle¬
work, never Ihowed any defire to talk of ftate-affairs,
and carefully avoided all appearance -of cabal or in¬
trigue ; fhe did not even make ufe of her power to
dignify her own relations. About the latter end of
the year 1685, Louis XIV. married her, he being
then in his 48th and fhe in her 50th year; and that
piety with which fhe infpired the king to make her a
wife inftead of a miftrefs, became by degrees a fettled dif-
pofition of mind She prevailed on Louis to found a
religious community at St Cyr, for the education of
300 young ladies of quality ; and here fhe frequently
retired from that melancholy of which fhe complains
fo pathetically in one of her letters, and which few
ladies will fuppofe fhe fhould be liable to in fuch an
elevated fituation. But, as M. Voltaire fays, if any
thing could fhow the vanity of ambition, it would
certainly be this letter. Madam de Maintenon could
have no other uneafinefs than the uniformity of her
manner of living with a great king; and this made
her once fay to the Count Daubigne her brother, “ I
can hold it no longer; I wifh I was dead.” The an-
fwer he made to her was, “ You have then a promife
to marry the Almighty !” Louis, however, died be¬
fore her in 1715 ; when fhe retired wholly to St Cyr,
and fpent the reft of her days in afts of devotion; and
what is moft furprifing is, that her hufband left no
certain provifion for her, recommending her only to
the duke of Orleans. She would accept no more than
a penfion of 8o,oco livres, which was punctually paid
her till fhe died in 1719. A colleftion of her letters
has been publifhed, and tranflated into Englifh ; from
which familiar intercourfes her character will be better
known than from defeription.'
MAJOR, in the art of war, the name of feveral of¬
ficers of very different tanks and functions.
MAjoR-general. See General.
Major of a Regiment of Foot, the next officer to the
lieutenant-colonel, generally promoted from the eldeft
captain : he is to take care that the regiment be well
exercifed, to fee it march in good order, and to rally
it in cafe of being broke in adtion : he is the only of¬
ficer among the infantry that is allowed to be on horfe-
fcack in time of adtion, that he may the more readily
execute the colonel’s orders.
Major of a Regiment of Horfe, as well as foot, ought
N" 192.
to be a man of honour, integrity, underftanding, COtl*
rage, adtivity, experience, and addrefs: he fhould be  
mailer of arithmetic, and keep a detail of the regi¬
ment in every particular: he fhould be fkilled in horfe-
manfhip, and ever attentive to his bufinefs : one of his
principal fundlions is, to keep an exadt roller of the
officers for duty : he fhould have a perfedl knowledge
in all the military evolutions, as he is obliged by his
poll to inftrndl others, &c.
TowMajor, the third officer in order in a garri-
fon, and next to the deputy-governor. He fhould tm-
derftand fortification, and has a particular charge of
the guards, rounds, patroles, and centinels.
Brigade- Major, is a particular officer appointed
for that purpofe only in camp : he goes every day to
head-quarters to receive orders from the adjutant-ge¬
neral : there they write exadfly whatever is didlated to
them : from thence they go and give the orders, at the
place appointed for that purpofe, to the different ma¬
jors or adjutants of the regiments which compofe that
brigade, and regulate with them the number of offi¬
cers and men which each are to furnifh for the duty of
the army ; taking care to keep an exaft rofter, that
one may not give more than another ; and that each
march in their tour: in fhort, the major of brigade is
charged with the particular detail in his own brigade,
in much the fame way as the adjutant-general is char-
Sed with the general detail'of the duty of the army.
Ie fends every morning to the adjutant-general an
exadt return, by battalion and company, of the men
of his brigade miffing at the retreat, or a report ex-
preffing that none are abfent: he alfo mentions the of¬
ficers abfent with or without leave.
As all orders pafs through the hands of the majors
of brigade, they have infinite occafions of making
known their talents and exadtnefs.
Major of Artillery, is alfo the next officer to the
lieutenant-colonel. His poll is very laborious, as the
whole detail of the corps particularly refts with him ;
and for this reafon all the non-commiffioned officers
are fubordinate to him, as his title offerjeant-major im¬
ports : in this quality they muft render him an exadl
account of every thing which comes to their know¬
ledge, either regarding the duty or wants of the artil¬
lery and foldiers. He fhould poffefs a perfedt know¬
ledge of the power of artillery, together with all its
evolutions. In the field he goes daily to receive or¬
ders from the brigade-major, and communicates them
with the parole to his fuperiors, and then didlates them
to the adjutant. He ftiould be a very good mathema¬
tician, and be well acquainted with every thing be¬
longing to the train of artillery, &c.
Major of Engineers, commonly with us called
Sul-direBors, fhould be very well fkilled in military ar-
chitedfure, fortification, gunnery, and mining. He
fhould know how to fortify in the field, to attack and
defend all forts of polls, and to condudt the works in
a fiege, &c. See Engineer.
AuI-Major, is on fundry occafions appointed to adl
as major, who has a pre-eminence above others of the
fame denomination. Our horfe and foot-guards have
their guidons, or fecond and third majors.
. Serjeant-M.-ijok, is a non-commiffioned officer, of
great merit and capacity, fubordinate to the adjutant
as he is to the major. See Serjeant.
JJrum-MjjoR, is not only the firft drummer in the
5 regiment
M A J
[ 473 3
'Major, regiment, but has the fame authority over his drum-
v   mers as the corporal has over his fqyach He inftrufts
them in their different beats; is daily at orders with
the ferjeants, to know the number of drummers for du¬
ty. He marches at their head when they beat in a
body. In the day of battle, or at exercife, he mnft
M A J
fition were tke admiration of his cotemporaries. A 1
work, lefs prized in his own age, was to make him -
known to pofterity. His book De Gejlis Scotorum,
was fir ft publifhed at Paris by fiadius Afcenfius, in
the year 1521. He rejefts in it fome of the fictions
of former hiftorians ; and would have had greater n
be very attentive to the orders given him, that he may rit if he had rejetted more. He intermingles the hi-
regulate his beats according to the movements ordered, ftory ©f England with tfiat of Scotland ; and has in-
Fife-MAjoR) is he that plays the heft on that in- curved the cenfure of fome partial writers, for giving
ftrument, and has the fame authority over the fifers as an authority to the authors of the former nation, which
the drum-major has over the ^drummers. He teaches he refufes to thofe of his own. Bede, Caxton, and
Froiffard, were exceedingly ufeful to him. What does
the greateft honour to this author is, the freedom
with which he has cenfured the rapacity and indolence
of ecclefiaftics, and the ftrain of ridicule with which he
treats the pope’s fupremacy. The' ftyle in which he
wrote does not deferve commendation. Biftiop Spot-
tifwood calls it Sorbonnic and barbarous.
MAJORCA, an ifland of the Mediterranean, lying
between Yvica on the-weft and Minorca on the eaft.
Thefe three iflands were anciently called Baleares, fup-
pofed to be from the fkill of their inhabitants in fling¬
ing, for which they were very remarkable. Originally
them their duty, and appoints them for guards, &c.
Major, in law, a perfon who is of age to manage .
his own affairs. By the civil law a man is not a major
till the age of 25 years; in England, he is a major
at 21, as in Normandy at 20.
Major, in logic, is underftood of the firft propo-
fition of a regular fyllogifm, It is called major, becaufe
it has a more extenfive fenfe than the minor propofi-
tion, as containing the principal term. See Logic.
Major and Minor, in mufic, are applied to con¬
cords which differ from each other by a femi-tone.
See Concord.
Major-tone is the difference between the fifth and they belonged to the Carthaginians; but during the
fourth ; and major femi-tone the difference betwt
the major fourth and the third. The major tone fur-
paffes the minor by a comma.
Major-Dowo, an Italian term, frequently ufed to
fignify a fteward or mafter of the houihold. The
title of major domo was formerly given in the courts
of princes to three different kinds of officers. 1. To
him who took care of what related to the prince’s
table, or eating; otherwife called deater, pnefettus
menfa, architridinus, dapifer, and princeps coquorum.—-
i. Major-domo was alfo applied to the fteward of the
houfhold.—-3. The title of major-domo was alfo given
to the chief minifter, or him to whom the prince de¬
puted the adminiftration of his affairs, foreign and
domeftic, relating to war as well as peace. Instances
of major-domos in the two firft fenfes are frequent in
the Englifli, French, and Norman affairs.
MAJOR (John), a fcholaftic divine and hiftorian,
r/as born at Haddington, in the province of Eaft Lo¬
thian in Scotland. It appears from fome paffages in
his writings, that he refided a while both at Oxford
and Cambridge. -He went to Paris in 1493, and ftu-
died in the college of St Barbe, under the famous John
Boulae. Thence he removed to that of Montacute,
where he'began to ftudy divinity under the celebrated
Standouk. In the year 149S, he was entered of the
college of Navarre. In 1505, he was created dodtor
in divinity ; returned to Scotland in 1519, and taught
theology during feveral years in the univerfity of St
Andrew’s. But at length, being difgufted with the
wars of that people with the Romans, they feem to
have regained their liberty. In 122 B. C. they were
fubdtted by Metellus the Roman conful, wrho treated
the inhabitants with fuch cruelty, that out of 30,000
he fcarce left 1000 alive. He then built two cities on
Majorca ; one called Palma, now Majorca, to the eaft ;
the other to the weft, named Pollentia, now no longer
in being. The ifland continued fubjeft to the Ro¬
mans, and to the nations who over-ran the weftern
part of the empire, for many ages. At laft it was fub-
dued by the Moors about the year Sou. By them the
ifland was put in a much better condition than it ever
was before or fince. The Moors being very induftri-
ous, and alfo populous, furrounded the whole coaft
with fortifications, that is, with a kind of towers and
lines between them ; cultivated every fpot in the ifland
that was not either rock or fand ; and had no fewer
than 15 great towns, whereas now there are not above
three. Neither was it at all difficult for the Moorifh
monarch to bring into the field an army much fuperior
in number to the inhabitants that are now \ ion it, ta¬
king in all ranks, fexes, and ages. In 1229, the ifland
was fubdued by the king of Arragen, who eftablifhed
in it a new kingdom, feudatory to that of Arragon,
which was again deftroyed in 1341 by the fame mo-
narchs; and ever fince, the ifland hath been fubjedl to
Spain, and hath entirely loft its importance. It is
about 60 miles long, and 45 broad. The air is clear
and temperate, and, by its fituation, the heat in fum-
mer is fo qualified by the breezes, that it is by far the
quarrels of his countrymen, he went back to Paris, and ,*moft pleafant of all the iflands in the Mediterranean,
refumed his lectures in the college of Montacute, There are fome mountains; but the country' is gene-
where he had feveral pupils, who afterwards became rally flat, and of fuch an excellent foil, that it produces
men of great eminence. About the year 15 30, he re- great quantities of corn as good in its kind as any in
turned once more to Scotland, and was chofen profef- Europe. Oil, wine, and fait, are very plentiful, as alfo
for of theology at Bt Andrew’s, of which he after- black cattle and ftieep ; but. deer, rabbits, and wild-
■wards became provoft ; and there died in aged fowl, abound fo'much, that they alone arefufficient for
78. His logical treatifes form one immenfe folio ; his
commentary on Ariftotle’s phyfics makes another; and
his theological works amount to feveral volumes of the
ikne. fize. Thefe maffes of crude and ufelefs difqui-
Vol. X. Part IL
the fubfiftence of the inhabitants. There are no rivers,
but a great many fprings and wells, as well as feveral
good harbours. The inhabitants are robuft, aftivc,
and good ft amen.
3 0 Majorca,
MAI £ 474 ] MAI
Majorca, Majorca, a hafldfome, large, rich, and ftrong town,
Mairan. jn 0f the fame name, with a biihop’s fee. It
^ contains about 600o houfes, and 22 churches, beiides
tlie cathedral. The fquares, the cathedral, and the
royal palace, are magnificent itru&ures. A capta’in-
* general refides there, who commands the whole ifland;
and there is a garrifon againit the incurfion of the
Moors. It was taken by the Englifh in 1706 ; but
was retaken in 1715, fince which time it has been in
the hands of the Spaniards. It is feated on the fouth-
weil part of the ifland, where there is a good harbour,
70 miles north-eaft of Yvica, 120 fouth-eaft of Barce¬
lona, 140 eaft of Valencia, and 300 from Madrid. E.
Long. 2. 55. N. Lat. 39. 36.
MAIRAN (Jean-Jacques d’Ortous de), defcended
from a noble family at Befiers, was born in that city
in 1678, an$I died at Paris of a defluxion of the lungs
0:1 the 20th of February 1771, at the age of 93. He
was one of the moft illuilrious members of the academy
of fciences and of the French academy. Being early
connected with the former fociety, he, in the year
1741, fucceeded Fontenellc in the office of fecre-
tary. This flation he filled with the moft diflin-
guifhed fuccefs till the year 1744; and, like his pre-
decefibr, pofleffed the faculty of placing the moll ab-
flract fubjedts in the eleareft light; a talent which is
very rare, but which appears cpnfpicuous in all his
works. The chief of them are, 1. Dijfertatwn fur la
Glace, the lafl edition of which was printed in 1749,
i2mo. This excellent little tratt has been tranflated
into German and Italian. 2. Differtation fur la caufe
de la Iwnicre des Phofphores, 1717, !2mo. 3. Trade
hi/lorique iff phjfique de VAurore Boreak, firft publilh-
ed in i2mo 1733, and afterwards much enlarged and
printed in 410 in 1754. The fyftem embraced by the au¬
thor is liable to be controverted ; but the book difplays
great tafle and erudition. 4. Leltre au Pere Parennin,
eonteucmt diverfes queflions fur la Chine, 12mo. This is
a very curious work, and is full of that philofophical
fpirit which chara&erifes the author’s other publica¬
tions. 5. A great number of papers in the memoirs of
the academy of fciences (fince J719), of which he
publifhed fome volumes. 6. Several Differtations on
particular fubjedls, which form only fmall pamphlets.
7. The Elogts of the Academicians of the Academy
«f Sciences, who died in 1741, 1742, 1743,01 t2mo.
1747. Without imitating Fontenelle, the author at¬
tained almoft equal excellence by his talent of difcfi-
minating characters, appreciating their worth, and gi¬
ving them their due fhare of praife, without at the
feme time concealing their defedts.
Mairan’s reputation extended itfelf into foreign
countries. He was a member of the imperial academy
at Peterfburgh, of the royal academy of London, of
the inflitution at Bologne, of the royal focieties of
Edinburgh and. Upfal, &c. The gentlenefs and fweet-
aefs of his manners Baade him be confidered as a per-
fedt model of the focial virtues. He poffeffed that
amiable politenefs, that agreeable gaiety, and that
Heady firmnefs, which never fail to procure love and
efteem. But we mull add, fays M. Saverien, that
every thing had a reference to himfelf; felf-love and
a regard to his own reputation were the motives of all
Itis actions. He ■was deeply affedted with cenfure or
applaufe, and yet he had many friends. Uniting Mairet,
much gentlenefs of difpofition to an ingenious and Maiftte>
agreeable expreflion of countenance, he poffeffed the
art of infmuating himfelf into the good graces of
others, fo as to have the way to elevation and fuccefs.
Fie was honoured with protedlion and particular marks
of regard by the duke of Orleans the regent, who be¬
queathed to him his watch in his will. The prince
of Conti loaded him with favours : and the chancel¬
lor Dagueffeau, obferving in him great originality and
ingenuity of thought, appointed him prdident of the
Journal des Savans ; a itation which he filled very
much to the fatisfadtion of the public and of the learn¬
ed. The private and felfifh views imputed to him by
M. Saverien never made him deficient in what was
due to the ftridtelt probity. An expreffion of his is
remembered, which C0|Uld have proceeded only from
fentiment; “ An honeft man (faid he) is one whofe
blood is refreflied with the recital of a good ac¬
tion.” He was ready at repartee. One day he hap¬
pened to be in company with a gentleman of the gown,
and to differ with him in opinion upon fome point
which had no more connedlion with jurifprudence than
with geometry. “ Sir (faid the magiftrate, who fup-
pofed that a learned man was a perfedt idiot out of
his own fphere), we are not now talking of Euclid
or Archimedes”—“ No, nor of Cujas nor Barthold”
replied the academician.
MAIRE (Streights le), a paffage to Cape Horn,
fituated between Terra del Fuego and Staten illand ;
which, being difeovered by Le Maire, obtained his
name. It is now, however, lefs made ufe of than for¬
merly, fitips going round Staten Ifland as well as Terra
del Fuego.
MA1STRE (Louis-Ifeac le), better known by the
name of Sacy, was born at Paris in 1613. His ge¬
nius very early difeovered itfelf. After an excellent
courfe of lludy under the diredlion of the abbot of
faint Cyran, he was raifed to the priefthood in 1648,
and foon after was chofen, on account of his virtues,
to be diredtor of the religious of Port Royal des
Champs. As this monaitery bore the reputation of
Janfenifm, their enemies were furnifhed with a pre¬
tence for perfecuting them. In 1661 the diredtor
was obliged to conceal himfelf; and in 1666 he was
committed to the Baftile. During his confinement
he compofed the book Figures de la Bible j in
which, according to the Molinitts, allufions are made
to the fuft’erings endured by the Janfenilts. If we-
may believe a Jefuit writer, the gentlemen of Port
Royal and thofe who oppofed their errors are repre-
fented in the 92d figure, the former by David, the
latter by Saul. Rehoboam in the 116th figure, Jeze¬
bel in the 130th, Ahafuerus in the 148th and 150th, and
Darius in. the 160th, in theopinion of this author, re-
prefent Louis XIV. The writer of thefe anecdotes,
of which we do not anfwer for the authenticity, adds,
that when Sacy wiflied to reproach his perfecutors, he
always did it by means of the holy fathers. If this
is the key to thofe enigmatical portraits and allufions,
which it is pretended are to be found in that book,,
certain we are it was not difeovered by the fpirit of
charity. Befides, it is not certain that Saey was the
author of that hook $ for it is much more probable
M A I
[ 475 1
M A I
Miift-e, that It was compofed by Nicolas Fontaine his fellow the lands of Blyth and others-—William, the father of MahUr.d
' prifoner.
To Sacy’s confinement the public are indebted for a
French tranflation of the Bible. This work was finilhed
in 1668, the evening before the feaft of All Saints;
on which day he recovered his liberty, after an impri-
fonment of two years and a half. He was prefented
to the king and the miniiler; and all the favour he
a Iked from them was, that they would fend feveral
times a year to examine the ftate of the prifoners in
the Baftile. Le Maiftre continued at Paris till 1675,
when he retired to Port-Royal, which he was obliged
to leave in 1679. He went to fettle at Pompone,
where he died January 4th 1684, at the age of 71.
From him we have 1. La Traduction de la Bible, with
explanations of the fpiritual and literal meaning taken
from the fathers, the greater part of which was done
by du Fofle, Hure, and Tourneux. This is the bell
French tranflation which has yet appeared, and the
tnoft efteemed edition is that of Paris in 32 volumes
8vo, 1682 and following years. The author tranf-
lated the New Teftament three times, becaufe the
firft time the ftyle of it appeared too much laboured
and too refined, and the fecond too Ample. A coun¬
terfeit of the edition in 32 vols 8vo, was publiflied at
BrufTels in 40 vols 12 mo. The bell editions of this
verfion have been publiflied at Brufiels, 17.C0, in 3 vols
4to ; at Amllerdam, under the name of Paris, 1711,
8 vols in !2mo ; at Paris 1713, in 2 vols 410 ; and
in 1715, with notes and a concordance, 4 vols folio.
2. Une Traduction des Pfeaumes felon I'Hebreu & la Vvl-
our poet, and who (while his father John Maitland of -
Thirlftane was yet alive) firfi. had the title of Lething.
ton, married Martha daughter of George Lord Seaton,
and was killed at Flodden in 1513.
Sir Richard was born in 1496; was educated at
St Andrew’s; and went to France to fludy the laws.
Upon his return, fays Mackenzie, he became a favou¬
rite of James V. and in the books of federunt is mark¬
ed an extraordinary lord of feflion in 15 V3. By a
letter of James VI. it appears that Sir Richard had
ferved his grandfir, goodfir, goodam, his mother, and
himfelf, faithfully in many public offices. He unhap¬
pily became blind before 1561, or his 65th year: but
notwithftanding, he ‘was made a fenator of the college
of juftice, by the title of Lord Lethington, 12th Nov.
1561 ; and on the 2cth Dec. 1562, one of the coun-
fel and lord-privy feal; which laft office he held till
1567, when he refigned it in favour of John his fecond
fon. Sir Richard continued a lord of feffion during
all the troublcfome times of the regents in the minority
of James VI. till 1584, when he refigned ; and died
20th March 1386. By Mary his wife, daughter of
Thomas Cranfton of Corfly, he had feven children, of
whom three were fons: 1. William, the famous fe-
cretary ; 2. Sir John, afterward Lord Thirlftane and
chancellor; and, 3. Thomas, who is the prolocutor
with Buchannan in his treatife De Jure Regni.—Sir
Richard is never mentioned by writers but with re-
fpett as a man of great talents and virtue. Knox in¬
deed blames him for taking a fum of money, to fuffer
gate, in i2mo. 3. Une Verfon des Homelies de St Chry- Cardinal Beaton to efcape when imprifoned at Seaton.
fojlome fur St Matthicu, in 3 vols 8vo. 4. La Traduc- " || T'- ’
tion de l'Imitation de Jefus Chrijl (fous le nom de Beuil,
frieur de Saint-Val), Paris 1663, 8vo. 5. Celle de
Phedre, i2mo. (fous le nom de Saint-Aubin). 6. De
trois Comedies de Terence, in i2mo. 7. Des Leltres de
Bongars (fous le nom de Brianville). 8. Du Poeme de
St Profper fur les ingrates, in i 2mo. en verfe & enprofe.
9. Les Enluminures de I Almanack des Jefuites, 1654,
i2mo. reprinted in 1733. In 1653 there appeared
a print reprefenting the overthrow of Janfenifm ana-
thematifed by the two powers, and the confufion of
the difciples of the bifhop of Ypres, who are going
ment, and often blamed without caufe.—One poem of
Sir Richard’s was publifhed in the Evergreen; but
no more of his works appeared till they were inferted
in the Collection in 2 vols publifhed feme years ago
by Mr Pinkerton. Befides poems, he wrote a MS.
(formerly, as Dr Mackenzie fhows, in the earl of Win-
ton’s library), the title of which was, <l The Chro¬
nicle and Hiftorie of the Houfe and Surname of Sea¬
ton, unto the moneth of November, in the yeir of
God An Thufand Five Hundereth Fifty Aught yeirs.
Colle&it, writ, and fet furfh, be Sir Richard de Mait-
to feek refuge with the Calvinifts. The monks of land of Leithingtoun, knicht, doughter-fone of the faid
Port-Royal were greatly provoked at this print, and
Sacy thought that he would lowrer its reputation J>y
means of his Enluminures,. which Racine has ridiculed
in one of his letters. It is indeed very ftrange that
men of tafte and piety fhould write fatires to the in¬
jury of one another. 10. Hcures de Port-Royal, in
izmo. 11. Lettres de Piete, Paris 1690, 2 vols 8vo.
MAITLAND (Sir Richard), a Scottifh poet and
eminent public charafter, who flouriftied during the
greateft part of the 16th century. The ancient name
of the family was Mautalant; and the firft who di-
ftinguiflied the houfe was an old Sir Richard, famous confpicuous. In 1567, his father refigned the privy-
for his valour, who lived fome time fubfequent to the r ' ‘ ’ ‘ c~  rri1^   
middle of the 13th century. He was then baron or
laird of Thirlftane in Haddingtonfhire. In 1346 the
family muft have been eminent; for in that year John
Maitland of Thirlftane married Agnes daughter of
Patrick earl of March. On the 28th January 1432,
William Maitland of Thirlftane obtained from Archi¬
bald duke of Touraine and earl of Douglas a grant of
hous.” Mackenzie gives an account of it.—Mr For¬
bes, in the preface to his Decifions, tells, us there is
ftill a MS. of the decifions from 13th December 155©
till 30th July 1565 by our author, folio, in the advo¬
cates library.
Maitland (John), Lord Thirlftane, chancellor of
Scotland, was the fecond fon of Sir Richard. He
was born in the year 1337, educated in Scotland, and
was afterwards fent to Fiance to ftudy the law. On
his return to his native country, he commenced advo¬
cate; in which profeffionhis abilities became eminently
feal in his favour. This office he kept till 1570;
when, for his loyalty to the queen, he loft the feal,
and it was given to George Buchanan. He was
made a fenator of the college of juftice, or lord of fef¬
fion, in 1581; fecretary of ftate in 1384; and lord
high chancellor in 1586. The chancellor’s power and
influence created him many enemies among the Scot-
tifh nobility, who made feveral attempts to deftroy him,
3 O 2 but
MAI [ 476 ] MAI
Malilarsd, but without fuccefs. In 1589, he attended the king
Maittaire. on voyage to Norway, where his bride, the prin-
v—~ cefs 0f Denmark, was detained by contrary wind.
The marriage wa. immediately confummated; and they
returned with the queen to Copenhagen, where they
fpent the enfuing winter. During their refidence in
Denmark, the chancellor became intimately acquaint¬
ed with the celebrated Tycho-Brahe. In 1390 he was
created Lord Maitland of Thirlftane —Towards the
end of the year iyy2, the chancellor incurred the
queen’s difpleafure, for refufing to relinquilh his lord-
fhip of Muffelburgh, which flic claimed as being a part'
of Dunfermline. He abfented himfelf for fame time
from court; but was at length reftored to favour, and
died of a lingering illnefs in the year 1595, much re¬
gretted by the king. He bears a high character both
for talents and integrity among all hillorians. Mel¬
ville, who writes the Memoirs., Mr Pinkerton obferves,
was his perfonal enemyr, fo muft not receive much cre¬
dit in his cenfures of him. Befide his Scottilh poetry
in the Maitland Colletlion, he wrote feveral Latin epi¬
grams, &c. to be found in the Delicia Poetarum Sato-
rum, vol. ii. The chancellor’s only fon, John Lord
Thirlllane, was firft made vifcount and then earl of
Lauderdale, by James VI. 1624. The earl’s fon was
John, the only duke of Lauderdale, and born 1616 at
Lethington.
MAITTAIRE (Michael), an eminently learned
writer, was born in 1668. Dr South, canon of Chrift-
Church, made him a Undent of that houfe, where he
took the degree of M. A. March 23. 1696. From
1695 tiU j6v9 he was fecond mailer of Weltminller
fchool; which was afterwards indebted to him for
Grade Lingua Dialed!, in ufum Schohe Wejimonajlerienjis,
1706, 8vo; and for “The Englilh Grammar, applied
to, and exemplified in, the Englilh Tongue, 1712,”
bvo. In 1711, he publiflied “ Remarks on Mr Whi-
Iton’s Account of the Convocation’s proceedings with
relation to himfelf, in a Letter to the right reverend
Father in God George Lord Bilhop of Bath and
Wells,” 8vo. ; alfo “An Efiay againft Arianifm,
and fome other Herefies; or a Reply to Mr William
Whifton s Hiltorical Preface and AppentUx to his
Primitive Chriftianity revived,” 8vo. In 1709 he gave
the firft fpecimen of his great Ikill in typographical
antiquities, by publilhing Stephanorum Hijlorii, vitas ip-
forum ac libras comphdens, 8vo; which was followed in
1717 by Hi/loria Typograpborum aliquot Pari/ieafium,
vitas et libras compleBens, 8vo. In 1719, Annaks Ty-
pographid ab artis invent<e origine ad annum mu, qto.
The fecond volume, divided into two parts, and con¬
tinued to the year 1536, was publilhed at the,Hague
in 1702 ; introduced by a letter of John Toland, un¬
der the tittle of Conjeilura verifmilis de prima Typogra¬
phic Inventione. The third volume, from the fame
prefs. In two parts, continued to I557> and (by an
Appendix) to 1664, in 1725. In 1733 was pub-
iilhed at AmHerdam what is ufually confidered as the
fourth volume, under the title of Annales Typographic
ab artis inventa origine, ad annum MDcr.xiy, opera Mich. Maittarra.
Maittaire, A. M. Editio nova, aublior et emendation, ' * 'l
tomi primi pars poJlerior(&.). In 1741 the work was
clofed at London, by Annalium Typographicorum To-
mus quintus et ultimas, indicem in tomos quatuor prccun-
tcs compleBens; divided, like the two preceding volumes,
into two parts. In the intermediate years, Mr Mait¬
taire was diligently employed.on various works of va¬
lue. In 1713 he puBlilhed by fubfcription Opera et
Fragmenta Veterum Poetarum, 1713, two volumes
in folio : the title of fome copies is dated 1721. In
1714, he was the editor of a Greek Teftament, in 2
vols. The Latin writers, which he publilhed fepa-
rately, moll of them with good indexes, came out in
the following order: In 1713, Chriftus Paliens; JuJlin;
Lucretius; Pheedrus; Sallujl; Terence. In 1715, Ga-.
tuHus; Tibullus; Propertius; Cornelius Nepos; Floras;
Horace; Juvenal; Ovid, 3 vols; Virgil. In 1711,
Ccfar’s Commentaries ; Martial; Quintus Curtius. In
1718 and 725, Velleius Paterculus. In 1719J Lucan.
In 1720, Bonefonii Carmina. In 1711 he publilhed,
Batrachomyomachia Grace ad veterum exemplarium fdem
recuja; Glojfa Graca; variantibus leBionibus, verfioni-
bus Latinis, commentariis et indicibus illujlrata, 8vo.
In 1722, Mifcellanea Gracorum aliquot Scriptorum Car¬
mina, cum verfione Latina et Nods, 4to. In 1724 he
compiled, at the requeil of Dr John Freind (at whofe
expence it was printed), an Index to the works of
Aretaus, to accompany the fplendid folio edition of
that author in 1723. In 1725 he publilhed an excel¬
lent edition of Anacreon in 4to, of which no more than
100 copies were printed, and the few errata in each
copy corredted by his own hand. A fecond edition
of the like number was printed in 174', wfith fix co¬
pies On fine writing paper. In 1726 he publilhed
Petri Pet id Medici Parifienfts in tres priores Aretai Cap-
padocis Libras Commentarii, nunc pnmum edid, 4to»
This learned commentary was found among the papers
of Grasvius. From 1728 to 1733 he was employed
in publilhing Marmorum Arundelianorum, Seldenianorum,
aliorumque Academic Oxonienfi donatorum, una cum Com¬
mentariis et Indice, edidofecunda, folio; to which an Ap*
pendix was printed in 1733. Epijlola D. Mich. Mali i
taire ad D. P. Des Maizeaux, in qua Indicis in Annales
Typographicos methodus explicatur, &c. is printed in “The
I’refent State of the Republic of Letters,” Auguft 733,
p. 142. The life of Robert Stephens in Latin, re¬
viled and corredted by the author, with a new and
complete lift of his works, is prefixed to the improved
edition of R. Stephens’s Thefaurus, 4 vols in folio, ia
1734. In 1736 appeared Antique Infcriptiones due*
folio; being a commentary on two large copper tables
difeovered near Heraclea, in the Bay of Tarentum. In
1738 were printed at the Hague Grace Lingua DialeBi
in Scholc Regie IVeJlmonaJlerienfis ufum recognid opera
Mich. Maittaire. In 1739 he addrelfed to the emprefa
of Ruffia a fmall Latin poem, under the title of Car¬
men Epinicium Augujlifmc Ruff'.rum Imperatrici facrum.
His. came not having been printed in the title-page.
(a) The aukwardnefs qf this title has induced many eolledtors to difpofe of their firftwolume, as thinking
It fuperfeded by the fecond edition : but this is by no means the cafe ; the volume of 17 • 9 being equally
neceffary to complete the fet as that of 1733, which is a revifion of all the former volumes. The whole work,
when properly bound, confifts, ad libitum, either of five volumes or of nine.
M A L
it is not fo generally known that he was editor of Plu¬
tarch’s Apophthegmata, 1741, 4to. The laft publica-
'j tion of Mr Maittaire was a volume of poems in 410,
1742, under the title of Senilia, Jive Poetica aliquot in
argunientis varii generis tentamina. Mr Maittaire died
in 1747, aged 79. His valuable library, which had
been jolyears colle&ing, was fold by auftion by Meffrs
Cock and Langford,. at the clofe of the fame year.
t 477 1
M A L
known to the European companies who have fettle- 1
ments in the Indies, that they have univerfally agreed '
in prohibiting the captains of their fhips who may put
into the Malay {Hands, from taking on board any fea-
men from that nation, except in the greateft diitrefs,
and then @n no account to exceed two or three. It
is not in the leaft uncommon for an handful of thefe
horrid fayages fuddenly to embark, attack a veflel by
and the beginning of the following, taking up in all furpriie, maffacre the people, and make themfelves
44 nights. Mr Maittaire, it may be added, was pa- mailer of her. Malay batteaux, with 24 or 30 men,
trouifed by the firil earl of Oxford, both before and have been known to board European Ihips of 30 or 40
after that gentleman’s elevation to the peerage, and ' - J - - rr r
continued a favourite with his fon the fecond earl. He
was alfo Latin tutor to Mr Stanhope, the earl of Cbe-
flerfield’s favourite fon.
MAIZE, or Indian Corn. See Zea.
MAKE See Lemur.
guns, in order to take poffeflion of them, and murder
with their poignards great part of the CVew. Thofe
who are not Haves go always armed: they would think
themfelves.difgraced if they went abroad without their
poignards, which they call crit. As their lives are a
perpetual round of agitation and tumult, they cannot
MALABAR, the name given to a great part of endure the long flowing garments in ufe among tha
the weft coaft of the peninfula, on this fide of the Gan- other Afiatics. Their habits are exaftly adapted to
ges, from the kingdom of Baglala to Cape Comorin, their fliapes, and loaded with a multitude of buttons, .
or only from the north extremity of the kingdom of which fallen them clofe to their bodies.
Canara as far as Cape Comorin. It is bounded by The country poflefled by the Malays is in general
the mountains of Balligate on the eaft; by Decan on very fertile. - It abounds with odoriferous woods, fuch
the north; and on the weft and fouth is walhed by the as the aloes, the fandal, and the Caflia. The ground
Indian fea.
MALAGA (anc. geog.), furnamed Fcederatorum by
Pliny ; a maritime town of Bastica : A Carthaginian
colony according to Strabo ; fo called from Malack>
covered with flowers of the greateft fragrance, of
which there is a= perpetual fuccelEon throughout the
y ear. There are abundance of mines of the moll precious
metals, laid to be richer,evea than thofe of Brazil or
flgnifying “fait;” a place noted for pickled or faked Peru, and in fome places are mines of diamonds. The
meat. Now Malaga, a port town of Granada in Spain, fea alfo abounds with excellent filh, together with.
W. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 36. 40.
MALACCA, the moil foutherly part of the great
peninfula beyond the Ganges, is about 600 miles in
length, and contains a kingdom of the fame name. It
is bounded by the kingdom of Siam on the north ; by
ambergris, pearls, and thofe delicate bird-nefts fo
much in requeft in China, formed in the. rocks with
the fpawn of fifties and the foam of the fea, by a
fpecies of fmall-fized fwallow peculiar to thofe feas.
Thefe are of fuch an.exquifite flavour, that the Chi-
the bay of Siam and the Indian ocean on the eaft ; nefe for a long time purchafed them for their weight
and by the ftraits of Malacca, which feparate it from, in gold, and ftill buy them at an exceffive price. Sea
the ifland of Sumatra, on the fouth-weft., This coun-r Birds-NJI.
try is more to the fouth than any other in the Eaft In- Notwithftanding all this plenty, however, the Ma-.
dies; and comprehends the towns and kingdoms of lays are miferable. The culture of the lands, aban-
Patan, Pahan, Igohor, Pera,Queda,JBorkelon, Ligor; doned to Haves, is fallen into contempt. Thefe wretch-
and to the north the town and kingdom of Tanaffery, ed labourers, dragged inceflantly from their ruftic em«
where the Portuguefe formerly carried on a great ployments by their reftlefs mafters, wlio delight in war
trade. This laft either does or did belong to the king and maritime enterprifes, have never time or refolutiont
of Siam. The people of Malacca are in general fub- to give the neceifary attention to the labouring of theii'
je£l to the Dutch, who poffefs all the ftrong places on grounds; of confequence the lands for the moft part
the coaft, and compel them, to trade on their own are. uncultivated, and produce no kind of grain for the
terms, excluding all other nations of Europe from ha¬
ving any commerce with the natives.
The Malays are governed by feudal laws. A chief,
who has the title of king or fultan, Hues his commands
to his great vaffals, who have other vaflals in fubjec-
tipn to them in a fimilar manner. A fmall part of the
fubfiftence of the inhabitants. The fago tree indeed
fupplies in part the defedl of grain. It is a fpecies of
the palm-tree, which grows naturally in the woods to
the height of about 20 or 30 feet; its circumference
being fometimes from five to fix. Its ligneous bark is
about an inch in thicknefs, and covers; a multitude of
nation live independent, under the title of oranicai or long fibres, which being interwoven one with another
noble, and fell their fervices to thofe who pay them envelope a mafs of a gummy kind of meal. As focn-
beil; while the body of the nation is compofed of as this tree is ripe, a whitifti duft, which tranfpires
ilaves, and live in perpetual fervitude. through the pores of the leaves> and adheres to their
The generality of thefe people are reftlefs, fond of extremities, indicates, that * the trees are in a Hate of
navigation,, war, plunder, emigrations, colonies, def- maturity. The Malays then cut them down near the
perate enterprifes, adventures, and gallantry. They root, divide them into ieveral feclions, which they-
talk incefiantly of their honour and their bravery; fplit into quarters: they then fcoop out the mafs of
whilft they are univerfally confidered by thofe with mealy fubftance, which is enveloped by and adheres to
whom they have intercourfe, as the moft treacherous, the fibres; they dilute it in pure water, and then pafi;
ferocious people on earth. This ferocity, which the it through a ftraining bag of fine cloth, in order to
Malays qualify under the name of courage,, is . fo •well feparate.it from the fibres. When this pafte has loft?
pact
M A L [ 478 ] M A L
Malacca part of its moifture by evaporation, the Malays throw
. S it into a kind of earthen veffel of different fhapes,
_ id;ga-. where they allow it to dry and harden. Their pafte
is wholefome nourithing food, and preferves for many
years.
Malacca, the capital of the country'of-the fame
name, is iituated in a flat countiy clofe to the fea.
The walls and fortifications are founded on a fo-
lid rock, and are carried up to a great height; the
lower part of them is waflied by the fea at every tide,
and on the land-fide is a wide canal or ditch, cut from
the fea to the river, which makes it an itland. In 1641
it was taken from the Portuguefe by the Dutch, flnce
which time it has continued in their pofl'dlion. In this
•city there are a great many broad llreets ; but they
are very badly paved. The houfes are tolerably well
built, and fome of them have gardens behind or on
one fide. The inhabitants confift of a few Dutch,
many Malayans, Moors, Chinefe, and other Indians,
who are kept in awe by a fortrefs, which is feparated.
from the city by a river, and by good walls and ba-
ftions, as well as by ilrong gates, and a draw-bridge
that is on the eaftern fide. The city is well fituated
for trade and navigation. E. Long. 102. 2. N. Lat.
2. 12.
MALACHI, or the prophecy of Malachi, a
canonical book of the Old Teftament, and the laft of
the 12 Idler prophets. Malachi prophelied about 300
years before Chrift, reproving the Jews for their wick-
ednefs after their return from Babylon, charging them
with rebellion, facrilege, adultery, profaneneis, and
infidelity ; and condemning the priefts for being fcan-
daloufly carelefs in their miniftry : at the fame time
not forgetting to encourage the pious few, who, in
that corrupt age, maintained their integrity. This
prophet diftinftly points at the Meffiah, who was fud-
denly to come to his temple, and to be introduced by
Elijah the prophet, that is, by John the Baptift, who
came in the fpirit and power of Elias, or Elijah.
MALACIA, in medicine, is a languilhing difor-
der incident to pregnant women, in which they long
fometimes for one kind of food and fometimes for
another, and eat it with extraordinary greedinefs.
MALACOPTERYGEOUS, among ichthyolo-
gifts, an appellation given to fuch fifhes as have the
rays of their fins bony, but not pointed or fharp at the
extremities like thofe of aneanthopterygeous fibres.
MALACOSTOMOUS fishes, thofedellitute of
teeth in the jaws, called in Engliih leather-mouthed, as
the tench, carp, bream, &c.
MALAGA, an ancient, rich, and ftrong town of
Spain, in the kingdom of Grenada, with two caftles,
a bifliop’s fee, and a good harbour, which renders it
a place of confiderable commerce. The advantage
of this commerce, according to M. Bourgoanne, is
entirely in favour of Spain, but almoft without any
to its navigation ; of 842 veffels which arrived at this
port in 1782, from almoft every commercial nation,
fcarcely 100 were Spanilh, even reckoning the flrips
■of war which anchored there. The Englilh, who are
in poffefiion of the greateft part of the trade, carry
thither woollens and great quantities of fmall ware ;
the Dutch carry fpice, cutlery ware, laces, ribbons,
thread, &c. Thefe nations, thofe of the north, and
Italy, export to the amount of two millions and a
3
half of piaftres in wines, fruits, fumach, pickled an- Malagridari
chovies, oil, &c. and all they carry thither amounts 1 %
only to about a million and a half. The balance would
be ftill more advantageous for Malaga if the filk and
wool of the kingdom of Grenada were exported from
this port; but thefe are employed in the country
where they are produced. The ftreets of Malaga are
narrow, but there are fome good fquares; and the ca¬
thedral church is a fuperb building, faid to be as large
as St Paul’s. The only other building of note is the
bifliop’s palace ; which is a large edifice, but looks in-
fignificant from its being fituated near the other.. Its
prelate enjoys a revenue of L. 16,000 Sterling. Ma¬
laga is feated on the Mediterranean fea, at the foot
of a craggy mountain. E. J_ong. 4. 56. N. Lat,
6. si.
MALAGRIDA (Gabriel), an Italian Jefuit, was
chofen by the general of the order to conduift millions
into Portugal. To great eafe and fluency of fpeech,
for which he was indebted to enthufiafm, he added
the moft ardent zeal for the intereft of the fociety to
which he belonged. He foon became the fafliionable
direftor; and every one, fmall or great, placed him-
felf under his conduSt. He was refpected as a faint,
and confulted as an oracle. When a confpiracy was
formed by the duke d’Aveiro againft the king of Por¬
tugal, it is afferted by the enemies of the fociety, that
three Jefdits, among whom was Malagrida, were con¬
fulted concerning the meafure. They add (what is
very improbable), that it was decided by thefe cafuifts,
that it was only a venial crime to kill a king who per-
Jecuted the faints. At that time the king of Portu¬
gal, fpurred on by a miniller who had no favour for
the Jefuits, openly declared himfeif againft them, and
foon after baniihed them from his kingdom. Only
three of them were apprehended, Malagrida, Alexan¬
der, and Mathos, who were accufcd of having ap¬
proved his murder. But either the trial could not be
proceeded in without the confent of the pope, which
was not granted, or no proof could be got fufficient
to condemn Malagrida; and therefore the kin^ was
obliged to deliver him ta the inquifition, as being
fufpected of having formerly advanced fome rafli pro-
poiitions which bordered on herefy. Two publications
which he acknowledged, and which give the fulleft
indications of complete infanity, were the foundation
of thefe fufpicions. The one was written in Latin,
and intitled Traliatus de •vita et imperio Ant'uhrijli; the
other in Portuguefe, under the title of the “ I^ife of
St Anne, compofed with the affiftance of the bleffed
Virgin Mary and her moft holy Son.” They are
full of extravagance and abfurdity.—This enthufiaft
pretended to have the gift ©f miracles. He con-
feffed before the judges of the Inquifition, that
God himfeif had declared him his ambaffador, a-
poftle, and prophet; that he was united to God
by a perpetual union ; and that the Virgin Mary,
with the confent of Jefus Chrift and of the \yhole
Trinity, had declared him to be her fon. In fliort,
he confefied, as is pretended, that He felt in the pri-
fon, at the age of 72, fome emotions very uncommon
at that period of life, which at firft gave him great
uneafinefs, but that it had been revealed to him by
God that thefe emotions were only the natural effect
©f au involuntary agitation, where ha there was the
feme
M A L
I 479 ]
M A L
the Inquifition : but his death was haftened by a vi- nervous medicine, and as being ufeful in fome car- krJIche.
fion which be eagerly revealed. Upon oceafion of the dialgies. The dofe is four or five drops in fome con- y—
death of the marquis de Tancourt, commander in venient liquor.
chief of the province of Eftremadura, mournful and MALDIVIA islands, a clufter of fmall iflands
continued difcharges were made in honour of him by in the Indian ocean, 500 miles fouth-weft cf the con-
the caftle of Uifbon, and by all the forts on the banks tinent of the ifland of Ceylon. They are about 1000
of the Tagus. Thefe being heard by Malagrida in in number, and are very fmall; extending from the fe-
his dungeon, he inflantly fuppofed, from their extra'- cond degree of fouth latitude to the feventh degree
ordinary nature, and from their happening during thq north latitude. They are generally black low lands,,
night, that the king was dead. The next day he de- furrounded by rocks and fands. The natives are of
manded an audience from the members of the Inqui- the fame complexion with the Arabians, profefs the Ma -
fition : which being granted, he told them that he had hometan religion, and are fubjeft to one fovereign^
been ordered by God to fhow the minifter of the holy The channels between the iflands are very narrow, and
office that he was not a hypocrite, as was pretended; fome of them are fordable. They produce neither rice,
for the king’s death had been revealed to him, and he corn, nor herbage; but the natives live upon cocoa-
had feen in a vifion the torments to which his majefty nuts, and other fruits, roots, and fiih. They have
was condemned for having perfecuted the religious of little or nothing to barter with, unlefs the (hells called
his order. This was fufficient to accelerate his pu- coivrys, or blackmore's teeth, with which they abound;
niffiment: he was burnt on the 21ft of September 1761; and thefe ferve inflead of fmall coin in many parts of
not as the accomplice of a parricide, but as a falfe India.
prophet, fcr which he deferved to be confined in bed- MALDONAT (John), a Spanifh Jefuit born in
lam rather than tied to the flake. The adls of im- 1534, was accufed of herefy, and of procuring a
piety whereof he was accufed were nothing more than fraudulent will in feducing the prefident de St Andre
extravagancies proceeding from a miftaken devotion at Paris to bequeath his ellate to the Jefuits. Peter
and an overli^ited brain. Gondi acquitted him of the firft charge, and the par-
MALDEN, a town of Effex, 37 miles from Lon- liament of Paris of the other. He retired after thefe
don, fituated on an eminence at the conflux of the troubles to Bourges, but went to Rome by order of
Chelmer and Pant/ or Black water, where they enter pope Gregory XIII. to take care of the publication-
the fea. It was the firft Roman colony in Britain, of the Septuagint ; and there, finiffiing his commen-
and the feat of fome of the old Britifh kings. It was tary on the gofpels in 1582, he died in the be-
befieged, plundered, and burnt by queen Boadicea ; ginning of the following year. He wrote, befides,
but the Romans repaired it.* It was again ruined by Commentaries on Jeremiah, Baruch, Ezekiel, and Da-
the Danes, but rebuilt by the Saxons. It is a popu- niel; a treatife on the facraments, on grace, on ori-
lous corporation, governed by two bailiffs, fix alder- ginal fin; and feveral other pieces printed at Paris
men, iH headboroughs or capital burgeffes, a fteward, in 1677, in folio. His ftyle is clear, lively, and eafy.
recorder, and above 400 commonalty and burgeffes. He does not fervilely follow the fcholaftic divines;
who have all a vote for its members of parliament. It but is pretty free, and fometimes Angular, in his fen«-
has a convenient haven on an arm of the fea for veffels timents.
of 400 tons ; and drives a good trade in coal, iron, MALE, among zoologifts, that fex of animals-
corn, and deals. It formerly had three, now only which has the parts of generation fituated externally,
two, parifh-churches. Here is a large library for the See Sex and Generation.
ufe of the minifter and the clergy of the neighbouring The term male has alfo, from fome fimilitude to .
parifhes, who generally reftde here on account of the that fex in animals, been applied to feveral inanimate
unwholefbmenefs of the air where their churches are. things; thus we fay, a male flower, a male fcrew, &c.
Here is a grammar-fchool, a fmall-chureh, fchool, and See Mas Planta, Masculus Flos, and Screw ; al&-
a workhoufe where the poor weave fack-cloth. The Female and Flos.
cuftom of Borough Engl ilk is kept up here. It has MALEBRANCHE (Nicholas),an eminent French
a market on Saturdays, and a fair on the 18th of Sep- metaphyfician, the fon of Nicholas Malebranche, fe-
Xember. A little beyond it begins Blackwater bay, cretary to die French king, was born in 1638, and ad-
famous for the Walfleet oylters. The channel called mitted into the congregation of the oratory in 1660.
Maiden-water is navigable to the town. King Ed- Pie at firft applied himfelf to the ftudy of languages
ward the elder (of the Saxon race) refided here whilft ^nd liiftory : but afterwards meeting with Des Cartes’s-
he built Witham and Hertford caftles. On the weft Freatife of Man, he gave himfelf up entirely, to the
fide of the town are the remains of a camp. ftudy of philofophy. In 1699, was admitted aH-
MALALEUCA, the Cavputi tree : A genus honorary member of the Royal Academy of Sciences
of the polyandria order, belonging to the polyadelphia at Paris. Notwithftanding he was of a delicate con-
clafs of plants. There is but one fpecies, viz. the leu- ftitution, he enjoyed a pretty good ftate of health till-
codendrum, a native of the Eaft Indies and South-Sea his death, which happened in 1715, at the age of 77.
iflands. MrForfter relates thatleucodendrawerefoundin Father Malebranclie read little, buf thought a great
the ifland of New Caledonia: they were black at the deal. He defpifed that kind of philofophy whick-
root; but had a bark perfectly white and loofe, with confifts only in knowing the opinions of other men,
tong narrow leaves like our willows. The leaves are fince a perfon may know the hiftory of other mens
extremely fragrant and aromatic 5 and Rumghius thoughts without thinking Itiuafvlf. He could never-
M A L [ 480 J M A L
'Male- read ten verfes together without difguft. He medita-
hrarcfie, te(j wjth windows fliut, in order to keep out the
,_a ^er^e' light, which he found fco be a diflurbance to him. His
converfatiou turned upon the fame fubje&s as his books;
l)iit was mixed with fo much raodrily and deference to
the judgment of others, that it was extremely and
univerfally defired. His books are famous; particu¬
larly his Recherche de la Verite, i. e. “ Search after
truth :” his defign in which is, to point to us the errors
in which we are daily led by our fenfes, imagination,
and paflions; and to preferibe a method'for difeover-
ing the truth, which he does, by Halting the notion
of feeing all things in God. And hence he is led to
think and fpeak merely of human knowledge, either
as it lies in written books, or in the book of nature,
compared with that light which drfplays itfelf from
the ideal world; and by attending to which, with
pure and defecate minds, he fuppoles knowledge to be
moft eafily had. The finenefs of this author’^ fenti-
inettts, together with his fine manner of exprefiing
Tnem, made everybody admire his genius aftd abilities ;
but he has generally paffed’ for a viiionary philofopher.
Mr Locke, in his examination of Malebranche’s opi¬
nion of feeing all things in God, llyles him “ an acute
and ingenious author;” and tells us, that there are “a
great many very-fine thoughts, judicious reafonings,
and uncommon reflections, in his Recherche.” But Mr
Locke, in that piece, endeavours to refute the chief
•principles of his fyflem. He wTrote many other pieces
befides that we have mentioned, all tending fome way
or other to confirm his main fyllem, eftablilhed in the
Recherche, and to clear it from the obje&ions which
■were brought againfl: it, or from the confequence
which were deduced from it: and if he has not at¬
tained what he aimed at in thefe feveral produftions,
he has certainly Ihown great abilities and a vaft force
of genius.
MALHERBE (Francis de), the beft French poet
pf his time, tvasborn at Caen about the year 1556, of
a noble and ancient family. He quitted Normandy at
z 7 years of age ; and went into Provence, where he
attached himfelf to the family of Henry Angouleme,
the natural fan of king Henry II. and was in the fer-
vlce of that prince till he was killed by Altoviti in
I i;86. At length cardinal de Perron, being informed
of his merit and abilities, introduced him to Hen. IV.
who took him into his fervice. After that monarch’s
death, queen Mary de Medicis fettled a penfion of 500
crowns upon our poet, who died at Paris in 1628.
The beft and moft complete edition of his poetical
works is that of 1666, with Menage’s remarks. Mal¬
herbe fo far excelled all the French poets who prece¬
ded him, that Boileau confiders him as the father of
French poetry : but he compofed with great difficulty,
and put his mind on the rack in corre-fting what he
wrote. He was a man of a lingular humour, blunt
in his behaviour, and without religion. When the
poor ufed to promife him, that they would pray to God
for him, he anfwered them, that “ he did not believe
they could have, any great intereft in heaven, fince
they were left in fuch a bad condition upon earth; and
that he Ihould be better pleafed if the duke de Luyne,
or fome other favourite, had made him the fame pro-
mife. ’ He would often fay that “.the religion of gentle¬
men was that of. their prince.” During his laft lieknefs
FF JJZ.
he had much ado to refolve to confefs to a prieft; for Malice,'!
which he gave this facetious reafon, that “ he never ,
ufed to confefs but at Eafter.” And fome few mo- ’ 11'*
ments before his death, when he had been in a lethar¬
gy two hours, he awaked on a fudden to reprove his
landlady, who waited on him, for ufing a word that
was not good French ; faying to his confeffor, who re¬
primanded him for it, that “ he could not help it,
and he would defend the purity of the French language
to the laft moment of his life.”
MALICE, in ethics and law, is a formed defign
of doing mifehief to another ; it differs from hatred.
In murder, it is- malice makes ‘the crime; and if a
man, having a malicious intent to kill another, in the
execution of his malice kills a perfon not intended,
the malice fliall be connefted to his perfon, and he
ftiall be adjudged a murderer. The word ex malitia
pracoghata are neceffary to an indictment of murder,
&c. And this malitia praedgitata, or malice prepeife,
may be either exprefs or implied in law. Exprefs
malice is, when one, with a fedate, deliberate mind,
and formed defign, kills another ; which formed de¬
fign is evidenced by external circumftances difeover
ing that intention ; as lying in wait, antecedent me¬
naces, former grudges, and concerted fchemes to do
him fome bodily harm. Befides, where no malice is
expreffed, the law will imply it; as where a man wil¬
fully poifons another, in fuch a deliberate aft the law
prefumes malice, though no particular enmity can be
proved. And if a man kills another fuddenly, with¬
out any, or without a confiderable provocation, the
law implies malice ; for no perfon, unlefs of an aban¬
doned heart, would be guilty of fuch an aft upon a
flight or no apparent caufe.
MALIGNANT, among phyfidans, a term ap
plied to difeafes of a very dangerous nature, and gene¬
rally infeftious ; fuch are the dyfentery, hofpital-fever,
&c. in their worft ftages.
Malignity among phyficians fignifies much the fame
with contagion. See Contagion.
MALL, Sea-mall, or Sea-mew, in ornithology)
See Larus.
MALLARD, in ornithology. See Anas.
MALLEABLE, a property of metals whereby
they are capable of being extended under the ham j
mer.
MALLENDERS, in farriery. See there § xxxiv.
MALLEOLI, in the ancient art of war, were ,
bundles of combuftible materials, fet on fire to give
light in the night, or to annoy the enemy; when
they were employed for the latter purpofe they were
fhot out of a bow, or fixed to a javelin, and thus
thrown into the enemies engines, fhips, &c. in order
to burn them. Pitch was always a principal ingredi¬
ent in the compofition. The malleoli had alfo the
name of pyroboli.
MALLET or Malloch, (David) an Englifh
poet, but a Scotfman by birth, was born in that
country about 1700. By the penury of his parents,
he was compelled to be janitor of the high fchool at
Edinburgh ; but he furmoun^ed the difadvantages
of his birth and fortune ; for when the Duke of
Montrofe applied to the college of Edinburgh for a
tutor to educate his fons, Malloch was recommended.
When his,pupils went abroad, they were entrufted to
M A L [ 481 ] M A L
MaHef. his care; and having conduced them through their
travels, he returned with them to London. Here,
reiidxng in their family, he naturally gained admiflion
to perfons of high rank and charafter, and began to
give fpecimens cJ his poetical talents. In 1733, he
publifhed a poem on Verbal Criticifm, on purpofe to
make his court to Pope. In 1740, he wrote a Life
of Lord Bacon, which was then prefixed to an edi¬
tion of his works } but with fo much more knowledge
of hiftory than of fcience, that, when he afterwards
undertook the Life of Marlborough, fome were ap-
prehenfive left he fhould forget that Marlborough was
a general, as he had forgotten that Bacon was a phi-
lofopher. The old duchefs of Marlborough afligned
in her will this talk to Glover and Mallet, with a re¬
ward of 10001. and a prohibition to infert any verfes.
Glover is fuppofed to have rejefted the legacy with
difdain, fo that the work devolved upon Mallet; who
had alfo a penfion from the late duke of Ma'rlborough
to promote his induftry, and who was continually talk¬
ing of the difcoveries he made, but left not when he died
any hiftorical labours behind him. When the prince
of Wales was driven from the palace, and kept a fe-
parate court by way of oppofition, to increafe his po¬
pularity by patronizing literature, he made Mallet his
under-fecretary, with a falary of 200I. a year.—
Thomfon likewife had a penfion; and they were aflb-
ciated in the compoiition of the Mafque of Alfred,
which in its original ftate was played at Cliefden in
1740. It was afterwards almoft wholly changed by
Mallet, and brought upon the ftage of Drury Lane in
1751, but with no great fuccefs. He had before
publilhed two tragedies ; Eurydice, adted at Drury
Lane in 1731 ; and Muftapha, adted at the fame
theatre in 1739. It was dedicated to the prince his
mafter, and was well received, but never was revived.
His next work was Amyntor and Theodora (1747),
a long ftory in blank verfe ; in which there is copiouf-
nefs and elegance of language, vigour of fentiment,
and imagery well adapted to take poffefiion of the
fancy. In 1753, his mafque of Britannia was acted
at Drury Lane, and his tragedy of Elvira in 1763 ;
in which year he was appointed keeper of the book of
entries for ftiips in the port of London. In the be¬
ginning of the laft war, when the nation was exafpe-
rated by ill fuccefs, he was employed to turn the pub¬
lic vengeance upon Byng, and wrote a letter of accu-
fation under the charadter of a Plain Man. The pa¬
per was with great induftry circulated and difperfed ;
and he for his feafonable intervention had a confider-
able penfion beftowed upon him, which he retained to
his death. Towards the end of his life he went with
his wife to France ; but after a while, finding his
health declining, he returned alone to England, and
died in April 1765. He was twice married, and by
his firft wife had feveral children. One daughter, who
married an Italian of rank named Cilefia, wrote a tra¬
gedy called Almida, which was a&ed at Drury Lane.
His fecond wife was the daughter of a nobleman’s
fteward, who had a confiderable fortune, which (he
took care to retain in her own hands. His ftature
was diminutive, but he was regularly formed ; his
appearance, till he grew corpulent, was agreeable,
and he fuffered it to want no recommendation that
Vol. X. Part II.
drefs could give it. His converfation was elegant and Mallet,
eafy.
Mallet (Edme) was born at Melun in 1713, ^nd
enjoyed a curacy in the neighbourhood of his native
place till 1751, when he,went to Paris to be profeflbr
of theology in the college of Navarre, of which he
was admitted a doftor. Boyer, the late bilhop of
Mirepoix, was at firft much prejudiced againft him; but
being afterwards undeceived, he conferred upon him
the fee of Verdun as a reward for his do&rine and
morals. Janfenifm had been imputed to him by’his
enemies with this prelate; and the Gazette which went
by the name of Eccle/tajlical, accufed him of impiety,
Either of thefe imputations was equally undeferved by
the Abbe Mallet: as a Chriftian, he was grieved at
the difputes of the French Church ; and, as a philofo-
pher, he was aftoniftied that the government had not,
from the very beginning of thofe diflenfions impofed
filence on both parties. He died at Paris in X755, at
the age of 42. The principal of his works are,
I. Principes pour la leBure des Poetes, 1745, 12mo.
2 vols. 2. EJfai fur l'Etude des Belles Lettresy 1747,
!2mo. 3. EJfai fur les lienfeances oratoires, 1753, i2mo.
4. Principes pour la leBure des Orateurs, I753> i2mo,
3 vols. 5. Hflaire des Guerres civiles de France fous les
regnes de Francois II. Charles IX. Henri III. £if
Henry IV. tranflated from the Italian of d’Avila.—
In Mallet’s works on the Poets, Orators, and the
Belles Lettres, his objedt is no more than to explain
with accuracy and precifion the rules of the great
mafters, and to fupport them by examples from au¬
thors ancient and modern.- The ftyle of his different
writings, to which his mind bore a great refemblance,
was neat, eafy, and unaffedted. But what muft ren¬
der his memory eftimable, was his attachment to hia
friends, his candour, moderation, gentlenefs, and mo-
defty. He was employed to write the theological and
belles-lettres articles in the Encyclopedic ; and whatever
he wrote in that didtionary was in general well com-
pofed. Abbe Mallet was preparing two important
works when the world was deprived of him by
death. The firft was line Hifloire generale de nos Guerres
depuis k commencement de la Monarchic; the fecond, Une
Hifloire du Concile de Trente, which he intended to fet
in oppofition to that of Father Paul tranflated by
Father le Courayer.
MALLET, a large kind of hammer made of wood ;
much ufed by artificers who work with a chiffel, as
fculptors, mafons, and ftone-cutters, whofe mallet is
ordinarily round ; and by carpenters, joiners, See. who
ufe it fquare. There are feveral forts of mallets ufei
for different purpofes on (hip-board. The calking
mallet is chiefly employed to drive the oakum into the
feams of a (hip, where the edges of the planks are
joined to each other in the fides, deck, or bottom.
The head of this mallet is long and cylindrical, being
hooped with iron to prevent it from fplitting in the
exercife of calking. There is alfo the ferving mallet,
ufed in ferving the rigging, by binding the fpun-yarn
more firmly about it than could poftibly be done by
hand, which is performed in the following manner :
the fpun-yarn being previoufly rolled up in a large
ball or clue, two or three turns of it are paffed about
the rope, and about the body of the mallet, which for
3 P this
M A L [ 482 1 M A L
Mallevnie.this purpofe is fumiihed with around channel in its
Malhcollo. £urface) tjjat conforms to the convexity of the rope in-
tended to be ferved. The turns of the fpun-yarn
being ftrained round the mallet, fo as to confine it
firmly to the rope, which is extended above the deck,
One man paffes the ball continually about the rope,
whilft the other, at the fame time^ winds on the fpun-
yarn by means of the mallet, whofe handle afting as a
a leveritrainsevery turnabout the rope as firm as poffible.
MALLEVILLE (Claud de), a French poet, born
at Paris, was one of the firft members of the French
academy, and gained a prize from Voiture and other
ingenious men. He became fecretary to M. de Baf-
fompierre, to whom he performed important fervices
while he was in prifon ; and with the rewards-he re¬
ceived for them he purchafed the place of fecre¬
tary to the king. He was likewife fecretary to the
French academy, and died in, 1647. He wrote fon-
nets, ftanzas, elegies, epigrams, fongs, madrigals,
and a paraphrafe on fome of the Pfalms. His. fonnets
are moft efteemed;
MALL1COLLO, one of the new Hebrides ifiands
in the fouth-fea, and the fnoft confiderable of them
all next to Efpiritu Santo. It is 18 leagues long from
fouth-eaft to north-weft ; its greateft breadth, which
is at the fouth-eaft end, is eight leagues; the north-
weft end is two-thirds its breadth, and narrower in
the middle one-third. This cantra&ion is occafibned
by a wide and deep bay on the fouthrweft fide. It
appears to be very fertile, and well inhabited; the
land on the fea coaft is rather low, and lies, with a
greater flope from the hills which are in the middle
of the ifland; lat. 16 deg. 2.8. min. fouth; 167
deg. 56 min. eaft. On inquiring of the natives the
name of this ifland, they, were anfwered that it was
Mallicollo, which has a near refemblance to Manicollo,
the name which Quiros received for it 160 years be¬
fore. He did not indeed vifit the ifland, but had his
intelligence from the natives.
The fouth coaft, which was moft attentively ex¬
amined by captain Cook, is luxuriantly clothed with
wood and other vegetables, from the fea-fhore to
the very fummits of the hills. To the north-weft, the
country is lefs woody, but more agreeably interfered
by lawns, fome of which appeared to be cultivated.
The vegetable produftions of this country feemed tp
be in great variety ; cocoa nuts, bread-fruit, bananas,
fugar-canes, yams, eddoes, and turmeric: but captain
Cook thought the fruits here not. fo good as at the
Society and Friendly Ifles. Hogs, and common poul¬
try, are their domeftio. animals ; and as the frequent
fqueaking of pigs, was heard in the woods, it was. con-
bluded that the former are in confiderable numbers here.
A brace of Taheitian puppies was given them, with a
view to ftock the country with that fpecies of animal:
thefe they received with ftrong figns of fatisfaftion.
The woods appeared to be inhabited by many fpe-
oies of birds. Here was caught a {hark,, which mea-
fured nine feet in length, on which the fhip’s com¬
pany feafte.d with great relifh : this fhark, when cut
open, was found to have the bony point of an arrow
flicking in its head, having, been fhot quite through
the fkull. The wound was healed fo perfe&ly, that
liut the fmalleft veftige of it appeared on the outfide .:
a piece of the wood ftill remained flicking to the MaHieolts.
bony point, as well as a few fibres with which it 
had been tied on ; but both the wood and the fibres
were fo rotted, as to crumble into dull at the touch.
Two large reddilh fifh of the fea-bream kind were
likewife caught, on which moft of the officers and
fome of the petty officers dined the next day. The
night following every one who had eaten of them,
was feized with violent pains in the head and bones, at¬
tended with a fcorching heat all over the Ikin, and.
numbnefs in the joints; even fuch hogs and dogs as
had partaken of thefe filh gave ftrong fymptoms of
being poifoned : one hog, who had eaten of the gar¬
bage, fwelled to a great fize, and died at night :
feveral dogs were affefted in the fame manner; they
groaned moft piteoufly, had violent Teachings, and-
could hardly drag their limbs along.. Thefe fifh were
fuppofed to have been of the fame fort with thofe
which Quiros mentions to have produced fimilar effects
on board his fhip, and which he calls pargos, which
is the Spanifh name for the fea-bream. Perhaps thefe
fifh are not always poifonous; but, like many fpecies
in the-Weft and Eaft Indies, may acquire that quali¬
ty hy feeding on poifonous vegetables : which con-
clufion is fupported by the circumftance of the in,
teftines having been found, to be more poifonous than
the reft. The effe&s-of this.poifon,on the officers con¬
tinued for near a fortnight, during which time their
pains returned every night, their teeth were loofe, and
their gums and palate excoriated..
The natives of Mallicollo are deferibed as the moft.'
ugly,, ill-proportioned people imaginable,, and in every
refpeft different, from the other iflanders in,the Souths
Sea; they are of a very dark colour, and diminutive lize;
with long heads, flat faces, and. monkey countenances}
their hair, in general, black or brown, fhort and cur¬
ly, but not quite fo foft and woolly as that of a ne¬
gro. Their beards are very ftrong, crifp, and bufhy,
and generally black and fhort. But what ferves greatr
ly to increafe their natural deformity is a cuftom which
they have of wearing a belt, or cord* round their
waift : this rope is as thick as a man’s finger; and is
tied fo tight round their belly, thatit would be fatal to
a perfon unaccuftomed from infancy to fuch an unna¬
tural ligature ;.for it cuts fuch a deep notch acrofs the
navel, that the belly feems in a manner divided, one
part being above and the other below the rope. The
men go quite naked, except a piece of cloth or leaf
ufed as a wrapper. Moft other nations invent fome kind
of covering from motives .of fhame ; but. here a roll of
cloth, continually faftened to the belt, rather difplays
than conceals, and is the oppofite of modefty. Be-
fides having the flat, broad nofe and proje&ing cheek*
hones of a negro, and a very fhort . forehead, many in-
creafed their natural, uglinefs by painting their faces
and breafts with a.blaok colour. Some few had a fmall
cap on < the head made of matted-work. They wear
bracelets of white and, black fliells, which prefs the
upper arm fa clafely, that they feem .to have been put on
when the wearer was very young: this tends, as well
as the belt, to reduce the Mallicollefe. to that flen-
der fhape which charafterifes them. The depreffion
of their foreheads is fuppofed to be artificial, as the
heads of infants may befqueezed into any kind of form*
6 The
M A L L 483 1 M A L
Mallkollo. The firft natives that were feen carried clubs In their
» hands, and waded into the water, carrying green
boughs, the unlverfal fign of peace. In a day’s time
they ventured to come within a few yards of the fliip’s
boat, which was fent out; when they dipped their hands
into the fea, and gathering fome water in their palms,
poured it on their heads. The officers in the boat, in
compliance with their example, did the fame, with
which the Indians appeared to be much pleafed. They
repeated the word tomarr, or tomarro, continually ;
which feemed to be an expreffion among them equi¬
valent to tayo among the Society-lflands. The greater
part were now armed with bows and arrows, and a few
with fpears. At length they ventured near the ffiip,
and received a few prefents of Taheitian cloth, which
they eagerly accepted, and handed up their arrows in
exchange, fome of which were pointed with wood
and fome with bone, and daubed with a black gummy
ftuff which was fuppofed to be poifoned; but its ef-
fe&s were tried on a dog, without producing any dan¬
gerous fyitiptoms. They continued about the fhip,
talking with great vociferation, but at the fame time
in fuch a good-humoured manner as was very enter¬
taining. On looking ftedfaftly at one of them, he be¬
gan to chatter with great fluency, and “ grinned hor¬
ribly a ghaftly fmile.” Some continued about the fliip
till midnight; finding, however, at length, that they
were but little noticed, for the captain wanted to get
rid of them, they returned on ihore, where the found
of finging and beating their drums was heard all night.
Mr Forfter fuppofes there may be 50,000 inhabitants
on this extenfive ifland, which contains more than 600
fquare miles. “We ought (fays he) to figure to
ourfelves this country as one extenfive foreft; they have
only begun to clear and plant a few infulated fpots,
which are loft in it like fmall iflands in the Pacific O-
cean.” Perhaps, if we could ever penetrate through the
darknefs which involves the hiftory of this nation, we
might find that they have arrived in the South-Sea
much later than the natives of the Friendly and Socie¬
ty Iflands: fo much at leaft is certain, that the latter
appear to be a race totally diftinft from the former;
their form, their language, and their manners, ftrong-
ly mark this difference. The natives, on fome parts of
New-Guinea and Papua, feem to correfpond, in many
particulars, with what has been obferved of the Malli-
collefe. They differ likewife very widely from the
light-coloured inhabitants of the South-Sea, by keep¬
ing their bodies entirely free of punctures. Whatever
thefe people faw, they coveted; but they never repined
at a refufal. The looking-glaffes which were given
them were highly efteemed, and they took great plea-
fure in viewing themfelves ; fo that thefe ugly people
feemed to have more conceit than the beautiful nation
at O-Taheitee and the Society Iflands. Early the
next morning the natives came off to the (hip in their
canoes, and four or five of them went on board with¬
out any arms. They foon became familiar, and, with
the greateft eafe, climbed up the (hrouds to the maft-
head ; when they came down, the captain took them
into his cabbin, and gave them medals, ribbons, nails,
rand pieces of red baize. They appeared the mod in¬
telligent of any nation that had been feen in the
South-Sea: they readily underftood the meaning con¬
veyed by figns and geftures ; and in a few minutes Mallicollo.
taught the gentlemen of the (hip feveral words in their —*— w
language, which appeared to be wholly diftinft from
that general language of which fo many diale&s are
fpoken at the Soeiety-Iflands, the Marquefas, Friend-
ly-Ifles, Eafter-Ifland, and New-Zeeland. Their lan¬
guage was not difficult to pronounce, but contained
more confonants than any of them. Mr Forfter, and
fome of the gentlemen from the (hip, went on (bore,
and converfed with the natives, who with great good¬
will fat down on the (lump of a tree to teach them
their language. They were furprifed at the readinefs
of their guefts to remember, and feemed to fpeiid feme
time in pondering how it was poffible to preferve the
found by fuch means as pencils and paper. They were
not only affiduous in teaching; but had curiofity enough
to learn the language of the ftrangers, which they pro¬
nounced with fuch accuracy as led their inftruftors to
admire their extenfive faculties and quick apprehenfion.
Obferving their organs of fpeech to be fo flexible, they
tried the moft difficult foundsintheEuropeanlanguages,
and had recourfe to the compound Ruffian fitch, all
of which they pronounced at the firft hearing without
the leaft difficulty. They prefently learned the Eng-
lifli numerals, which they repeated rapidly on their
fingers; fo that what they wanted in perfonal beauty
was amply compenfated to them in acutenefs of under-
ftanding. They exprefs their admiration by hiding like
a goofe.
Their mufic is not remarkable either for harmony
or variety, but feemed to be of a more lively turn than
that at the Friendly-iflands. Their behaviour to their
vifitants was, in general, harmlefs, but cautious: they
gave them no invitation to ftay among them ; for they
feemed not to relifti the proximity of fuch powerful
people, being probably accuftomed to afts of violence
and outrage from their neighbours. “ In fome of
their countenances (fays Mr Forfter), we thought we
could trace a mifehievous, ill-natured difpofition ; but
we might miftake jealoufy for hatred.”
Very few women were feen, but thofe few were no
lefs ugly than the men: they were of fmall ftature,
and theii^ heads, faces, and (boulders, were painted
red. Thofe who were grown up, and probably mar¬
ried, had (hort pieces of a kind of cloth, or rather mat¬
ting, round their waifts, reaching nearly to their knees;
the reft had only a firing round the middle, with a
wifp of draw ; and the younger ones, from infancy to
the age of 10 years, went (lark naked, like the boys
of the fame age. The women were not obferved to
have any finery in their ears or round their necks and
arms, it being fafliionable in this ifland for the men only
to adorn themfelves; and wherever this cuftom prevails,
the other fex is commonly oppreffed, defpifed, and in
a (late of fervility. Here the women were feen with
bundles on their backs, which contained their chil¬
dren ; the men feemed to have no kind of regard for
them. None of them came off to the (hip, and they ge¬
nerally kept at a diftance when any party landed from
the boat. They perforate the cartilage of the nofe be¬
tween the noftrils; and thruft therein a piece of white
(lone about an inch and a half long, which is bent like
the curvature of a bow. The houfes here are, like thofe
of the other ides, rather low, and covered with apalm-
3 P 2 thatch.
M A L [ 484 ] M A L
Mallicollo, thatch. Some were inclofed or walled round with
• boards, and the entrance to thefe was by afquare hole
at one end.
Their weapons are bows and arrows, and a club
about two feet and a half in length, made of the cau-
fuarina wood, commonly knobbed at one end, and well
polifhed. This weapon they hang on their right (boul¬
der, from a thick rope made of a kind of grafs. It
appeared to be preferved for clofe engagements, after
having emptied the quiver. On the left wriil they wear
a circular wooden plate, neatly covered, and joined
.with llraw, about five inches in diameter, upon which
they break the violence of the recoiling bow-ftring,
and preferve their arm unhurt. Their arrows are made
of a fort of reed ; and are fometimes armed with a long
(harp point made of the red-wood, and fometimes with
a very hard point made of bone : and thefe points are
all covered with a fubftance which was fuppofed to be
poifoned. Indeed the people themfelves confirmed
thefe fuppofitions, by making figns to the gentlemen of
the (hip not to touch the point, and giving them to
underhand that if they were pricked by them they
would die : they are very careful of them themfelves,
and keep them always wrapt- up in a quiver. Some of
thefe arrows are armed with two or three points each,
with fmall prickles on the edge to prevent the arrow from
being drawn out of the wound. Repeated and ef
fettual trials of the virulence of this poifon were
made upon dogs, but* they gave no figns of being hurt
by it.
Their food feems to be principally vegetables, fmce
they apply themfelves- to hufbandry. As hogs and
fowls are bred here, the natives, doubtlefs, feaft fome¬
times on pork and poultry; and as they have canoes, it
tnay be fuppofed that they draw a part of their fub-
' fifteUce from the ocean. The greateil number of ca¬
noes that were feen. along-fide the (hip at one time did
not exceed iq, 6r, according to Mr Forfter, 14, and
no more than four or five people in each : they were
fmall,, of indifferent workmanfhip, and without orna¬
ment but provided with an outrigger.
After fome (light indications of a hoftile intention
On the part of the natives, which they had (hown in
their canoes whilft about the (hip, captain Cook, with
a party of marines in two boats, landed in the face of
400 or 500 Indians who were affembled on the (hore.
Tho’ they were all armed with bows and arrows, clubs
and fpears, they made not the lead oppofition ; on the
contrary, feeing the captain advance alone, unarmed,
with only a green branch in his hand, one of them,
who feemed to be a chief, giving his bow and arrows
to another, met him in the water, bearing alfo a green
branch. When they met, the brandies were exchan¬
ged ; and the chief led the captain by the hand up to
the crowd, to whom he immediately diftributed pre-
fents: in the mean time the marines were landed, and
drawn up upon the beach. The captain then made
figns that he wanted wood, and they by figns gave
him permifilon to cut down the trees. A (mail pig
was prefently brought, and prefented to the captain,
who in return gave the bearer a piece of doth. It
was expeded from this inftance, that an exchange of
provifions for various articles of merchandife would
take place: but thefeexpedationsproved fallacious; no
more pigs were procured, and only about half a dozen Mallow
cocoa-nuts, and a fmall quantity of frdh water. As
thefe iflanders were poffeffed of hogs as well as fowls,
their backwardnefs to part with either might be owing
to the little eftimation in which they held fuch articles
as were tendered in barter; for they fct no value on
any nails, or any other kind of iron-tools, and held
all the gew-gaws of finery equally cheap. They would
now and then exchange an arrow for a piece of cloth,
but very feldom would part with a bow. After fend¬
ing on board what wood had been cut, the party all
embarked, and the natives difperfed. When the (hip
was about to leave this ifland, captain Cook gives the
following relation : “ When the natives faw us under
fail, they came off in canoes, making exchanges with
more confidence than be-fore, and giving fuch extraor¬
dinary proofs of their honefty as furprifed us. As the
(hip at firft had freih way thro’ the water, feveral of
the canoes dropped aftern after they had received
goods, and before they had time to deliver theirs in
return : inftead of taking advantage of this, as our
friends at the Society-iflands would have done, they
ufed their utmoft efforts to get up with us, and deliver
what they had already been paid for. One man in par¬
ticular followed us a confiderable time, and did not
reach us till it was calm, and the thing was forgotten.
As foon as he came along-fide, he held up the article,
which feveral on board were ready to buy : but he re-
fufed to part with it till he faw the perfon to whom he
had before fold it; and to him he gave it. The perfon
not knowing the man again, offered him fomething in
return, which he refufed ; and (bowing him what
had been given before, at length made him fenfible
of the nice fenfe of honour which had actuated this
Indian.”
MALLOW, a manor, and alfo a borough town in
the county of Cork, and province of Munlter in Ire¬
land, above 118 miles from Dublin. It was incorpo¬
rated by charter in 1688, and fends two members to
parliament. It is pleafantly fituated on the north bank
of the Blackwater, over which there is an excel¬
lent (tone-bridge. Here is alfo a good church, a mar¬
ket houfe, and barracks for a troop of horfe. Not
far diffant is a fine fpring of a moderately tepid wa-
* ter, which burfts out of the bottom of a fine limeftone
rock, and approaches the neared in all its qualities to
the hot-well waters of Briftol of any that has been
yet difcovered in this kingdom, which brings a refort
of good company there frequently in the fummer
months, and has caufed it to be called the Iri/b Bath.
Mallow is a pod town, and has five fairs.
Mallow, in botany. See Malva.
Marjh-Mallow. See Althzea.
Indian-Mallow. See Sida.
MALMSBURY, a town of Wiltlhire, in Eng¬
land, 95 miles from London. It dands on a hill, with fix
bridges over the river Avon at the bottom; with which,
and a brook that runs into it, it is in a manner en-
compaffed. It formerly had walls and a cadle, which
were pulled down to enlarge the abbey, which was the
bigged in Wiltdiire, and its abbots fat in parliament.
The Saxon King Atheldan granted the town large
immunities, and was buried under the high altar o?
the church, and his monument dill remains in the nave
4‘ **
M A L [ 485 ] M A r
^urX of it. The memory of Aldhelm, its firft abbot, who tains a trade with England, Holland, and Spain.— Male.
J ^ °' , was the king’s great favourite, and whom he got to The commerce of Spain is of all the.mod confider-
be canonized after his death, is ftill kept up by a
meadow near this town, called Aldhelm’s Mead. By
charter of King William III. the corporation confifts
of an alderman, who is chofen yearly, 12 capital bur-
gelfes, and 4 alfiftants, land-holders and commoners.
Here is an alms-houfe for 4 men and 4 women, and
near the bridge an hofpital for lepers, where it is fup-
pofed there was formerly a nunnery. This town
diives a confiderable trade in the woollen manufactory;
has a market on Saturday, and three fairs. It has
lent members to parliament ever fince the 26th of Ed¬
ward I.
William of Malmsbvry. See William.
MALO (St) a fea-port town of France, in the
province of Brittany, fituated in the latitude of 48
degrees 38 minutes north, and 1 degree 57 minutes
to the weft. The town ftands upon a rock called the
ifland of St Aaron, furrounded by the fea at high
water, which is now joined to the continent, by means
of a fort of caufey or dike, near a mile long, called
the Sillon, which has been often damaged by ftorms,
and was almoft quite ruined in the year 1730. At
the end of this caufey next the town is a caftle, flank¬
ed with large towers, a good ditch, and a large baftion.
The city nearly covers the whole furfacemf the ifland,
and is of an oblong form, furrounded with a ftrong
rampart, on which there is a number of cannon.—
There is always in it a good garrifon. The cathedral-
church is dedicated to St Vincent, and ftands in the
fquare of the fame name, as do alfo the town-houfe
and the epifcopal palace. There are fome other fquares
in the place, but lefs remarkable ; and as to the ftreets,
except two or three, they are all very nawow. There
feeing no fprings of frefli water in St Malo, the in-
habitants are at great pains to convey the rain which
falls on the roofs of their houfes into cifterns ; and of
this they have enough for all family-ufes. There is
only one parifti-church in the town, though it contains
between 9000 and io,qoo inhabitants ; but there are
feveral convents of monks and nuns, and a general
hofpital. The two entrances into the harbour are de¬
fended by feveral forts, fuch as that of the Conchal ;
of the great and the little bay; the forts of lile-Re-
bours, Sezembre, Roteneuf; the caftle of Latte, and
Fort-Royal. Thefe are feveral little iiles near the
harbour, the moft confiderable whereof is that of St
Sezembre, which is near a quarter of: a league in cir¬
cumference, and fej-ve as fo many outworks to the for¬
tifications of the city, and are ufeful as bulwarks, by
breaking the violence of the waves, which otherwife
would beat with great force againft the walls of the
city. At the end of the caufey next the continent
ftands the fuburb of St Servant, large and well built.
Here the merchants have their houfes and llore-houfes.
Here is the dock-yard ; and a fecure harbour is form¬
ed by the river Ranee, where ftiips of great burden
can ride at anchor very near the houfes. The harbour
is one of the beft in the kingdom* and moft frequent¬
ed by merchant-fhips; but it. is of very difficult and
dangerous accefs on account of the rocks which lie
round it. The town of St Malo is exceedingly well
fituated for trad*- ; and accordingly, in this refpeft, it
has fucceeded beyond moffcxowns in France. Itmain-
• able, and moft profitable to the inhabitants of St '
Malo, the ftiips of the Malouins being frequently em
ployed as regifter {hips by the Spaniards, to carry
out the rich cargoes to Peru and Mexico, and bring
home treafure and plate from America. The inhabi¬
tants of St Malo carry on alfo a confiderable trade in
dry and failed cod to Newfoundland. They fend to
this fifhery a*good many veffels from 100 to 300 tons
burden, with fait for the filh, and provifions for fub-
fifting the crews. They carry their fifh to Italy, Spain,
and fome to Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and bring home
the returns in fruits, foap, oil, Sec. which are difpofed
of to great advantage at Nantz. St Malo is the ca¬
pital of the biffiopric of that name, which is of con¬
fiderable extent; and the foil about it produces moft
kinds of grain and fruits in great abundance. The
moft remarkable towns in the diftridt and diocefe of
St Malo, are St Servand, Cancalle, Chateauneuf,
Dinan, Tintiniac, Combourg, Montfort, Brdal, Guer,
Ploermel, Joflelin, &c.
MALO, Maclou, or Mahout, (Saint), the fon
of a gentleman in Great Britain, and coufin to St
Magloire, was educated in a monaftery in Ireland,
and afterwards chofen biffiop of Gui-Caftel, a dig¬
nity which his humility prevented him from ac¬
cepting. The .people wiffiing to compel him, he
went into Brittany, and put himfelf under the di-
redtion. of a holy anchoret called Aaron, in the neigh¬
bourhood of Aleth. Some time after, about the year
541, he was chofen biftiop of that city, and there cul¬
tivated piety and religion with great fuccefs. He af¬
terwards retired to a folitude near Xaintes, where he
died November 15. 565. From him the city of St
Malo derives its name ; his body having beeb carried
thither, after the redudtion of Aleth to a fmall village
called Guidalet or Guichalet, and the transference of*
the epifcopal fee to St Malo.
MALOUIN (Paul-Jaques), born at (paen in 1701,
was profeffor of medicine in the royal college of Paris,
phyfician in ordinary to the queen, and a member of
the Royal Society of London, and of the Academy
of Sciences of Paris. Thefe ftations were a proper
reward for his-very extenfive information in medicine
and chemiftry ; and his amiable and fteady charadter
procured him many friends and protedlors. He was
very unlike fome modern phyficians, who put little .
truft in medicine ; and was greatly difpleafed to hear
any ill fpoken of his profeffion. He obferved one day to
a young man who took this liberty, that all great men
had refpedted medicine : Ah ! faid the young fellow, ,
you mvjl at leajl except from the lifi me Moliere. But then, ,
inftantly replied the dodtor,' yoityfee- he is dead. He is
faid to have believed the certainty of his art as firmly
as a mathematician does that of geometry. Having
preferibed a great many medicines for a celebrated
man of letters, who followed his directions exadtly,
and was cured, Malouin eagerly embraced him, faying.
You deferve to be fick. As he valued the rules of me¬
dicine ftill more on his own account than on that of
others, he obferved, efpecially in the. latter part of
his life, a very auftere regimen. He ftriftly pradtifed
the prefervative part of medicine, which is much more
certain in its e{Feels than the reftciative. To .this regi-
jnea
M A L [ 480 ] M A L
M&louin men Malouin was indebted, for what many philofo-
ti phers have defined in vain, a healthy old age and an
Kidpi^hi eafy death. He was a ftranger to the infirmities of
W"v " age; and died at Paris of an apoplexy, the 3d of Ja¬
nuary 1778, in the 77th year of his age. By his will
he left a legacy to the faculty of medicine, upon con¬
dition of their h'olding a public meeting every year
for the purpofe of giving the public an account of his
labours and difcoveries. Malouin was economical, bnt
at the fame time very difinterefted. After two years
of very lucrative practice, he left Paris and went to
Verfailles, where he faw very few patients, obferving
that he had retired to the court. His principal works
are, 1. Traite de Chlmie, 1734, i2mo. 2. Chimie me¬
dic male, z vols i2mo, 1755 i a book full of curious
obiervations, and written in a chafte and well adapted
ftyle. He had the character of a laborious chemift ;
nnd he was a well informed and even a diftinguilhed
one for the age in which he lived : but his knowledge
of chemiftry, it mult be confefled, was very imperfedt,
compared with the ftate of the fcience in the prefent
age, in which it has alfumed a new face, that proba¬
bly will not be the lalt. 3. Some of the Arts
in the Colleftion publilhed by the academy of
fciences on the arts and profeflions. A circum-
ftance1 which happened at a meeting of the academy
does as muph honour to his heart, as any of his works
do to his underftanding. A new treatife on the
art of baking, wdrerein fome of Malouin’s ideas were
combated, was read- by M. Parmentier before his fel¬
lows, among whom was the old doftor. The young
academician, who knew how eafily felf-love is hurt,
was afraid to meet his looks: but no fooner was the
reading finifhed, than Malouin went up to him, and
embracing him, “ Receive my refpefts (faid he), you
have feen farther into the fubjedf than I did.” 4. He
was likewife the author of the chemical articles in the
Encyclopedic.
Of the fame family was Charles Malov'w, who gra¬
duated as a doftor of medicine in the univerfity of Caen,
and died in 1718 in the flower of his age. He publilh¬
ed a Treatife on Solids and Fluids, Paris 1718, i2mo.
MALPAS, a town of Chelhire, 166 miles from
London. It Hands on a high hill, not far from the
river Dee, on the borders of Shroplhire ; has a gram-
mar-fchool, and an holpital, and had formerly a caftle.
It is called in Latin Mala Platea> i. e. “ 111 Street,”
and was, for the fame reafon, by the Normans, called
Alai Pas; but its three ftreets, of which it chiefly
confifts, are now well paved ; and here is a benefice
rich enough to fupport two rectors, who officiate al¬
ternately in its llately church. It has a good market
on Mondays, and three fairs in the year.
MALPIGHI (Marcellus), an eminent Italian phy-
fician and anatomiil in the 17th century. He ttudied
under Maffari and Mariano. The duke of Tufcany
invited him to Pifa, to be profeflbr of phyfic there. In
this city he contracted an intimate acquaintance with
Borelli, to whom he afcribed all the difcoveries he had
made. He went back to Bologna, the air of Pifa not
agreeing with him. Cardinal Antonio Pignatelli, who
had known him while he was legate at Bologna, be¬
ing chofen pope in 1691, under the name oi Inno¬
cent XII. immediately fent for him to Rome, and ap¬
pointed him his phyfician. But this did not hinder Malpighi*,
him from purfuing bis ftudies, and perfecting his Malllla(iuet
works, which have immortalized his memory. He *
died in 1694; and his works, with his life written by
himfelf prefixed, were firft collected and printed at
London, in folio, in 1667.
MALPIGHIA, Barbadoes cherry, a genus of
the trigynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 23d
order, Trihilata, The calyx is pentaphyllous, with mel¬
liferous pores on the outlide at the bafe. There are
five petals, roundifli, and unguiculated: the berry unilo¬
cular, and trifpermous. There are eight or ten fpecies,
all of them fhrubby evergreens of the warm parts of
America, rifing witlp branchy Items from 8 or 10 to 15
or 20 feet high, ornamented with oval and lanceolate en¬
tire leaves, and large pentapetalous flowers, fucceeded
by red, cherry-ihaped, eatable berries, of an acid and
palatable . flavour ; and which, in the Weft Indies,
where they grow naturally, are ufed inftead of cher¬
ries. Three of the fpecies are reared in our gardens,
and make a fine variety in the ftove. They retain their
leaves all the year round ; and begin to flower about
the end of autumn, continuing in conftant fucceffion
till the fpring; after which they frequently produce
and ripen their fruit, which commonly equals the fize
Of a fmall cherry. The flowers are of a pale-red or
purple colour. Thefe plants are propagated by feed,
which mull be fown in fpring, in pots of rich earth :
then plunge them in a hot-bed ; and when the plants
are three or four inches high, prick them in feparate
fmall pots, give water, and plunge them in the bark-
bed of the ftove ; where after they have remained a
year or two, they may be placed in any part of it.
They may even be placed in the open air during a
month or two of the hotteft weather in fummer ; but
mull be carefully fupplied with water during the whole
year.
MALPLAQUET, a village of the Netherlands, in
Hainault, famous for a molt bloody battle fought here
on the nth of September 1709, between the French
under old marlhal Villars, and the allies commanded by
prince Eugene and the duke of Marlborough. The
French army amounted to 120,000 men; and were
polled behind the woods of La Marte and Taniers, in
the neighbourhood of Malplaquet. They had fortified
their fituation in fuch a manner with lines, hedges,
and trees laid acrofs, that they feemed to be quite in-
acceffible. In this fituation they expeded certain vic¬
tory ; and even the common foldiers were fo eager to
engage, that they flung away the bread which had
been juft given them, though they had taken no fufte-
nance for a whole day before. The allied army began
the attack early in the morning, being favoured by a
thick fog. The chief fury of their impreffion was
made upon the left of the enemy ; and with fuch fuc-
cefs, that, notwithftanding their lines and barricadoes,
the French were in lefs than an hour driven from their
entrenchments. But on the enemy’s right the combat
was fuftained with much greater obftinacy. The
Dutch, who carried on the attack, drove them from
their firft line ; but were repulfed from the fecond with
great daughter. The prince of Orange, who headed
that attack, perfifted in his efforts with incredible per-
feverance
M A L [ 487 3 M A L
Malt, feverance and intrepidity, though two horfes had been
killed under him, and the greater part of his officers
flain and difabled. - At lall, however, the French
were obliged to yield up the field of battle ; but not
till after having fold a dear-bought viclory. Villars
being dangeroufiy wounded, they made an excellent
retreat under the condudf of Bouflers, and took poll
near Guefnoy and Valenciennes. The conquerors took
poffeffion of the field of battle, on which above 20,000
of their bell troops lay dead. The lofs of the French,
it is faid, did not exceed 8000; and marlhal Villars con¬
fidently afferted, that, if he had not been difabled, he
would hiive gained an undoubted viAory.
MALT denotes barley cured, or prepared to fit it
for making a potable liquor, under a denomination of
leer or ale. See Brewing.
'MjiLT-Liquors have different names as well as diffe¬
rent virtue1, properties, and ufes, both from the diffe¬
rent manners of preparing the malt; whence they are
diftinguilhed into pale and brown ; and from the diffe¬
rent manners of preparing or brewing the liquors them-
felves; whence they are divided into beer and ale, Jlrong
and /mu//, new and old.
Malt drinks are either pale or brown, as the malt is
more or lefs dried on the kiln j that which is the
flendereft dried tinging the liquor kail in brewing,
and therefore being called pale ; whereas that higher
dried, and as it were roafted, makes it of a higher
colour. A mixture of both thefe makes an amber
colour ; whence feveral of thefe liquors take, their
name.
Now, it is certain, ths pale malt has moll of the
natural grain in it, and is therefore the moll nourilh-
ing ; but, for the fame reafon, it requires a ftronger
conllitution to digeft it. Thofe who drink much of
it, are ufually fat and fleek in their bloom, but are
often cut off by fudden. fevers; or, if they avoid this,
they fall early into a diftempered old age.
The brown malt makes a drink much lefs vifcid,
and fitter to pafs the feveral ftrainers of the body;
but, if very ftrong, it may lead on to the fame incon¬
veniences with the pale : though a fingle debauch
wears off much more eafily in the brown.
Dr Quincy obferves, that the beft pale malt liquors
are thofe brewed with hard waters, as thofe of fprihgs
and wells, becaufe the mineral particles, wherewith
thefe waters are impregnated, help to prevent the co-
hefions of thofe drawn from the grain, and enable them
to pafs the proper fecretions the better as the vifcid
particles of the grain do likewife defend thefe from
doing the mifchief they might otherwife occafion.
But fofter waters feem beft fuited to draw, out the fubr
ftance of high-dried malts, which retain many fiery par¬
ticles in their contexture, and are therefore beft loft in
a fmooth vehicle.
For the differences in the preparation of malt Hr
quors, they chiefly confift in the ufe of hops, as in
beer; or in the more fparing ufe of them, as in ale.
The difference made by hops is beft difcovered
from the nature and quality of the hops themfelves :
thefe are known to. be a fubtle grateful bitter ; in
their compofition, therefore,, with this liquor, they
add fomewhatof an alkaline nature, f. e. particles that
are fublime, aftive, and rigid. By which means, the
togy vifcid parts of the malt are more divided and
fubtilized : and are therefore not only rendered more
eafy of digeftiou and fecretion in the body, but alfo,
while in the liquor, they prevent it from running
into fuch cohefions as would make it ropy, vapid, and
four.
For want of this, in unhopped drinks, that clam¬
my fweetnefs, which they retain after working, foon.
turns them acid and unlit for ufe; which happens
fooner or latter in proportion to the ftrength they
receive from the malt, and the comminution that has
undergone by fermentation.
It is a common opinion, that ale is more diuretic
than beer ; that is, liquor lefs hopped more than that
with a greater quantity of hops in it: which may hold
in fome conftitutions; becaufe ale being more fmooth,
foftening, and relaxing, where urine is to be promo¬
ted by enlarging the paffage, as in thin, dry conftitu¬
tions, this is the moft likely to effeft it. But, where
the promoting of urine is to be done by attenuating
and breaking the juices, and rendering them more fluid,
it is certainly belt anfwered by thofe drinks which are
well hopped.
As to the difpute, whether or no hops.tend to breed
the ftone ; it is too long to enter upon here. Quincy
is of opinion, there is but little reafon for the affirma¬
tive fide of the queftion ; and in the general, makes no
fcruple to fay, that, for one conftitution damaged by
beer, there are numbers fpoiled by ale. This lall ma-
nifeftly fouls the glands, fluffs the veffels with flime
and vifcidity, makes the body unwieldy and corpulent,
and paves the way for cachexies, jaundice, afthmas, and
at laft incurable dropfies. The urinary paffages, alfo,.
which it is fuppofed to clear, will, in time, be filled
by it with. Hough, and matter of as ill confequence as
gravel.
The different ftrengths of malt liquors alfo make
their effedts different. The ftronger they are, the
more vifcid parts they carry into the blood ; and
though the fpirituous parts make thefe imperceptible at
firft ; yet when thofe are evaporated, which will be in.
a few hours, the other will be fenfibly felt by pains in
the head, naufeoufnefs at the ftomach, and'laflitude or
liltlcflhefs to motion. This thofe are the moft fen-
fible of who have experienced, the extremes of drink?
ing thefe liquors and wines ; for a debauch of wine,
they find much fooner worn, off, and they are much,
more lively and brifk afterwards, than after fuddling
malt liquors, whofe vifcid remains will be long before
they be lhaken off.
Malt liquors therefore are,, in general,, the more
wliolefome for being fmall; i. e. of fuch. a ftrength as
is liable to carry a fmall degree of warmth'into the
ftomach, but not fo great as to prevent their beings
proper diluters of the neceffary food. Indeed, in ro-
buft people, or thofe who labour hard, the vifeidities
of the drink may. be broken into convenient nourilh-
ment.; but in perfons of another habit and way of living,,
they ferve rather to promote obftru&ions and ill hu¬
mours..
The age of malt liquors is the laft thing by which,
they are. rendered more or lefs whokfome. Age feems .
to .do . nearly the fame thing as hops; for thofe liquors
which are longeft kept are certainly the kaft vifcid;
age breaking the vifcid parts, and by degrees ren?
dering them fmaller, and fitter for fecrction.
But:
M A L [ 488 ] M A L
But this is always determined according to their
drength ; in proportion to which, they will fooner or
later come to their full perfection as well as decay ;
for, when ale or beer is kept till its particles are bro¬
ken and comminuted as far as they are capable, then
it is that they are beft; and, beyond this, they will
be continually on the decay, till the finer fpirits are
entirely efcaped, and the remainder becomes vapid and
four.
MALT-Diftillery. This is an extenfive article of
trade, and by which very large fortune:, are made.
The art is to convert fermented malt liquors into a
clear inflammable fpirit, which may be either fold forufe
in the common ftate of a proof Itrength, that is, the fame
ftrength with French brandy ; or is rectified into that
purer fpirit ufually fold under the name of fpirit of
wine; or made into compound cordial waters, by be¬
ing diftilled again from herbs and other ingredients.
See Brewing and Wash.
To brew with malt in the tnoft advantageous man¬
ner, it is neceflary, 1. That the fubjeCt be well pre¬
pared ; 2. That the water be fuitable and duly ap¬
plied ; and, 3. That fome certain additions be ufed,
or alterations made, according to the feafon of the
year, and the intention of the operator: and by a pro¬
per regulation in thefe refpeCts, all the fermentable
parts of the fubjeft will thus be brought into the tinc¬
ture, and become fit for fermentation.
The due preparation of the fubjeCt confifts in its be¬
ing juftly malted and well ground. When the grain
is not fufficiently malted, it is apt to prove hard, fo
'that the water can have but very little power to dif-
folve its fubftance ; and if it be too much malted, a
part of the fermentable matter is loft in that opera¬
tion. The harder and more flirty the malt is, the
finer it ought to be ground; and in all cafes, when
intended for diftillation, it is advifable to reduce it to
a kind of finer or coarfer meal. When the malt is
thus ground, it is found by experience that great part
of the time, trouble, and expence of the brewing is
faved by it, and yet as large a quantity of fpirit will
be produced; for thus the whole fubftance of the malt
may remain mixed among the tinCture, and^be fer¬
mented and diftilled among it. This is a particular
that very well defeives the attention of the malt di-
ftiller as that trade is at prefent carried on ; for the
difpatch of the bufinefs, and the quantity of fpirit
procured, is more attended to than the purity or per¬
fection of it.
The fecret of this matter depends upon the thorough¬
ly mixing or briikly agitating and throwing the meal
about, fir ft in cold and then in hot water; and re¬
peating this agitation after the fermentation is over,
'when the thick turbid wafh being immediately com¬
mitted to the ftill already hot and dewy with work¬
ing, there is no danger of burning, unlefs by accident,
even with ut the farther trouble of ftirring, wdiich
in this cafe is found needlefs, though the quantity, be
ever- fo large, provided that requifite care and clean-
linefs be uied ; and thus the bufinefs of brewing and
fermenting may very commodioufly be performed to¬
gether, and reduced to one Angle operation. What¬
ever water is made choice of, it mult ftand in a hot
ftate upon the prepared malt, efpecially if a clear
tinCture be defined; but a known and very great inconve-
Nu 193-
mence attends its being applied too hot, or too near
to a ftate of boiling, or even fcalding with regard to
the hand, lo fave time in this cafe, and to prevent
the malt running into lumps and clods, the beft way
is to put a certain meafured quantity of cold water
to the malt firft; the malt is then to be ftirred very
well with this, fo as to form a fort of thin uniform
pafte or pudding; after which the remaining quan¬
tity of water requited maybe added in a ftate of boil¬
ing, without the lead danger of making what, in the
diitillers language, is called a puddcn.
In this manner the due and neceflary degree of heat
in the water, for the extracting all the virtues of the
malt, may be hit upon very expeditioufly, and with
a great deal of exaCtnefs, as the heat of boiling water
is a fixed itandard which may be let down to any de¬
gree by a proportionate mixture of cold water, due
allowances being made for the feafon of the year, and
for the temperature of the air.
This little obvious improvement, added to the me¬
thod juft above hinted for the reducing brewing and
fermentation to one operation, will render it practi¬
cable to very confiderable advantage, and the fpirit
improved in quality as well as quantity.
A much more profitable method than that ufually
praCtifed for the fermenting malt for diftillation, in or-
der to get its fpirit, is the following: take ten pounds
of malt reduced to a fine meal, and three pounds of
common wheat-meal: add to thefe two gallons of cold
water, and ftir them well together ; then add five gal¬
lons of water, boiling hot, and ftir altogether again.
.Let the whole ftand two hours, and then ftir it again ;
and when grown cold, add to it two ounces of folid
yeaft, and let it by loofely covered in a warmiih place
to ferment.
1 his is the Dutch method of preparing what they
call the <wajh for malt fpirit, whereby they fave much
trouble and procure a large quantity of fipirit: thus
commodioufly reducing the two bufineffes of brew¬
ing and fermenting to one Angle operation. In Eng¬
land the method is to draw and maih for fpirit as they
ordinarily do for_ beer, only inftead of boiling the
wort, they pump it into large coolers, and afterwards
run it into their fermenting backs, to be there fer¬
mented with yeaft. Thus they bellow twice as much
labour as is necessary, and lofealarge quantity of their
fpirit by leaving the grofs bottont.s out of the ftill for
fear of burning.
All Ample fpirits may be confidered in the three
different Hates of low wines, proof fpirit, and alcohol,
the intermediate degrees of ftrength being of lefs ge¬
neral ufe j and they are to be judged of only accord¬
ing as- they approach to or recede from thefe. Eow
wines at a medium contain a fixth part of pure in¬
flammable fpirit, five times as much water as fpirit
neceflarily arifing in the operation with a boiling
heat. Proof goods contain about one half of the fame
totally inflammable fpirit; and alcohol entirely confifts
of it.
Malt low-wines, prepared in the common way, are
exceeding naufeous; they have, however, a natural vi-
noiity or pungent agreeable acidity, which would
render the fpirit agreeable to the palate were it not
for the large quantity of the grofs oil of the malt
that abounds in it. When this oil is detained in fome
meafure
M A L [ 489 1 UAL
fnrafure from mixing itfelf among the low wines, by
1 the ftretching a coarfe flannel over the neck of the ftill
or at the orifice of the worm, the fpirit becomes much
purer in all refpe&s; it is lefs fulfome to the tafte,
lefs offenfive to the fmell, and lefs milky to the
eye. When thefe low wines, in the reftification
into proof-fpirits, are diftilled gently, they leave a
confiderable quantity of this grofs fetid oil behind
them in the ftill along with the phlegm; but if
the fire be made fierce, this oil is again raifed
and brought over with the fpirit; and being now bro¬
ken foraewhat more fine, it impregnates it in a more
naufeous manner than at firft. This is the common
fault both of the melt diftiller and of the re&ifier; the
latter, inftead of feparating the fpirit from this nafty
oil, which is the principal intent of his procefs, at¬
tends only to the leaving the phlegm in fuch quantity
behind, that the fpirit may be of a due ftrength as
proof or marketable goods, and brings over the oil in
a worfe ftate than before. To this inattention to the
proper bufinefs of the procefs, it is owing, That the
fpirit, after its feveral re&ifications, as they are mifcal-
led, is often found more ftinking than when delivered
out of the hands of the malt diftiller. All this may
be prevented by the taking more time in the fubfequent
diftillations, and keeping the fire low and regular; the
fudden ftirring of the fire, and the h£fty way of throw¬
ing on the frefti fuel,being the general occafion of throw¬
ing up the oil by fpurts, where the fire in general, du¬
ring the procefs, has not been fo large as to do that
mifchief.
The ufe of a balneum marise, inftead of the common
ftill, would effeftually prevent all this mifchief, and
give a purer fpirit in one rectification than can other-
wife be procured in ten, or indeed according to the
-common methods at all.
Malt low wine, when brought to the ftandard of
proof fpirit, lofes its milky colour, and is perfectly
clear and bright, no more oil being contained in it
than is perfectly diflblved by the alcohol, and rendered
ipifcible with that proportion of phlegm, which is a-
bout one half the liquor; its tafte alfo is cleaner, tho’
not more plcafant; there being lefs of the thick oil
to hang on the tongue than its own form ; which is
not the cafe in the low wines, where the oil being un-
diflblved, adheres to the mouth in its own form, and
does not pafs lightly over it.
When proof-fpirit of malt is diftilled over again, in
order to be rectified into alcohol, or, as we ufually
call it, fpirits of wine, if the fire be raifed at the time
when the faints begin to fall off, a very confiderable
quantity of oil will be raifed by it, and will run in
the vifible form of oil from the nofe of the worm.
This is not peculiar to malt fpirit; but the French
brandy (hows the fame phenomenon, and that in fo
great a degree, that half an ounc» of this oil may be
obtained from a fingle piece of brandy.
Malt fpirit, more than any other kind, requires to
be brought into the form of alcohol, before it can be
ufed internally, efgecially as it is now commonly made
up in the proof ftate, with as much of this naufeous
and vifeous oil as will give it a good crown of bubbles.
For this reafon it ought to be reduced to an alcohol,
or totally inflammable fpirit, before it is admitted into
any of the medicinal compofitions. If it be ufed with-
Vol. X. Part II.
out this prev ous caution, the odious tafte of the malt
oil will be di inguilhed among all the other flavours of
the ingredients.
Malt fpirit, w'hen it has once been reduced to the
true form of an alcohol, is afterwards more fit for &11
the curious internal ufes than even French brandy ; it
being after this purification a more uniform, hungry,
taftelefs, and impregnable fpirit, than any other fpirit*
which we efteem fo much finer,
A pure fpirit being thus procured, fhould be kept
carefully in vefiels of glafs or ftone, well flopped, to
prevent the evaporation of any of its volatile part. If
preferved in calks, it is apt to impregnate itfelf very
ftrongly with the wood. The quantity of pure alco¬
hol obtainable from a certain quantity of malt, differs
according to the goodnefs of the fubjeft, the manner
of the operation, the feafon of the year, and the ikil-
fulnefs of the workmen; according to which vari¬
ations, a quarter of malt will afford from eight or nine
to thirteen or fourteen gallons of alcohol. This fhould
encourage the malt diftiller to be careful and diligent
in his bufinefs, as fo very large a part of his profit de¬
pends wholly on the well conducing his proceffes.
After every operation in this bufinefs, there re¬
mains a quantity of faints, which in their own coarfij
ftate ought never to be admitted into the pure fpirit;
thefe are to be faved together, and large quantities of
them at once wrought into alcohol. It is eafy to re¬
duce thefe to fuch a ftate that they will ferve for lamp-
fpirits. ' Their difagreeable flavour being corrected by
the adding of aromatics during the diftillations, the
reducing them into a perfect and pure alcohol is prac¬
ticable, but not without fuch difficulties as render-it
fcarce w orth the trader’s while. One way of doing it
is by diftilling them from water into water, and that
u'ith a very flow fire. By this means a pure alcohol
may be made out of the fouleft faints.
The malt diftiller always gives his fpirit a fingle rec¬
tification per fe., in order to purify it a little, and make
it up proof; but in this ftate it is not to be reckoned
fit for internal ufes, but ferves to be diftliled into ge¬
neva and other ordinary compound ftrong waters for
the vulgar.
The Dutch, who carry on a great trade wfith malt fpi¬
rit, never give it any farther re&ification than this }
and it is on this account, that the malt fpirit of Eng¬
land is in general fo much more in efteem. The Dutch
method is only to diftil the wafh into low wines, and
then to full proof fpirit; they then dire&ly make it
into geneva, or elfe fend it as it is to Germany, Gui¬
nea, and the Eaft-Indies, for the Dutch have little
notion of our reftification. Their fpirit is by this
means rendered very foul and coarfe, and is rendered
yet more naufeous by the immoderate ufe they make
of rye-meal. Malt fpirit, in its unreftified ftate, is
ufually found 1 to have the common bubble proof, as the
malt diftiller knows that it will not be marketable
without it.
The whole matter requifite? to this is, that it have
a confiderable portion of the grofs oil of the malt
well broke and mixed along with it; this gives the
rectifier a great deal of trouble if he will have the fpi¬
rit fine ; but in the general run of the bufinefs, the
reftifier does not take out this oil, but breaks it finer,
and mixes it fafter in by alkaline falts, and difguifes its
3 talle
M A L
tafte by the addition of certain flavouring ingredients.
The fpirit lofes in thefe proceffes the vinofity it had
when it came out of the hands of the malt diftiller,
I 49° ]
M A L
otherwise prevent the confumption of malt. This is
under the management of the commiflioners of the e
eife ; and is indeed itfelf no other than the annual e
and is in all refpeds worfe, except in the difguife of cife. In 1760, an additional perpetual excife of ad. per
i mixed flavoui
The alkaline falls ufed by the rectifier deftroying
the natural vinofity of the fpirit, it is necefiajry to add
an extraneous acid in order to give it a new one. The
acid they generally ufe is the fpiritus nitri dulcis; and
the common way of ufing it is the mixing it to the
tafte with the rectified fpirit: this gives our malt fpi¬
rit, when well rectified, a flavour fomewhat like that
of French brandy, but this foon flies off; and the better
method is to add a proper quantity of Glauber’s ftrong
fpirit of nitre to the fpirit in the ftill. The liquor in
this cafe comes over impregnated with it, and the acid
being more intimately mixed, the flavour is retained.
MjLT-Brui/er, or Bruijing-mil/. It has been found
by repeated experiments, that bruifing malt is a more
advantageous method than the old one of grinding and
flouring. By bruifing, there is not only lefs wafte,
but the malt is alfo better fitted for giving out all its
virtues. It has lately, therefore, become a pra&ice to
fqueeze malt between rollers, by means of a proper ap¬
paratus, of which various conftrudlions have been in^
vented. As the beft contrivance of this fort is faid to
be the bruifing-mill of Mr Winlaw, we have given a
figure of it on Plate CCLXXXII. where AAAA is
the frame; B, the large cylinder or roller; C, the
fmall one; D, the hopper; E, the fhoe; F, the frame
that fupports the hopper; G, a fly-wheel; H, the
windlas. To ufe this engine, it is directed to ferew
the large roller up to the fmall one, and not to feed
two fait from the thoe, which is regulated by pins that
have firings fixed to them. It is evident, that when
two fmooth furfaces are oppofed to each other at a di¬
fiance which can be regulated at pleafure, neither
grain nor any other fimilar fubitance can pafs between
them without being bruifed. This being the principle
on which the bruifing-mill atts, the meally fubftance,
which is the efiential part of malt, is entirely removed
from the flrin or hulk which contains it, and all the
virtues of the malt are with eafe extracted by the wa¬
ter in a manner fuperior to what is affefted when the
grain is only cut by grinding. • The operation is at
the fame time fo expeditioufiy performed, that two
men can with eafe bruife a buftiel of malt in a minute.
—By the fame engine may alfo be bruifed oats and
beans for borfes. A great part of the corn given thefe
animals, it is well known, is fwallowed whole, and
often pafles through them in the fame ftate; in which
cafe, they cannot receive any nourifhment from the
grains that are unbroken r but when bruifed in this
engine, it eafes maftication ; and every grain being
prepared for nutrition, a much lefs quantity will of
courfe be found to be fufficient. For bmifing beans,
the two regulating ferews muft be unferewed a little ;
and the fly-wheel requires to be then fet in motion
with the hand, on account that the rollers are then a
little fpacc apart, and will not turn each other before
. the beans come between them.
M/ur-Tax, is the fum of 750,000!. raifed every
year by parliament fince 1697, by a duty of 6d. on
the bufliel of malt, and a proportionable fum on cer¬
tain liquors, fuch as cyder and perry, which might
bufliel was laid upon malt ; and in 1763, a proportial
excife was laid upon cyder and perry, but new-modelled
in 1766. See Excise.
MALTA, a celebrated ifland of the Mediterranean,
fituated between the 15 th and 16th degrees of eaft
longitude, and between the 35th and 36th degrees of
north latitude. It is about 19 or 20 leagues in length,
nine or ten in breadth, and 60 in circumference. Anl
ciently it was called Mehta; and is fuppofed by Clu- .r
verius, from its fit nation and other particulars, to be hiltorv If
the Hipena mentioned by Homer, whence the Pheacesthe ifland.
were afterwards driven by the Phenicians, and retired
into Scheria and the ifland of Corfu ; which is the more
probable, as the ancient poet places the mountain Me-
lita in that ifland. He has likewife brought fome
probable arguments to prove, that Melita or Malta
is the ancient Ogygia; in which the famed nymph
Calypfo, daughter of the Ocean and Thetis, recei¬
ved the (hipwrecked Ulyfles, and detained him feven
years.
The moft ancient pofleflbrs of Malta, of whom we
have any certain account, were the Carthaginians; from
whom it was taken by the Romans: and yet during
the whole time that it continued under the power of
thefe polite nations, it was almofl entirely barren. The
foil was partly fandy and partly rocky, having fcarce-
ly any depth of earth ; and withal fo ftony, that it
was hardly capable of producing corn or any other
grain except cummin, and fome feeds of a fimilar na¬
ture. Its chief produds were figs, melons, honey,
cotton, and fome few other fruits and commodities
which the inhabitants exchanged for corn ; and in this
barren ftate it feems to have continued till it came into
the pofiefiion of the Maltefe knights. It laboured al¬
fo under great fcarcity of vvater and fuel: upon all
which accounts it was till that time but tlu'nly inhabi¬
ted, there being only about 30 or 40 boroughs or other
villages fcattered about, and no city except the capital,
called alfo Malta, and the town and foil of St Ange¬
lo, which defended the harbour : fo that the whole
number of its inhabitants did not exceed 12,000, in¬
cluding women and children; the greateft part of whom
were very indigent.
According to an ancient tradition, Malta was firft
poffefled by an African prince named Battus, an ene¬
my to queen Dido; from whom it was taken by the
Carthaginians, as may be juftly inferred from feveral
Punic inferiptions to be feen on ftone-pillars and other
monuments yet Handing. From the Carthaginians it
palled to the Romans, who made themfelves mailers of
it at the fame time that they fubdued the illand of Si¬
cily. ■ Thefe were driven out by the A rabs in the year
828 ; who were driven out of it in their turn by Ro¬
ger the Norman, earl of Sicily, who took poflelfion of
it in 1190: from which time it continued under the
dominion of the Sicilian princes till the time of Char.V.
when it fell under his power, along with Naples and
Sicily. To cover the illand of Sicily from the Turks, MaIt^
Charles gave the ifland to the knights of Rhodes, finceven to the
that time called knights of Malta. knights of1
The origin and hiftory of thefe knights is given un- Rhe(i«»'
1 der
M A L [ 401 ] M A L
Malta, der the article Knights of Malta and Rhodrs. Here
  it is fufficient to obferve, that in 1530, the knights of
Rhodes having been expelled from that ifland by Soli-
man the Turkilh fultan, and deftitute of an habitation,
accepted, tho’ not without fome reluftance on account
of its barrennefs, the offer made them by Charles V. of
the ifland of Malta. The grand mafter having caufed
his two large carracks, the galleys of the order, and
a good number of other tranfport-flu’ps laden with great
quantities of arms, ammunition, and troops, to be got
ready, he and his knights embarked in the former,
with all the effeCts, records, and treafure belonging to
the order, and the reft in the latter. In their pafiage
they fuffered very much by a violent ftorm ; in which
one of their galleys fplit upon a rock> and one of the
carracks was run aground by the violence of the waves,
after having broke her three anchors. She ftuck fo
faff, that they expe&ed every moment to fee her fplit
in pieces; when providentially a contrary wind difen-
gaged her without damage. This event was counted as
a lucky omen, and on the 26th of O&ober that year
all the company were fafely landed.
At the firft landing of the Maltefe knights, they'
found themfelves obliged to lodge in a very poor town
or borough at the foot of the hill on which ftands the.
caftle of St Angelo, and where their only habitations
were fifhermens huts. The grand-mafter, with the
principal knights, took poffeffion of the caftle, where
the accommodations were fomewhat better: tho’ thefe,
too were very mean, and out of repair. Three days
after, he took pofleffion of the city, which was for¬
merly called Malta, but fince that time hath taken
the name of the Notable City ; and after that, of the
whole ifland of Malta, and the neighbouring one of
Gofa. ,
The firft care of the knights, after having fettled
their authority through the two iflands, was to provide
fome better accommodation for the prefcnt, and to
choofe a proper place where to fix their habitation.
But as the ifland had no other defence than the old
caftle of St Angelo, and was fo much expofed on all
Tides, that it would have required greater fums than
their exhaufted treafury could fpare to put it in a
proper ftate of defence ; the grand-mafter was obli¬
ged to content himfelf with furrounding the borough
abovementioned, wherein he had ordered new buildings
to be reared for the prefent habitation of his knights,
with a ftqut wall, to prevent its being furprifed by the
Turkifh and Barbary corfairs. His defign indeed,
at this time, was not to have fixed the abode of the
knights in the bare and defencelefs ifland of Malta,
3 but to ftay in it only till he had got a fufficient force to
They at- attempt the conqueft of Modon, a town of the Morea,
cnn^ueft of an^ was not onty a populous and opulent place,
Modon but lay very convenient for making an attempt on the
without ifland of Rhodes, their ancient habitation, and to
fuccefs. which they were naturally attached. This, however,
did not hinder his taking all proper meafures for fecu-
ring Malta as well as Gofa, and laying out a proper
plan for fecuring them from attacks, in cafe the defign
on Modon fhould fail.
In the mean time, as fuperftition was then univer-
fally prevalent, the grand-mafter, among other preci¬
ous relics which they had brought from Rhodes, cau¬
fed the arm of St Catharine to be carried in proeef- Malt*.
fion to the cathedral. Whilft they were on their march,
one of the cehtinels gave them notice, that a large
Turkiflr merchantman was wrecked on their coaft. The
grand-raafter immediately difpatched fome of hi*,
knights and foldiers thither; who finding Ifaac the
patron of the (hip, a native of Modon, and one Mauri-
thifala Nocher, an excellent engineer, they were re¬
tained in the fervice of the order, and the latter was
immediately employed in fortifying the ifland.
The knights were hardly fettled in Malta, when the
emperor, and other European potentates, endeavoured
to engage them in a war with the inhabitants of Bar¬
bary, as the city of Tripoli, then held by Charles, was
in great danger of falling into the hands of the infi¬
dels. The attempt on Modon, however, was firft
made ; but it.proved unfuccefsful through the bafe ava¬
rice of the Maltefe forces : for they having been ad¬
mitted into the city, during the night began to mur¬
der and plunder the inhabitants, without waiting for
the arrival of the galleys which were coming to their
affiftance. The confequence was, - that the inhabitants
armed, and a defperate battle began ; in which the
Maltefe, notwithftanding the utmoft efforts, were obli¬
ged to retire, but not till they had loaded themfelves
with plunder, and carried away 800 women captive. 4
The grand-mafter, looking upon this difappointment join the
as a fign that Providence had ordained Malta to be emperor
the refidence of the knights, did not renew his attempts ^
upon Modon; but, in 1532, joined with the emperor 1 ur 3*
againft the Turks, and fent a great number of bis gal¬
leys to join the confederate fleet under the celebrated
Andrew Doria. In confequence of this aid, the un¬
dertaking proved fuccefsful; and in all probability the
conqueft of Modon would have been accompliflied, had
not the foldiery, difeouraged by the bad fuccefs of the
laft attempt, openly refufed to proceed, and obliged
the emperor to proceed to Coron, another town be¬
longing to the Turks. Through the .valour of the
Maltefe knights, this place was foon obliged to capi¬
tulate ; and in a fecond expedition in 1533, the knights
again diftinguiffied themfelves in a moft eminent man¬
ner. They were quickly recalled, however, by the
grand-mafter to the defence of the ifland, which was
now threatened with an invafion by Barbarofla the ce¬
lebrated Turkiffi corfair, who fcoured thofe feas at the
head of above fourfeore galleys. This invafion, how¬
ever, did not take place ; and in 1534 the grand-ma¬
fter Villiers de L’lfle Adam died, and was fucceeded
by Perino de Ponte, a native of the town of Aft ia
Italy.
The new grand-mafter, who'received intelligence of
his election at St Euphemia in Calabria, very foon af¬
ter received another exprefs, giving an account of the
wars which in that time reigned in Tunis, and the dan¬
ger that Tripoli as well as Malta was in from Barba-
roffa, who was by this time become maftcr both of Al¬
giers and Tunis ; upon which he made all the hafte he
could to his new government. His firft care was to
fend a ftrong reinforcement to Italy ; after which, he
difpatched an embaffy to the emperor, intreating him
to equip a powerful fleet againft Barbaroffa, without
which it would be impoffible for Tripoli to hold out
much longer.
3 Qj5 By
M A L
[ 492 ]
M A L
Mali’. By thisembafly from De Ponte, and another to the
fame purpofe from Muley Haflan, the depofed king
Afri/a in- Tunis, Charles was eafily prevailed on to carry his
vaded by arms into Africa ; in which he was affifted by a great
Charles, m - of the braveft knights, together with 18 bri¬
gantines of different fizes, four of the bell Maltefe gal-
6 leys, and their veffel caMc& thz great carra'k, of itfelf
Defperate almofl equivalent to a fquadron. In this expedition the
valour (f 1 -ni
or, if that failed, to lay fiege to it by fea and land ; in
either of which attempts, they were fure of all the af- *
finance of Barbaroffa and Hayradin, then lord of Ta-
giora. This laft had undertaken the command and
conduft of the whole enterprife 5 but the governor-be¬
ing informed of the defign, prepared to give him
a warm reception. Hayradin came thither with hiss
, whole force in the dead of the night, and began to
the Maltcfe diftinguifhed themfelves in a moft eminent fcale the walls in thofe places where he reckoned them
knights,
manner. At the fiege of Goletta, one of the knights,
named Converfa, an excellent engineer, by means of a
to be moft defencelefs. They no fooner appeared at
the foot of them, than the garrifon, which had been
iarcalonga, got almbft clofe to the great tower, which kept up in arms, poured down fuch ftreams of wild-
he furioufly battered with large cannon, while the
great carrack, which was behind all the reft of the vef-
fels, and by reafon of its height could fire over them,
did prodigious execution. A breach was foon made ;
and hardly was it wide enough to be fcaled, when the
Maltefe knights jumped out of the galleys into their
long-boats, and thence into the fea, with their fwords
in their hands, and waded through the water above
their girdles, it being too (hallow for boats to approach
the (bore. The ftandard-bearer of the order was the
ftrft that jumped into the water, and led the reft to
the attack ; they claiming every where the poll of ho¬
nour. They marched with the greateft refolution
through the moft terrible firing and (bowers of all
kinds of miffile weapons; and, having gained the (hore,
quickly afcended the breach, on the top of,which they
planted their great ftandard. A great number loft
their lives, and fcarce one came off unwounded ; but
the emperor did them the juftice to own, that the ta¬
king the place was chiefly owing to the valour of the
Maltefe knights.
The cit,y of Tunis was foon taken after the fortrefs
of Goletta ; on the furrender of which, the emperor,
'defigning to return into Europe, took his laft dinner
on board the great carrack ; where he was magnifi-
fire, boiling oil, melted lead, &c. and threw fuch vol¬
leys of (tones, while the great and fmall guns fo annoy¬
ed thofe that ftood fartheft off, that great numbers of
them were deftroyed. They perfilled in the attack,
however, with great fury and vigour, till Hayradin,
\frho was foremoft in one of the fcalades, was knocked
down by a mufket-fliot from the top of his ladder. He
fell into the ditch, and was taken up almoftdead ; up¬
on which his troops inftantly difperfed themfelves, and
abandoned the enterprife. The governor of Tripoli,
however, judging that this would not be the laft vifit
of the kind which in all probability he would receive,
immediately difpatched an exprefe to Malta, with pro-
pofals for fortifying the city, and demoliflu’ng a ftrong
tower on that coaft named Alcaid, which was held by
a Turkifli corfair. His advice being approved of, the
commander Botigella, now general of the galleys, was
immediately difpatched with a fufficient force ; who,
having landed his men at Tripoli, immediately march¬
ed, with them and a body of Arab mercenaries to¬
wards Alcaid; and without (laying to open the trench¬
es, or any other covering than his gabions, levelled his
artillery againft it. Hayradin being informed of this,
came with his Turks to its defence ; but was intercep¬
ted by a ftrong detachment of Maltefe knights at the
:ently entertained, and beftowed on the furviving head of the hired Arabs, and repulfed with lofs ; fo
that all he could do was to convey about 50 or 60
Turks into the place, and to annoy the Chriftians with
fome flight (kirmiihes. Botigella, perceiving that his
cannon did not make fuch quick difpatch as he wi(hed.
knights the greateft encomiums, and marks of hi?
efteem and gratitude to the owner. Thefe heaccom-
7 panted with confiderable prefents and with two new
Privileges grants. By the firft, they were allowed to import corn -    r 
conferred ancj provifions from Sicily, without paying duty; fent fome of his galleys ; under the (belter of which he
£v°the ern^ an(^ ^7 t^ie Second, the emperor engaged, that none of quickly fprung a mine, which brought down part of
peror. the order (hould enjoy any of the eftates or revenues, ’""11 —J '—:‘'J —A  r~‘ 
due to Maltefe knights, throughout all his dominions,
unlefs they were lawfully authorized by the grand-ma-
fter and his council; or till the originals had been ex¬
amined and regiftered by himfelf, or fuch minifters as
he (hould appoint for that purpofe. The fleet then fet
fail for Malta; where, on their arrival, they received the
news of the grand-mafter’s death, who was fucceeded
by Didier de Tolon de St Jalle, a native of Provence,
and then nrand prior of Tholoufe, where he relided at
the time of his eledlion.
the wall, and buried moft of the corfairs under it; up¬
on which the reft, feeing the Maltefe knights mount
the breach fword-in-hand, immediately threw down
their arms. The tower was then razed to the ground ;
after which Botigella marched to a town called Ada-
bus, whence he drove Hayradin, who had intrenched
himfelf in it, and gave the plunder to the Arabs. Ira
his return he attacked and took a large Turkifli galley,
the cargo of which was valued at 160,000 crowns, and
had on board 200 perfons; fo that he landed in tri-
iph, and was received with the loud acclamations of
The prefent grand-mafter was a man of great con- the whole order, who came to meet him on his arrival,
daft and bravery, which he had formerly fhown at the Soon after the grand-mafter fell fick and died, and was
fiege of Rhodes ; and the fituation of affairs at this fucceeded by John de Homedes.
^  —1 - ‘—- 'n-- nr>—i-.rt The Maltefe (till continued to behave with their
ilfual valour againfl the Turks ; but, through the ne¬
gligence of Charles V. afmoft all the places held by
the Chriftians on the African coaft were reduced by
the infidels, and the valour exerted by the Maltefe fer*
ved only to deftroy great numbers of them. At laft
the emperor’s affairs in Africa were totally ruined by
5 ^
time? required a perfon of experience. The Turkifh
corfairs, quite tired out with the dreadful havoc made
The Turks among them by Botigella, grand prior of Pifa, who
make an feldom quitted the fea, and never failed out without
uniuccefs- fink;ng fome 0f them, or making confiderable prizes,
•n Tripoli, had agreed to enter into a ftrong confederacy, either
to furprife the city of Tripoli where his retreat was,
M A L [ 493 ] M A L
Ma'ta. his unfuccefsfulexpedition againft Algiers,anaccount
of which was given under that article, rf-' 12—18.
The ?mpe- Here indeed it is thought that the emperor himfelf
ror laved could not have efcaped, had not the Maltefe knights
by the va- repulfed the Turks, who had attacked even the impe-
lour of the rjaj qaarters. They purfued them even to the gates of
knights. the city* and were in hopes of entering it with them ;
but the governor having caufed the gates to be (hut
before the Turks had all got in, the knights were dif-
appointed. When the Spanilh troops reimbarked, the
Maltefe were alfo of great fervice in repullmg the ene¬
my ; and indeed behaved on both occafions with fo
much valour and intrepidity, that the reft of the allies
could not fufficiently admire them. The misfortune,
however, was, that the lofs they fuffered, both of men
and (hips, efpeeially by fome of their beft-commanders,
more than counterbalanced the glory they had gained.
The emperor, before they parted, gave them the mod
.ample teftimony of his fatisfa&ion and gratitude, as
far as words and encomiums could go; after which,
the Maltefe commander fet fail, with the fmall re¬
mains of his knights, in three (hattered veffels, and
arrived fafely at the port of Malta about the end of
November 1548.
While the Maltefe were employed in this unfortu¬
nate expedition, the ifland was fo terribly annoyed by
the Turkifti and other corfairs, that the port was in
fome meafure blocked up by them; whilft the coafts,
both here and at Gofa, lay expofed to frequent infults
and depredations, and often to the lofs of their-inhabi¬
tants. This obliged the Maltefe admiral Simeoni to re¬
fit his galleys with all poffible expedition, and again put
to fea in quell of thefe enemies. In this enterpnfe he
fucceeded fo well, that he fent home a great number of
the corfair captains in chains. Being obliged to put
in at the port of Tripoli, the governor informed him,
that he had juft received an exprefs from the king of
Tunis, acquainting him that Barbaroffa was making
the mod preffing complaints to the Porte againft the
Maltefe knights, whilft his lieutenant Morat. Haga
was making great preparations at .Tachora for the
fiege of Tripoli, which' he doubted not would be fol¬
lowed by that of Tunis; the king having become
odious to the Turks and Moors on account of his al¬
liance with the emperor ; after whofe late difafter a
great number of towns in that kingdonvhad revolted
from him, and a much greater number of his fubje&s
had put themfelves under the protedtion of the Alge¬
rine monarch, who was expedled (hortly from Conitan-
tinople at the head of a powerful fleet.
On the receipt of thefe unwelcome news, an embaf-
fy was fent to the emperor, in order to perfuade him
to caufe the fortifications of Tripoli be repaired; but
To without fuccefs. All that could be obtained was fair
The Turks words and promifes ; the confequence of which was,
take Tripo- that the Maltefe made mod violent and almoft incre-
k, ami re- exertj'0ns againft their enemies, till at lad Soli-
e>pe! die man re^vt“d to expel the knights from Malta, as he
knights had before done from Rhodes. To this he was chief-
fr. m Mai- ly inftigated by Dragut, an old experienced corfair,
»*• who had obtained the command of his fleet after the
death of Barbarofla. The fiege was accordingly com¬
menced in 1551; but, by a ftratagem, the Turkilh com¬
mander was induced to depart. However, he reduced
the caftle of Gofa and the city of Tripoli. Nothing
happened of great confequence from that time till the Ma
year 1564, when frefh complaints being made to Soli-
man, he propofed, in a grand council, where mod of
his officers attended, to extirpate the knights altoge¬
ther. This defign was ftrenuoully opppofed by Hali,
one of Dragut’s mod experienced captains, who of¬
fered the mod folid reafons againft it; but being over¬
ruled by the reft, an expedition againft Malta was re-
folved upon. . One of the fultan's firft cares was to
fend fome fpies, in the difguife of filhermen, to take a
full view of the ifiand, who found means to bring him
an exadl plan of it, with all its fortifications, havens,
ftrength, the number of its inhabitants, &c. whilft
he was haftening his armaments againft it. By this
time, as the Maltefe had very little reafon to doubt
that the Turkiffi armaments were defigned againft their
ffiand, the viceroy of Sicily, Don Garcia, was ordered
by his mafterto take it in his way to the caftle of Go-
letta, in order to confult with the grand-mafter about
the neceflary means for oppofing fuch a formidable
power. The grand-mafter acquainted him, that, in
cafe of an attack upon Malta, he (hould want both
men and corn ; upon which the viceroy engaged to
fupply him with both on his return to Sicily; in pledge
of which he left one of his fons with him, who was
afterwards admitted into the order. He was no fooner
departed; than the grand-mafter fummoned all the
knights of the order, difperfed through feveral parts
of Europe, to repair to him. Thofe that were in Italy
raifed a body of 2000 foot, to which the viceroy of
Sicily added two companies of Spanifh forces. All the
galleys of the order were employed in tranfportiug
thefe troops, together with all manner of provifions
and ammunition, into the iftand ; and the knights that
were in it, in diftributing, difeiplining, and exercifing
their new levies, as well as the Maltefe militia, againft
the fiege. Thus the grand-mafter favv himfelf ftrength-
ened by the arrival of 600 knights, all of whom
brought with them retinues of (lout good fervants, fit
to afiift in the defence of the illand ; whilft thofe, who
by reafon of age, ficknefs, or other impediments, could
not to repair to him, fold their moft valuable effedls in
order to affift him with their purfes. The pope, on his
part, contented himfelf with fending a fupply of io,oco
crowns f and the king of Spain ordered his viceroy
Don Garcia to raife an army of 20,000 men, to be
ready to fail thither as foon as called for. The grand-
rnafter employed the remainder of his time in vifiting
all the forts, magazines, arfenals, &c. and affigning to-
each tongue their feveral polls, and making all necef-
fary preparations, till the Ottoman fleet appeared in
fight on the 18th of May ijdy. It con filled of 159 I*
large galleys and galleons, carrying onboard 20,000The
torces, janizaries and fpahis, belides the (laves at the
oar, accompanied by a confiderable number of other
veffels, laden with artillery, ammunition, and other ne-
ceffaries for a fiege. The whole armament was com¬
manded by Muftapha Ba(ha, an old experienced offi¬
cer, aged about 85 years, and an old favourite and
confident of the fultan ; of an haughty cruel temper,
who made it a merit to violate his word, and to ufe alt
manner of violence againft the Chriftians, efpecially
againft the Maltefe. This formidable army landed afi
fome diftance from II Borgo, and foon afterwards
fpread themfelves over the country ; fetting fire to the
villages*
Malta.
Defperate
defence of
fort St El¬
mo.
M A L [ 494 1 M A L
villages, putting the peafants to the fword, and carry¬
ing off fuch of the cattle as, notwithftanding the orders
of the grand-mafter, had not been fecured within the
forts and towns.
While the Turks were thus employed, La Valette
(the grand mailer) fent out De Copier, marfhal of
the order, with 200 horfe and 600 foot, to watch their
motions. De Copier, an officer of great experience,
executed his commiffion with fo much prudence and
vigour, that, by falling unexpe&edly on detached par¬
ties, he cut off 1500 Turks, with the lofs only of 80
jnen.
The Turkilh general held a council of war as foon
as all his troops were landed, to affift him in refolving
where he fhould begin his attack. Piali, the Turkilh
admiral, agreeably to what he underftoodto have been
the fultan’s iuftru&ions, was of opinion that they
ought not to enter upon aftion till Dragut ffiould ar¬
rive. But Mullapha having received information of
the king of Spain’s preparations, thought fomething
ought to be done inllantly for the fafety of the fleet;
which lay at prefent in a creek, where it was expofed
to the violence of the call wind, and migjit be attack¬
ed with great advantage by the Spaniards. On this
account he was of opinion, that they Ihould immediate¬
ly lay fiege to a fort called St Elmo, which Hood on a
neck of land near 11 Borgo, having the principal har¬
bour on one fide of it, and on the other another har¬
bour large enough to contain the whole fleet in fafe-
•ty. Tins propofal was approved by a majority of the
council, and Muftapha proceeded without delay to
carry it into execution.
La Valette did not expeft that a place which was
neither ftrong nor large enough to admit a numerous
garrifon, could be defended long againft fo great a
force as was employed to reduce it; but he thought it
neceffary that the fiege of this fort ffiould be prolong¬
ed as much as poffible, in order to give the viceroy of
Sicily time to come to his relief. With this view, he
refolved to throw himfelf into St Elmo, with a feleft
body of troops; and he was preparing to fet out,
when the whole body of knights remonllrated with
fuch earneft importunity againft his leaving the town,
that he at laft confented to fuffer the reinforcement,
which he had prepared, to be condutted to the fort
by a knight called De Medran, upon whofe condudl
and intrepidity he could rely with the moft affured
confidence.
Not long after De Medran’s arrival in the fort, the
garrifon made a vigorous fally, in which they drove
the enemy from their entrenchments, and put a num¬
ber of them to the fword. But the reft foon recover¬
ed from their furprife ; and having returned to the
charge, they compelled the Chriftians to retire. In
this rencounter, the vigorous efforts of the Janifaries
were favoured by the wind, which blew the fmoke
of the guns upon the fort, and covered the befieged
with a thick cloud, through which it was impoffiEle
to difeern the operations of the enemy. This incident
the Turks had the prefence of mind to improve to
very great advantage. They feized, unperceived, up¬
on the counterfcarps; made a lodgment there with
beams, woolfacks, and gabions; and raifed a battery
upon it with incredible expedition. After the fmoke
was difperfed, the befieged beheld what had been done
with much aftoniffiment; and they were the more
difquieted, as the fortification which the Turks had
raifed upon the counterfcarp overtopped a ravelin
which lay near it, in which the befieged could no
longer appear with fafety. They refolved, however,
to defend this ravelin as long as poffible, whatever it
ffiould coft them.
In the mean time Dragut, and another noted Cor-
fair named Uiuchiali, arrived with 20 galleys; having,
befides flaves and feamen, 2500 troops on board. This
reinforcement, and the prefence of Dragut, added
frefli vigour to the operations of the fiege. This gal¬
lant Corfair expofed himfelf, on all oecafions, with the
utmoft intrepidity ; fpent whole days in the trenches
and as, befides his other extraordinary talents, he was
particularly fltilful in the management of artillery, he
caufed fome new batteries to be raifed in more advan¬
tageous fituations than had hitherto been made choice
of; and kept up a continual fire both on the ravelin
above mentioned and a cavalier that covered the fort,
and was one of its principal defences.
This cavalier foon became the only defence which
could prevent the befiegers from coming up to the
very foot of the wall. Some Turkiffi engineers having
approached the ravelin at day-break, to obferve the
effe&s of their artillery, they perceived a gun-port
fo low, that one of them, when mounted on the
ffioulders of another, looked into it, and faw tire
Chriftian foldiers lying on the ground afleep. Of
this they gave immediate information to the troops;
who, advancing as quickly and filently as poffible, and
clapping ladders to the gun-hole, got up into the
ravelin, and cut moft of the Chriftians to pieces.
Between this ravelin and the cavalier lay the ditch,
over which the befieged had thrown a temporary bridge
of planks leading up to the cavalier. The Turks, per¬
ceiving this, leaped inftantly upon the bridge, and at¬
tempted to make themfelves matters of the cavalier, as
they already were of the ravelin. But the garrifon
was now alarmed ; the braveft of the knights haftened
from different quarters to the poll of danger; and,
after an obftinate engagement, they compelled the
Turks to retire into the ravelin. There, obferving
another way of reaching the cavalier by a path from
the bottom of the ditch, they threw themfelves down
without dread or hefitation; and having afeended
by this path to the other fide, they renewed their
attack with greater fury than ever. The combat lafted
from fun-rife till noon, when the knights at laft proved
victorious. About 20 knights and 100 foldiers were
killed; and near 3000 of the enemy.
As the ravelin was open on the fide towards the
fort, the befieged pointed fome cannon againft it, and
made great havock among the infidels. But Muftapha,
fenfible of the value of the acquifition he had made,
poured in freffi foldiers without number, and the pio¬
neers coming forward with wool-facks, planks, and
gabions, put the troops at length in fafety, and made
a lodgment in the ravelin, of which the garrifon were
never afterwards able to difpoffefs them.
The grand-mafter’s concern on account of this dif-
after was greatly augmented, by confidering, that if
could not have happened fo foon without foine negli¬
gence on the part of the garrifon. He fent them*
however, an immediate reinforcement; and both the
fiege
JThe13
knights
dtfn e per-
miifion to
leave the
I fort, but
are refu-
fed.
M A L [ 495 ] M A L
fiege and the defence were carried on with the fame Thefe commiflioners differed very widely in the Malta,
vigour as before. accounts which they delivered at their return. Two • "T
But the fituation of the befieged was now become of them thought it impoflible to defend the fort much
much more dangerous than formerly. The Turks ap- longer. But the third, named Conftantine Caffriot,
plied with unremitting diligence to heighten the ra- a Greek prince, defcended from the famous Albanian
velin till it overtopped the v/all of the fort; and after hero Scanderbeg, whether from ignorafice or a con-
this the garrifon could no longer appear upon the pa- fcioufnefs of greater refources in his native courage
rapet with fafety. Many were killed by the enemy’s than the other two poffeffed, maintained that the gar-
artillery, feveral breaches were made in the wall, and rifon was far from being reduced to the laft extremity;
the hearts of the braved knights began to fail within and to give proof how firmly he was perfuaded of the
them. truth of what he faid, he offered to enter the fort
They agreed therefore, though with much reluc- himfelf, and to undertake the defence of it with fuch
tance, to apply to the grand-mafter for liberty to troops as fliould be willing to accompany himi
quit the fort; and they made choice of the chevalier The grand-mafter, ftrongly impreffed with a fenfe
de Medran for their meffenger. He reprefented that of the neceffity of protracting the fiege, immediately
the fort was in reality no longer tenible; and that, to accepted this offer,- and bellowed the higheft enco-
. continue in it, though only for a few days, would in- miums on Caftriot’s zeal and refolution. Nor did
fallibly occafion the deftruftion of the garrifon. Caftriot find any difficulty in perfuading a fufficient
Molt of the knights in council thought that this number to attend him, who were no lefs zealous and
requeft of the garrifon ought to be immediately grant- refolute than himfelf. The foldiers crowded to his
ed. But la Valette was of a contrary opinion.— ftandard, and were emulous to have their names en-
This he reprefented to the chevalier de Medran ; and rolled for that dangerous fervice in which he had en-
fent him back with inftruftions to remind the knights gaged.
of the vows which they took, at their entrance into When la Valette faw the fpirit by which thefe men
the order, of facrificing their lives for its defence. He were animated, and had no longer any doubt of being
likewife bad him affure them, in his name, that he able by their means to prolong the fiege of the fort;
would not fail to fend them fuch reinforcements as he fent a letter to the knights, acquainting them,
they Ihould Hand in need of; and .was determined, as that he was now willing to give them their difeharge j
foon as it ilrould be neceffary, to come himfelf to their and would immediately fend another garrifon, into
affiftance, with a fixed unalterable pupofe to lay down whofe hands he defired they ffiould be ready to de-
his life fooner than deliver the fort into the hands of liver up the fort, and come themfelves to the town in.
the infidels. the boats in which their fucceffors were to be tranf-
This anfwer had the defired effeft on feveral of the ported,
knights, and particularly on thofe whbfe principles The contents and ftyle of this letter affe&ed the
of honour and attachment to the order were confirmed knights in the moft fenfible manner, and roufed with-
by years. But the greater part of them were much in them that delicate fenfe of honour by which the
diffatisfied. They thought the grand-mafter’s treat- order had been fo long and fo eminently diftinguilhed.
ment of them harffi and cruel; and wrote him a letter, —Tr ey refolved without hefitation to remain in the
fubferibed by 53; in which, after repeating their for- fort till every man fliould perifh, rather than either
mer requeft, they informed him, that if he did not, deliver it to the new garrifoir or abandon it to the
on the next night, fend boats to carry them to the enemy. And they went in a body to the governor,
town, they were determined to fally out into the and intreated him to inform the grand-mafter of their
Turkifli camp, where they might fall honourably, by repentance, and to join with them in praying that
the fword, inftead of fuffering fuch an ignominious they might be fuffered to wipe out the remembrance
death as they had reafon to expedl if the fort was of their fault by their future eondudl.
taken by ftorm. The grand-mafter fuffered himfelf at laft to be over-
To this letter la Valette replied, “ That they were come; and henceforth the garrifon, difmiffing all
much miftaken if they expected to fatisfy their honour thoughts of their own fafety, were intent on nothing
by throwing away their lives ; fince it was no lefs but how to prolong the defence.
their duty to fubmit to his authority, than to facrifice The grand-mafter fent them every night frefh troops
their lives in defence of the order: that the preferva- to fupply the place of the killed and wounded; and
tion of the whole depended on their prefent obedience kept them well furniihed with proviiions, ammunition,. ,4
to his commands: that no aid was to be expefted and fire-works. Of thefe laft: he had invented a par- Inventton
from Spain if the fort were given up. And that if he ticular kind, which confiited of hoops of wood, covered'of burtI‘Ri?
fliould yield to their requeft, and bring them to the with wool, and fteeped in boiling oil and other in-il0' ps'
town, the town itfelf would then be immediately in- flammable liquors, mixed with nitre and gunpowder,
veiled; and they, as well as the reft, foon afterwards To thefe machines they fet fire, and threw them
reduced to a fituation more defperate than that from flaming in the midft of the enemy when they were
which they were fo folicitous to efeape, by deferting crowded together at an affault. It happened often
an important poll which they had undertaken to de- that two or three of the Turks were hooked together
fend.” Befides this letter, he fent tliree commiffioners and fcorched to death; and the utmoft confuiion was
(to examine the ftate of the fortifications; intending by produced wherever they were thrown,
this meafure either to gain time or to prevent the gar- The befieged flood much in need of this, .and every
rifon from finking into defpair. other inftrument of mifehief that could be devifed, for.
their:
M A L t 49*5 1 M A L
Malta, their defence. In fpite of the moft vigorous oppofi-
tion, the Turks had call a bridge over the ditch, and
begun to fap and undermine the wall. From the 17th
of June to the 14th of July, not a fingle day palled
without fome rencounter; and Muftapha had fre¬
quently attempted to fcale the wall of the fort, but
had been as often repulfed with the lofs of fome of the
braveft of his troops.
Alhamed at having been detained Jo long before a
place of fuch inconliderable Hrength, he refolved to
make one great decifive effort; and to bring to the
afiault as many of his forces as the fituation of the
place would permit him to employ. He had already
made feveral breaches; but in order to feciire the fuc-
cefs of the aflault which he now intended, he kept his
batteries playing all the 15th without intermiflion, till
the wall on that fide where he defigned his attack was
almoft level with the rock. On the 16th, the fleet
was drawn up before funrife, as near the fort as the
depth of the water would allow. Four thoufand muf-
keteers and archers were ftationed in the trenches:
and the reft of the troops, upon a fignal given, ad¬
vanced to the breach. The garrifon was prepared to
receive them ; the breach was lined with feveral j-anks
of foldiers, having the knights interfperfed among
them at certain dillances. The Turks attempted often
to break through this determined band, and to over¬
power them with their numbers ; but their numbers
i'erved only to augment the lofs which they fuftained.
Every fliot from the fort did execution. The artillery
made dreadful havoc among them ; and the burning
hoops were employed with aftoniflring fuccefs. The
novelty of thefe machines, and the fhrieks of thofe
who were caught in them, added greatly to the terror
which they infpired; and made it impofiible for the
Turkiftr officers to keep their men firm and fteady
in purfuing the advantages which, had they pre-
ferved their ranks, their numbers muft have infallibly
acquired.
At length Muftapha, after having continued the
aflault for more than fix hours, without gaining a
fingle inch of ground on the befieged, gave orders for
founding a retreat. In this attack the garrifon loft
about 20 knights and 300 foldiers; but this lofs was
immediately fupplied by a reinforcement from the
town ; and Muftapha was at laft convinced, that, un-
lefs the communication between the fort and the town
were cut off, it would be impoflible to bring the fiege
of the former to a period, while any troops remained
in the other parts of the ifland. By the advice of Dra-
gut, he refolved to extend his trenches and batteries on
the fide next the .'wn, till they fhould reach to that
part of the fea, or gn. d harbour, where thofe fupplies
were landed which the g^nd-mafter daily fent to the
garrifon. This undertaK:ng he knew muft be at¬
tended with the utmoft difficulty, becaufe all the fpace
between his ihtrenchments, and the point to which it
was neceffary to extend them, lay expofed to the artil¬
lery both of fort St Elmo and St Angelo. In viewing
the ground, a Sangiac, in whom he put confidence,
was killed by his fide ; and, which was ftill a more
irreparable lofs, Dragut received a mortal wound, of
which he died in a few days. This did not, however,
difcourage Muftapha from purfuing his defign. By
employing his troops and pioneers at the work day
N°X93.
and night, without intermiffion, he at length carried Maks*
it into execution. Then having planted batteries “
along the (bore, and filled his trenches with mufke-
teers, it was impoffible for any boat to pafs from the
town to the fort without the moil imminent danger of
either being funk or intercepted.
After this precaution, he refumed with frefh vigour
his attempts to take the fort by ftorm. On the 2 ill
he made four different affaults: all of which the gavri-
fon withftood; and, in repulfing fo many thoufand
brave and well-difcipined troops, difplayed a degree
of prowefs and fortitude which almoft exceeds belief,
and is beyond the power of defeription. But this
heroic garrifon w^s now exceedingly reduced in num¬
ber ; and there was the ftrongeft reafon to apprehend,
that, in one aflault more, they muft inevitably be
overpowered, unlefs a reinforcement were fent them
from the town. Of their defperate fituation they gave
intelligence to the grand-mafter by one who fwam
acrofs the harbour in the night. Tie boats were in-
ftantly filled with knights and other foldiers, who ge-
neroufly refolved to devote themfelves to certain de-
ftruftion for the general fafety, and the prefervatiort
of the fort. They fet off from the town with as
much alacrity as if they had entertained the moft
fanguine hopes of victory ; but they found the Turks
every where fo much upon their guard, and the lines
fo ftrongly defended, that, after feveral fruitlefs at¬
tempts to land, they were at laft obliged to return,
deprefled with forrow for the fate of their brave com¬
panions.
The garrifon, now defpainng of relief, gave them¬
felves up for loft ; but inftead of either capitulating
or attempting to efcape, they prepared for death, and
paffed the night in prayer and in receiving the facra-
ment; after which they embraced one another ten¬
derly, and then repaired to their refpeiSlive polls;
while fuch of the wounded as had been difabled from
walking, were, at their own earned defire, carried to
the fide of the breach, where they waited, without
difmay, for the approach of the Turkifh army.
Early in the morning of the 23d of July, the Turks
advanced to the affault with loud ftiouts, as to certain
vidlory, which they believed fo fmall a handful of men
as now remained in the fort would not dare to difpute
with them. In this expedition they were difappoint-
ed. The garrifon being refolved on death,, and de-
fpifing danger, were more than men; and exerted
degree of prowefs and valour that filled their enemies [ak^n anc}
with amazement. The combat lafted upwards of four he earn-
hours, till not only every knight but every foldier had fon cut off.
fallen, except two or three who had faved themfelves
by fwimming. The Turkilh colours were then plant¬
ed on the ramparts ; and the fleet entered the har¬
bour, which the fort commanded, in a kind of triumph.
When Mullapha took a view of the fort, and examined
its fize and fortifications, he could not refrain from
faying, “ What will not the father coll us (meaning
the town), when the fon, who is fo fmall, l as coll fo
many thoufands of our braveft troops ?” But this re¬
flexion, far from exciting his admiration of that he¬
roic fortitude whiejh he had found fo difficult to over¬
come, ferved only to infpire him with a brutal fury.
He ordered all fuch of the garrifon as were found n*
lying on the breach alive to be ript open, and their
hearts " *
M A L l 497 J M A L
Malta, hearts torn out: and, as an infult on the knights and
U—y—« rei;g;on> lie caufed their dead bodies to be fearch-
ed for, and large gaihes to be made in them, in the
form of a crofs; after which he tied them on planks,
and threw them into the fea, to be carried by the
wind and tide to the town or fort St Angelo.
The grand-mafter was at firft melted into tears at
this (hocking fpe&ade ; but his grief was foon con¬
verted into indignation and revenge: and thefe paffions
betrayed him into an aftion unworthy of the exalted
And'of the charafter which he/bore. In order to teach the ba-
grand-m t- lha, as he pretended, to make war with lefs barbarity,
ker. he caufed all the Turks whom he had taken prifoners.
to be maffacred; and then putting their heads into
his largeft cannon, he (hot them into the Turkilh
camp.
In the fiege which has been related, the order
loft about 1500 men, including 130 of the braveft
knights.
Muftapha vainly imagined, that, being intimidated
by the fate of their companions, they would be now
inclined to liften to terms of capitulation: and in this
hope, he fent an officer with a white flag to one of
the gates, attended by a Chriftian Have defigned to
ferve for his interpreter. The Turk was not allowed
to enter within the town ; but the Chriftian was ad¬
mitted, and was led through feveral ranks of foldiers
under arms by an officer, who, after (bowing him all
the fortifications of the place, defired him to take
particular notice of the depth and breadth of the
ditch, and faid to him, “ See there, the only fpot we
can afford your general; and there we hope foon to
bury him and all his Janifaries.”
This infulting fpeech being reported by the (lave,
excited in the fiery mind of the bafha the higheft de¬
gree of wrath and indignation, and made him refolve
to exert himfelf to the utmoft in the profecution of
the fiege. His troops, though greatly dimxniftied,
were ftill fufficient to inv,eft at once both the town
and the fort of St Michael. He kept a conftant fire
on both; but he intended firft to apply to the reduc¬
tion of the latter, which he propofed to attack both
by land and water, at the extremity of the peninfula
on which it Hands. In order to accomplifh this de-
iign, it was neceffary he (hould have fotne (hipping
introduced into the harbour for tranfporting»his forces.
But the mouth of the harbour having been rendered
inacceffible by a great iron chain and the cannon of
St Angelo, his defign muft have been relinquilhed, if
Piali had not fuggefted an expedient againft which
the grand-mafter had not provided. This was, to
make the Chriftian (laves-and the crews of the (hips
draw a number of boats, by the ftrength of their
arms, over the neck of land on which flood fort St
Elmo. Of this propofal, which Muftapha immedi¬
ately adopted, information was carried to the grand-
mafter by a Turkilh officer; who, being by birth a
Greek, was touched fuddenly with remorfe, and de-
ferted to the Chriftians. In confequence of this in¬
telligence, La Valette-fet a great number of hands to
work in framing a ftacado along that part of the pro¬
montory whei-e the Turks intended their attack; and
at another part, where the depth of the water or the
hardnefs of the bottom would not admit the ftacado,
he caufed ftrong intrenchments to be made upon the
' Vol. X. Part II.
beach. Muftapha, in the mean time, fired Inceffantly Malt*,
upon the fort, while the flaves and crews were em-“T““
ployed in tranfporting the boats over land into the
harbour. At length the baftia, judging that the
number of boats which he had tranfported would be
fufficient, and that the breaches which his artillery
had made were practicable, refolved, without further
delay, to make an attack both by fea and land. He
was the more confident of fuccefs, as, fincc the taking
of St Elmo, he had received a confiderable reinforce¬
ment, by the arrival of Hafeem, fon of Barbaroffa,
with 25 00 felett foldiers, commonly called the Bravoet
of Algiers. Hafeem, who poffeffed a confiderable
(hare of his father’s fire, and was ambitious to diftin-
guifin himfelf in the fultan’s fervice, hegged of Malta*
pha to intruft him with the affault of fort St Michael;
and vaunted, with his natural arrogance, that be
would foon make himfelf mafter of it fword-in-hand.
The bafha, whether from an opinion of his valour, or
an intention to make him learn at his own expence
the folly of his prefumption, readily complied with
his requeft ; and, having added 6000 men to his Al¬
gerines, he promifed to fupport him with the reft of
his army.
Hafeem divided his forces with Candeliffa, an old
corfair, his lieutenant; to whom he committed the at¬
tack by fea, whilft he referved that on the land-fide to
himfelf. ' '
Candeliffa having put his troops on board the boats,
fet out with drums beating, and hautboys and other
mufical inftruments playing, preceded by a boat filled
with Mahometan priefts, fome of whom were employ¬
ed in offering prayers to heaven for his fuccefs, or in
finging hymns; while others had books in their
hands, out of which they read imprecations againft
the Chriftians. Candeliffa attempted firft to break
down the ftacado which had been formed to obftniCl
his landing; but finding it much ftronger than he ex-
peCted, and that, while he was employed in demolilh-
ing it, his troops muft fuffer greatly from the enemy’s
fire, lie thought it would be eafier to make a defeent
on that part of the (hore which rthe grand-mafter had
ftrengthened with entrenchments. At this important
poll, the Chriftian troops were commanded by an an-' ^
ciertt knight of the name of Guimeran. This expe-The Turks
rienced officer referved his fire till the Turks had ad-repaired
vanced within a little diftance of the (hore, when, by aw'th r.fea?
fingle difeharge, he killed about 400 men. This didllaUS‘iXC'
not prevent the reft from approaching. Candeliffa
pulhed forwards while the Chriftians were loading
their cannon, and landed at the head of his Algerines.
But Guimeran having referved fome canpon charged
with grape-(hot, did dreadful execution among them
after they had landed, and many of them began to fly
to their boats: which Candeliffa obferving, he com¬
manded the boats to be put off to a little diftance from
the (hore. His troops, perceiving then that they muft
either die or conquer, took courage from defpair, and
advanced boldly to the intrenchment, with ladders for
fealing it in one hand and their fabres in the other..
The combatants on both (ides difpiayed the moft in¬
trepid valour. Great numbers fell, and the ditch was-
choaked with blood, and with the bodies of the dead
and wounded. The Turks at laft, after an engage¬
ment of five hours, reached the top of the entrench-
3 R ment,
M A L [ 498 f M A L
Malta, ment, and there planted their enfigns. The knights,
ftung with fhame on account of their retreat, return¬
ed with redoubled ardour. But they would probably
have been overpowered by the fuperior number of the
enemy, had not the grand-mafter fent them a feafon-
able reinforcement, under the admiral de Giou and
the chevalier, jje Quiney; who fell upon the Alge¬
rines and Turks with a degree of fury that ftruck ter¬
ror into Candeliffa himfelf, who was noted for his in¬
trepidity. Having ordered the boats to be brought
nearer the fhore, he was among the firil who fled. His
bravoes fought defperately for feme time after he had
left them; but were at length thrown down from the
intrenchments, and compelled to fly to their boats with
the utmofl: precipitation. The ChriAians purfued them,
and the batteries continued tiring on them without
intermiflion. Many of the boats were funk; the wa¬
ter was covered with dead bodies, mangled limbs,
thields, and helmets. Of the 4000 who had been fent
on this enterprife, fcarcely 500 remained, and many of
thefe were dangeroufly wounded.
Hafcem was not more fortunate in his aflault by
land than Candelifla was by fea. After having been
repulfed at one breach with great flaughter, he rallied
his troops, and led them on to another, where he
fought long and defperately, till, moA of the bravoes
having fallen by his fide, he was obliged, with much
reluctance and forrow, to found a retreat.
Muflapha, not unmindful of his promife to fupport
him, no fooner perceived him beginning to retire, than
I9 he ordered the Janifaries, whom he kept under arms,
Incredible to advance. The garrifon had maintained an engage-
valour of ment with Hafcem for five hours, in the middle of the
UfcMal" day, and in the hotteA feafon of the year; yet, as if
they had not been fubjeft to the wants and weakneffes
of humanity, they advanced beyond the breach to
meet the Janifaries, and fought apparently with as
much vigour and fortitude as before. By the pow<jr
of fuperior numbers, they were compelled to fall back
within the breach. But there they made the moA de-
fperate refiftance; and, being reinforced by De Giou
and De Quiney, with the troops which had triumph¬
ed over Candelifla, they at laA repulfed the Janifaries
with dreadful flaughter ; after having loA more than
40 knights, and 200 of the braveft of the common
men.
MuAapha, enraged by" this invincible obftinacy
which the ChriAians difplayed in their defence, and
dreading that the Spanifh fuccours, which had been
already delayed much longer than he expefted, might
foon arrive, refolved now to employ his whole force at
once; and while he himfelf profecuted the fiege of fort
St Michael with one half 01 his troops, to employ the
other, under Piali, againA the town. More batteries
were raifed; the trenches were advanced Aill nearer
than before ; bridges of fail-yards and maAs were
thrown over the ditches ; mines, notwithAanding the
hard and rocky foil, were fprung; aflaults were re¬
peated without number; and the two hafhas, emulous
of one another, and eaqh of them agitated with con¬
tinual anxiety leA victory fliould declare firA for his
competitor, exhibited the moA fhining proofs of per-
fonal courage, and exhauAed all the art of war then,
known in the world. Yet, through the determined
bravery of the knights, conducted by the grand-ma¬
fter with conftimmate prudence and indefatigable vi- Mdau
gilance, the Turks were baffled in every attempt, and *
repulfed with flaughter. .Muftapha flattered himfelf A
once with the moft fanguine hopes of fuccefs on his number of
part, from a machine invented by his principal engi- I’ur.^s Je-
neer, in the form of a huge calk bound ftrongly withft'oyed.by
iron hoops, and filled with gunpowder, nails, chains, of
bullets, and fuch other inftruments of death. After their owa,
fetting fire to a train which was faftened to this ma¬
chine, it was thrown, by the force of an engine, upon
a ravelin that was the principal defence of the fort.
But the garrifon, undifmayed, found means, before it
caught fire, to caft it out again into the midft of the
aflailants- In a moment afterwards it burft with
dreadful fury, and filled the Turks with confternation^
The knights then fallied out upon them fword-in-hand j
and, taking advantage of their confufion, killed many
of them, and put the reft to flight.
Piali had, on feme occafions, ftill more reafon than
Muftapha to entertain the hopes of viftory, although
the town was much ilronger than the fort and La Va-
lette commanded there in perfon. By his batteries he
had demoliflied all the out-works of the place, and had
made an immenfe breach in the wall. While his
troops were engaged in a furious aflault, that engrofled
the whole attention of the befleged from morning till
night, he employed a great number of pioneers in rai-
flng a cavalier or platform of earth and ftones, clofe by
the breach, and fo high as to overlook the parapet.
Night, in the mean time, came on, and prevented him
from carrying any further this great advantage; but he
doubted not that next day he ihould be able to make
himfelf mafter of the place. iT
As foon as he had drawn off his forces, a council ofThe gran®,
the order was convened, and moft of the knights were niafter Pre-
of opinion that the town was no longer tenible; that/6-'*!*116
the fortifications which ftill remained ihould be blown from aban-
up ; and that the garrifon and inhabitants fliould retire-iloring the
into the caftle of St Angelo. But the grand-mafter.town*
received this propofal with horror and indignation.
“ This would be in effeA (faid he) to deliver the
whole ifland into the hands of the infidels. Fort St
Michael, which has been fo gallantly defended, and
which is preferved by its communication with the town,
would thus be foon reduced to the neceffity of furren¬
dering. There is no room in the caftle of St Angelo,
for the inhabitants and troops; nor, if there were
room, is there water in that fort for fo great a num¬
ber.” It was then propofed, that at leaft the relics of
the faints and the ornaments of the churches fliould be
carried into the caftle ; and the knights earneftly in-
treated the grand-mafter to retire into it himfelf, af-
furing him that they would conduit the defence with,
the utmoft vigour and vigilance. “ No, my brethren
(he replied), what you propofe as to the facred things
would ferve only to intimidate the foldiers. We muft
conceal our apprehenfions. It is here we muft either
die or conquer. And is it poffible that I, at the age
of 71, can end my life fo honourably as in fighting,,
together with my friends and brethren, againft the
implacable enemies of our holy faith ? He then told
them what he thought proper to be done, and proceeded
i iftantly to put it into execution. Having called all
the foldiers from fort St Angelo, except a few who
were neceffary for managing the artillery, he, employed
theca
M A L l 499 1 M A L
Malta, thefti arid the inhabitants all night in throwing up in-
v  trenchments within the breach ; after which he fent
out feme of the braveft knights, with a feleft body of
troops, to make an attempt on the cavalier. Thefe
men Hole foftly along the foot of the wall till they
arrived at the place appointed; when they fet up a
loud (hout, and attacked the guards whom Piali had
left there with fo much fury, that the Turks, believing
the whole garrifon had fallen upon them, abandoned
their poll, and fled precipitately to their camp. .
The cavalier was immediately fortitied, a battery of
cannon planted on it, and a parapet raifed on the fide
towards the enemy. And thus the breach was ren¬
dered imprafticable; the town put in greater fecurity
than before; and a work, which had been devifed for its
deftruftion, converted into a bulwark for its defence.
The grand-mafter had now greater confidence than"
ever of being able to hold out till the Spaniards Ihould
come to his relief. In confiequence of the aflurances
given by Philip and the Sicilian viceroy, he had, long
before this time, entertained the hopes of their arri¬
val ; and had often earneftly folicited the viceroy to
haften his departure from Mefllna. The conduft of this
nobleman was long exceedingly myfterious. The pa¬
tience of the knights was worn out by his delays; and
they, and many others, fufpe&ed that the real motive
of his conduct was the dread of encountering with an
admiral of fo confiderable reputation as Piali. But it
afterwards appeared that the viceroy had a&ed agree¬
ably to his inllruftions from the court of Spain. For
although Philip was, for the reafons above mentioned,
fincerely interefted in the prefervation of the knights,
and had amufed them'with the moll flattering promifes
of afiillance; yet he feems from the firft to have re-
folved not to ex-pofe himfelf to danger on that account,
and to avoid if pofiible a general engagement.
Ungrateful A generous and grateful prince would have afted
and unge- very differently towards an ally fo deferving of his
nero s con* fupport; and if either generofity or gratitude had
du&ofthe j)een the leading principle of Philip’s conduct, it is
Spaim * probable he would, on this occaiion, have regarded
the knights as his own fubjedls; and have thought it
no lefs incumbent on him to exert himfelf in their de¬
fence, than if they had acknowledged him as their fo-
vereign.
But Philip was affefted by their danger only fo far
as it threatened the tranquillity of his own dominions.
He had refolved to interpofe in their behalf, rather
than to fuffer them to be overpowered; but he appears
to have been very little touched with their calamities,
and to have intended to leave them to themfelves, as
long as there was any profpeft of their being able to
make refiftance ; by doing which he confidered, that
he w'ould not only preferve his own llrength entire, but
might afterwards engage with the Turks when they
were exhaufled by the operations of the fiege.
Philipadhered inflexibly to this plan, notw'ithftanding
the grand-mafler’s repeated importunities, much longer
than was confiftent with his own felfifh views For,
without a degree of fortitude and prowefs on the part
of the garrifon, and a degree of wifdom, vigilance,
and magnanimity on that of the grand-raafter, infi¬
nitely higher than there could be reafon to expert, it
mufi. have been impoflible for fuch a handful of men to
have witliftood, fox fo long a time, fo .great a force,
2
and fuch mighty efforts, as were employed to reduce Malrj.
them. Even the death of the grand-malter alone; *' 1 v
whofe perfon was expofed to perpetual danger, would
have proved fatal to the knights, long before Philip
fent orders to his viceroy to give tfiem any effeflual
fupport; and in this cafe, as his own dominions or
his fleet would have been immediately attacked, he
would probably have had little reafon to be fatisfied
with the timid ungenerous counfels which he purfued.
Whatever judgment may be formed on this head,
the viceroy did not think himfelf at liberty to yield to
the repeated applications of the grand-mailer, till the
operations of the fiege beg£n to relax, and the Turkifh
forces were reduced from • ",oo to 1.5,000 or 16,000 ;
of whom many were worn out with the fatigues which
they had undergone, and others rendered unfit for ac¬
tion by a bloody-flux, which for feveral weeks had ra¬
ged amongft them.
In this fituation of affairs, when it was probable that
the knights would, without affiftance, have compelled
the Turks to raife the fiege, the viceroy let the grand
mailer know, that he had now received fuch inflruc-
tions from the king, as put it in his power to Ihowhis
attachment to the order: that he was not indeed per¬
mitted to attack the Turkifh fleet; but that he would
immediately bring him a flrong body of troops, whofe
commanders (as he himielf muff return to Sicily w'ere
to be entirely fubjecl to the grand-maller’s authority
till the enemy fhould be expelled. ^
The viceroy, altho’ Hill fufpedled of interpofing un- The
neceflary delays, at length Rilfilled his promife; and ;ht$
on the 7th of September landed 6000 men, under rie'vea
Don Alvaro de Sande and Afcanio della Corna, in that ^len£rCC~
part of the ifiand which lay at the grcatefl diftance
from the Turks; after which, he immediately carried
back the fleet to Sicily.
In the mean time, intelligence being brought to
Muflapha that the Spaniards were landed, and march¬
ing towards him, he was thrown into, the moll dread¬
ful conllernation, Senfible that his foldiers were much
difheartened by their ill fuccefs, he imagined that he
was about to he attacked by a fuperior army, confin¬
ing of the bravell and bell difeiplined troops in Spain.
Without waiting for information of their number, he TKeTui-ki
forthwith raifed the fiege, drew his garrifon out of St raife the
Elmo, and, leaving all his heavy cannon behind him, fiege in a.
embarked his troops with as much precipitation as if'Paalc-
the Spaniards with fuperior forces had been in fight.
He had fcarcely got on board when a deferter arri¬
ved from the Spanifh camp, and informed him, that
with 15,000 or 16,oco men, he had fled before an ar¬
my that did not exceed 6000, having no general at
their head, and commanded by officers who were in¬
dependent of one another. The bafha was overwhelm¬
ed with fliame and vexation by this intelligence, and
would have immediately difembarked ; but this, he
knew, he durft not attempt without confulting Piali,
Hafcem, and his other principal officers.
While he was deliberating upon it, the grand-ma¬
fter improved to the bell advantage the leifure that was
afforded him. Fie employed all the inhabitants, men,
women, and children, as well as the foldiers, in filling
up the enemy’s trenches, and •demolifhing their works-;
and put a garrifon without delay into fort St Elmo; in
which the Turks now beheld from their ffilps the ttan-
3 R a dard
M A L [ 500 ] M A L
«3ard of St John erefted, where that of Mahomet had news of their deKverance gave univerfal joy to the Chri-
lately ftood. ftian powers ; and the name of the grand-mafter exci-
Thxs demonftrated to Mullapha how much new la- ted every where the higheft admiration and applaufe.
hour awaited him in cafe he fliould return to the fiege ; Congratulations were fent him from every quarter ; and
but being enraged againft himfelf on account of the in many Hates public rejoicings were celebrated on ac-
precipitancy of Ins retreat, and drfquieted at the count of his fuccefs.
thoughts of the reception which he had reafon to ex- With this fiege is concluded every thing of impor-
pe& from Solyman, he vvilhed to atone for his impru- tance in the hiltory of Malta. The power of the
deuce, and* to wipe oif the reproach in which it had Turks began about this time to be fo much circum-
involved him, by victory or death. Piali, who, from feribed, that they ceafed to be formidable to theChri-
his jealoufy of the bafha’s-credit with the fultan, was ftian nations, and the knights of Malta had no longer
hot forry for the failure of his eiiterprife, reprefented an opportunity of exerting their valour as formerly,
in a council of war convened on this occafion, That as They have remained ever fmee in quiet poffeflion of
the troops were much difpirited and worn out, it would their ifland, of which the beft defeription we have
be expofing them to certain deftruftion, either to lead . met with is that given by Mr Brydone.
them againft the enemy, or to refume the operations “ The approach of the ifland (fays he) is very fine,
of the fiege. But a majority of the council were of a although the fhofe is rather low and rocky. It is every-
different opinion ; and it was refolved to land the for- where made inacceffible to an enemy by an infinite
ccs again without delay. number of fortifications. The rock, in many places,
The Turkifti foldiers complained bitterly of this un- has been floped into the form'of a glacis, with ftrong
expected refolution, and obeyed the orders to difem- parapets and intrenchments running behind it.—On
- bark with the greateft reluftance. Their officers were gerting afliore we found ourfelves in a new world in-
obliged.to employ threats wit'- fon.e and force with deed.—The ftreets (of Valetta) crowded with well-
others. At length the number intended was put on dreffed people, who have all the appearance of health
fnore, ahd Multapha fet out at their head in fearch of and affluence; and we were conducted by the Englifli
the enemy. conful to an inn, which had more the appearance of a
The grand-mafter had not neglefted to give early palace,
notice of their march to the Spanifli commanders, “ After dinner we went to vifit the principal villas
•who had intrenched their little army on a fteep hill, of the ifland ; particularly thofe of the grand-mafter
which the Turks would have found almoft inacceffible; and the general of the galleys, which lie contiguous
and it was tiie opinion of fome of the principal offi- to one another. Thefe are nothing great or magni-
cers, that they ftiould avail themfelves of the advan- ficent; but they are admirably contrived for a hot
tage of their fituation, and Hand on their defence, climate, where, of all things, (hade is the moft de-
But this propofal was rejected with'difdain by the bold Arable. The orange-groves are indeed very fine, and
adventurous De Sande, and the greateft part of the the fruit they bear fuperior to any thing of the kind
Spanifh officers; and the troops were led out of their in Spain or Portugal.
encampment, to meet the enemy in the open field. “ The afpecl of the country is far from being plea-
This conduct, more fortunate perhaps than prudent, fing : the whole ifland is a great rock of very white
contributed to increafe the deje&ion of the Turkifh free-ftone; and the foil that covers this rock is, in
foldiers, and to facilitate their defeat. Having been moft places, not more than five or fix inches deep ; yet,
•dragged againft their inclination to the field of battle, what is Angular, we found their crop in general was
and being attacked by the Spaniards with great fury, exceedingly abundant. They account for it from the
both in front and flank, they fcarcely fought, but, copious dews that fall during the fpring and fum-
being ftruek with a fudden panic, fled with the utmoft mer months ; and pretend likewife that there is a
precipitation. moifture in the rock below the foil, that is of great
Muftapha, confounded and enraged by this pufilla- advantage.to the corn and Cotton, keeping its roots
nimous behaviour of his troops, was hurried along by perpetually moift and cool: without which Angular
the violent tide of the fugitives. He fell twice from quality, they fay, they could have no crop at all, the
his horfe, and would have been taken prifoner if his heat of the fun being fo exceedingly violent.—The
officers had not refeued him. The Spaniards purfued whole ifland produces corn only fufficient to fupply
brifkly till they came to the fea-fhore. There Piali its inhabitants for five months or little more ; but the
had his boats ready to receive the Turks, and a number crop they moft depend upon is the cotton. They begin
of flrallops filled with mufketeers drawn up to favour to fow it about the middle of May, and continue till
their efcape. Witliout this precaution, they muft all the middle of June ; and the time of reaping is in the
have perilhed ; and, even nfotwithftanding the protec- month of October and.beginning of November,
tlon which it afforded them, the number of their kill- “ They pretend that the cotton produced from this
ed amounted to zcoo men, while the victors loll only plant, which is fown and reaped in four months, is of
13 or 14 at moft. a much fuperior quality to that of the cotton-tree-
Such,. after four months continuance, was the con- I compared them ; but I cannot fay I found it fo :
clufion of the fiege of Malta, which will be for ever this is indeed the fineft; but that of the cotton-tree is
memorable on account of that extraordinary difplay of by much the ftrongeft texture. The plant rifes to the
the moft generous and heroic valour by which the height of a foot and an half; and is covered with a
Anights, fo few in number, were enabled to baffle the number of nuts or pods full of cotton : Thefe, when
aaoft vigorous efforts which could be made to fubdue ripe, they »re at great pains to cut off every morning
she® by the moft powerful monarch in the world. The before fun-rife; for the heat of the fun immediately.
D 'feription
of the
ifland, &c<
M A L [ 501 ] M A L
Malta, turns the cotton yellow; which indeed we faw from enter. Befides ttys, it is fronted by a quadruple bat-
—v  thofe pods they fave for feed. tery, one above the other, the largeft of which is a
« They manufacture their cotton into a great va- four d'eau, or on a level with the water. Thefe are
riety of ftuffs. Their itockings are exceedingly fine, mounted with about 80 of their heavieft artillery : fo
Some of them,' they affured us, had been fold for ten that this harbour, I think, may really be confidered
fequins a-pair. Their coverlets and blankets are as impregnable; and indeed the Turks have ever found
efteemed all over Europe. Of thefe the principal ma- it fo, and I believe ever will.
nufadtures are eftablifhed in the little ifland of Gozzo, “ The harbour on the north fide of the city, al-
wheiK the people are faid to be more induftrious than though they only ufc it for fifhing, and as a place of
thofe of Malta, as they are more excluded from the quarantine, would, in any other part of the world,
world, and have fewer inducements to idlenefs. Here be confidered as ineftimable. It is likevvife defended
the fugar-cane is Hill cultivated with fuccefs, though by very ftrong works; and in the centre of the bafon
not in any confiderable quantity. is an iiland on which they have built a caftle and a
“ The Maltefe oranges certainly deferve the cha- lazaret,
radter they have of being the fineft in the world. The “ The fortifications of Malta are indeed a moll
feafon continues for upwards of feven months, from ftupendous work. AH the boalted catacombs of Rome
November till the middle of June ; during which time and Naples are a trifle, to the immenfe excavations
thofe beautiful trees are always covered with, abun- that have been made in this little ifland. The ditches,
dance of delicious fruit. Many of them are of the red of a vaftfize, are all cut out of the folid rock. Thefe
kind, much fuperior, in my opinion, to the others, extend for a great many miles, and raife our aftoniflr*
which are rather too lufeious. They are produced, I ment to think that fo fmall a Hate has ever been able
am told, from the common orange-bud, ingrafted on to make them.
the pomegranate ftock. The juice of this fruit is as “ One fide of the ifland is fo completely fortified
red as blood, and of a fine flavour. The greateft by nature, that there was nothing left for art. The
part of their crop is fent in prefents to the different rock is of a great height, and abfolutely perpendi-
courts of Europe, and to die relations of the che- cular from the fea for feveral miles. It is very fingu-
valiers. lar, that on this fide there are Hill the veftiges of le-
The induftry of the Maltefe in cultivating their veral ancient roads, with the tracks of carriages worn
little ifland is inconceivable. There is not an inch deep in the rocks. Thefe roads are now terminated
of ground loll in any part of it; and where there was by the precipice, with the feas beneath ; and fliow, to
not foil enough, they have brought over Ihips and a demonftration, that this ifland has formerly been of
boats loaded with it from Sicily, where there is plen- a much larger fize than it is at prefent; but the con-
ty, and to fpare. The whole ifland is full of inclofures vulfion that.occalioned its diminution is probably much
of free-ftone, which give the country a very uncouth beyond the reach of any hiftory or tradition. It has
and barren afpeft; and in fummer refle&sfuch a light been often obl^rved, notwithftanding the very great
and heat, that it is exceedingly difagreeable and oflfen- diftance of mount Aitna, that this ifland has generally
five to the eyes. The inclofures are very fmall and been more or lefs affected by its eruptions; and they
irregular, according to the inclination of the ground, think it probable, that on fome of thefe oecafions a
This, they fay, they are obliged to obferve, notwith- great part of it may have been lhaken into the fea.
Handing the deformity it occafions; otherwife the “ One half of mount ./Etna is clearly difeovered
Hoods, to which they are fubjeft, would foon carry off" from Malta. They reckon the diftance near 200 Ita—
their foil. iian miles. And the people of Malta affirm, that, in
“ The ifland is covered over with country-houfes. great eruptions of the mountain, their whole ifland is
and villages, befides feven cities, for fo they term illuminated, and from the reflection in the water there
them ; but there are only two, the Valetta, and Citta appears a great track of fire all the way from Malta
Vecchia, that by any means deferve that appellation, to Sicily. The thundering of the mountain is like-
Every little village has a noble church, elegantly finiih- wife diflinflly heard.
ed, and adorned with ftatues of marble, rich tapeftry, “ We made an expedition through the ifland in
and a large quantity of filver-plate. coaches drawn by one mule each ; the only kind of ve-
“ The city of Valetta has certainly the happieft hide the ifland affords. The catacombs, not far from
fituation that can be imagined. It Hands upon a the ancient city of Melita,. are a great work : they are
peninfiila between two of the fineft ports in the world, faid to extend for 15 miles under-ground. Many peo-
whick are defended by almoft impregnable fortifica- pie, they affure hs, have been loft in them by advan-
tions. That on the fouth fide of the city is the cing too faT; the prodigious number of branches ma*
largeft. It runs about two miles into the heart of the king it next to impoffible to-find the way out again,
ifland ; and is fo very deep, and furrounded by fuch The great fource of water that fupplies the city of Va-
high grounds and fortifications, that they affured us letta takes its rife near to this place ; and there is an
the largeft ihips of war might ride here in the moft aquedudt, compofed of fome thoufand arches, that con*
Hormy weather, almoft; without a cable. veys it from thence to the city. The whole of this
“ This beautiful bafon is divided into five diilinA immenfe work was finiihed at the private expence of
harbours, aU equally fafe, and each capable of con- one of the grand-mafters.
taming an immenfe number of {hipping. The mouth “ Not far from the old city there is a fmaU church
of the harbour is fcarcely a quarter of a mile broad, dedicated to St Paul; and juft by the church a mi-
and is commanded on each fide by batteries that raculous ftatue of the faint, with a viper on his hand ;;
would, tear the llrongeft ihig to pieces before ike could fuppofed to be placed on the very fpot where the houfe.
flood:
M A L r 50
Malta, ftood in which he was received after his fhipwreck on
the ifland, and where he fliook the viper off his hand
ihto the fire without being hurt by it: at which time
the Maltefe affure us, the faint curfed all the venomous
animals of the ifland, and banifhed them for ever. Whe¬
ther this be the caufe of it or not, the fail is certain
that there are no venomous animals in Malta. They
affured us, that vipers had been brought from Sicily,
and died almoft immediately on their arrival.
“ Adjoining to the church is the celebrated grotto
in which the faint was imprifoned. It is looked upon
with the utmoft reverence and veneration ; and if the
llories they tell of it be true, it is well entitled to it all.
It is exceedingly damp, and produces (I believe by a
kind of petrifaftion from the water) a whitifli-rkind of
flone, which, they affure us, when reduced to powder,
is a fovereign remedy in manydifeafes, and faves the
lives of thoufands every year. There in not a houfe in
the ifland that is not provided with it: and they tell
us there are many boxes of it fent annually, not only
to Sicily and Italy, but likewife to the Levant, and to
the E:ilt Indies; and (what is confidered as a daily
{landing miracle) notwithftanding this perpetual con-
fumption, it has never been exhaufted, nor even fenfi-
bly diminifhed ; the faint always taking care to fupply
them with a frefli-quantity the day following. 1 tailed
fome of it, and believe it is a very harmlefs thing. It
taftes like exceeding bad magnefia, and, I believe, has
pretty much the fame effedls. They give about a tea-
fpoonful of it to children in the fmall-pox and in fe¬
vers. It produces a copious fweat about an hour af¬
ter, and, tiiey fay, never fails to be of fervice. It is
likewife efteemed a certain remedy againll the bite of
all venomous animals. There is a very fine ftatue of
St Paul, in the middle of this grotto, to which they
afcribe great powers.
“ The grand-mailer of the knights of Malta is more
abfolute, and peffeffes more power, than moil fovereign
juinces. His titles are, ferene highnefs and eminence;
and his -houfehold-attendance and court are all very
princely. As he has the difpofal of all lucrative of¬
fices, he makes of his councils what he pleafes; be-
fides, in all the councils that compofe the jurifdi&ion
of this little nation, he himfelf preiides, and has two
votes. He has the difpofal of 21 commanderies, and
one priory, every five years; and as there is always a
number of expectants, he is very much courted. He
is chofen by a committee of 21s which committee is
nominated by the feven nations, three out of each na¬
tion. The election mull be over within three days of
the death of the former grand-mafter; and, during
thefe three day*, there is fcarce a foul that fleeps at
Malta : all is cabal and intrigue; and moil of the
knights are malked, to prevent their particular at¬
tachments and connexions from being known .• the mo¬
ment the -election is over, every thing returns to its
former channel.
“ The land-force -of Malta is equal to the number
of men in-the ifland fit to bear arms. They have about
500 regulars belonging to the flrips of war-; and tyo
compofe the guard of the prince. The two iflands of
Malta and Gozzo contain about 150,000 inhabitants.
The men are exceeding robuft and hardy. I have feen
.them.row for lo’or 12 hours without intermifiion, and
without even-appealing to be fatigued. Their fea-force
2 1 M A L
confiils of 4 gallics, 3 galliots, 4 (hips of 60 guns, and
a frigate of 36, befides a number of the quick-failing
little veffels called fcampavias (literally runaways).
Their (hips, galleys, and fortifications, are not only well
fnpplied with excellent artillery, but they have like¬
wife invented a kind of ordnance of their own, un¬
known to all the world befides. For we found, to our
no fmall amazement, that the rocks were not only cut
into fortifications, but likewife into artillery, to defend
thefe fortifications, being hollowed out, in many places,
into the form of immenfe mortars. The charge is faid
to be about a barrel of gunpowder, over which they
place a large piece of wood, made exaXly to fit the
mouth of the chamber. On this they heap a great
quantity of cannon- balls, (hdls, or other deadly ma¬
terials; and when an enemy’s (hip approaches the har¬
bour, they fire the whole into the air: and they pre¬
tend it produces a very great effeX ; making a (bower
for 200 or 300 yards round, that would fink any vef-
“ Notwithftanding the fuppofed bigotry of the
Maltefe, the fpirit of toleration is fo llrong, that a
mofque has been lately built for their fworn enemies
the Turks. Here the poor (laves are allowed to enjoy
their religion in peace. It happened lately that fome
idle boys difturbed them during their fervice ; they
were immediately fent to prifon, and feverely punilhed.
The police indeed is much better regulated than in the
neighbouring countries, and affaffinations and robberies
are very uncommon ; the laft of which crimes the
grand-mafter punifties with the utmoft feverity. He is
faid to be much more relaxed with regard to the firft.
“ Perhaps Malta is the only country in the world
where duelling is permitted by law. As their whole
eftablilhment is originally founded on the wild and ro¬
mantic principles of chivalry, they have ever found it
too inconfiftent with thofe principles to abolifh duel¬
ling ; but they have laid it under fuch reftriXions as
greatly to leffen its danger. Thefe are curious enough.
The duellifts are obliged to decide their quarrel in one
particular ftreet of the city; and if they prefume to
fight any where elfe, they are liable to the rigour of
the law. But, what is not lefs lingular, but much
more in their favour, they are obliged, under the mod
fevere penalties, to put up their fwords when ordered
to do fo by a woman, a priejl, or a knight. Under thefe
limitations, in the midft of a great city, one would
imagine it almoft impoffible that a .duel could ever end
in blood; however, this is not the cafe: a crofs is al¬
ways painted oppofite to the fpot where a knight has
been killed, in commemoration of his fall. We counted
about 20 of thefe erodes.
“ About three months ago (Mr Brydone’s letter is
dated June 7. 1770), two knights had a difpute at a
billiard-table. One of them, after giving a great deal
of abufive language, added a blow; but, to the afto-
nifhment of all Malta (in whofe annals there is not a
fimilar inftance,, after fo great a provocation, he ab-
folutely refufed to fight his antagonift. The challenge
was repeated, and he had time to refleX on the conle-
quences ; but dill he refufed to enter the lifts. He was
condemned to make the amende honorable in the great
church of St John for 45 days fucceffively ; then to be
confined in a dungeon, without light, for five years;
after which, he is to remain a .prifoncr in the caftle for
Malts. -
M A L r 5°3 1 M A L
life. The unfortunate young man who received this the grand-mailer John de Valette Parifot, and the
" blow is likewife in difgrace, as he has not had an op- , Turks obliged to quit the ifland with great lofs.
portunity of wiping it out in the blood of his adver-
fary.
“ The horfe-races of Malta are of a very uncommon
kind. They are performed without either faddle,
bridle, whip, or fpur; and yet the horfes are faid to
run full fpeed, and to afford a great deal of diverfion.
They are accuftomed to the ground for fome weeks
before; and although it is entirely over rock and pave-
men* there are very feldom any accidents. They have
The knights confifted of eight different languages
or nations, of which the Engliih were formerly the
fixth ; but at prefent they are but feven, the Engliih
having withdrawn themfelves. The firil is' that of Pro¬
vence, whofe chief is grand commendator of religion i
the fecond, of Auvergne ; whofe chief is marefchal of
the order: the third,- of France, whofe chief is grand*
hofpitaler : the fourth, of Italy ; and their chief, ad¬
miral : the fifth, of Arragon ; and their chief, grand*
races of afles and mules performed in the fame manner confervator: the fixth, of Germany ; and their chief,-
four times every year. The rider is only furniilied with
a machine like a ihoemaker’s awl, to prick on his cour¬
ier if he is lazy.
“ As Malta is an epitome of all Europe, and an
aflemblage of the younger brothers, who are common-
grand-bailiff of the order: the feventh, of Caftile ; and
their chief, grand-chancellor. The chief of the Eng-
lifh was grand-commander of the cavalry.
None are admitted into this order but fuch as are of
noble birth both by father and mother’s fide for four
ly the belt, of its firff; families, it is probably one of generations, excepting the natural fons of kings and.
the beft: academies for politenefs in this part of the
globe ; befides, where every one is entitled by law as
well as cuftom to demand fatisfaftion for the lealt
breach of it, people are under a necefiity of being very
ex aft and circumfpeft, both with regard to their words
and aftions.”
Knights of M/irr/i, otherwife called Hofpitalers of
St John of Jerufalem. a religious military order, whofe
refidence is in the illand oF Malta, fituated in the
Mediterranean fea, upon the coaft of Africa. The
Knights of alta, fo famous for defending Chriften-
dom, had,their rife as follows:
Some time before the journey of Godfrey of Bouil¬
lon into the Holy Land, fome Neapolitan merchants.
princes. The knights are of two forts; thofe who have
a right to be candidates for the dignity of grand-ma-
fter, called grand-croffes; and thofe who are only.
knights-ajfiftanti, who are taken from good families.
They never marry ; yet have continued from 1090 to.
the prefent time.
The order confifts of three, effates; the knights,-
chaplains, and fervants at arms. There are alfo prieffs
who officiate in the churches; friar-fervants, who affilt
at the offices; and donnes, or demi-crojfes ; but thefe
are not reckoned as condlituent parts of the body. This
divifion was made in 1130, by the grand-mafter Rai¬
ma nd du Puy.
The government of the order is mixed, being partly
who traded in the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph monarchical,. and partly ariftocraticaL The grand-
of Egypt to build an houfe for thofe of their nation
who came thither on pilgrimage, upon paying an an¬
nual tribute. Afterwards they built two churches, and
received the pilgrims with great zeal and charity. This
example being followed by others, they founded a feveral grand, priories, and every priory a.certain num-
church in honour of St John, and an hofpital for the. ber of commanderies.
fick ; whence they took the name of Hofpitalers. A
little after Godfrey of Bouillon had taken Jerufalem,
mafter is fovereign, coins money, pardons criminals^
and gives the places of, grand-priors, bailiffs, knights,
&c. The ordinary council is compofed of the grand-
mafter and the grand-croffes- Every language has
The knights are received into this order, either by-
undergoing the trials preferibed by the ftatutes, or by
in IC99, tliey began to be diftinguifhed by black ha- difpenfaticn. The dilpenfations are obtained either by
bits and a crofs with eight points ; and, beiides the
dinary vows, they made another, which was to defend
the pope’s brief, or by a general chapter of the order,
and ar^ granted in cafe of fome defeft as to the nobi-
the pilgrims againft the infults of the. infidels. This lity of their pedigree, efpecially on the mother’s fide.
foundation was completed in 1104, in . the reign of
Baldwin ; and fo their order became military, into
■which many perfons of quality entered, and changed
the name of hofpitalers into that of knights.
When Jerufalem was taken, and the Chriftians loft
their power in the Eaft, the knights retired to Acre
or Ptolemais,. which they defended valiantly in. 1290,
Then they followed the king of Cyprus, who gave
them Limiflbn in his dominions, where they ftaid till
1310. That fame year they took Rhodes, under the
grand-maftet Foulques deVillaret, a Frenchman ; and
The knights are received, either as of .age, under mi¬
nority, or pages to the grand-maikr. They muff; be
16 years old complete before They are received : they
enter into the. noviciate at j 7,. and are profeffed at 18,
They fometlmes admit infants of one year old ; but
the expence is .about 4000 livres. The grand-mafter
has 16 pages who ferve him, from 12 to. ib years of
age.. The knights wear on the left-fide of their cloak
or wailleoat a crofs of white waxed cloth, with eight
points, which is their true badge ^ that of gold being
only for ornament. Wrhea they, go to war againft the
next year defended it againft, an army of Saracens : Turks, they wear a red caffock, .with., a great white
fince which the grand-mafters have ufed thefe four let¬
ters, F. E. R. T. he. Fortitudo ejus Rhodum ttnuit i
and the order was-from thence called knights of Rhodes.
In i522,.Soliman having taken Rhodes, the knights
retired into Candia, and thence into Sicily. In 1330,
Charles V. gave them the illand of Malta, to cover his
kingdom of, Sicily, from the Turks. In 1566, Soli-
man befieged Malta; but, it vvas gallantly defended by
crofs before and behind, without, points,, which are the
arms of the religion. The ordinary habit of the grand-
mafter is a fort of caffock of tabby-cloth,, tied about
with, a girdle, at which hangs a great purfe, to denote
the charitable inftitution of the order. Over this he
wears a velvet gown; and on the left fide a white
crofs with eight, points. His yearly revenue is 10,000.
ducats. He acknowledges the. kings of Spain, and
both
UAL L 504 T MAM*
Milfon both the Sicilies, as his prote&ors ; and is obliged, by
Malvern ^'s agreement with the emperor Charles V. to fupprefs
_ ‘ ‘ ^ pirates.
MALTON, a town of the north-riding of York-
fiiire in England, feated on the river Derwent, over
which there is a good ftone-bridge. It is compofed of
two towns, the New and the Old; and is well inhabited,
accommodated with good inns, and fends two members
to parliament. W. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 54. 8.
MALVA, the mallow : A genus of the polyan-
dria order, belonging to the monadelphia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
37th order, Columnifera. The calyx is double; the
exterior one triphyllous y the arilli numerous and mo-
nofpermous. There are 24 fpecies ; confiding of her¬
baceous perennials, biennials, and annuals, for medi¬
cal, economical, and ornamental ufes.; rifing with ereft
ttalks from about half a yard to 10 or .12 feet high,
garniflied with large, roundiih, lobated leaves, and quin-
quepetalous flowers. They are all eafily and plenti¬
fully railed from feed.
The leaves of the common mallow are reckoned
the firil of the four emollient herbs : they were for¬
merly in fome efteem as food, for loofening the belly;
at prefent, decoctions of them are fometimes employ¬
ed in dyfenteries, heat, and iharpnefs of urine ; and,
in general, for obtunding acrimonious humours: their
principal ufe is in emollient glyfters, cataplafms, and
fomentations. The leaves enter the officinal decoc¬
tion for glyfters, and a conferve is prepared from the
flowers.
Several fpecies of malva, macerated like hemp, af¬
ford a thread fuperior to hemp for fpinning, and which
is faid to make more beautiful cloths and fluffs than even
flax. Thefe fpecies are the crifpa, Peruviana, and
Maurifiana. From the former, which affords ftronger
and longer fibres, cords and twine have alfo been
made. From the malva;, likewife, a new fort of pa¬
per has been fabricated by M. de ITfle. On this in¬
vention, Meff.Lavoifier, Sage, and Berthollet, in name
of the Academic de Sciences, obferve, That “ it is not
.probable the paper made by M. de I’lfle will be fub-
ftituted for that made from tags, either for the pur-
pofe of printing or writing. Yet paper from the mal¬
lows may be ufed for thefe purpofes, if we can judge
from a volume printed on it prefented to the academy.
The great utility of M. del’file’s invention is for fur¬
niture, which confumes a great quantity of rags ; and
his papers have a natural hue, much more folid than
can be given by colouring matter, arid this hue may
ferve as a ground for other drawings. M. de ITfie
fhould, we think, be encouraged to purfue his expe¬
riments, which, we have reafon to expeft, may be in
the end very ufeful: by his zeal, aftivity, and know¬
ledge, he will probably contribute to render the art
of making paper more perfedl; in this art he is much
engaged ; and his attempts, which he has flrown to
the academy, merit its praifes.”
MALVERN, Great and Little, (with the
Chace and the Hills) ; two towns of Worcefterlhire,
in which were formerly two abbeys, about three miles
afunder. Since the diflblution nothing remains of the
abbey of Great Malvern but the gateway of the abbey
and church, now parochial. Part of it was a reli¬
gious cell for hermits before the Conqueft; and the
N° 193.
greateft part, with the tower, built in the reign of Malver*
William the Conqueror. Its outward appearance is II
very ftriking. It is 171 feet in length, 63 in breadth, Marnbrnn*
and 63 in height. In it are ten flails; and it is fup- " ' 1A
pofed to have been rebuilt in the year 1171. The nave
only remains in part, the fide aides being in ruins.
The windows have been beautifully enriched with
painted glafs, and in it are remains of fome very an¬
cient monuments. Little Malvern Hands in a cavity
of the hills, which are great lofty mountains, dfing
like flairs, one. higher than another, for about Teven
miles, and divide this county from Herefordfhire.
There is a ditch here very much admired. On thar
hills are two medicinal fprings, called holy •wells, one
good for the eyes, and the other for cancers. Hen¬
ry VII. his queen, and his two fons prince Arthur
and prince Henry, were fo delighted with this place,
that they beautified the^church and windows, part of
which remain, though mutilated. In the lofty fouth
windows of the church are the hiftorical paffages of
the Old Teftament; and in the north windows the
pi&ures of the holy family, the nativity and circum-
cifion of our Saviour, the adoration of the fhepherd*
and the kings, his prefentation in the temple, his bap-
tifm, fafting, and temptation, his miracles, his lafl
fupp'er with his difciples, his prayer in the garden,
his paffion, death, and burial, his defeent into hell,
his refurre£lidn and afeenfion, and the coming of the
Holy Ghoft. The hiftory of oar Saviour’s paffion is^
painted differently in the eafl window of the choir, at
the expence of Henry VII. whofe figure is therefore
often reprefented, as is that of his queen. In the
weft window is a noble piece of the day_of judgment,
not inferior to the paintings of Michael Angelo. Mal¬
vern Chace contains 7115 acres in Worcefterfhire (be-
fides 241 acres called the Prior’s Land), 619 in Here-
fordfliire, and 103 in Glouceflerfnire. Malvern Hills
run from north to fouth, the higheft point 1313 feet
above the furface of the Severn at Hanley, and ap-»
pear to be of lime-ftone and quartz. On the fummit
of thefe hills is a camp with a treble ditch, imagined
to be Roman, and is fituated on the Herefordfhire
fide of the hills.
MALVEZZI (Virgilio marquis de), an Italian
gentleman, born at Bologna, acquired great reputa¬
tion by his learning and writings. He was well verfed
in polite literature, mufic, law, phyfic, and the mathe¬
matics. He ferved alfo in a diftinguifhed poft in the
army of Philip IV. king of Spain, and was employed
by him in fome important negociations. He died at
Bologna in the year 1654, leaving feveral works in
Spanifh and Italian. Among the latter are his Dif-
courfes on the Firft Book of Tacitus: this work has
been tranflated into Englifh.
MALUS, in botany. See Pyrus.
MAMALUKES, the name of a dynafly that
reigned in Egypt. See that article, n° 98.
MAMBRUN (Peter), an ingenious and learned
French Jefuit, born in the diocefe of Clermont, in
the year 1581. He was one of the mofl pcrfedl imi¬
tators of Virgil in Latin poetry, and his poems are of
the fame fpecies : Thus he wrote Eclogues ; Georgies, or
four books on the culture of the foul and the under-
flanding; together with a heroic poem intitled Con-
Jlantine, or Idolatry overthrown. He fhowed alfo great
critical
MAM [ 505 J MAM
WamfitinJ critical abilities in a Latin Peripatetical dljfertation on
II epic poetry. He^died in 1661.
Mammon. mamertINI, » mercenary band of foldiers
which palled from Campania into Sicily at the requeft
of Agathocles. When they were in the fervice of
Agathocles, they claimed the privilege of voting at
the eleftion of magiftrates at Syracufe, and had re-
courfe to arms to fupport their unlawful demands.
The fedition was appeafed by the authority of feme
leading men, and the Campanians were ordered to
leave Sicily. In their way to the coaft they were
received with great kindnefs by'the people of Meflana,
and foon returned perfidy for hofpitality. They con-
fpired againft the inhabitants, murdered all the males
in the city, married their wives and daughters, and
rendered themfelves mailers of the place. After this
violence they alfumed the name of Mamertini, and
called their city Mamertum, -or Mamertium, from a
provincial word which in their language fignified mar¬
tial or warlike. The Mamertines were afterwards de¬
feated by Hiero, and totally difabled to repair their
ruined affairs.
MAMMAL, in anatomy. See there, n° 112.
MAMMALIA, in natural hillory, the firft clafs
of animals in the Linnaean fyftem, divided into feven
orders. See Zoology.
MAMMEA, Mammee-Tree : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is tetra-
petalous ; the calyx diphyllous ; the berry very large
and tetrafpermous. There are two fpecies ; both of
them large evergreen trees of the hot parts of Ame¬
rica and Afia, and retained here in hot-houfes for va¬
riety ; both of them adorned with large, oval, oblong,
ftiff leaves, and large quadripetalous flowers, fucceed-
ed by large round eatable fruit of a moft exquifitely
rich flavour. They are propagated by feed, which is
to be fowed in fmall pots of light earth, and plunged
in the bark-bed, where they will foon come up ; give
gentle waterings, and about Auguft tranfplant them
into feparate pots a fize larger, plunging them into
the bark-bed, and giving lhade and water till frefli-
rooted. In this country they mult never be taken
out of the Hove.
MAMMON, the god of riches, according to fome
authors; though others deny that the word Hands for
fuch a deity, and underlland by it only riches them¬
felves. Our Saviour fays, We cannot ferve God and
mammon ; that is, be religious and worldly-minded at
the fame time. Our poet Milton, by poetic licence,
makes Mammon to be one of the fallen angels, and
gives us his character in the following lines:
Mammon, the leaft ere<5ted fpirit that fell
From heav’n : for ev’n in heav’n his looks and thoughts
Were always downward bent; admiring more
The riches of heav’n’s pavement, trodden gold,
Than ought divine or holy elfe enjoy’d
In beatific vifion : by him firft
M^n alfo, and by his fuggeftion taught,
Ranfack’d the centre, and with impious hands
Rifled the bowels of their mother earth.
For creatures better hid. Soon had his crew
Open’d into the hill a fpacious wound,
And digg’d out ribs of gold. Let none admire
That riches grow in hell; that foil may belt
Beferve the precious bane.
Vol. X. Part II.
MAMMOTH, or Mammuth, the name of a huge Mammoth,
animal now unknown, to which are faid to have be- 'v r" ’'
longed thofe tulles, bones, and Ikeletons of vail m ;g-
nitude, which have been frequently found in different
parts of Siberia, as well in the mountains as the val¬
leys ; likewife in Ruffia, Germany, and North Ame¬
rica. Many fpecimens of them may be feen in the
Imperial cabinet at Peterlhurgh ; in the Britiih, Dr
Hunter’s, and the late Sir Alhton Lever’s mufeums,
and in that of the Royal Society. A defeription ef
the mammoth is given by Muller in the Recueil des
Voyages au Nord. “ This animal, he fays, is four or
five yards high, and about 30 feet long. His colour
is greyilh. His head is very long, and his front very
broad. On each fide, preccfely under the eyes, there
are two horns, which he can move and crofs at plea-
fure. In walking he has the power of extending and
contracting his body to a great degree.” Ilbrandes
Ides gives a fimilar account; but he is candid enough
to acknowledge, that he never knew any perfon who
had feen the mammoth alive. Mr Pennant, however,
thinks it “ more than probable, that it full exiils in
fome of thofe remote parts of the vail new continent,
impenetrated yet by Europeans. Providence (he adds)
maintains and continues every created fpecies ; and we
have as much alfurance, that no race of animals will
any more ceafe while the earth remaineth, than feed¬
time and harvejl, cold and heat, fummer and winter, day
and night.” The Ohio Indians have a tradition hand¬
ed down from their fathers refpefting thefe animals,
“ That in ancient times a herd of them qame to the
Big-bong"Licks, and began an univerfal deftruClion of
the bears, deer, elks, buffaloes, and other animals
which had been created for the ufe of the Indians :
that the Great Man above, looking down and feeing
this, was fo enraged that he feized his lightning, de-
feended to the earth, feated himfelf upon a neighbour¬
ing mountain on a rock, on which his feat and the
print of his feet are llill to be feen, and hurled his
belts among them till the whole were flaughtered, ex¬
cept the big bull, who prefenting bis forehead to the
lhafts, Ihook them off as they fell; but at length mif¬
fing one, it wounded him in the fide ; whereon, fpring-
ing round, he bounded over the Ohio, the Wabafli,
the Illinois, and finally over the great lakes, where
he is living at this day.”
Several eminent naturalifts, as Sir Hans Sloane,
Gmelin, Daubenton, and Buffon, are of opinion that
thefe prodigious bones and tulks are really the bones
and tufles of elephants, and many modern philofo-
phers have held the mammoth to be as fabulous as the
centaur. The great difference in fize they endeavour
to account for as arifing from difference in age, fex,
and climate ; and the caufe of their being found in
thofe northern parts of the world where elephants are
no longer natives, nor can even long exift, they pre¬
fume to have arifen from hence ; that, in the great
revolutions which have happened in the earth, the ele¬
phants, to avoid deftrudlion, have left their native
country, and difperfed themfelves wherever they could
find fafety. Their lot has been different. Some in
a longer and others in a fhorter time after their death,
have been tranfported to great diftances by fome vaft
inundations. Thofe, on the contrary, which furvived,
and wandered far to the north, mull neceffarily have
3 S fallen
MAM [ 5©5 ] MAM
Mammoth.fallen vi&ims to the rigour of the climate. Others,
w"~v without reaching to fo great a dHlance, might be
drowned, or perifh with fatigue. In the year 1767,
Dr Hunter, with the alMance of hi? brother Mr J.
Hunter, had an opportunity of inveftigating more
particularly this part of natural hiftory, and has evi¬
dently proved, that thefe foflil bones and tulles are
not only larger than the generality of elephants, but
that the tulles are more twilled, or have more of the
fpiral curve, than elephants teeth ; and that the thigh
and jaw bones differ in feveral refpe&s from thofe of
the elephant: but what put the matter beyond all
difpute was the fhape of the grinders, which clearly
appeared to belong to a carnivorous animal, or at leall
to an animal of the mixed kind ; and to be totally
different from thofe of the elephant, which is well
known not to be of the carnivorous, but graminivo¬
rous kind, both by the form of its grinders and by
its never tailing animal food.—Some have fuppofed
thefe foffil bones to belong to the hippopotamus or
river-horfe ; but there are many reafons againfl this
fuppofition, as the hippopotamus is even much fmaller
than the elephant, and has fuch remarkably fhort legs,
that his belly reaches within three or four inches of
the ground.
North America feems to be the quarter where the
remains in queflion moll abound. On the Ohio, and
in many parts farther north, tulks, grinders, and Ike-
letons of unparalleled magnitude, which can admit of
no comparifon with any animal at prefent known, are
found in vail numbers, fome lying on the furface of
the earth, and fome a little below it. A Mr Stanley,
taken prifoner by the Indians near the mouth of the
f AV« on Tanilfee, rt-lates, as Mr Jelferfonf informs, us, that af-
tbe St»te cf ter being transferred through feveral tribes, from one
Virginia, to another, he was at length carried over the moun-
*>‘ tains well of the Milfouri Jo a river which runs well-
wardly ; that thefe bones abounded there ; and that
the natives deferibed to him the animal to which they
belonged as Hill exilting in the nprthern parts of their
country ; from which defeription he judged it to be
an elephant. Bones of the fame kind have been lately
found fome feet below the furface of the earth, in falines
opened on the North Holflon, a branch of the Tanilfee,
about the latitude of 36! “N. Inllances are mentioned
of like animal remains found in the more fouthern cli¬
mates of both hemifpheres.: but Mr Jefferfon obferves,
“ they are either fo loofely mentioned, as to leave a
doubt of the fa£l ; fo inaccurately deferibed, as not
to authorife the claffing them with the great northern
bones; or fo rare, as to found a fufpicion that they
have been carried thither as curiofities from more
northern regions. So that, on the whole, there feem
to be no certain velliges of the exiitence of this ani¬
mal farther fouth than the falines lalt mentioned. It
is remarkable (continues he) that the tulks and Ikele-
tons have been aferibed by the naturalills of Europe
to the elephant, while the grinders have been given
to the hippopotamus or river-horfe. Yet it is acknow¬
ledged, that the tulles and Ikeletons are much larger
than thofe of the elephant, and the grinders many
times greater than thofe of the hippopotamus, and
effentially different in form. Wherever thefe grinders
are found, there alfo we find the tulles and Ikeleton ;
but no Ikeleton of the hippopotamus nor grinders of
the elephant. It will not be faid that the hippopota- Mammoth,
mus and elephant came always to the fame fpot,. the —'
former to depofit his grinders, and the latter his tulles
and ikeleton. For what became of the parts not de-
pofited there ? We mull agree, then, that thefe re¬
mains belong to each other; that they are of one and
the fame animal; that this was not a hippopotamus,
becaufe the hippopotamus had no tulles nor fuch a
frame, and becaufe the grinders differ in their fize as
well as in the number and form of their points. Y'hat
it was not an elephant, I think afeertained by proofs
equally decifive. I will not avail myfelf of the au¬
thority of the celebrated anatomill*, who, from an * Hunter,
examination of the form and ilru&ure of the tulks,
has declared they were eflentially different from thofe
of the elephant; becaufe another anatomillf, equally ^
celebrated, has declared, on a like examination, that10”'
they are precifely the fame. Between two fuch au¬
thorities I will fuppofe this circumltance equivocal.
But, 1. The Ikeleton of the mammoth (for fo the in-
cognitum has been called) befpeaks an animal of five
or fix times the cubic volume of the elephant, as.
M. de Buffon has admitted. 2. The grinders are five
times as large, are fquare, and the grinding furface
lludded with four or five rows of blunt points: where¬
as thofe of the elephant are broad and thin, and their
grinding furface flat. 3. I have never heard an in-
fiance, and fuppofe there has been none, of the grin¬
der of an elephant being found in America. 4. From,
the known temperature and conllitution of the ele¬
phant, he could never have exilled in thofe regions
where the remains of the mammoth have been found.
The elephant is a native only of the torrid zone and
its vicinities : if, with the affillance of warm apart¬
ments and warm clothing, he has been preferved irv
life in the temperate climates of Europe, it has only
been for a fmall portion of what would have been his
natural period, and no inllance of his multiplication
in them has ever been known. But no bones of the
mammoth, as I have before obferved, have been ever
found further fouth than the falines of the Holllon,
and they have been found as far north as the Arftic
circle. Thofe, therefore, who are of opinion that
the elephant and mammoth are the fame, mud believe,
x. That the elephant known to us can exift and muh*
tiply in the frozen zone ; or, 2. That an internal fire
may once have warmed thofe regions, and fince aban¬
doned them, of which, however, the globe exhibits
no unequivocal indications; or, 3. That the obliquity
of the ecliptic, when thefe elephants lived, was fo
great as to include within the tropics all thofe regions
in which the bones are found; the tropics being, as
is before obferved, the natural limits of habitation for
the elephant. But if it be admitted that this obli¬
quity has really decreafed, and we adopt the higheft
rate of decreafe yet pretended, that is, of one minute
in a century, to transfer the northern tropic to the
Arctic circle, would carry the exiflence of thefe fup¬
pofed elephants 250,000 years back ; a period far be¬
yond our conception of the duration of animal bones
left expofed to the open air, as thefe are in many in-
ftances. Befides, though thefe regions would then
be fuppofed within the tropics, yet their winters would
have been too fevere for the fenfibility of the elephant.
They would have had, too, but one day and one night
MAM [ 507 ] MAN
Mammoth, in the year; a circumftance to which we have no reafon
. Mamre. to fUpp0fe tjje natiu;e of the elephant fitted. How-
” ’ ever, it has been demonftrated, that if a variation of
obliquity in the ecliptic takes place at all, it is vibra¬
tory, and never exceeds the limits of nine degrees,
which is not fufficient to bring thefe bones within the
tropics. One of thefe hypothefes, or fome other
• equally arbitrary and inadmifiihle to cautious philofo-
phy, muft be adopted to fupport the opinion that
thefe are the bones of the elephant. For my own
part, I find it eafier to believe that an animal may
have exifted, refembling the elephant in his tulks and
general anatomy, while his nature was in other refpedls
extremely different. From the 30th degree of fouth
latitude to the 50th of north, are nearly the limits
which nature has fixed for the exiftence and multipli¬
cation of the elephant known to us. Proceeding thence
northwardly to 364- degrees, we enter thofe affigned
to the mammoth. 1 he further we advance north,
the more their veftiges multiply as far as the earth has
been explored in that direftion ; and it is as probable
as otherwife, that this progreffion' continues to the
pole itfelf, if land extends fo far. The centre of the
frozen zone then may be the acme of their vigour,
as that of the torrid is of the elephant. Thus na¬
ture feems to have drawn a belt of reparation between
thefe two tremendous animals, whofe breadth indeed
is not precifely known, though at prefent we may
fuppofe it about 64 degrees of latitude ; to have af¬
figned to the elephant the regions fouth of thefe con¬
fines, and thofe north to the mammoth, founding the
conftitution of the one in her extreme of heat, and
that of the other in the extreme of cold. When the
Creator has therefore feparated their nature as far as
the extent of the fcale of animal life allowed to this
planet would permit, it feems perverfe to declare it
the fame, from a partial refemblance of their tulks
and bones. But to whatever animal we afcribe thefe
remains, it is certain fuch a one has exifted in Ame¬
rica, and that it was the largeft of all teryeftrial be¬
ings of which any traces hav? ever appeared.”
MAMRE,an Amorite, brother of Aner and Efchol,
and friend of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 13.). It was with
thefe three perfons, together with his- own and their
domeftics, that Abraham purfued and overcame the
kings after their conqueft of Sodom and Gomorrah.
This Mamre, who dwelt near Hebron, communicated
his name to great part of the country round about.
Hence we read (ch. xiii. 18. xxiii. 17, &c.), that
Abraham dwelt in Mamre and in the plain of Mamre.
But it is obferved, that what we tranflate the plain
fhould be rendered the oai, of Mamre, becaufe the word
elon fignifies an oak or tree of a long duration. Sozo- Man.
men tells us, that this tree was ftill extant, and fa-~-v—
mous for pilgrimages and annual feafts, even in Con-
ftantine's time ; that it was about fix miles diftant from
Hebron ; that fome of the cottages which Abraham
built were ftill Handing near it; and that there was a
well likewife of his digging, whereunto both Jews,
Chriftians, and Heathens, did at certain feafons refort,
either out of devotion or for trade, becaufe there was
held a great mart. To thefe fuperftitions Conftantine
the Great put a ftop. r
MAN, the head of the animal creation, is a being General de-
who feels, refle&s, thinks, contrives, and a(!s ; who^ :it'rn and
has the power of changing his place upon the earth chsra<^ero^
at pleafure ; who pofleffes the faculty of communica¬
ting his thoughts by means of fpeech ; and who has
dominion over all other creatures on the face of the
globe. Animated and enlightened by a ray from the
Divinity, he furpafles in dignity every material being.
He fpends lefs of his time in folitude, than in fociety
and in obedience to thofe laws which he himfelf has
framed.
In the Syjlema Nature, Man (Homo) rs ranked as
a diftinft genus of the order Primates or “ Chiefs,”
belonging to the Mammalia clafs of animals, or thofe
which nourifh their young by means of laftiferous
teats or paps. Of this genus he is the only fpecies
(a) ; and denominated Sapiens, as being endowed with
wifdom far fuperior to, or rather in exclufion of, all
other animals—He varies, from climate, education, a
and habits ; and the following varieties, exclufive of Varieties of
•wild men (b), are enumerated by Linnteus. ma|j: ac'
« Americans. “ Of copper-coloured complexion, cho-^n^sto
leric conftitution, and remarkably ereft.”—Their hair (s^t. Nat.
is black, lank, and coarfe ; their noftrils are wide ; e.-lit. 13.
their features harfh, and the chin is fcantily fupplied Gmelm,
with beard. Are obftinate in their tempers, free and^’ z3"'
fatisfied with their condition ; and are regulated in all
their proceedings by traditional cuttoms.—Paint their
Hein with red ftreaks.
fl Europeans. “ Of fair complexion, fanguine tempe-
ratnent, and brawny form.”—The hair is flowing, and
of various lhades of brown ; the eyes are moftly blue.
—They are of gentle manners, acute in judgment, of
quick invention, and governed by fixed laws.—Drefs
in clofc veftments.
y Afiatics. “ Of footy complexion, melancholic
temperament, and rigid fibre.”—The hair is ftrong;
black, and lank ; the eyes are dark brown.—They are
of grave, haughty, and covetous manners ; and are go¬
verned by opinions.—Drefs in loofe garments.
<i, Africans. “ Of black complexion, phlegmatic
3 S 2 tempe--
(a) In the early editions of Linnaeus, the Troglodytes was added as another fpecies ; but is now more pro¬
perly ranked under the genus Simia. See Si mi A.
(b) Homines Feri; deferibed as walking on all-fours, as being dumb, and as covered with hair.— 1. A
youth found in Lithuania, in 1761, refembling a bear. 2. A youth found in Hefle, in 1544, refembling a
wolf, 3. A youth in Ireland refembling a flieep, [Tulp. Obf. iv. 9.) 4. A youth in Bamberg refembling
an ox, (CameranW.) 5. A wild youth found in 1724 in Hanover. 6. Wild boys found in 1719 in the
Pyrenees. 7. A wild girl found in 1717 in Overyfel. 8. A wild girl found in 1731 in Champagne, f
9. A wild lad found near Leyden, (Bderhaave.)—Thefe inftances ofwildmenand their fimilitudes, according°f tteAmmal
to Mr Kerr f, are partly to be attributed to impofture, and in part to exaggeration: Moft probably (he sf
thinks) idiots who had ftrayed from their friends, and who refembled the above animals only in imitating their p^“jj0£Ct
voices.
M AN [ 508 ] MAN
Man. temperament, and relaxed fibre.”—The hair is black
' and frizly ; the fkin foft and filky ; the nofe flat; the
t A doubt- lips are thick.; and the female has a natural apron f,
fiancetUm" an^ ^on£ ^ax breads.—They are of crafty, indolent,
and carelefs difpofitions, and governed in their aftions
by caprice.—Anoint the Ikin with greafe.
t, Monjiers. Of thefe there are feveral varieties ; the
fir 11 and fecond of which, in the following lift, are occa-
iioned by peculiarity of climate, while the reft are
produced by artificial management. 1. Alpini; The
inhabitants of the northern mountains: they are fmall
in ftature, adtive and timid in their difpofitions. 2.
PatagonUl: The Patagonians of South America ; of
vaft iize, and indolent in their manners. 3. Monor-
chides : The Hottentots ; having one tefticle extirpa¬
ted. 4. Imberbes : Moft of the American nations ;
who eradicate their beards and the hair from every
part of the body except the fcalp. 5. Macrocephali:
TheChinefe ; who have their heads artificially forced
into a conical form. 6. Plagiocephali: The Canadian
Indians ; who have the fore part of their heads flat¬
tened, when young, by compreflion.
Gmehn’s dlie following arrangement of the varieties in the
arrange- human fpecies, is offered by Dr Gmelin as more con-
ment, fnot. venient than that of Linnseus.
’"ra j I- White, a : (Horn. Albus.) Formed by the rules
*T of fymmetrical elegance and beauty ; or at leaft what
. we confider as fuch.—This divifion includes aimoft all
the inhabitants of Europe ; thofe of Afia on this fide
of the Oby, the Cafpian, Mount Imaus, and the
Ganges ; likewife the natives of the north of Africa,
of Greenland, and the Efquimaux.
b, Brown : (Horn. Badlus.) Of a yellowilh brown
, colour ; has fcanty hairs, flat features, and fmall eyes.
—This variety takes in the whole inhabitants of Alia
not included in the preceding divifion.
c, Black : (Horn. Niger.) Of black complexion ;
has frizly hair, a flat nofe, and thick lips.—The
whole inhabitants of Africa, excepting thofe of its
more northern parts.
d, Copper-coloured : (Horn. Cupreus.) The com¬
plexion of the ikin refembles the colour of copper not
burnifhed.—The whole inhabitants of America, ex¬
cept the Greenlanders and Efquimaux.
e, Tawny: (Ham. Fufcus.) Chiefly of a dark
blackiih-brown colour ; having a broad nofe, and harih
coarfe ftraight hair.—The inhabitants of the fouthern
iflands, and of moft of the Indian iflands.
The following is Linnaeus’s defcription of Man, as
tranflated by Mr Kerr.
4 “ The Body, which feldom reaches fix feet in
Zoological height, is eredl, and aimoft naked, having only fome
defcription fcattered diftant hairs, except in fome fmall fpots
0 man. t0 afterwar(js noticed, and when firft born is
entirely naked. The Head is (haped like an egg ;
the fcalp being long, andecovered with hair; the
forehead broad ; the top of the head flat; and the
hind-head protuberant. The Face is naked, having
the brow or forehead flattened and quadrangular; the
temples are comprefled, with peaked angles pointing
upwards and backwards towards the hairy fcalp. The
eye-brows are prominent, and covered with hairs
which, Ihedding outwards, cover each other like tiles;
and between the inner extremities of the two eye-brows,
there U i fmooth, ftudlow furrow or depreffion, in a
4
line with the nofe. The upper eye-lid is moveable. Mam
but the lower one hardly moves, and both are planted ——V"
at their edges with a row of ftiff recurved hairs, na¬
med eye-lajhcs. The eye-balls are round, having no
fufpending mufcle as in thofe of moft quadrupeds; the
pupil, or opening of the fight, is circular; and the eye
has no membrana niBitans. The upper parts of the
cheeks are prominent, foftifh, and coloured with a red
blufti; their outer parts flattened ; the lower parts are
hollowed, lax, and expanfile. The nofe is promi¬
nent, and comprefled at the fides ; its extremity or
point is higher than the reft, and blunt; the noftrils
are oval, open downwards, with thickened edges, and
are hairy on their infides. The upper lip is aimoft
perpendicular, and is furrowed on the middle, from-
the divifion between the noftrils to the edge of the
lip ; the under lip is ereft, thicker and more promi¬
nent than that above ; both have a fmooth red protu¬
berance, furrounding the mouth at their edges. The
chin is prominent, blunt, and gibbous. In males, the
face all round the mouth is covered with hair, called
the beard, which firft appears about puberty, in
patches on the chin. The teeth in both jaws may be
diftinguifhed into three orders ; the fore teeth are erect,
parallel, and wedge-like, of the kind named incifors%
or cutting teeth ; they ftand clofe to each other, and
are more equal and rounder than in other animals ;
the tufks, called in man eye-teeth and corner-teeth, of
which there is. only one on each fide of the fore-teeth
in each jaw, are a little longer than the fore-teeth, but
much lefs fo than in other animals, and they are pla¬
ced clofe to the other teeth; the grinders, of which
there are five on each fide in both jaws, are blunt, and
divided on their upper furface into pointed eminences;
but thefe are not fo remarkable as in other animals.
The ears are placed on the fides of the head, are of
an oblong rounded figure, with a femilunar bend on
their anterior edges ; they lie flat to the head, are na¬
ked, arched at the margin on their upper and pofterior
edges, and are thicker and foft at the under extre¬
mities.
“ TheTmnk of the body confifts of the neck,breaft,
back, and belly. The Neck is roundifh, and ftiorter
than the head ; its vertebras, or chine bones, are not,
as in moft animals, connected by a fufpenfory liga¬
ment ; the nape is hollowed ; the throat, immediately
below the chin, is hollowed at its upper part, and
protuberant in the middle a little lower down. The
Breaft is fomewhat flattened both before and behind ;
on the fore-part there is a cavity or depreflion where
it joins with the neck ; the arm-pits are hollow and
hairy ; the pit of the ftomach is flat: On the breaft
are two diftant, round, protuberant mammas, or dugs,
each having a cylindrical obtufe wrinkly proje&ing
nipple, which is furrounded by a darker coloured circle
called the areola. The Back is flat, having protube¬
rances on each fide at the fhoulder-blades, with a fur¬
row or depreffion between them. The Abdomen or
belly is large and protuberant, with a hollow at the
navel; the epigaftric region, or fituation of the fto¬
mach, is flat; the hypogaftric regions, or fides of the
belly, are protuberant; the groins flattifti and hollow¬
ed. The pubes is hairy ; the pelvis, or bafin, is wi¬
der above, and grows narrower below. The male
parts are external and loede ; the penis cylindrical; the
ferotum
MAN L 509 ] MAN
Man. fcrotum roundlfh, lax, and wrinkled, being divided in
the middle by a longitudinal ridge or fmooth line,
which extends along the whole perinaeum : The fe¬
male parts are comprefled and protuberant, having la¬
bia, nymphae, clytoris, and hymen ; and, in adults,-
fecreting the, catamenia. There is no external tail.
“ The Limbs conlift of arms and hands inftead of
fore-legs ; and of thighs, legs, and feet. The Arms
are . placed at a diitance from each other; they are
round, and about a foot in length from the joint of
the Ihoulder to the elbow; the fore-arm, or cubit,
contains two bones, and is obtyfely prominent; the
ulna, which forms the principal thicknefs of the mem¬
ber, is round, and fomewhat flattened on the iniide.
The Hands are broad, flat, and rounded ; convex on
the outfide or back of the hand, and concave on the
infide or palm. Each hand has live fingers, one of
which, named the thumb, is fhorter and thicker than
the reft, and is placed at fome diftance from them ;
the others are near each other, and placed parallel,
the outer or little-finger being the fmalleft ; the fecond,
named index or fore finger, and the fourth, called the
ring finger, are next in length and in fl/.e ; and. the
third, or middle finger, is the longeft; the point of this
laft, when the arm and hand hang down, reaches to
the middle of the thigh. The nails are rounded and
oval, being flatly arched, or convex upwards, and each
has a femiiunar whitifh mark at the root or lower ex¬
tremity.
“ The lower limbs are-placed clofe together, having
brawny mufcular haunches and fwelling flefhy hips ;
the knees are obtufe, bend forwards, and have hollow
hams behind. The Legs, which are nearly of the fame
length with the thighs, are of a mufcular make be¬
hind, where they fwell out into what is called the
calf; they are lean, and free of flefh- on the ihins or
fore-parts, and taper downwards to the ancle, which
have hard hemifpherical projections on each fide, na¬
med the ankle-bones or malleohe. The heel is thick,
prominent, and gibbous, being longer and broader
than in other animals, for, giving a firm fupport to the
body ; it joins immediately with the foie of the foot.
The Feet are oblong, convex above, and flattened on
the foies, which have a tranfverfe hollow about the
middle. Each foot has five toes, fomewhat bent
downwards, and gibbous or fwelled underneath at
their extremities ; they are all placed clofe together,
the inner or great-toe being thicker and fomewhat
fhorter than the reft ; the fecond and third are nearly
of equal length ; and the fourth and fifth are fhorter
than the others, the laft mentioned or little toe being
the fhorteft and fmalleft. The toe nails refemble
thofe on the fingers, which are already defcribed.
“Thus man differs from the other animals in his
ereCf pofture and naked fkin, having a hairy fcalp, be¬
ing furnifhed with hair on the eye-brows and eyer
ladies, and having, when arrived at puberty, the pubes,
breaft, arm-pits, and the chin of the males, covered
with hair. His brain is larger than that, of any other
animal, even the moft enormous ; he is provided with
an uvula, and has organs of fpeech. His face, is pla¬
ced in the fame parallel line with his body ; he has a
projecting compreffcd.nofe, and a prominent chin. His
feet in walking reft on the heel. He has no tail ; .and,
laftly, the fpecies is diftinguiihed from other animals
by fome peculiarities of the-female conftitution, which Jvlan;
have been already mentioned.” u—«J
Nofce Teipfum, “ Know thyfelf,” is a precept wor¬
thy of the lawgiver of Athens : it has been called the
firft ftep to wifdom, and was formerly written on let¬
ters of gold in the temple of Diana. In the purfuit
of this important branch of knowledge, Man may be
contemplated in the feven following refpects :
1. Physiologically,—as a frail machine, chiefly
compofed of nerves and fibres interwoven with each
other. His moft perfeift ftate is during youth ; and
he is endowed with faculties more numerous, and in
higher perfection, than thofe of all other animals. 5
“ Man, intended for exercifing dominion over the j5tv'know'
whole animal creation, is fent by Nature into the theftudy of i
world naked, forlorn, and bewailing, his lot; he is man. (SyJI,.
then unable to. ule his hands or feet, and is incapable V^^Kcrr.)
of acquiring any kind of knowledge without inftruc-
tjon; he can neither fpeak, nor walk, nor eat, nor per¬
form any acftion whatever byiiatural inftinft:” Pliny.—-
“ We may judge what kind of life is allotted to us by
Nature, fince it is ordained, as an omen, that we fliould
come weeping into the world r” Seneca.—“ It is hu¬
miliating to the pride of man, to confider the pitiable
origin of this moft arrogant of all the animals Pliny.
z.Diete ncALLY.—Curavaletudinem. Bodilyhealth
and tranquillity of mind are more to be defired than all
the riches, pomp, or glory, of a Crcefus, a Solomon,
or an Alexander. Health is to be prelerved by mo¬
deration, it is deftroyed by abftinence, injured by va¬
riety of delicacies, weakened by unnfual things, and
ftrengthened by the ufe of proper and accuftomed
fare. Man, learned in the pernicious art of cookery,
is fond of many difties, rendered palatable by the inju¬
rious effetls of fire, and by the baneful addition of
wine. “ Hunger is fatisfied with a fmall quantity of
food, luxury demands overabundance.. Imagination
requires vail fupplies ; while nature is contented with
a moderate quantity of ordinary food, and is burthen-
ed by fuperfluitySeneca.—According as thou liveft,
fo firall thy life be enjoyed.
3. Pathologically.—Memento mori! The life of
man reftmbles a.bubble ready to burft;,his fate is fuf-
pended by a hair, and-is dependent on the uncertain
lapfe of time. “ The earth contains nothing more
frail than man:” Homer.—“ Nothing is weaker than
human life: To what dangers, and to how many dif-
eafes, is it not expofed,? Hence the whole period of
a man’s life, is but a fpan: Half of it is necefiarily
fpent in a ftate refembling death; without including
the years of infancy, wherein, there is no judgment;,
or the period of old age,, fertile in fufferings,, during
which the fenfes are blunted, the limbs become ftiff,
and the faculties of fight and hearing, the powers of
walking, and the teeth, the inftruments of nourilh-
ment, fail before the reft of the bodyPliny.—“ Thus
a confiderable part of death, is fuffered during life ;.
and death poflefles all that belonged. to the times.
which are pall. Finally, .nature will fpeedily recal and
deftroy all the beings which .thou feeft, and all that
thy imagination can fuppofe to exift hereafter; for
death calls equally upon all, whether they be good or
whether they be evil:” Seneca, ii. 59.
4. Naturally.—Innocuivivite, Numenadefll Man,
tire prince of animated beings, who is a miracle of,na-.
ture,,
MAN [ 510 1 MAN
fare, and for wliom all things on this earth were crea¬
ted, is a mimic animal, weeping, laughing, fwging,
fpeakings traiftable, judicious, inquifitive, and moft
wife; he is weak and naked, unprovided with natural
weapons, expofed to all the injuries of fortune, need¬
ful of afiiftance from others, of an anxious mind, fe¬
licitous of prote&ion, continually complaining, change¬
able in temper, obftinate in hope, and How in the ac-
quifition of wifdom. He defpifes the time which is
paft, abufes that which is prefent, and fets his affec¬
tions on the uncertain future; thus continually ne-
gle&ing winged time, which, though infinitely pre¬
cious, can never be recalled: For thus the bell and
readied; time, in every age, flies on with miferable
mortals; fome it fummons to attend their daily and
burthenfome labours; fome it confines to luxurious
ina&ion, pampered even to. fuffocation with fuperflui-
ties; fome it folicits in the ever refllefs paths of am¬
bition; fome it renders anxious for the acquifltion of
wealth, and diftrefles by the pofleflion of the thing
defired ; fome it condemns to folitude, and others to
have their doors continually crouded with vifitors ;
here one bewails the conduft of his children, there
•one grieves their lofs. Tears will fooner fail us than
their caufes, which only oblivion can remove. “ On
every hand our evils overbalance our advantages; we
are furrounded with dangers; we rufli forwards into
untried fituations; we are enraged without having re¬
ceived provocation; like wild beafts, we deflroy thofe
■we do not hate; we wifh for favourable gales, which
lead us only to deftruftion; the earth yawns wide,
ready for our death:” Seneca.—“ Other animals unite
together againft enemies of a kind different from their
own, while man fuffers moft injuries from his own
fpecies:” Pliny.
5. Politically.—EJlo anfiqua virtute et Jide! Man,
in (lead of following that which is right, is fubje&ed to
the guidance of manifeft error; this envelopes all his
faculties under the thick veil of cuftom, as foon as he
is born; according to its di&ates he is fed, educated,
brought up, and dire&ed, in all things; and by its ar¬
bitrary rules his honefty, fortitude, wifdom, morality,
and religion, are judged of; thus, governed by opi¬
nion, he lives conformably to cullom, inftead of being
guided by reafon. Though fent into the world a pe¬
ri fhable being, for all are evidently born to fuffer, in¬
ftead of endeavouring to fecure thofe'things which are
moft advantageous and truly beneficial, he, infatuated
by the fmiles of fortune, anxioufly collefts her gaudy
trifles for future enjoyment, and neglefts her real be¬
nefits ; he is driven to madnefs by envious- fnarlers ;
he perfecutes with hatred the truly religious for dif¬
fering from himfelf in fpeculative opinions; he excites
numberlefs broils, not that ’he may do good, but for a
purpofe that even himfelf is ignorant of. He waftes
his precious and irrecoverable time in trifles; he thinks
lightly of immortal and eternal concerns, while regu¬
lating the fucceflion of his pofterity ; and perpetually
entering on new projects, forgetful of his real condi¬
tion, he builds palaces inftead of preparing his grave;
till at length, in the midfl of his fchemes, death feizes
him ; and then, firft opening his eyes, he perceives, O
man! that all is delufion. “ Thus we live as if im¬
mortal, and firft learn in death that we have to die
Seneca.
6. Morally,-—et latare! Man is compofed
of an animated medullary fubftance, which prompts 1 1
him to that which is right; and of a bodily frame liable
to impreffions, which inftigates him to the enjoyment
of pleafure. In his natural ftate he is foolifli, w’anton,
an inconfiderate follower of example, ambitious, pro-
fufe, diffatisfied, cunning, peevifh, invidious, malicious,
and covetous; by the influence of juft morals he is
transformed to be attentive, chafte, confiderate, mo-
deft, temperate, quiet, fincere, mild, beneficent, grate¬
ful, and contented. “ Sorrow, luxury, ambition, a-
varice, the defire of life, and anxiety for the future,
are common to all animals:” Pliny.
7. Theologically.—Memento Creatoris tui! Man,
the ultimate purpofe of creation, and mafterpiece of
the works of Omnipotence, was placed on earth that
he might contemplate its perfections; he was endowed
with fapient realbn, and made capable of forming con-
clufions from the impreflions of his fenfes, that, from
a confideration of created obje&s, he might know
their Creator as the Almighty, the Infinite, the Om-
nifeient, the Eternal God: That we may live morally
under his governing care, it is requifite that we have a
thorough convidlion of its exiftence, and muft have it
ever in remembrance. Other revealed matters on.this
fubjeft are left to be explained by the theologians.
“ There are two'things which lead to a knowledge
of God; creation and revelation:” Augufline.—“ God,
therefore, may be found out by the light of nature,
but is only to be known by the afliftance of do&rine:”
Pcrlulhan.—“ Man alone has the ineftimable privilege
of contemplating the perfe&ions of God, who is the au¬
thor both of nature and of revelation:” Ibid.—“Learn
that God has both ordered you to exift, and that you
fhould ftudy to aft that part properly which is allotted
for you in life:” Per/. Sat. iii. 71.
The whole of this Encyclopedia may in fome
refpeft be accounted an analyfis of Man: as compre¬
hending his knowledge of God, of himfeff, and of na¬
tural and artificial objefts. In the fequel of this ar¬
ticle we fliall colleft into one view the moft important
particulars relating to himfelf individually, confidered
as a phyfical being, and as forming a fubjeft of natu¬
ral hiftory.
Anatomifts have employed much pains in the ftudy 6
of the material part of man, and of that organization Natural hi-
which determines his place in the animal creation.
From tracing and combining his different external
parts ; from obferving that his body is in fome places
covered with hair; that he can walk upon his hands
and hisjfeet at the fame time, in the manner of quadru¬
peds ; that, like certain animals which hold their food
in their paws, he has two clavicles; that the female
brings forth her young alive, and that her breafts are
fupplied with milk: from thefe circumftances we
might be led to alfign man a place in the clafs of vivi¬
parous quadrupeds. But, in our opinion, fuch an ar¬
rangement would be defeftive, arbitrary, and abfurd.
Man is not a quadruped f : Of all the animals, he alone t See Cow-
can fupport himfelf, continually and without reftraint,fara/''l"; A’’
in an ereft pofture fthat is, with his head and bodygg^^f-^
in a vertical line upon his legs). In this majeftic and
dignified attitude, he can change his place, furvey this
earth which he inhabits, and turn his eyes towards
the vault of heaven. By a noble and eafy gait, he
6 preferves
MAN [ Jii ] MAN
Mail, preferves an equilibrium in the feveral parts of his body, ture has denied a covering ; but ftill he is her matter- Man.
■—v—and tranfports himfelf from one place to another with piece, the latt work which came from the hands of the v **'
different degrees of celerity (c). To man alone na- Almighty Artift, the fovereign and the chief of ani-
(c) M. Daubenton, after a careful examination of thofe chara&ers in the form of man by which he is di-
ftinguifhed from other animals, has reduced them to two heads. The firtt is the ilrength of the mufcles of
the legs, by which the body is fupported in a vertical pofition above them ; the fecond confitts in the articu¬
lation of the head with the neck by the middle of its bafe.
We ftand upright, bend our body, and walk, without thinking on the power by which we are fupported in
thefe feveral pofitions. This poveer, fays M. Daubenton, refides chiefly in the mufcles, which conttitute the
principal part of the calf of the leg. Their exertion is felt, and their motion is viiible externally when we
ftand upright and bend our body backwards and forwards. This power is no lets great when we walk even
on an horizontal plane. In afcending a height, the weight of the body is more fenfibly felt than in defcend-
ing. All thefe motions are natural to man. Other animals, on the contrary, when placed on their hind legs,
are either incapable of performing them at all, or do it partially, with great difficulty, and for a very fhort
time. The gibbon, and the jocko or vurang-outang, are the animals moft refembling man in their conttrucftion ;
they can ftand upright with much lefs difficulty than other brutes; but the reftraint they are under in this
attitude plainly ftiows that it is-not natural to them. The reafon is, that the mufcles in the back part of the
leg in the gibbon and the jocko are not, as in man, fufficiently large to form a calf, and confequently not
fufficiently ftrong to fupport the thighs and body in a vertical line, and to preferve them in that
pofture.
M. Daubenton has difcovered, that the attitudes proper to man and to the animals are pointed out by the
different manners in which the head is articulated with the neck. The two points, by which the olfeous
part of the head is connedled with the firtt vertebra of the neck, and on which every movement of the head
‘s made with the greatett facility, are placed at the edge of the great foramen of the occipital bone* which in
man is fituated near the centre of the bafe of the cran
the vertebras, and determines the place of the articulat
being, according to the natural attitude, in a vertical d
um, affords a paffage for the medullary fubftance into
on of the head with the neck. The body and neck
redtion, the head mutt be placed in equilibrium upon
the vertebras as upon a pivot or point of fupport. The face is on a vertical line, almoft parallel to that of
the body and neck. The jaws, which are very fliort compared with thofe of moft other animals, extend very-
little farther forwards than the forehead.
No animal has, like man, its hind legs as lon£ as the body, neck, and head, taken together, meafuring from
the top of the head to the os pubis.
In the frame of the human body the principal parts are nearly the fame with thofe of other animals; but
in the connexion and form of the bones, fays Mt Daubenton, there is as great a difference as in the attitudes
proper to each. Were a man to affume the natural pofture of quadrupeds, and try to walk by the help of
his hands and feet, he would find himfelf in a very unnatural iituation ; he could not move his feet and head
but with the greateft difficulty and pain ; and let him make what exertions he pleafed, he would find it itn-
poffible to attain a fteady and continued pace. The principal obftacles he would meet with would arife from,
the ftrufture of the pelvis, the hands, the feet, and the head.
The plane of the great occipital foramen, which in man is almoft horizontal, puts the head in a kind of
equilibrium upon the neck when we ftand eredl in our natural attitude : but when we are in the attitude of
quadrupeds, it prevents us from railing our head fo as to look forwards, becaufe the movement of the head is.
ftopt by the protuberance of the occiput, which then approaches too near the vertebras of the neck.
In moft animals, the foramen magnum of the occipital bone is fituated at the back part of the head ; the-
jaws are very long; the occiput has no protuberance beyond the aperture, the plane of which is in a vertical
diredlion, or inclined a little forwards or backwards; fo that the head is'pendant, and joined to the neck by
its pofterior part. This pofition of the head enables quadrupeds, though their bodies are in a horizontal
diredtion, to prefent their muzzle forwards, and to raife it fo as to reach above them, or to touch the
earth with the extremity of their jaws when they bring their neck and head down to their feet. In the atti¬
tude of quadrupeds, man could touch the earth only with the fore part or the top of the head.
To thefe differences of ftrudlure, M. Daubenton adds, that when man is Handing, his heel refts upon the
earth as well as the other parts of his foot; when he walks it is the firft part which touches the ground ; man
can ftand on one foot: thefe are peculiarities in ftrudture and in the manner of moving which are not to be.
found in other animals. We may therefore conclude that man cannot be ranked in the clafs of quadrupeds.
We may add, that in man the brain is much larger, and the jaws much fhorter, than in any other animal.
The brain, by its great exteqt, forms the protuberance of the ocsipital bone, the forehead, and all that part
of the head which is above the ears. In animals, the brain is fo fmall, that moft of them have no occiput, or
the front is either wanting or little railed. In animals which have large foreheads, fuch as the horfe, the ox,
the elephant, &c. they are placed as low, and even lower, than the ears. Thefe animals likewife want the
occiput, and the top of the head is of very fmall extent. The jaws, which form the greateft portion of the.
muzzle, are large in proportion to the fmallnefs of the brain. The length of the muzzle varies in different
animals : in folipede animals it is very long ; it is Ihort in the ourang-outang.; and in man. it does not exift
at all. No beard grows on the muzzle : this part is wanting in every animat
Mm.
M A N
[ 512 1 MAN
' Man. mals, a world in miniature* the centre which conne&s
W—y—- tjie unjverfe together. The form of his body, the or¬
gans whereof are conftru&ed in fuch a manner as to
produce a much greater effect than thofe of other ani¬
mals, announces his power. Every thing demonilrates
the excellence of his nature, and the immenfe diftance
placed by the bounty of the Creator between man and
Teaft. Man is a reafonable being; brute animals are
deprived of that noble faculty. The weakeft and moft
ftupid of the human race is able to manage the molt
fagaciousqdadruped; he commands it, and makes it fub-
fervient^to his ufe. The operations of brutes are pure¬
ly the effedt of mechanical impulfe, and continue al¬
ways the fame; human works are varied without end,
and infinitely diveriified in the manner of execution.
The foul of man is free, independent, and immortal.
He is fitted for the ftudy of fcience, and the cultiva¬
tion of art; he has the exclufive privilege of examin¬
ing every thing which has exiftence, and of holding
communication with his fellow-creatures by language,
by particular motions of the body, and by marks and
charadters mutually agreed upon. Hence arifes that
phyfical pre-eminence which he enjoys over all animals ;
and hence that power which he poffefles over the ele¬
ments, and (fo to fpeak) over nature itfelf. Man,
therefore, is unequalled in his kind; but the indivi¬
duals thereof differ greatly from one another in figure,
ftature, colour, manners, and difpofitions. The globe
which man inhabits is covered with the produdtions
of his induftry and the wro'rks of his hands : it is his
labour, in limit, which gives a value to the whole ter-
reltrial mafs.
The hiilory of man is an objedf of attention highly
interefting, whethar we confider him in the different
periods of his life,. or take a view of the varieties of
the fpecies, or examine the wonderful organization of
his frame. We lhall, therefore, attempt to give a lliort
Iketch of him in thefe different points of view ; refer¬
ring occafionally to other parts of the work for more
particular details.
“ Nothing (fays M. Buffon) exhibits fuch a ftri-
Different pi&ure °f our weaknefs, as the condition of an
periods of infant immediately after birth. Incapable of employing
man’s life, its organs, it needs afiiltance of every kind. In the
firfl: moments of our exiftence, we prefent an image of
pain and mifery, and are more weak and helplefs than
the young of any other animal. At birth, the infant
paffes from one element to another: When it leaves
the gentle warmth of the tranquil fluid by which it was
completely furrounded in the womb of the mother, it be-
g comes expofed to the impreffions of the air, and inilantly
His condi- feels the effects of that active element. The air acting
tion at upon the olfactory nerves, and upon the organs of re-
ftiith; fpiration, produces a Ihoclc fomethinglike fndezing, by
which the breaft is expanded, and the air admitted in¬
to the lungs. In the mean time, the agitation of the
diaphragm prelfes upon the vifcera of the abdomen,
and the excrements are thus for the firft time difchar-
ged from the inteftines, and the urine from the blad¬
der. The air dilates the veficles of the lungs, and af¬
ter being rarefied to a certain degree, is expelled by
the fpring of the dilated fibres readling upon this rare¬
fied fluid. The infant now refpires; and articulates
founds, or cries. £For the condition of the fetus in ute~
N° 193.
ro, where it lives without refpiration, fee Anatomy,
n° 110 ; and for the nature and importance of refpiia-
tion, fee n° 1x8.]
Moft animals are blind for feme days after birth.
Infants open their eyes to the light the moment they
come into the world ; but they are dull, fixed, and
commonly blue. The new-born child cannot diftin-
guifli objedfs, becaufe he is incapable of fixing his eyes
upon them. The organ of vifion is yet imperfect;
the cornea is wrinkled ; and perhaps the retina is too
foft for receiving the images of external objefts, and
for communicating the fenfation of diftindt vifion. At
the end of forty days, the infant begins to hear and
to fmile. About the fame time it begins to look at 9 ,
bright objects, and frequently to turn its eyes towards*^
the window, a candle, or any light. Now likewife it 0f infancy,-
begins to weep ; for its former cries and groans were
not accompanied with tears. Smiles and tears are the
effedl of two internal fenfations, both of which depend
on the attion of the mind. Thus they are peculiar to
the human race, and ferve to exprefs mental pain or
pleafure ; while the cries, motions, and other marks of
bodily pain and pleafure, are common to man and mofl
of the other animals. Confidering the fubjedf as me-
taphyficians, we will find that pain and pleafure are the
univerfal power which fets all our pafiions in motion.
The fize of an infant born at the full time is com¬
monly twenty-one inches ; and that fetus, w-hich nine
months before was an imperceptible bubble, now weighs
ten or twelve pounds, and fometimes more. The head
is large in proportion to the body ; and this difpro-
portion, which is ftill greater in the firft ftage of the
fcetus, continues during the period of infancy. The
flvin of a new-born child is of a reddifh colour, becaufe
it is fo fine and traflfparent as to allow a flight tint of
the colour of the blood to Ihine through. The form
of the body and members is by no means perfeft in a
child foon after birth ; all the parts appear to be
fwollen. At the end of three days, a kind of jaundice
generally comes on, and at the fame time milk is to be
found in th« breafts of the infant, which may be fquee •
zed out by the fingers. The fwelling dccreafes as the
child grows up.
The liquor contained in the amnios leaves a vifcid
whitifli matter upon the body of the child. In this
country we have the precaution to waih the new-born
infant only with warm water; but it is the cuftom
with whole nations inhabiting the colcjeft climates, to
plunge their infants into cold water as foon as they
are born without their receiving the leaft injury, it
is even faid that the Laplanders leave their children in
the fnow till the cold has almoft flopped their refpira¬
tion, and then plunge them into a warm bath. Among
thefe people, the children are alfo waflied thrice a-day
during the firft year of their life. The inhabitants of
northern countries are perfuaded that the cold bath
tends to make men ftronger and more robuft, and on
that account accuftom their children to the ufe of it
from their infancy. The truth is, that we are total¬
ly ignorant of the power of habit, or how far it can
make our bodies capable of fuffering, of acquiring, or
of lofing.
The child is not allowed to fuck, as foon as it is
born ; but time is given for difcharging the liquor and
flime
MAN r 5
lVfsrt. flime from the ftomach, and the mtronium or excre-
U—v/—j ment, which is of a black colour, from the Inteftines.
As thefe fubftances might four the milk, a little dilu¬
ted wine mixed with fugar is firft given to the infant,
and the bread is not prefented to it before ten or twelve
hours have elapfed.
The young of quadrupeds can of themfelves find the
way to the teat of the mother : it is not fo with man.
The mother, in order to fuckle her child, mud raife
it to her breads ; and, at this feeble period of life, the
I0 infant can exprefs its wants only by its cries.
Peculiar New-born children have need of frequent nourifh-
atfennon ment. During the day, the bread ought to be given
^arina'the t^iem evei7 tvvo hours, and during the night as often
young^of as they awake. At fird they deep almod continual-
mankind. ly ; and they feem never to awake but w hen preffed
by hunger or pain. Sleep is ufeful and refrefhing to
them ; and it fometimes becomes neceflary to employ
narcotic dofes, proportioned to the age and conditu-
tion of the child, for the purpofe of procuring them
repofe. The common way of appeafing the cries of
children is by rocking them in the cradle; but this
agitation mud be very gentle, other wife a great rifle
is run of confufing the infant’s brain, and of produ¬
cing a total derangement. It is neceffary to their be-
ing in good health, that their fleep be long and natu¬
ral. It is pofiible, however, that they may fieep too
much, and thereby endanger their conditution. In
that cafe, it would be proper to take them out of the
cradle, and awaken them by a gentle motion, or by
prefenting fome bright objeft to their eyes. At this
age we receive the fird impreffions from the fenfes,
which, without doubt, are more important during the
red of life than is generally imagined. Great care
ought to be taken to place the cradle in fuch a manner
that the child fhall be direddly oppofite to the light:
for the eyes are always directed towards that part of
the room where the light is dronged ; and, if the
cradle be placed fide ways, one of them, by turning
towards the light, will acquire greater drength than
the other, and the child will fquint. For the two
fird months, no other food fhould be given to the child
but the milk of the nurfe ; and, when it is of a weak
and delicate conditution, this nourifhment alone fhould
be continued during the third or fourth month. A
child, however robud and healthful, may be expofed
to great danger and inconvenience, if any other ali¬
ment is adminidered before the end of the fird month.
In Holland, Italy, Turkey, and the whole Levant,
the food of children is limited to the milk? of the nurfe
fbr a whole year. The favages of Canada give their
children fuck for four, five, and fometimes cVm feven
years. In this country, as nurfes generally have not
a fufficient quantity of milk tt> fatisfy the appetite of
their children, they commonly fupply the want of it
by panada, or other light preparations.
The teeth ufually begin to appear about the age
of feven months. The cutting of thefe, although a
natural operation, does not follow' the common laws
of nature, which adls continually on the human body
without occafioning the fmalled pain or even produ¬
cing any fenfation. Here a violent and painful effort is
made, accompanied with cries and tears. Children
at fird lofe their fprightlinefs and gaiety ; they be¬
come fad, redlefs, and fretful. The gums are red,
and fwelled; but they aftenvards become white, when
Vox.. X. Part II.
■3 ] MAN
the prefiure of the teeth is fo great as to flop the, cir- Man
culation of the blood. Children apply their fingers to ^
their mouth, that they may remove the irritation
which they feel there. Some relief is given, by putting
into their hands a bit of ivory or of coral, or of fome
other hard and fmooth body, with which they rub the
gums at the affefted part. This preffure, being op-
pofed to that of the teeth, calms the pain for a mo¬
ment, contributes to make the membrane of the gum
thinner, and facilitates its rupture. Nature here a£ts
in oppofition to herfelf; and an incifion of the gum
mud fometimes take place, to allow a pafiage to the
tooth. For the period of dentition, number of teeth.
See. fee Anatom v, n,J 27.
When children are allowed to cry too long and too
often, ruptures are fometimes occafioned by the efforts
they make. Thefe may efilily be cured by the fpeedy
application of bandages; but if this remedy has been
too long delayed, the difeafe may continue through life.
Children are very much fubjeft to worms.. Some of
the bad effe&s occafioned by thefe animals might be
prevented by giving them a little wine now and then,
for fermented liquors have a tendency to prevent their
generation.
Though the body is very delicate in the date of in¬
fancy, it is then lefs fenfible of cold than at any
other part of life. Thaj Internal heat appears to be
greater : the pulfe in children is much quicker than
in adults; from which wd are certainly intitled to infer,
that the internal heat is greater in the fame propor¬
tion. For the fame reafon, it is evident that fmall
animals have more heat than large ones ; for the beat¬
ing of the heart and of the arteries is always quicker
in proportion to the fmallnefs of the animal. The
ftrokes of the heart in a fparrow fucteed one another
fo rapidly that they can fcarcely be counted. t(
Till three years of age,- the lira of a child is very The great
precarious. In the two or three following years, it mortality
becomes more certain ; and at fix or feven years of age,
a child has a better chance of living than at any other ^
period of life. From the bills of mortality publifhed
at London, it appears, that of a certain number of
children born at the fame time, one half of them die
the three fird years : according to which, one half
of the human race are cut off before they are three
years of age. But the mortality among children is not
nearly fo great every where as in London. Jlf. Dupre
de Saint-Maur, from a great number of obfervations
made in France, has fhown that half of the children
born at the fame time are not extindt till feven or eight
years have elapfed.
Among the caufes which have occafioned fo great a
mortality among children, and even among adults,
the fmall-pox may be ranked as the chief. But lucki¬
ly the means of alleviating by inoculation the fatal ef¬
fects of this terrible fcourge are now univerfally known.
See Inoculation, and Mr.DicinE-Index.
Children begin learning to fpeak about the age of Speech,
twelve or fifteen months. In all languages, and among when it
every people, the fird fyllables they utter are A?, la,commt;U'
tna, ma, pa, pa, tala, abada : nor ought this to excite CeS"
any furprife, when we confider that thefe fyllables are
the founds mod natural to man, becaufe they confiil
of that vowel, and thofe confonants, the pronuncia¬
tion of which require the fmalled exertion in the or¬
gans of fpeech. Some children at two years of age
3 T articulate
MAN
Man.
C JH
MAN
articulate diflin&ly, and repeat whatever is faid to
them ; but moft children do not fpeak till the age of
two years and a half, or three years, and often later.
The life of man and of other animals is meafured
only from the moment of birth : they enjoy exiftence,
however, previous to that period, and begin to live in
the ftate of a foetus. This flate is defcribed and ex¬
plained under the article Anatomy, n° 110. The
period of infancy, which extends from the moment of
birth to about twelve years of age, has juft now been
13 confidered.
Period of The period of infancy is followed by that of ado-
adolel'cence ^cence‘ ^'s begins, together with puberty, at the
Man.
At the age of adolefcence, and of puberty, the
body commonly attains its full height. About that '■
time, young people (hoot out feveral inches almoft at
once. But there is no part of the human body which
increafes more quickly and more perceptibly than the
organs of generation in both fexes. In males, this
growth is nothing but an unfolding of the parts, an
augmentation in fize ; but in females, it often occa-
fions a (hrinking and contraftion, which have received
different names from thofe whq have treated of the
figns of virginity. See Virginity. ry
Marriage is a ftate fuitable to man, wherein he muft Efletts of
make ufe of thofe new faculties which he has acquired P^erty.
age of twelve or fourteen, and commonly ends in girls by puberty. At this period of life, the delire of pro-
at fifteen, and in boys at eighteen, but fometimes not
till twenty-one, twenty-three, and twenty-five years
ducing a being like himfelf is ftrongly felt. The ex¬
ternal form and the correfpondence of the organs of
of age. According to its etymology (being derived fex, occafion without doubt that irrefiftible attraction
from the .Latin word adohfcentia), it is completed when whioh unites the fexes and perpetuates the race. By
the body has attained its full height. Thus, puberty connecting pleafure with the propagation of the fpe-
iccompanies adolefcence, and precedes youth. This
nature has provided moft effectually for the con-
is the fpring of life ; this is the feafon of pleafures, of tinuance of her work. Increafe and multiply> is the ex¬
loves, and of graces: but alas! this fmiling feafon is
of Ihort duration. Hitherto nature feems to have had
nothing in view but the prefervation and increafe of
her work : Ihe has made no provifion for the infant
except what is neceffary to its life and growth. It has
prefs command of the Creator, and one of the natural
funCfions of life. We may add, that at the age of
puberty a thoufand impreffions aCl upon the nervous
fyftem, and reduce man to fuch a lituation that he feels
his exiftence only in that voluptuous fenfe, which then
lived, or rather enjoyed a kind of vegetable exiftence, appears to become the feat of his foul, which engroffes
which was Ihut up. within itfelf, and which it was in¬
capable of communicating. In this firft ftage of life,
reafon is ftill afleep : but the principles of life foon
multiply, and man has not only what is neceffary to
his own exiftence, but what enables him to give exift¬
ence to others. This redundancy of life, this fource
of health and vigour, can no longer be confined, but
T4 endeavours to diffufe and expand itfelf.
Symptoms The age of puberty is announced by feveral marks,
ot puberty. The firft fymptom is a kind of numbnefs and ftifthefs
the wholefenfibility of whichheis fufceptible, and which
at length proceeds to fuch a height, that its attacks can¬
not long be fupported without a general derangement
of the whole machine. The continuance of fuch a feel¬
ing may fometimes indeed prove fatal to thofe who in¬
dulge in exceffive enjoyment; but it is equally danger¬
ous tothofe who obftinatcly perfift in celibacy, efpecially
when ftrongly folicited by nature. The femen, being
too long confined in the feminal veffels, may, by its fti-
mulant property, occafion difeafes in both fexes, and
1 the groins, accompanied with a new and peculiar excite irritations fo violent as to reduce man to a level
fenfation in thofe parts which diftinguiih the fexes.
There, as well as in the arm-pits, final] protuberances
of a whitifti colour appear, which are the germs of a
new production of a kind of hair, by which thefe parts
are afterwards to be veiled. The voice, for a confider-
with the brutes, which, when afted upon by fuch im-
prefiions, are perfectly furious and ungovernable. When
this irritation proceeds to extremity, it produces what
is called the furor uterlnus in women. The oppolite
habit, however, is infinitely more common, efpecially
able time, is rough and unequal; after which it be- in the temperate, anu'above all in the frozen zones. Af-jts fre.
comes fuller, ftronger, and graver, than it was before.
This change may eafily be diftinguiihed in boys; but
lefs fo in girls, becaufe their voices are naturally (harper.
Thefe marks of puberty are common to both fexes
ter all, excefs is much more to be dreaded than conti quent a
nency. The number of diffolute and intemperate men hufe*
afford us plenty of examples. Some have loft their
memory, fome have been deprived of fight, fome
but there are marks peculiar to each, fuch as the dif- have become bald, and fome have died through mere
charge of the menfes, and the growth of the b'reafts,
girls ; the beard, and the emiffion of femen, in
boys; in (hort, the feeling of venereal defire, and the
veaknefs. In fuch a cafe, bleeding is well known to
be fatal. Young men cannot be too often warned of
the irreparable injury they may do to their health ;
appetite which unites the fexes. Among all races of and parents, to whofe care they are entrufted, ought
mankind, the females arrive at puberty fooner than the
males ; but :he age of puberty is different in different
Rations, and feems partly to depend on the tempera¬
ture of the climate and the quality of the food. In all
the fouthern countries of Europe, and in cities, the
greateft part of girls arrive at puberty about twelve,
and boys about fourteen years of age. But in the
northern parts, and in the country, girls fcarcely ar¬
rive at puberty till they are fourteen or fifteen, and
boys not till they are fixteen or feventeen. In our cli¬
mate, girls, for the greateft part, have attained com¬
plete maturity at eighteen,, and boys at twenty years
of age..
to employ all the means in their power to turn them V
from fuch dangerous exceffes. But at the age of Pu‘ ^tancTof-
berty, young men know not of how great importance
it is to prolong this fmiling feafon of their days,
whereon the happinefs or mifery of their future life fo
much depends. Then they look not forwards to futu*
rity, nor refiedl on what is paft, nor enjoy prefent
pleafures with moderation. How many ceafe to be
or at leaft to have the faculties of men, before
the age of thirty ? Nature muft not be forced : like a
true mother, her objeft is the fober and difereet union
of the fexes. It is fiifficient to obey when (he com¬
mands, and to anfwer when (he calls. Neither, muft
MAN [5
Man. v;e forget here to mention and condemn an outrage
—*v—’ committed againft nature, the ihameful praAice of
which endangers the lofs of health, and the total ruin
of the conftitution ; we mean that folitary libertinifm
(majlurlatio), by which a man or woman, deceiving
nature as it were, endeavours to procure thofe enjoy¬
ments which religion has forbidden except when con-
ne&ed with the happinefs of being a parent. Such
then is the phyiical order which the Author of
nature, the great preferver of the fpecies as well as of
the individual, has appointed to induce man, by the
attraction of pleafure, to propagate and continue his
race.
The procreation of children is the objeCt of mar¬
riage ; but fometimes this objeCt fails to be accomplifli-
l8 ed. See Impotence and Sterility.
Of procre- According to the ordinary courfe of nature, wo-
ation. men are not fit for conception till after the firft ap¬
pearance of the menfes. When thefe flop, which ge¬
nerally happens about forty or fifty years of age, they
are barren ever after. Their breafts then fhrink and
decay, and the voice becomes feebler. Some, however,
have become mothers before they have experienced any
menftrual difcharge; and others have conceived at the
age of fixty, and fometimes at a more advanced age.
Such examples, though not unfrequent, muft be con-
fidered as exceptions to the general rule ; but they are
fufficient to (how that the menftrual difcharge is not
eflential to generation. The age at which man ac¬
quires the faculty of procreating is not fo diftin&ly
marked. In order to the produ&ion of femen, the
body muft have attained a certain growth, which ge¬
nerally happens between twelve and eighteen years of
age. At fixty or feventy, when the body .begins to
be enervated by old age, the voice becomes weaker,
the femen is fecreted in fmaller quantities, and it is of¬
ten unprolific. There are inftances, however, of old
men who have procreated at the age of eighty or
ninety. Boys have been found who had the faculty
of generating at nine, ten, or eleven years of age;
and young girls who have become pregnant at the age
of feven, eight, or nine. But fuch fafts, which-are
very rare, ought to be confidered as extraordinary
phenomena in the courfe of nature.
Pregnancy. Pregnancy is the time during which a woman car¬
ries in her womb the fruit of conception. It begins
from the moment the prolific faculty has been reduced
into a&, and all the conditions requifite in both fexes
have concurred to form the rudiments of a male or fe¬
male fcetus; and it ends with delivery. As foon as a
woman is declared pregnant, fays the author of the ef-
fay Sur la manure de perfeclionner Pefpece humaine, (he
ought to direft her attention wholly to herfelf, and
make the wants of her offspring the ftandard of her
adlions. She is now become the depofitary of a new
creature fimilar to herfelf, and differing only in the
proportion and fucceffive unfolding of its parts. She
muft be highly careful not to lacc herfelf tight, to
avoid exceflive ftretchings, and, in (hort, to difturb in
no refpeft the natural (late of the womb. She muft
likewife beware of indulging ceitain paflions, for
we (hall afterwards fee what great changes are produ¬
ced in the animal ceconomy by ftrong and violent paf-
fions.
An explanation, then, of what takes place during
15 ] MAN
pregnancy, is nothing but a hiftory of the formation Man
of the foetus ; of its expan fion ; of the extraordinary 'r—J
manner in which it lives, is nourilhed, and grows in
its mother’s womb ; and of the way in which all thefe
operations are performed with regard to both : for
which fee Anatomy, n0 109, no. It has been pro¬
ved by many obfervations, that the foetus changes its
pofition in the womb, according to the different atti¬
tudes of the mother. It is commonly fituated with
its feet downwards, the breech refting upon the heels,
the head bent towards the knees, the hands bent to¬
wards the mouth, the feet turned inwards ; and in this
pofition it fwims like a kind of veffel in the watery
fluid contained in the membranes by which it is fur-
rounded, without occafioning any inconvenience to the
mother, except what arifes from its motions, fome¬
times to the one fide, and fometimes to the other.
At times, it even kicks with fuch violence as to
frighten the mother. . But when once the head be¬
comes fufficiently large to deftroy the equilibrium, it
tumbles over and falls downwards; the face is turned
towards the os facrum, and the crown of the head to¬
wards the orifice of the uterus. This happens fix
weeks or two months before delivery. When the
time of delivery arrives, the foetus, finding itfelf too
much confined in the womb, makes an effort to ef-
cape with its head firft. At length, at the moment
of delivery, it unites its own ftrength with that of the
mother, and opens the orifice of the uterus wide
enough to allow a paffage for itfelf. It happens fome¬
times that the foetus efcapes from the uterus without
burfting its covering, as is the cafe with animals.
But, in general, the human foetus pierces the mem¬
branes by its efforts; and fometimes a very thin part
of them remains upon the head like a cap. The an¬
cients confidered this membranous covering as a fign
of good fortune ; and the fame idea is ftill prevalent
among the vulgar. The liquor which efcapes during
delivery is called the ’waters of the mother. Thefe
waters ferve to guard the foetus from external injuries,
by eluding the violence of the blows which the mo¬
ther may receive upon the belly ; and, in the fame J0
manner, they defend the womb from the (hocks occa- parturition^
fioned by the motions of the foetus. In (hort, by ren¬
dering the paffages foft and pliable, they facilitate the
efcape of the child in the time of delivery. (See
Midwifery.)—In the womb, the foetus does not re-
fpire, as has been already mentioned; confequently
what has been faid of the cries of children in the
womb, muft be confidered as altogether fabulous.—.
Women have generally only one child at a birth.
When they bear two, three, or more, the feetufes are
feldom found under the fame covering ; and their pla¬
centae, though adhering, are almoft always diftinft.
Twins are not uncommon, but there are feldom more.
It is fuppofed, that among women with child, there
is only one in 2500 who brings forth three children
at a birth, one in 20,000 who brings forth four, and
one in a million who brings forth five. When the
number amounts to five, or even when there are but
three or four, they are generally of a weakly conftitu¬
tion ; mod of them die in the womb, or foon after de
livery. See the article Prolific.
At the age of puberty, or a few years after, the
body attains its full ftaturc. Some young men grow
3 T 2 no
Map.
MAN t 516 ] M A N
no taller after 15 or 16, and others continue to grow of man is the mirror of his mind. In the looks of no Man
till the age of 20 or 23. At this period they are animal are the expreflions of palfion painted with fuch v
a 1 very {lender : but by degrees the members fwell and energy and rapidity, and with fuch gentle gradations
Period of begin to aflume their proper (hape ; and before the and {hades, as in thofe of man. We know, that in
youth. age 0f ^0) body Jfj mcrt ]iag attained its greateil certain emotions of the mind, the blood rifes to the
* perfeftion with regard to ftrength, confiftenee, and face, and produces blulhing; and that in others,
i'ymmetry. Adolefcence ends at the age of 20 or 25 ; the countenance turns pale. Thefe two fymptoms,
and at this period youth (according to the divifiou the appearance of which depends on the ftru&ure and
which has been made of the years of man’s life into diffe- the tranfparency of the reticulum, efpecially rednefs,
,2 rent ages) begins. It continues till the age of 30 or 35. conftitute a peculiar beauty. lu our climates, the na-
Starure of The common ftature of men is about five feet and tural colour of the face of a man in good health is
nun. three, fdur, five, fix, or feven inches ; and of women white, with a lively red fuffufed upon the cheeks.
about five feet and two, three, or four inches. Men Palenefs of the countenance is always a fufpicious
below five feet are of a fmall itature. The Laplan- fymptom. That colour which is {haded with black
ders do not exceed four feet and a half; and the na- is a fign of melancholy and of vitiated bile ; and con-
tives of forne other countries are ftill fmaller. Wo- ftant and univerfal rednefs is a proof that the blood
men attain their full height fooner than men. Haller is carried with too great impetuofity to the brain. A
computes, that in the temperate climates of Europe, livid colour is a morbid and dangerous fymptom; and
the medium ftature of'men is about five feet and five or that which has a tint of yellow is a fign of jaundice
iix inches. It is obferved by the fame author, that in or repletion of bile. The colour of the flan isfre-
Switzerland the inhabitants of the plains are taller than quently altered by want of Ileep or of nourifliment,
thofe of the mountains. It is difficult to afeertain with or by loofenefs and diarrhoea.
preciiion the actual limits of the human ftature. In ‘ Notwithftanding the general fimilitude of counte-
furveying the inhabited earth, we find greater diffe- nance in nations and families, there is a wonderful di- 4<;
rences in the ftatures of individuals than in , thofe of verfity of features. No one, however, is at a lofs to Diverifity of I
nations. In the fame climate, among the fame people, recollect theperfon to whom he intends to fpeak, pro-tile counte-
and fometimes in the fame family, there are men vided he has once fully feen him. One man has live-nancc’
whofe ftature is either too tall or too diminutive, linefs and gaiety painted in his countenance, and an*
23 See the articles Giant and Dwarf. nounces before-hand, by the cheerfulnefs of his ap-
State of The body having acquired its full height during pearance, the character which he is to fupport in fo-
nianhood (,j)C pCri0{i 0f adolefcejice, and its full dimenfions in ciety. The tears which bedew the cheeks of another
youth, remains for fome years in the fame ftate before man would excite compaffion in the moft unfeeling
it begins to decay. This is the period of manhood, heart. Thus the face of man is the rendezvous of
which extends from the age of 30 or 35 to that of the fymptoms both of his moral and phylical affec-
qo or 45 years. During this ftage, the powers of the tions: tranquillity, anger, threatening, joy, fmiles,
body continue in full vigour, and the principal change laughter, malice, love, envy, jealoufy, pride, contempt,
which takes place in the human figure arifes from the difdain or indignation, irony, arrogance, tears, terror,
formation of fat in different parts. Exceffive fatnefs aftoniftrment, horror, fear, (hame or humiliation, for-
disfigures the body, and becomes a very cumberfome row and afflhftion, compaffion, meditation, particular
and inconvenient load. convulfions, fleep, death, See. &e. The difference
Noblenefs .The body of a well-ffiaped man ought to be fquare, of thefe characters appears to us of fufficient impor-
bf the hu- the mufcles ought to be ftrongly marked, the contour tance to form a principal article in the natural hiftory
w'movT t^ie memf)ers boldly delineated, and the features of of man. 2{j
naents. the face well defined. In women, all the parts are When the mind is at eafe, all the features of the Anal,fis ef
more rounded and fofter, the features are more deli- face are in a ftate of profound tranquillity. Their pro-t^e
cate, and the complexion brighter. To man belong portion, harmony, and union, point out the ferenityturcs’
ftrength and majefty ; gracefulnefs and beauty are the of the thoughts. But when the foul is agitated, the
portion of the other fex. The ftru&ure effential to human face becomes a living canvas, whereon the paf-
each will be found in the defeription of the human fions are reprefented with equal delicacy and energy,
tkeleton, under the article Anatomy. where every emotion of the foul is expreffed by fome
Every thing in both fexes points them out as the feature, and every aCliqn by fome mark ; the lively im-
fovereigns of the earth ; even the external appearance preffion of which anticipates the will, and reveals by
cf man declares his fuperiority to other living crea- pathetic figns our fecret agitation, and thofe inten-
tures. His body is ereft ; his attitude is that of tions which we are anxious to conceal. It is par-
command ; his auguft countenance, which is turned ticularly in the eyes 'that the foul is painted in the
towards heaven, bears the impreffions of his dignity, ftrongeft colours and with the moft delicate {hades.
The image of his foul is painted in his face ; the ex- The different colours of the eyes are, dark hazel, light
• cellence of his nature pierces through the material or- hazel, green, blue, gray, and whitifh-gray. The moft
gans, and gives a fire and animation to the features common of thefe colours are hazel and blue, both of
of his countenance. His majeftic deportment, his which are often found in the fame eye. Eyes which are
firm and emboldened gait, announce the noblenefs of commonly called black, are only dark hazel; they ap¬
his rank. He touches the earth only with his extremi- pear black in confequence of being contrafted with the
ty : he views it only at a diftance, and feems to defpife white of the eye. Wherever there is a tint of blue,
it. It has been juftly obferved, that the countenance however flight, it becomes the prevailing colour, and
outftiines
47
The mo¬
tions pro¬
duced m
them by
the paf-
iions.
M A N
ootfhincs the hazel, with which it is intermixed, to
fuch a degree, that the mixture cannot be perceived
without a very narrow examination. The moil beauti¬
ful eyes are thofe which appear black or blue. In the
former, there is more expreilion and vivacity ; in the
latter, more fweetnefs and perhaps delicacy.
Next to the eyes, the parts of the face by which the
phyfiognomy is moft ftrongly marked, are the eye¬
brows. Being of a different nature from the other
parts, their effect is increafed by contrail. They are
like a fhade in a picture, which gives relief to the other
colours and forms.
The fore-head is one of the largeft parts of the face,
and contributes moil to its beauty. Every body knows
of how great importance the hair is in the phyfiogno¬
my, and that baldnefs is a very great defedt. When
old age begins to make its approaches, the hair which
firit falls off is that which covers the crown of the head
and the parts above the temples. We feldom fee the
hair of the lower part of the temples, or of the back
of the head, completely fall off. Baldnefs is peculiar
to men : women do not naturally lofe their hair, tho’
it becomes white as well as that of the men at the ap¬
proach of old age.
The nofe is the moft prominent feature of the face.
But as it has very little motion, and that only in the
moft violent paffions, it contributes lefs to the expref-
' fion than to the beauty of the countenance. The nofe
is feldom perpendicular to the middle of the face, but
for the moft part is turned to one fide or the other.
The caufe of this irregularity, which, according to
the painters, is perfectly confiftent with beauty, and
of which even the want would be a deformity, appears
to be frequent preffure on one fide of the cartilage of
the child’s nofe againft the breaft of the mother when
it receives fuck. At this early period of life, the car¬
tilages and bones have acquired very little folidity, and
are eafily bent, as may be obferved in the legs and
thighs of fome individuals, who have been injured by
the bandages of the fwaddling clothe;.
Next to the eyes, the mouth and lips have thegrea-
teft motion and expreffion. Thefe motions are under
the influence of the paffions. The mouth, which is
fet off by the vermilion of the lips and the enamel
of the teeth, marks, by the various forms which
it affumes, their different characters. The organ
of the voice likewife gives animation to this fea¬
ture, and communicates to it more life and expreffion
than is poffeffed by any of the reft. The cheeks are
uniform features, and have no motion or expreffion ex¬
cepting from that involuntary rednefs or palenefs with
which they are covered in different paffions, fuch as
ffiame, anger, pride, and joy, on the one hand; and
fear, terror, and forrow, on the other.
In different paffions, the whole head affumes diffe¬
rent poiitions, and is affected with different motions.
It hangs forward during fhame, humility, and forrow;
it inclines to one fide in languor and compaffion ; it
is elevated in pride, eredt and fixed in obftinacy and
felf-conceit : In ailoniihment it is thrown backwards ;
and it moves from fide to fide in contempt, ridicule,
anger, and indignation.
In grief, joy, love, fhamc, and compaffion, the eyes
fwell, and the tears flow. The effuffion of tears is
M A N
always accompanied with an extenfion of the mufeks Man.
of the face, which opens the mouth. —-y—
In forrow, the corners of the mouth are deprefled,
the under-lip riles, the eye-lids fall down, the pupil of
the eye is raifed and half concealed by the eye-lid.
The other mufcles of the face are relaxed, fo that the
diitanee between thq eyes and the mouth is greater
than ordinary ; and confequently the countenance ap¬
pears to be lengthened.
In fear, terror, confternation, and horror, the fore¬
head is wrinkled, the eye-brows are raifed, the eye¬
lids are opened as wide as poffible, the upper lid unco¬
vers a part of the white above the pupil, which is de-
preffed and partly concealed by the under lip. At
the fame time, the mouth opens wide, the lips recede
from each other, and difeover the teeth both above and
below.
In contempt and derifion, the upper lip is raifed at
one fide and expofes the teeth, while the other fide of
the lip moves a little’tind wears the appearance of a
fmile. The noftril on the elevated fide of the lip Ihri-
vels up, and the corner of the mouth falls down.
The eye on the fame fide is almoft Ihut, while the
other is open as ufual; but the pupils of both
are depfeffed, as when one looks down from a
height.
In jealoufy, envy, and malice, the eye-brows fall
down and are wrinkled ; the eye-lids are elevated, and
the pupils are depreffed. The upper lip is elevated
on both fides, while the corners of the mouth are a
little depreffed, and the under lip rifes to join the
middle of the upper.
In laughter, the corners of the mouth are drawn
back and a little elevated; the upper parts of the
cheeks rife; the eyes are more or Ids ciofed ; the up¬
per lip rifes, and the under one falls down ; the mouth
opens'; and in cafes of immoderate laughter, the Ikin
of the nofe wrinkles. Tliat gentler and more graci¬
ous kind of laughter which is called fmiling, is feated
wholly in the parts of the mouth. The under lip
rifes; the angles of the mouth are drawn- back ; the
cheeks are puffed up ; the eye-lids approach one ano¬
ther ; and a fmall twinkling is obferved in the eyes.
It is very extraordinary, that laughter may be excited
either by a moral eaufe without the immediate action
of external objects, or by a particular irritation of the
nerves without any feeling of joy. Thus an invo¬
luntary laugh is excited by a flight tickling of the
lips, of the palm of the hand, of the foie of .the foot,
of the aim-pits, and, in ftiort, below the middle of the
ribs. We laugh when two diffimilar ideas, the union
of which was unexpected, are prefented to the mind at
the fame time, and when one or both of thefe ideas,
or their union, includes fome abfurdity which excites
an emotion of difdain mingled with joy. In general,
ftriking contrafts never fail to produce laughter.
A change is produced in the features of the coun¬
tenance by weeping as well as by laughing. When
we weep, the under lip is feparated from the teeth,
the forehead is wrinkled, the eye-brows are deprefled i
the dimple, which gives a gracefulnefs to laughter,
forfakes the cheek : the eyes are more eompreffed, and
almoft conftantly bathed in tears, which in laughter
flow more feldom and lefs copioufly.
[ S'7 1
)umian
body.
MAN [ j
The arms, hands, and every part of the body, con-
tribute to the expreffion of the pafiions. In joy, for
inftance, all the members of the body are agitated with
quick and various motions. In languor and forrow,
the arms hang down, and the whole body remains fix¬
ed and immoveable. In admiration and furprife, this
total fufpenfion of motion is likewife obferved. In
love, defire, and hope, the head and eyes are railed to
heaven, and feem to folicit the wiflied*for good ; the
body leans forward as if to approach it; the arms are
ftretched out, and feem to feize before-hand the be¬
loved objeft. On the contrary, in fear, hatred, and
horror, the arms feem to pufh backward and repel the
object of our averfion; we turn away our head and
eyes as if to avoid the fight of it; we recoil in order
to fliun it.
Although the human body is externally much more
delicate than that of any other animal, yet it is very
nervous, and perhaps ftronger in proportion to its fize
than that of the ftrongeft animals. We are allured
>f l}!e that the porters at Conllantinople carry burdens of
n 900 pounds weight. A thoufand wonderful ftories
are related of the Hottentots and other favages con¬
cerning their agility in running. Civilized man knows
not the full extent of his powers, nor how much he
lofes by that effeminacy and inaftivity by which they
are weakened and dellroyed. He is contented even
to be ignorant of the ftrength and vigour which his
members are capable of acquiring by motion, and by
being accuftomed to fevere exercifes, as is obferved in
runners, tumblers, and rope-dancers. The conclufion
is, therefore, founded on the moft juft and indifputable
indu&ion and analogy.—The attitude of walking is
lefs fatiguing to man than that in which he is placed
when he is Hopped in running. Every time he fets
his foot upon the ground, he palfes over a more confi-
derable fpace ; the body leans forwards, and the arms
follow the fame direftion ; the refpiration increafes,
and breathing becomes difficult. Leaping begins with
great inflexions of the,members; the body is then
much ffiortcned, but immediately ftretches itfelf out
with a great effort. The motions which accompany
25 leaping make it very fatiguing.
Retiolation 'Tt is obferved by M. Daubenton (Nouvelle Encyclo-
«f its pow- t|iat a ceffation from exercife is not alone fuffi-
<ers by fleep cjent to reft-ore t^e powers of the body when they are
exhavfted by fatigue. The fprings, though not in
aclion, are ftill wound up while we are awake, even
when every movement is fufpended. In deep nature
finds that repofe which is fuited to her wants, and the
different organs enjoy a falutary relaxation. This is
that wonderful Hate in which man, unconfcious of his
own exiftence, and funk in apparent death, repairs
the lofs which his faculties hasfuftained, and feems to
affume a new exiftence. In this ftate of drowfinefs and
repofe, the fenfes ceafe to aft, the funftions of the
foul are fufpended, and the body feems abandoned to
itfelf. The external fymptoms of fleep, which alone
are the objeft of our attention, are eafily diftinguifh-
ed. At the approach of fleep, the eyes begin to
wink, the eye-lids fall down, the head nods and hangs
down : its fall aftonifhes the fleeper; he ftarts up, and
makes an effort to drive away fleep, but in vain; a
new inclination, ftronger than the former, deprives him
of the power of raifing his head : his chin refts upon
8 ] MAN
his breaft, and in this pofition he enjoys a tranquil Man.
fleep. See the article Sleep. 1——v——j
Phyfiologifts give the name of old age to that pC'xhe3°riod
riod of life which commences immediately after the 0f dedmei
age of manhood and ends at death ; and they diftin-
guifli green old age from the age of decrepitude. But
in our opinion, fuch an extenfive fignification of the
word ought not to be admitted. We are not old men
at the age of forty or forty-five ; and though the bo¬
dy then gives figns of decay, it has not yet arrived at
the period of old age. M. Daubenton obferves, that
it would be more proper to call it the declining age, be-
caufe nature then becomes retrograde, the fatnefs and
good plight of the body diminiffies, and certain parts
of it do not perform their fundtions with equal vi¬
gour.
The age of decline extends from forty or forty-five
to fixty or fixty-five years of age. At this time of
life, the diminution of the fat is the caufe of thofe
wiinkles which begin to appear in the face and fome
other parts of the body. The flun, not being fup-
ported by the fame quantity of fat, and being incapable,
from want of elafticity, of contrafting, finks down and
forms folds. In the decline of life, a remarkable change
takes place alfo in vifion. In the vigour of our days,
the' cryftalline lens, being thicker and more diapha¬
nous than the humours of the eye, enables us to read
letters ef a very fmall eharafter at the diftance of eight
or ten inches. But when the age of decline comes on,
the quantity of the humours of the eye diminifhes,
they lofe their clearnefs, and the tranfparent cornea
becomes lefs convex. To remedy this inconvenience,
we place what we wiffi to read at a greater diftance
from the eye : but vifion is thereby very little impro¬
ved, becaufe the image of the objeft becomes fmaller
and more obfcure. Another mark of the decline of
life is a weaknefs of the ftomach, and indigeftion, in
moft people who do not take fufficient exercife in pro¬
portion to the quantity and the quality of their food.
At fixty, fixty-three, or fixty-five years of age, the 0id fge<
figns of decline become more and more vfible, and in¬
dicate old age. This period commonly extends to the
age of feventy, fometimes to feventy-five, but feldom
to eighty. When the body is extenuated and bent by
old age, man then becomes crazy. Crazinefs there¬
fore is nothing but an infirm old age. The eyes and
ftomach then become weaker and weaker ; leannefs in¬
creafes the .number of the wrinkles; the beard and the
hair become white ; the ftrength and the memory be¬
gin to fail.
After feventy, or at moft eighty years of age, the
life of man is nothing but labour and fprrrow : Such
was the language of David near three thoufand years
ago. Some men of ftrong conftitutions, and in good
health, enjoy old age for a long time without decrepi¬
tude ; but fuch inftances are not very common. The
infirmities of decrepitude continually increafe, and at
length death concludes the whole. This fatal term is
uncertain. The only conclufions which we can form
concerning the duration of life, muft be derived from
obfervations made on a great number of men wffio were
born at the fame time, and who died at different ages.
Thefe we fhall mention in the fequel.
The figns of decrepitude form a ftriking pifture of
weaknefs, and announce the approaching diffolutior.
of
Man:
MAN L 5r9 1 MAN
Man. of the bod)’’. The memory totally fails; the nerves
v ' 1 become hard and blunted ; deafnefs and blindnefs take
place-; the fenfes of fmell, of touch, and of talle, are
deftroyed; the appetite fails; the neceffity of eating,
Decrepi- and more frequently that of drinking, are alone felt;
tude, and after the teeth fall out, maltication is imperfeffly per-
death. formed, and digertiop is very bad ; the lips fall in¬
wards ; the edges of the jaws can no longer approach
one another ; the mufcles of the lower jaw hecome fo
weak, that they are unable to raife and fupport it: the
body finks down ; the fpine is bent outward; and the
vertebrae grow together at the anterior part : the bo¬
dy becomes extremely lean; the Urength fails: the
decrepid wretch is unable to fupport himfelf; he is
obliged to remain on a feat, or ftretched in his bed :
the bladder becomes paralytic ; the inteftines lofe their
fpring ; the circulation of the blood becomes flower ;
the llrokes of the pulfe no longer amount to the num¬
ber of eighty in a minute as in the vigour of life, but
are reduced to twenty-four and fometimes fewer : re-
fpiration is flower ; the body lofes its heat; _ the circu¬
lation of the blood ceafes; death follows; and the
33 dream of life is no more.
Man natu- Man, fays Haller in his Phyfiology, has no right to
«1 for0™* corT1phun of the fhortnefs of life. Throughout the
long life, whole of living beings, there are few who unite in a
greater degree all the internal caufes which tend to
prolong its different periods. The term of geftation
is very confiderable ; the rudiments of the teeth are
very late in unfolding; his growth is flow, and is not
completed before about twenty years have elapfed.
—The age of puberty, alfo, is much later in man
than in any other animal. In fhort, the-parts of his
body being compofed of a fofter and more flexible
fubftance, are not fo foon hardened as thofe of inferior
animals. Man, therefore, feems to receive at his birth
the feeds of a long life : if he reaches not the diflant
period which nature feemed to promife him, it muff be
owing to accidental caufes foreign to himfelf. In dead
of faying that he has finifhed his life, we ought rather
to fay that he has not completed it.
The natural and total duration of life is in fome
meafure propo_N:ioned to the period of growth. A tree
or an animal which foon acquires its full fize, decays
much fooner than another which continues to grow for
a longer time. If it is true that the life of animals is
eight times longer than the period of their growth,
we might conclude that the boundaries of human life
may be extended to a century and a half.
It does not appear that the life of man becomes Durunca
fhorter in proportion to the length of time the world
has exilted. In the days of the Pfalmift, the ordina¬
ry limits of human life did not exceed feventy or eigh¬
ty years. No king of Judah lived beyond that period.
When the Romans, however, were numbered by Vef-
pafiiin, there were found in the empire, in that age of
effeminacy, ten men aged an hundred and twenty and
upwards. Among the princes of modern times, the
late Frederick the Great of Pruffia lived to the age of
74. George II. of Britain lived to that of 77. Louis
XIV. lived to the fame age. Staniflaus king of Po¬
land and duke of Lorrain exceeded that age. Pope Cle¬
ment XII. lived to the age of 80. George. I. of Bri¬
tain attained the age of 83. M. Bomare has collec¬
ted divers initances of perfons who lived to the age of
110 and upwards, of which we lhall in a note (d) fpe-
cify a few in fupplement to thofe already given under
the article Longevity.
Before
(d) William Le’comte, a fhepherd, died fuddenly in 1776, in the county of Ca-ux in Normandy, at the
age of no. Cramers, phyfician to the emperor, faw at Temefwar two brothers, the one aged no and the
other 112, both of whom were fathers at that, age. Saint Paul the hermit was 113 at his death. The Sieur
Ifwan-Horwaths, knight of the order yof St Louis, died at Sar-Albe in Lorrain in 1775, aged'aJmoft in.
He was a great hunter. He undertook a long journey a fhort time before his death, and performed it on horfe-
back. Rofine Iwiwaroufka died at Minlk in Lithuania at the age of 113. Fockjel Johannes died at Olde-
born in Friefland, aged 113. years and 16 days. Marik Jonas died in the year 1775 at Vilejac in Hungary, a!>le in¬
aged 119. John Niethen of Bakler in Zeland lived to the.age of 120.. Eleonora Spicer died in 1773, atffmces.if
Accomack in Virginia, aged 121. John Argus was born in the village of Lallua in Turkey, and died the lon“®v‘t^
6th of March 1779, at the age of 123; having fix fons and three daughters, by whom he had polterity to the
fifth generation. They amounted to the number of 160 fouls, and all lived in the fame village. His father
died at the age of 120. In December 1777, there lived in Devonlhire a farmer named John Broohy, who
was 134 years of age, and had been fifteen times married: The Phiiofophical Tranfactions mention an Eng-
lilhman of the name of Eccle/ion, who lived to the age of 143. Another Knglilhman of the name.of Effingham,
died in 1757 at the age of 144. Niels Jukens of Hamerfet in Denmark died in 1764, aged 146. Chrillian
Jacob Drakemberg died in 1770 at Archufen, in the 146th year of his age: This-old man of the north was
born at Stavangarin Norway in 1624, and at the age of 130 married av/idow of 60. In Norway fome men
have lived to the age of 150. John Rovin, who was born at Szatlova-Carantz-Betcher, in the bannat of Te¬
mefwar, lived to the age of 172, and his wife to that of 164, having been married to him during the fpace of
147 years. When Rovin died, their youngeft fon was 99 years of age.. In the Gazette de France, Jan. 18c
1780, we are informed that there lived at that time at Cordova du Tucuman-; in Spanilh America, a negro
woman called Louifa Trexo, who, by the judicial teffimony. of feveral perfons 100 years old, andtff a ne>
gro woman of 120, was aged between 174 and 175 years. Peter Zoten, a peafant, and a countryman of
John Rovin, died in 1724 at-the age of 185. His youngelt fon was then 97 .years of age. The hiltory and
whole length pictures of John Rovin, Henry Jenkins, and Peter Zorten, are to be icon in the library of
S. A. R. prince Charles at Bruffels. Hanovius, profeffor at Dantzick, mentions in his nomenclature an old
man who died at the age of 184 ; and another Hill alive in Wallachia, whole age, according to this author,
amounts.to 186. Dictionnaire d’Htft. Nat. voce Homme.
M AN [ 520 ] MAN
Man. Before we proceed to affign the common caufes of
‘ ■' ^ ' longevity, it is proper to inquire into the manner of
Chief can- ancl tl‘c htuation of thofe by whom it has been en-
fes of Ion- joyed. W e find, then, that thofe who have lived to the
geoty. greatefi. age have been fuch as did not attain their full
growth till a very advanced period of life, and who
have kept their appetites and paflions under the molt
Complete fubjeftion. In a word, thofe who have ex¬
ceeded 100 years, have in general betn robuft, labo¬
rious, fober, and careful to obferve the llriftdl regi¬
men. Enjoying a good conllitution from nature, they
have feldom or never been fubjed to difeafe. They
have even enjoyed the greateft health and vigour, and
retained the, ufe of their fenfes to the lait moment of
their lives.
Among thofe who have led a life of contemplation
and fiudy, many have reached a very advanced age.
Longevity is frequent among the different orders of
religious, who by their ilatutes are confined to a mo¬
derate diet, and obliged to abftain from wine and the
ufe of meat. Some celebrated anchorets have lived
to a great age while they fed upon nothing but the
wild roots and fruits which they found in the defert
whither they had retired. The philofopher Xenophi-
lus, who lived to the age of 106, was of the Pythago¬
rean fedf. It is well known, that thofe philofophers
who held the tranfmigration of fouls, denied them-
felves the ufe of meat, becaufe they imagined
that killing an animal would be to affaflinate ano*
ther felf. A country life has produced many found
and vigorous old men. It is fuppofed that a happy
old age is attained with greater difficulty, in towns
than in the country. Sir Hans Sloane, Duverney,
and Fontenelle, however, are inftances of men whofe
lives have been fpent in cities, and yet extended to
a very great length. It has been obferved, that men
deprived of reafon live very long 5 and this Dr Haller
imputes to their being exempted from thofe inquie¬
tudes which he confiders as the moft deadly poifon.
Perfons poffeffing a fufficiently good underitanding^
but deftitute of ambition, have been found to enjoy
very long life. Men who are devoid of pretenfions,
who are free from thofe cares which a defire of ffiining
by a difplay of talents, or of acquiring dignity and
power, neceffarily brings in its train, who feel no re¬
gret for the pail nor anxiety about the future, are
ft rangers to thofe torments of the mind which wafte
and confume the body. To that tranquillity of foul,
which is fo excellent a prerogative of infancy, they
add that of being long young by phyfical conilitution
on which the moral has a linking and-powerful influ¬
ence.
Premature wifdom, and early talents, are often fit¬
ter to excite aftonifliment than expedlation. The ra¬
pid unfolding of the moral faculties, by ffiortening the
period of youth, leems to diminilh in proportion the
total duration of life. We have known a young lady
of feventeen, who could fpeak very corre&ly feven Ian*-
guages : ffie tranflated and wrote Latin, Greek, Ita¬
lian, Spanifli, German, Englilh, and French ; but
fhe died at the age of eighteen. The young man by
whom ffie was alked in marriage, having been inform¬
ed that he could not obtain her hand till he had
made himfelf worthy of her by the fame degree of
talents and information, died the fame year, and at
N’rps.
the fame age. But in fume families, the web of life, Man.
to ufe an expreflion of Haller, feems to be better
warped than in others: of this kind were the families
of 'Thomas Parr, mentioned under Longevity ; and
John Argus, mentioned in the foregoing note.
From the preceding obfervations, Dr Haller has
attempted to deduce the caufes why a few men are
longer exempted than others from the common fate.
The circumflances which oppofe their influence are
independent of our will; fuch as the ravages of epi¬
demic diflempers, trouble, and anxiety of mind, which
create difeafes in the body, or the torments of ambi¬
tion. It is neceflary to live in a falubrious climate,
to enjoy a fortune fufficiently eafy to exclude thofe
unealy defires which create a feeling of want and pri¬
vation, to be defeended from healthy parents, to avoid
drinking wine in youth, to drink water,"and to eat little
meat and a great deal of vegetables. It is neceflary
alfo to be temperate in meals; moderate in plea-
fures, ftudy, and exercife; to be naturally inclined
to cheerfuffiefs; and to allot a due time to fleep and
repofe. ^
Long life is certainly very rare ; but, as has been Caufes by
already obferved, we mull diftinguiffi between what is
natural to the conftitution of man, and that which is
the confequence of his condition. By the former he is long life is
made to be long lived ; but nature is arrefted in herrounter-
courfe by local and accidental caufes, which it is nota<^cti*
in our power to avoid.
Let us take a retrofpeftive view of man’s life from
his infancy, and enumerate the chief of thefe different
caufes. Of a thoufand infants, an account of which
Dr Haller has extrafted from the London bills of mor¬
tality, twenty-three died almoft as foon as they came
into the world: teething carried of fifty, and convul-
fions two hundred and feventy-feven : eighty died of
the fmall pox, and feven of the mealies. Among the
adult females, eight at leaft died in child-bed : con-
fumption and afthma, difeafes more frequent in Eng¬
land than in France, carried off an hundred and ninety-
one of the faipe fex, and almoft a fifth part of the full
grown men. An hundred and fifty died of fevers.
At a more advanced age* twelve died of apoplexy,
and forty-one of dropfy, without mentioning thofe to
whom difeafes of little importance in themfelvee be¬
came mortal. There only remained feventy-eight
whofe death could be aferibed to old age ; and of thefe
tw'enty-feven lived to the age of eighty and upwards.
Among the different difeafes of which we have juft
now feen the fatal effects,^ and which cany off more
than nine-tenths of mankind, not one, it mull be al¬
lowed, is natural to the conftitution. The inhabitants
of this ifland are in general but little fubjedl to difeafes,
excepting the fmall-pox and the mealies; and many
of them enjoy uninterrupted health to old age.
What are the moft prevalent difeafes in other coun¬
tries, which prove equally fatal to the duration of hu¬
man life ? In northern climates, feurvy, the colic of
the Laplanders, and difeafes of the lungs, moft fre¬
quently occafion death. In temperate climates, dropfy
carries off a great many at the beginning of old age,
which is the boundary of life in the greateft part of
both fexes, when they have efcaped the acute difeafes,
fuch as putrid fever, &c. Acute difeafes are moft
common in warm countries. In fome places, the rays
5 . ' ^
MAN [
of the fun kill in a few hours thofe who are expofed
' to its burning heat. The air of Egypt and of Afia
Minor engenders the plague, by which one half of
their inhabitants are carried off. Between the tropics
men are fubjeft to dyfenteries and violent fevers. The
cold of the night, in warm climates, occafions fome-
times violent difeafes, fuch as palfy, quinfey, and a
fwelling of the head. Damp and marihy places give
rife to fevers of a different kind, but alfo very dange-
The life of failors has a great tendency to pro¬
duce fcurvy. How many profeffions prove fatal to
the health, and in moft men haften that period which
nature would have brought on by flow degrees ! Mi¬
ners, ftone-ciitters, gilders, perfons employed in emp-
tying privies, &c. are fuhjeft to difeafes of the lungs,
and become paralytic. Other profefiions of life bring
on other accidents, of which it would carry us too far
to give a particular account. What has been faid is
fufficient to fhow, that it is the dangers with which
we are furrounded that.fhorten the period of human
life.
By examining the lift of thofe who have attained
a great age, it will be found that mankind are longer
lived in northern than in fouthern countries. It has
been obferved, that there are more old men in moun-
taius and elevated fituations than in plains and low
countries. We repeat it, if the duration of life among
the inhabitants of fouthern climates be compared with
the duration of life in northern nations, it will be al¬
lowed, that the latter enjoy both longer life and better
health than the former. Their growth being retard¬
ed by the rigour of the climate, their decay muft alft>
be flower, becaufe of the proportion which exifts be¬
tween the growth of animals and the length of their
lives. Among ten perfons who have lived to the age
of an hundred, eight or nine will be found to have li¬
ved in the north.
  It appears from the bills ofmortality, that in the coun¬
men than try more boys are born than girls : in cities, on the
men attain contrary , the number of females is commonly greateft
to o d age Obfervations made with great care prove, that in moft
countries there are fewer men alive than women, and
that more males die, chiefly at the firft and laft pe¬
riods of life. In Sweden, the whole number of fe¬
males in 1763, was to that of males in the proportion
of ten to nine. The number of old women who ex¬
ceeded 80 years of age, was to that of old men of the
fame age in the proportion of 33 to 19 : and there
were more women than men who had attained the
age of 86, in the proportion of almoft two to one.
521] MAN
great towns, the number of deaths annual!+ is from R^n‘- i
I in 19 to 1 in 22 or 23 ; in middling towns, from 1
in 24 to I in 28 ; and in country pariihes and villa¬
ges feldom more than 1 in 40 or 5:0. In 1763, the
number of inhabitants in Stockholm amounted to
72,979. The average number of deaths for the fix
years preceding had been 3802, which makes 1 in
19 annually ■, while throughout all Sweden, including
the towns and the country, not more than 1 in 35 die an¬
nually. At Rome the inhabitants are numbered every,
year. In 1771 they were found to amount to 159,675?
the average number of deaths for ten years was 7367 ;
which makes I in 234 annually. In London not lefs
than 1 in 20^ of the inhabitants die every year. 40
M. Daubenton has given in the Encyclopedic Metho- Probibilf-
dique, a table of the probabilities of the duration of life, ^es th®
conftrinfted from that which is to be found in the fe-0£
venth volume of the Supplemens a I'HiJloire Naturclk de
M. de Euffon. _ _
The following is an abridgment of it:
Of 23,994 children born at the fame time, there
will probably die,
In one year - - - 799®
Remaining y or 15996.
In eight years - * ir997
Remaining 4- or 11997.
In 38 years - - - 1599*5
Remaining -f or 7998..
In 50 years - - I7994
5998.
M 38
r 3999.
Remaining ^ 0
In 61 years
Remaining c
In 70 years
Remaining or 2399,
In 80 years
Remaining or 599.
In 90 years
Remaining or 79.
. In 100 years
Remaining or 2*
19995
239*4
23992
39
Villages
more fa- -
vourable human life, in towns, country-pariflies, and villages; of
toTon0^”* t^e following is thf refult. A greater number in
wity. ° proportion die in great towns than in finall ones, and a
greater number in the latter than in villages. The
caufe of this difference, which is found to be very
great, mnft be, in the firft place, the luxury and difli-
pation which prevail in towns ; and, fecondly, the bad-
nefs of the air. In the town of Manchefter, accord¬
ing to obfervation, -d-j- of the inhabitants die annually
It thus appears, that a very fmall number of men Recaj>itula<i
indeed pafs through all the periods of life, and arrive tion of the
at the gaol marked out by nature. Innumerable caufes^erent
accelerate our diffolution. The life off man, we havelta^es*
obferved, confifts in the aftivity and exercife of
his organs, which grow up and acquire ftrength du¬
ring infancy, , adolefcence, and youth. No fooner
has the body attained its utmoft perfe&ion, than it be¬
gins to decline. Its decay is at firft imperceptible;
but in the progrefs of time the membranes become car-
The late Dr Price made obfervations, after Dr Per- tilaginous, the cartilages acquire the confidence o£
cival, on the difference of longevity, and the duration of bone ; the bones become more iolid, and all the fibres
are hardened. Almoft all the fat waftes -away; the
flein becomes withered and fcaly ; wrinkles are gradu¬
ally formed.; the hair grows white ; the teeth fall out;
the face lofes its fhape; the body is bent; and the co¬
lour and confiftence of the cryftalline humour become
more perceptible. The firft traces of this decay begin
to be perceived at the age. of forty, and fometimes
fooner ; this is the age of decline. They increafe by
flow degrees till lixty, which is the period of old age*
whereas, in the neighbouring country, the number of They increafe more rapidly till the age of feventy"
deaths does not exceed of the whole inhabitants, feventy-five. At this period crazinefs begins, and con*
It may be laid down as a general principle, that in tinues always to increafe. Next fucceeds decrepitude*
Vol. X. Part II. 3 U ' when
MAN [ 521 ] MAN
Man. when the memory is gone, the ufe of the fenfes
loft, tlie ftrength totally annihilated, the organs worn
out*,, and the fundtions of the body almoll deflroyed.
Little now remains to be loft ; and before the age of
ninety or an hundred, death terminates at once decre-
42* pitude and life.
exthaion ^ ^0<^y t^en ^7 ^'tt^e an<^ ^'tt^e : *ts mot^on'
of'llfe.1011 gradually diminifhes; life is extinguifhed by fuccellive
gradations, and death is only the laft term in the fuc-
ceffion. When the motion of the heart, which conti¬
nues longeft, ceafes, man has then breathed his laft;
he has palfed from the ftate of life to the ftate of death;
and as at his birth a breath opened to him the career
4,3 of life, fo with a breath he finifhes his courfe.
Nat» ai This natural caufe of death is common to all ani-
«a»fe of jryals and even to vegetables. We may obferve that
cath‘ the centre of a * oak fxrft perifties and falls into dull,
b'ecaufe thefe parts having become harder and more
compadt can receive no further nourishment. The
caufes of our didelation, therefore, are as neceffary as
death is inevitable ; and it is no more in. our power to
retard this fatal term than to alter the eftabliihed laws
of the univerfe. Hence the following maxim has been
univerfally adopted, Contra vim mortir, nullum medica-
mentum in horth. In whatever manner death happens,
the time and circumftances thereof are unknown. It
is confidered, however, as at all times terribly, and
the very thoughts -of it fill the mind with fear and
trouble. It is notwithftanding our duty frequently to
diredt our thoughts to that event, which muft inevita¬
bly happen, and by a life of virtue and innocence to
prepare againft thofe confequences which we. fo much
44 dread.
Operates As in women the bones,.the cartilages, the mufcles,
<upon°wo-an<^ evei7 other part of the body, are fofter and lefs
w.eo than folid than thofe of men, they muft require more time
upon men. in hardening to that degree which occafions death.—
Women of courfe ought to live longer than men. This
reafoning is-confirmed by experience ; for by confuk-
ing the bills of mortality, it appears, that after wo¬
men have paffed a certain age they live much longer
than men who have arrived at the fame age.—•
In like manner, it is found by experience, that
in wpmen the age of youth is lhorter and happier than
in men, but that the period of old age is longer, and
attended with more trouble. Citius pukfcunt, ciiius fe-
nefeunt.
45 After death, the organization of the body begins
Biffo ution to be ftiftblved, and all the parts relax, corrupt, and
ct the body. feparate This jg prodllce(i by an inteftine fermentar
tion, which, occafions putrefaftion, and reduces the
body to volatile, alkali, fetid oil, and earth.
The Other particulars that were propofed to be no¬
ticed in this article are. The feveral fenfes with which
roan is endowed; hisconftitution, and animal fun £lions;
and that variety of colour, form, and chara£ler, which,
he affumes in different quarters of the globe. But there
is. no occafion to enlarge upon thofe topics here, as they
have been already explained in other parts of the work.
For the two firft, fee Anatomy,The laft has
been partly difeuffed s nder the word Complexion,
and will he refumed afterwards under the article Va-
$jS7i£s of'the Human Species* For what regards mnn3
confidered as a rational, focial, moral, and religions
being, fee. Metaphysics, Moral Philofophy, Re¬
ligion, and Theology.-; alfo Society, Law, Lan-
guage, and Logic.
Isle of MAN, an ifiand in the Irifh fea, lying
about feven leagues north from Anglefey, about the
fame diftance weft from Lancashire, nearly the like
diftance fouth-eaft from Galloway, and nine leagues
eaft from Ireland. Its form is long and narrow,
ftretching from the north-eaft of Ayre-point to the
Calf of Man, which lie? fouth-weft, at leaft 30 Englifii
miles. Its breadth in fome places is mope than nine
miles, in moft places eight, and in fome not. above
five, and contains about 160 fquare miles.
The firft author who mentions this ifiand is Ctefar ;
for there can be as little doubt, that, by the Mona,
of which he fpeaks in his Commentaries, placing it in
the midft between Britain and Ireland, we are to un¬
derhand Man; as that the Mona of Tacitus, which
he acquaints us had a fordable ftrait between it
and the continent, can be applied only to Anglefey.
Pliny has fet down both iflands ; Mon;), by which he
intends Anglefey, and Monabic, which is Man. In
Ptolcmy”\ve find Mona ad a, or Momueln, that is, the
farther or more remote Mon. Orofius ftyles it Me~
navia ; tells us, that it was not extremely fertile ; and
that this,, as well as Ireland, was then poffefled by the
Scots. Beda, who diftinguifhes clearly two Menavian
ifiands, names this the northern Mtnavia, beftowing
the epithet of fouthern upon Anglefey.. In fome co¬
pies of Nennius, this ifle is denominated Eulonia ; in
others, Menavia ; but both are explained to mean
Man. Alured of Beverley alfo fpeaks of it-as one of
the Menavian iflands. The Britons, in their own
language, called it Manaiv, more properly Main au,
i. f. “ a little ifland,” which feems to be latinized in
the word Menavia. All which dearly proves, that
this fmall ifle was early inhabited, and as well known
to the reft of the world as either Britain or Ireland.
In the clofe of the firft century, the Druids, who
were the priefts, prophets, and philofophers of the
old Britons, were finally expelled by Julius . gricoli
from the fbuthern Mona ; and we are told, that they
then took fhelter in the northern This ifland they
found, well planted with firs; fo that they had, in.
feme meafure, what they delighted in moft, the fhelter
of trees; but, however, not the fhelter of thbfe trees
in which they moft delighted, viz. the oaks: and there¬
fore thefe they introduced. No hiftories till us this;
but we learn it from more certain, authority, great
woods of fir having been difeovered interred in the
bowels of the earth, and. here and there fmall groves
of oaks: but as thefe trees are never met with inter¬
mixed, f<3 it is plain they never grew together ; and as
the former are by far the moft numerous, we may pra-
fume them the natural produce of the country, and
that the latter were planted and preferred by the
Druids. They gave the- people, wkh whom they
lived, and over whom they ruled, a gentle govern,
ment, wife laws, but withal a very fuperftitious
religion. It is alfo very likely that they hindered
them, as much as they could, from having any corre-
fpondence with their neighbours ; which is the realon
MAN [ 52? 1 MAN
Vati, that, though the ifland is mentifcmed by fo many
-y—~ writers, not t>ne of them, before Orofms, fays a word
, about the inhabitants. A little before his time, that
is, in the beginning of the fiftli century, the Scots had
tranfported themfelves thither, it is faid, from Ireland.
The tradition of the native's of Man (for they have a
traditionary hiftory) begins at this period. They
ftyle this fifft difcoverer Mannan Mac Lear; and
they fay that he was a magician, who kept this coun¬
try covered with- mills, fo that the inhabitants of other
places could never find it. But the ancient chronicles
of Ireland inform us, that the true name of this ad¬
venturer was Orlfenius, the foil of Alladius, a prince
in their illand; and that he was furnamed Mannanan,
from hiss having firll entered the ifiand of Man, and
7/r,-, i e. “ the offspring of the fea,” from his
great drill in navigation. He promoted commerce;
and is fsid to have given a good reception to St Pa¬
trick, by whom the natives were converted to Chri-
llianity.
The princes who ruled after him feem to have been
©f the fame line with the kings of Scotland, with
which country they had a great intercourfe, affifting
its monarchs in their wars, and having the educa¬
tion of their princes confided to them in time of
..peace.
In the beginning of the feventh century, Edwin
king of Northumberland invaded the Menavian iflands,
ravaged Man, and kept it for fome time, when, Beda
-allures us, there were in it about 300 families ; which
was lefs than a third part of the people in Anglefey,
though Man wants but a third of the fize of that
illand.
The fecond line of their princes they derive from
Orri, who, they fay, was the fon of the king of Nor¬
way ; and that there were 12 princes of this hoiife
’who governed Man. The old conltitution, fettled by
the Druids, while they fwayed the fceptre, was per-
'fe£lly reftored; the countiy was well cultivated and
well peopled ; their fubje6ts were equally verfed in the
exercife of arms and in the knowledge of the arts of
peace : in a word, they had a confiderable naval force,
an extenfive commerce, and were a great nation, tho’
inhabiting only a little ifle. Guttred the fon of Orri
built the eaille of Ruflyn, A. D. 960, which is a
llrong place, a large palace, and has fubfifted now
above 800 years. Macao was the ninth of thefe
kings, and maintained an unfuccefsful flruggle againft
Edgar, who reduced all the little fovereigns of the dif¬
ferent parts or Britain to own him for their lord ; and
who, upon the fubmillion of Macao, made him his
high-admiral, by which title (archipirata, in the Latin
-of thofe times) he fubferibes that monarch’s charter
to the abbey of Glallonbury.
After, the death of Edward the Confeffor, when
Harold, who poifeffed the crown of England, had de¬
feated the Norvyegians at the battle of Stamford,
there was amongil the fugitives one Goddard Crow-
nan, the fon of Harold the Black, of Iceland, who
took flicker In the ifie of Man. This ille was then
governed by another Goddard, wn© was a defendant
from Macao, and he gave him a very kind and friendly
reception. Goddard Crownan, during the fhort flay
te made in the ifiand, perceived that his name-fake
was tmiverfally hated by his fubjefts ; which infph'ed
him with hopes that he might expel the king, and
become mailer of the ifiand. This he at laft accom-
plifhed, after having defeated and killed Fingal the
ion of Goddard, who had fudeeeded his father.
Upon this he affigued the north part of the ifiand to
the natives, and gave the fouth to his own people;
becoming, in virtue of his conqueil, the founder of
their third race of princes. However he might ac¬
quire his kingdom, he governed it with fpirit and
prudence ; made war with fuccefs in Ireland ; gained
feveral victories over the Scots in the Ifles ; and, ma¬
king a tour through his new-obtained dominions, de-
ceafed in the ifiand of May. He left behind him
three fons. A civil war breaking out between the
two eldeil, and both of them deceafing in a few years,
Magnus king of Norway coming with a powerful
fleet, poffeffed himfelf of Man and the ifles, and held
them as long as he lived ; but, being (lain in Ireland,
the people invited home Olave, the youngeft fan of
Goddard Crownan, who had fled to the court of
England, and been very honourably treated by Henry
the Second. There were in the whole nine princes
of this race, who were all of them feudatories to the
kings of England ; and often reforted to their court,
were very kindly received, and had penfions bellowed
upon them. Henry III. in particular, charged Olavo,
king of Man, with the defence of the coafts of Eng¬
land and Ireland ; and granted him annually for that
fervice 40 marks, iod meaiures of wheat, and five
pieces of wine. Upon the demife of Magnus, the
lull king of this ifie, without heirs male, Alexander III.
king of Scots, who had conquered the other ifles,
feized likewife upon this; which, as parcel of that
kingdom, came into the hands of Edward I. who di-
retted William Huntercumbe, guardian or warden of
that ifle for him, to reflore it to John Baliol, who
had done homage to him for the kingdom of Scot¬
land.
But it feems there was flill remaining a lady named
Aujirica, who claimed this fovereignty, as coufin and
neared of kin to the deceafed Magnus. This claimant
being able to obtain nothing from John Baliol, ap¬
plied herfelf next to king Edward, as the fuperior
lord. He, upon this application, by his writ, which
is yet extant, commanded both parties, in order to
determine their right, to appear in the king’s-bench.
The progrefs of this fuit does not appear; hut we
know farther, that this lady, by a deed of gift, con¬
veyed her claim to Sir Simon de Montacute.; and,
after many difputes,invafions by the Scots, and other
accidents, the title was examined in parliament, in the
feventh of Edward III. and folemnly adjudged to
William de Montacute; to whom, by letters-patent,
dated the fame year, that monarch releafed all claim
whatfoevCr.
In the faccecding reign, William Montacute, earl
•of Saliftmry, fold it to Sir William Scroop, afterwards
•earl of Wiltfliire ; and, upon his lofing his head, it
was granted by Henry IV. to Henry Percy, earl of
■Northumberland ; who, being attainted, had, by the
grace of that -king, all his lands reftored, except the
ifie of Man, which the fame monarch granted to Sir
John Stanley, to be held by him of the kings his
3 U 2 fteirg
MAN f 524 T MAN
mmj. heirs and fucceffors, by homage, and a cail of falcons
to be prefented at every coronation. Thus it was.
poffeffed by this noble family, who were created earls
of Derby, till the reign of queen Elizabeth ; when,
upon the demife of earl Ferdinand, who left three
daughters, it was, as lord Coke tells us, adjudged to
thofe ladies, and from them purchafed by’ William earl
of Derby, the brother of Ferdinand,'from whom it was
claimed by defcent, and adjudged to its prefent pof-
feffor, his grace the duke of Athol.
This ifland, from its fituation directly in the mouth
of the channel, is very beneficial to Britain, by leffen-
ing the force of the tides, which would otherwife
break with far greater violence than they do at prefent.
It is frequently expofed tq very high winds ; and
at other times to mills, which, however, are not at all
linwholefome. The foil towards the north is dry and
fandy, of confequence unfertile, but not unimprovable;
. the mountains, w’hich may include near two-thirds
of the jfland, are bleak and barren ; yet afford excel¬
lent peat, and contain feveral kinds of metals. They
maintain alfo a kind of final! fwine, called purrs,
which are elleemed excellent pork. In the valleys
there is as good pafture, hay, and corn, as in any of
the northern counties; and the fouthern part of the
illand is as fine foil as can be wilhed. They have
marl and lime-flone fufficient to render even their
poorelt lands fertile ; excellent flate, rag-flone, black
marble, and fbme other kinds for building. They
have vegetables of all forts, and in the utmoll perfec¬
tion ; potatoes in immenle quantities; and, where
proper pains have been taken, they have tolerable
fruit. They'have alfo hemp, flax, large crops of oats
and barley, and fome wheat. Hogs, fheep, goats,
black cattle, and horfes, they have in plenty’; and,
though fin all in fize, yet if the country was thoroughly
and fkilfully cultivated, they might improve the breed
of all animals, as experience has fliown. They have
rabbits and hares very fat and fine ; tame and wild
fowl in great plenty ; and in their high mountains
they have one airy of eagles and two of excellent
hawks. Their rivulets furnilh them with falmon,
trout, eels, and other kinds of frefh-water fifh ; on
their coafts are caught cod, turbot, ling, halibut,
all forts of fhell-filh (oyfters only are fcarce, but
large and good), and herrings, of which they made
anciently a great profit, though this fifhery is of late
much declined.
The inhabitants of Man, though far from being
unmixed; were, perhaps, till within the courfe of the
prefent century, more fo than any other under the do¬
minion of the crown of Great Britain ; to which they
are very proud of being fubjeils, though, like the in¬
habitants of Jerfey’ and Guernfey, they have a conflitu-
tion of their own, and a peculiarity of manners natu¬
rally refulting from a long enjoyment of it.—The
Manks tongue is the only one fpoken by the common
people. It is the old Britifh, mingled with Nbrfe,
or the Norwegian language, and the modern language.
The clergy preach and read the common prayer in it.
In ancientjfimes they were diflinguifhed by their flature,
eourage, and great fkill in maritime affair's. They
are at this day a brifk, lively, hardy, induftrious, and
well-meaning people. Their frugality defends them
from want; and though there are few that abound, Man,
there are as few in diftrefs ; and thofe that are, meet  
with a cheerful unconttrained relief. On the other
hand, they are choleric, loquacious, and, as the law
till lately was cheap, and unincumbered with folicitors
and attornles, not a little litigious. The revenue, in
-the earl of Derby’s time, amounted to about 2 cool,
a-year; from which, deducing his civil'lift, which
was about 700I. the clear income amounted to 1800I.
At the_ fame time, the number of his fubjefts was
computed at 20-,000.—The fovereign of Man, though
he has long ago waved the title of king, was ftill iu-
vefted with regal rights' and prerogatives ; but the
diftindt jurifdidtion of this little fubordinate royalty,
being found inconvenient for the purpofes of public"
juftice, and for the revenue (it affording a commo¬
dious afylum for debtors, outlaws, and fmugglers), au¬
thority was given to the treafury, by Hat. 12 Geo. I.
c. 28. to purehafe the intereft of the then proprietors
for the ufe of the crown : which purchafe was at
length completed in the year 1765, and confirmed by
ftat. 5. Geo. Hi. c. 26. and 39.; whereby the whole
ifland and all its dependencies (except the landed
property of the Athol family), their manorial rights
and emoluments, and the patronage of the bilhopric
and other ecclefiaftical benefices, are unalienably veiled
in the crown, and fubjedled to the regulation of the
Britifh excife and cuffoms. The duke, however, is
procuring an aft of parliament to revife the former
The moil general divifion of this ifland is into north
and fouth ; and it contains 17 pariihes, of which five
are market-towns, the reft villages. Its divifion with
regard to its civil government, is into fix iheedings,
every one having its proper coroner, who is in the na¬
ture of a fheriff, is intrufted with the peace of his di-
ftrift, fecures criminals, brings them to juftice, &c.
The lord chief-juftice Coke fays, “ their laws were
fuch as fcarce to be found any where elfe.” In July
1 786, a copper coinage for the ufe of the ifland was
iffued from the Tower of London.—There is a ridge
of mountains runs almoft the length of the ifle, from
whence they have abundance of good water from the
rivulets and fprings ; and Snafield, the higheft, rifes
about 580 yards. The air is iharp and cold in winter,
the frofts ihort, and the fnow, efpecialty near the fea,
lies not long on the ground. Here are quarries of good
Hone, rocks of lime-ftone, and red free-ftone, and good
Cate, with fome mines of lead, copper, andiron. The
trade of this ifland was very great before the year
1726 ; but the late lord Derby farming out his cu-
ftoms to foreigners, the infolenee of thofe farmers drew
on them the refentment of the government of England,
who, by an aft of parliament, deprived the inhabitants
of an open trade with this kingdom. This naturally-
introduced a clandeftine commerce, which they car¬
ried on with England and Ireland with prodigious
fuccefs, and an immenfe quantity of foreign goods wras
run into both kingdoms, till the government in 1765
thought proper to put an entire flop to it, by pur-
chafing the ifland of the' duke of Athol, a> already
mentioned, and permitting a free trade with Eng¬
land. On the little ifie of Peele, on the weft fide of
Man,, is a town bf the fame name, with a fortified
caftle.
MAN l 525 ] M A N
Man. caftk. Btfore the fouth promontory of Man, is a
little ifland called the Calf of Man ; it is about three
miles in circuit, and feparated from Man by a channel
about two furlongs broad. At one time of the year
it abounds with puffins, and alfo with a fpecies of
ducks and drakes, by the Engliffi called barnacles, and
by the Scots clakes and Solandgeefe.
The inhabitants of this ifle are of the church of
England ; and the bilhop is ftyled BiJljop of Sodor and
Man. This biffiopnck was firft erected by Pope Gre¬
gory IV. and for its diocefe had this ifle 'and all the
Hebrides, or Wellern iflands of Scotland ; but which
were called Sodoroc by the Danes, who went to them
by the north, frpm the Swedifli Sodor, Sail or Oar
iflands, from which the title of the bifltop of Sodor is
fuppofed to originate. The biftiop’s feat was at Ru-
fnin, or Caftletown, in the ifle of Man, and in Latin
is entitled .W<?re/7/«. But when this ifland became
dependent upon the kingdom of England, the Weft-
ern iflands withdrew themfelves from the obedience of
their bilhop, and had a bilhop of their own, whom they
entitled alfo Sodorenfs, but commonly Bi/bop of the
JJles. The patronage of the bilhopric was given, to¬
gether with the ifland, . to the Stanleys by king Ed¬
ward IV. and came by an heir-female to the fa¬
mily of Athole ; and, on a vacancy thereof, they nomi¬
nated their ddfigned bilhop to the king, who difmilled
him to the archbifnop of York for confecration.—
By an aft of parliament, the 33d of king Plenty VIII.
this bilhopric is declared in the province of York.
Man-of-war Bird. See Pelicanus.
MANAGE. See Manege.
MANASSEH (in Scripture hill.), the eldeft fon
• ©f Jofeph, and grandfon of the patriarch Jacob ( Gen.
xli. 50, 51.) was born in the year of the world 2290,
before Jefus Chrilt 1714.
The tribe defeended from him came out of Egypt,
in number 3 2,200 men, lit for battle, upwards of 20
years old, under the conduft of Gamaliel fon of Pe-
■dahz.ur (Numb. ii. 20, 21.) This tribe was divided
at their entrance into the land of Promife. One half
had its portion beyond the river Jordan, and the other:
half on this fide the river. The half tribe of Manaflih
which fettled beyond the river ^poffelled the country
of Balhan, from the river Jabbok to mount Libanus,
(Numb. xxii. 33, 34, &c.;) and the other half tribe
of Manafleh on this fide Jordan, obtained for its in¬
heritance the country between the tribe of Ephraim
to the fouth, and the tribe of Iflachar to the north,
having the river Jordan to the call and the Mediter¬
ranean fea to the welt, (Jolh. xvi. xvii.)
Manasseh, the 15th king of Judah, bein'# the fon
and fucceffor of Plezekiah. His afts are recorded in
2 Kings xx. xxi. and 2 Chr. xxxiii.
MANATI, in zoology. See Trichecus.
MANCA, was a fquare piece of gold coin, com¬
monly valued at 30 pence ; and mancufa was as much
as a mark of filver, having its name from manu-cufa,
being coined with the hand: {Leg. Canut.) But the
manca and mancufa were not always of that value ; for
fometimes the former was valued at fix Ihillings,. and
the latter, as ufed by the Englifh Saxons, was equal
in value to our half-crown. Manca fex folidis ajlimetur,
(Leg. H. I. c. 69.) Thorn, in his chronicle, tells us,
that mancufa ejl fondue duorutn folidorvm et fex dena- Man.
riorum ; and with him agrees Du Cange, who fays,
that 20 mauca: make 50 Ihillings.- Manca and man¬
cufa are promifeuoufly ufed in the old books for the
fame money.
MANCHA, a territory of Spain in the province of
New Caflile, lying between the river Guadiana and
Andjilufia. It is a mountainous country ; and it w'as
here that the famous Don Quixote was fuppofed to
perform his' exploits.
MANCHESTER, a town of Lancafhire in Eng¬
land, fituated in W. Long. 2. 42. N- Lat. 53. 27.-—
Mr Whitaker conjeftures, that the Hat ion was firll
occupied by the Britons about 300 B. C. but that
it firft received any thing like the form of a town
430 years after, or 50 B. C. when the Britons of
Cheftiire made an irruption into the territories of
their fouthern neighbours, and of confequence alarmed
the Seftuntii, or inhabitants of Lancalhire, fo much,
that they began to build fortreffes in order to defend
their country. Its Britilh name was Mancenion; which
rvas changed by the Romans, who conquered it under
Agricola, A. D. 79, into Mancunium; from whence
comes the prefent name of Manchefler.—It is 182
miles from London ; and Hands near the conflux of
the Irk and the Irwtll, three miles from the Merfey.
It is large, populous, and adorned with many fine
buildings and ftreets. It has a fpacious market-place,
a college ; and an exchange. The fuftain manufafto-
ry, called Mancbefter-cottcns, for which it has been fa¬
mous for near 200 years, has been much improved of
late by fome inventions of dyeing and printing, which,
with the great variety of other manufaftures, called
Manchefler goods (of which they export vaft quantities
abroad, efpecially to the Weft Indies), fnch as tick¬
ing, tapes, filleting, and linen-cloth, enrich the town,
and employ men, women, and children. It has two-
churches, viz. St Mary’s and St Anne's. The latter
was begun by contribution of the inhabitants, in the
reign of Queen Anne, and finifhed in 1723. The
collegiate church, which was built in 1422, is a fine
large edifice, with a beautiful choir, and a clock that
(hows the age of the moon. The three moft eminent
foundations here are, its college, hofpital, and public
fchool. The college was founded in 1421. The
king, by aft of parliament in 1729, is impowered to
be vifitor of this college. The hofpital was founded
by Humphry Cheetham, Efq; and incorporated by
Charles II. for the maintenance of 40 poor boys of
this town and the neighbouring pariffies-; but the go¬
vernors have enlarged the number to 60, to be taken
in between fix and ten years of age, and maintained,
lodged, and clothed, till the age of 14, when they are
to be bound apprentices at the charge of the faid hof¬
pital. The founder allb erefted a library in it, and
fettled 1161. a-year on it for ever, to buy books, and
to fupport a librarian. There is a large fchool for the
hofpital boys, where they are taught to read, write,
&c. The public fchool was founded anno 1513.
Here are three mailers, with handfome falaries; and
the foundation boys have certain exhibitions for their
maintenance at the univerfity. Befides thefe, there
are three charity fchools. It Hands on a ftony hill,,
where are noble quarries. Kerfal-moor is noted for.
horfs- --wT
MAN f 526 ] MAN
•lioiTe-races. This place, in fine, is defervedly rec-
Jtoned the greateft village or market-town in Eng¬
land : for though its chief magiftrate is only a con-
ilahle or headb&rough, yet it is more populous than
York, Norwich, or moft cities in England, and as big
as two or three of the lefler ones put together ; for of
the people, including thofe in the fuburbs, there were
•reckoned not lefs • than 20,000 communicants gbove
100 years ago, and now the inhabitants are not lefs
'than ;o,oo0. Here is a firm old flonc-bridgc over
-the lrwell, which is built exceedingly high ; becaafe,
-as the river comes from the mountainous parts of the
•.country, it’rifes fometimes four or five yards in one
'night, but falls next day as fuddenly. ' There are for
three miles above: the town no lefs than 60 mills upon
it. By the late ir.land navigation, it has communica-
■tion with the rivers Merley-, Dee, Kibble, Oufe,
"Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon,
.Ac. which navigation, including its windings, extends
above $00 miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Notting¬
ham, York, Wefttnoreland, Che Her, Stafford, War¬
wick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c. The wea¬
vers here have looms that work 24 laces at a time, an
invention for which they are obliged to the Dutch.
The market here is on Saturday ; and the fairs are on
Whit-Monday, September 21. and November 6.—It
is a manor with courts leet and baron. What is now
called Knock-Cajlle, was the feat of the Roman Ca-
ilrmn ; and the-foundation of the caftle wall and ditch
Hill remain in Caflle-Field, as it is fometimes called.—-
The market-place, furrounded with old dirty buildings,
as called the Old Town ; and rents run very high.—
Manchefter fends no members to .parliament, but has
'the title of a duchy.
MANCHINEEL. See Hippomane.
MANCIPATIO, was a term made ufe of in the
Roman law, and may be thus explained : every father
had fuch a regal authority over his Ion, that before
•the fon could be releafed from his fijbjeftion and made
free, he muff be three times over fold and bought,
his natural father being the vender. The vendee was
called pater ,Jtduciarius. After this fi&itious bargain,
the pater fiduciarius fold him again to the natural father,
who could then, but not till then, manumit or make
him free. The imaginary fale was called mancipatio ;
nnd the aft of giving liberty or fetting him free after
■this was called emancipatio.
Mancipatio alfo fignifies the felling or alienating
of certain lands by the balance, or money paid by
weight, and five witneffes. This mode of alienation
.took place.enly amongft Roman citizens, and that only
in refpeft to certain efta-tes fituated in Italy, which
were called mancipia.
MANCIPLE (manceps), a clerk of Ijhe kitchen,
or caterer. ..An officer in the inner temple was an¬
ciently fo. called, -who is now the fteward there ; of
whom Chaucer, the ancient Engliih poet, fome time a
'Undent of that houfe, -thus writes
A manciple there was within the temple,
Of which al caterers might take enfample.
This officer Hill remains in colleges In the univer¬
sities.
MANCUNIUM, (anc. geog.), a town of the
flrigantes in,Britain. ^.owi'MancheJkr \n Lancashire,
M \ NOUS (formed of mam cufus J, in antiquity, an
Anglo-Saxon gold coin, equal in value to 2' iolidi, or
30 pence; and in.weight to 55 Troy grains. The
firft account of this coin that occurs in the hiftory of ,
our country, is about the clofe of the 8th century,
in an embaffy of Cemvulf king of Mercia to Leo HI.
requefting the reftoration of the jurifdiftion of the fee
of Canterbury: this embaffy was enforced by a prefent
of 120 mancufes. Ethelwolf alfo fent yearly to Rome
300 mancufes: and thefe coins are faid to have Con¬
tinued in fome form or other till towards the concltl-
fion of the Saxon government. The heriots of the
nobility are chiefly eftimated by this ftandard in Ca¬
nute’s laws. It came originally from Italy, where
it was called ducat: and is fuppofed to have been the
fame with the drachma or mijiiarenfis current in the
Byzantine empire.
MANDAMUS, in law, a writ that iffues out of
the court of king’s-bench, fent to a corporation, com¬
manding them to admit or reftore a perfon to his
office. This writ alfo lies where juftices of the peace
refufe to admit a perfon to take the oaths in order to
qualify himfelf for enjoying any poll or office; or
where a bilhop or archdeacon refufes to grant a pro¬
bate .of a will, to admit an executor to prove it, or to
fwear a church-warden, &c.
MANDANES, an Indian prince and philofopher,
who for the renown of his wifdom was invited by the
ambaffadors of Alexander the Great to the banquet of
the fon- of Jupiter. A reward was promifed him if
he obeyed, but he was threatened with punifhment in
cafe of a refufal. Unmoved by promifes and threaten-
ings, the philofopher difmiffed them with obferving,
that though Alexander ruled over a great part of the
univerfe, he was not the fon of Jupiter; and that he
gave himfelf no trouble about the prefents of a man
who poffeffed not wherewithal to content himfelf. “ I
defpife his threats (added he); if I live, India is fuf-
ficient for my fubfiffence; and to me death has no
terrors, for it will only be an exchange of old age and
infirmity for the happinefs of a better life.”
MANDARINS, a name given to the magiftrates
and governors of provinces in China, who are chofen
out of the moft learned men, and whofe government
is always at a great diftance from the place of their
hirth.-~-Mandarin is alfo a name given by the Chinefe
to the learned language of the country ; for befides
the language peculiar to every province, there is one
common to all the learned in the empire, which is in
China what Latin is in Europe; this is called the man¬
darin tongue, or the language of the court.
MANDATE, in law, a judicial commandment to
do fomething. See the article Mandamus.
Mandate, in the canon law, a refcri»t of the pope
commanding an ordinary collator to put the perfon
therein named in poffeffion of the firft vacant benefice
in his collation.
MAND ATUM, was a fee or retainer given by the
Romans to the procurators and advocati. The man da¬
tum was a neceffary condition, without which they
had not the liberty of pleading. Thus the legal elo¬
quence of Rome, like that of our own country, could
not be unlocked without a golden key.
MANDERSCHEIT, a town of Germany in the
circle
Msncni
I)
Mander-
fcheit.
MAN
JSfandtville circle of the Lower Rhine,, and” in the eleftorate of
II Triers, capital of a county of the fame name, between
, Maiieae the diocefe of Triers and the duchy of Juliers. E.
* Long1,6. 32. N. Lat; ro.'zo.
MANDEV1LLE (Sir John), a phyfician, famous
for his travels, was-born at St Alban’s, about the be-
C 527 1
MAN
MANES, a poeticdl term, fignifying the fhades or' Manes -
fouls of the deceafed. The heathens ufed a variety of II
ceremonies and facrifices to appeafe the manes of thofe Manfrcdo-
who were deprived of burial. See Lemur.es and n1^’
Lemuria.
Dii Manes, were the fame with inferor the infer-
ginning of the 14th centuiy. He had a liberal edu- nal g'Ods, who tonnented men ; and to thefe the hea-
cation, and applied himfelf to the ftudy of phyfic; but
being at length feized with an invincible deiire of fee¬
ing diftant parts of the globe, he left England in 133 2,
and did not return till 34 years after. His friends,
who had long fuppofed him dead, did not know him
when he appeared. He had travelled through almoft
all the eaft, and made himfelf mafter of a great variety
of languages. He particularly vifited Scythia, Arme¬
nia the Greater and Lefs, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Me¬
dia, Mefopotamia, Perfia, Chaldea, Greece, Dalmatia,
&c. His rambling difpofition did not fuffer him to
reft ; for he Left his own country a fecond time, and
died at Liege in the Netherlands in 1372. He wrote
An Itinerary, or an Account of his Travels* in Eng-
liih, French, and Latin.
MANDEVILLE v Bernard de , an eminent writer
in the 18th century, was bom in Holland, where he
ftudied phyftc, and took the degree of doctor in that
faculty. He afterwards came over into England, and
in 1714 publilhed a poem, intitled, “ he Grumbling
Hive, or Knaves turned Honeft;” upon which he af¬
terwards wrote remarks, and publiihed the whole at
London, 1723, in 8vo, under the title of, “ The
Fable, of the Bees, or private Vice made public Be-
thens offered facrilices to affuage their indignation.
The heathen theology is a little obfcure with regard
to thefe gods manes. Some hold, that they were the
fouls of the dead ; others, that they were the genii of
men; which laft opinion fuits bell with the etymology
of the word.
The heathens, it is pretty evident, ufed the word
manes in feveral fenfes; fo that it fometimes iignified
the ghofts of the departed, and fometimes the infernal
or fubterraneous deities, and in general all divinities
that prefided over tombs.
’1 he evocation- of the manes of the dead feems to
have been very frequent among the i heffalians; but
it was exprefsly prohibited by the Romans. SeeLAREs,
Manes, the founder of the Manichaean fyftem. See
Manichees.
MANETHO, an ancient Egyptian hiftorian, who
pretended to take all his accounts from the facred in-
fcriptions on the pillars of Hermes Trifmegiftus. He
was high prieft of Heliopolis in the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, at whofe- requeft he wrote his hiftory in
Greek ; beginning from their gods, and continu¬
ing it down to near the time of Darius Codoman-
nus who was conquered by Alexander the Great. His
nefits; with an Effay on Charity and Charity-fchools, hriftory of Egypt is a celebrated work, that is often
and a Search into the Nature.of Society.” Thisbook quoted by Jofephus and other ancient authors. Ju-
was prefented by the . jury of Middlefex in July the lius Africanus gave an abridgment of it in his Chro-
nology. Manetho’s work is however loft ; and there
only remain fome fragments extra&ed from Julius A-
fricanus, which are to-be found .in Eufebius’s Chro¬
nica.
MANFRED! (Euftachio), a celebrated mathema¬
tician, born at Bologna in 16 4, where he was ele&ed
mathematical profeffor in i6<,8» He was made a mem¬
ber of feveral academies, and acquired great reputation
by his Ephemerides, 4 vols qto,. as well as by other
fame year, and feverely animadverted upon, in “A
Letter-to the Right Honourable Lord C.’ printed in
the London Journal of Saturday July 27, 1723.
Our author publiihed a Vindication. His book was
attacked by feveral writers... He publiihed other pieces,
and died in 1724.
MANDRAGORA, in botany. See Atropa.
MANDRAKE, in botany. Sfce Atropa and
Musa.
MANDREL, a kind of wooden pulley, making a works. He died in 1 39.
member of the turner’s lathe. Of thefe there are fe- MANFREDONIA, a port town of Naples’ on
veral kinds; as Flat Mandrels,, which have three or the Gulph of Venice, which arofe on the ruins of
more little pegs or points near the verge, and are ufed the ancient Sipontum ; (fee the article Sipontum).
for turning flat boards on. Pin Mandrels, which have It received its name from its founder Manfred; who
a long wooden ihank to fit into a round hole made in tranfplanted hither the few inhabitants. that remained
the work to be turned. Holhnu Mandrels, which are at Siponturn, and.attrafied other fettlers to it by va-
hollow of themfelves, and ufed for turning hollow rious privileges and exemptions.- In order to found
work. Screw Mandrels, for turning ferews, &c. it under, the moft favourable aufpices, he called toge-
MANE, the hair hanging down from a horfe?s ther all the famous- profieffors of aftrology (a fcience
neck; which ftiould be long, thin, and fine; and if in which both*he and his father placed great confi-
frizzled, fo much the batter.
MANEGE, or Manage, the exercife of riding the
dence), and caufed them to calculate the happiefthour
and minute for, laying, .the firft ftone.- He himfelf drew
great horfe; or the gr.ound fet apart for that purpofa; the plans, traced the walls and ftreets, fuperintended
which ;s fometimes covered, for continuing the exer-
cife in bad weather; and fometimes open, in.order to
give more liberty and freedom-both to the horfeman
and horfe. See Horsemanship- .
'1 he word is borrowed from the French manage, and
that from the Italian mancggio ; or, as fomc will have
it, a manu agenda, “ afting with the hand-”
the works, and by his prefence-and largeffes animated ■
the workmen to finifh them in a very (hort fpace of
time. The port was-fecured from ftorms by a pier,
the ramparts were built of the moft folid materials,
and in the great tower was placed a bell of fo coniL
derable a volume as to be heard over all the plain of
Capitanata, in ord-r to. alarm the country in cafe of
MAN £ 528 1 MAN
an invafion. Charles of Anjou afterwards removed precipitate from thefe folutions, which by heat grows ^anRane!S;
the bell to Bari, and offered it'at the (hrine of St black, and is converted into the originalcalxofthemetal. —k-"1 "*
Nicholas, as a thankfgiving for the recovery of one of Regulus of manganefe melts readily with other me-
his children. In fpite of all the precautions taken by tals, mercury alone excepted. Copper, united with
Manfred to fecure a brilliant deftiny to his new city, a certain quantity of it, is extremely malleable ; but
neither his pains, nor the horofcopes of his wizards, fcarce any traces of the red colour are to be feen on
have been able to render it opulent or powerful. At the furface when poliftied, but the mixture fometimes
prefent, Mr Swinburn informs us, it fcarce mufters has a green efflorefcence by age. Its decompolition
fix thoufand inhabitants, though moil of the corn ex- by air is very remarkable. A piece of it newly made,
ported from the province is (hipped off here, and a di- when put into a dry bottle well corked, remained per-
rtft trade carried on with Venice and Greece, for feft for fix months; but afterwards, when expofed on-
which reafon there is a lazaretto eftablilhed ; but from ly for two days to the open air of a chamber* con-
fome late inftances we may gather, that if the king- tradled a brown colour on the furface, and became fo
dom of Naples has for many years pall remained free friable as to crumble into powder between the fingers,
from the plague, it is more owing- to good luck, and the internal parts only retaining an obfcure metallic
the veiy trifling communication with Turkey, than to fplendour, which alfo difappeared in a few hours. •
the vigilance or incorruptibility of the officers of this This furpriling Facility of decompofition might na-
port. In 1620, the Turks landed and pillaged Man- turally lead us to fuppofe that no fuch thing as native
fredonia. All huts of vegetables abound here, for manganefe could exift in the earth. In the Journal de
flavour and fucculency infinitely fuperior to thofe Phyfique for January 1786, however, M. de Peyroufc
raifed by continual waterings in the cineritious foil of gives an account of a native regulus of manganefe, the
Naples. Lettuce in particular is delicious, and fifh properties of which are as follow : 1. In appearance
plentiful and cheap. it very much refembles the artificial regulus already
- MANGANESE, or Magnesia Nigra, a dark- mentioned. 2. It dirties the fingers by handling,
coloured mineral employed in glafs-works for purify- 3. None of its particles are in the lead affefiled by the
■ing the glafs, by taking away the colour it has al- magnet. 4. It is compofed of laminas having a kind
ready, or by fuperadding a new colour to it. It is of divergence among themfelves. 5. Its metalHc bril-
alfo ufed in the glazing of earthen ware, where it liancy is the fame with that of the artificial regulus,
communicates a black, colour. From its property of and it has a partial malleability. 6. When repeatedly
rendering glafs colourlefs, it has fometimes been called hammered, it exhibits a kind of exfoliation, forming
the foap of glafs. itfelf into very thin leaves. 7. Its opacity and denfity
This fubftance, commonly called blacl or glafs- are fo completely fimilar to the artificial.regulus, that
maker’s "manganefe, is fcarcely any other thing than were it not for the matrix in which the latter is imbed-
the calx of a new femimetal, whofe properties were ded, it would be in a manner impoflible to diflin-
for the firft time inveftigated by Mr Scheele in the guifli them.
Stockholm Memoirs for 1774: afterwards it was This regulus is not found in large maffes, or in any
more fully invefligated by Dr Gahi>, and lately by folid continuous body, but only in clots or lumps in-
feveral other chemifts. Its colour is of a dulky white ; clofed and intermixed with the powdery or calciform
and the furface is uneven and irregular, owing to its im- ore. .Thefe lumps are fomewhat flattened or comprefs-
perfeft fulion. It is bright and (hining when firft bro- ed in their form like the artificial ones, though for
ken, but tarniffies by expofure to air much fooner than the moft part they are of a larger fize. This powdery
any other metallic fubftance. Its fpecific gravity is magnefian ore, in which the reguline lumps are im-
6,850: it equals, if it does not exceed, iron in hardnefs, bedded, has an argentine hue, as if the materials had
as well as difficulty of fufion. When reduced to pow- been fubjedted to fome violent heat upon the fpot.—
der, it becomes magnetical, though large pieces of it This regulus was found among the iron minesof Sent, in
are not fo. When expofed to the air, it foon crumbles the valley of Viedotfos, in the county of Foix, near
into a blackifti brown powder, fomewhat heavier than the Pyrenean mountains.
the regulus itfelf; and this effedl is fooner produced in Manganefe is found in a calciform ftate, of various
a moift than a diy air. colours. M.de Magellan obferves, that the aerial acid is
The regulus is obtained by malvng the calx or ore the only mineralizer of this femimetal in its dry ftate;
of manganefe into a ball with pitch, and putting it in- and that in proportion to the different degrees of phlo-
to a crucible with powdered ^charcoal one-tenth of an giftication, a variety of colours is produced. When
inch thick bn the fides and a quarter of an inch at it contains as much phlogifton as poffible, without be-
the bottom. The empty fpace is then to be filled with ing reduced to a regulus, it always appears of a white
powdered charcoal, covering the crucible with another, colour, and contains about 40 per cent, of fixed air.
Having luted the joints, the whole is to be expofed In proportion to its dephlogiftication and union with
to the ftrongeft heat of a forge for an hour or more, other fubftances, its colour is either blue, green, yel-
This regulus is foluble in alLthe acids, but moft readi- low, red, or black.
ly in the nitrous, the folution in which is generally of The black manganefe feems to be the decayed par-
a brownifh colour, though that in the others is moft- tides of that which is indurated. The latter is met
ly colourlefs. The brown colour in the nitrous folution with either pure, or in formof balls feemingly compofed
arifes from the mixture of a fmall portion of iron, and of concentric fibres ; fometimes, but very rarely, it
there is always a black refiduum refembling plumbago is met with of a white colour. Cronftedt informs us,
left undiffolved. Aerated alkalies throw down a white that he had a fpecimen of this from an unknown place
N°i94. 3 in
MAN [ 529 1 MAN
Mangancfe in Norway. He found that it differed from the com-
k-~v~' mon kind by giving a deep red colour to borax in the
fire. By calcination it affumes a reddiih brown co¬
lour.
Blue manganefe, according to Mr Scheele, acquires
its colour from the phlogilton which it is enabled to
retain by its union with fixed alkalies. Green arifes
from a mixture of the blue with the yellow calx of
iron, and the yellow colour, from a prevalence of this
calx; redfrom a flight dephlogiftication of the calx;
and black from a thorough dephlogiftication of it.—
The white kind, above mentioned, contains but a very
{mall proportion of iron. Rinman found it both in
fmall white cryftals and in round maffes in the cavi¬
ties of quartz, and adhering to glanz-blende. The
hardnefs rather lefs than limeftone, the texture fparry,
and the fubftance fcarcely magnetic even after roaft-
ing: it affords a colourlefs folution with nitrous acid,
from which mild alkalies throw down a white preci¬
pitate turning black with heat, as already mentioned,
of the regulus itfelf. The white ore has alfo been
found vegetating on the furface of fome iron ores,
particularly haematites. Mr Rinman alfo met with it
in the form of calcareous fpar of the colour of rofin,
fomewhat fhining, and covered Over in fome places
•with a footy powder. It is found alfo in thin pieces,
, tranfparent at the edges, but not hard enough to ftrike
fire. This confifts of manganefe bedded in zeolite.
It melts per ft with the heat of a blow-pipe into a
whitilh grey porous flag ; and with the addition of
calcined borax gives a garnet colour to glafs. Ac¬
cording to Kirwan, many of the white fparry iron
ores may be claffed among thofe of manganefe, as
-they contain more of this femimetal than of iron.
Red manganefe is faid to be found in Piedmont,
but Cronftedt fays he never faw it. He was told by
an ingenious workman, that this variety is free from
iron, and gives rather a red than violet colour to
glafs. Mr Kirwan fays, that this kind has lefs fixed
air and more iron than the white kind. It is alfo
joined with ponderous earth, calcareous earth, ponder¬
ous fpar, and flint. It is found either loofe or femi-
indurated, in a matrix of calcareous fpar, on talcky
fchiftus, or on haematites or other iron ores. It is
found likewife in heavy hard maffes of lamellar, radi¬
ated, or equable texture, or cryftallized in pyramids,
rhomboids, or fliort brittle needles.
Manganefe is alfo met with in a ftate of union with
iron. This is black, with a metallic fplendour, and is
the kind commonly employed in glafs-houfes and pot¬
teries. There are feveral varieties of this ftone in the
mountains round Bath named Mendip-hills, of which
the Briftol potters confume great quantities. The
black ores of manganefe differ but little from the
brbwn ones. They are both found either cryftallized
as the red ores, or in folid maffes, fome of which have
a metallic appearance ; but orthers are dull, earth .
and mixed, or embodied in quartz, or in a loofe earthy
form. Their fpecific gravity is about 4.000. The
black manganefe is met with either folid and of a
flaggy texture, fteel-grained, radiated, or cryftal¬
lized.
The Perigord ftone belongs to this fpecies of man¬
ganefe. It is of a dark grey colour like the bafaltes,
and may be fcraped with a knife, but cannot be bro-
Vot. X. Fart II.
ken without difficulty. It is very compaft, heavy, Manganefe
and as black, internally, as charcoal. It has a glittering, "
appearance of a ftriated kind, like the ore of antimo¬
ny; and its particles are difpofed in the form of needles
crofling one another without any agglutination, in-
fomuch that fome are loofe in a manner fimilar to iron-
filings when ftuck to a loadftone, and refembling on
the whole the fcoria from a blackfmith’s forge. By
calcination this fubftance affumes a reddifli brown co¬
lour, and becomes harder, but is not magnetic.- It
does not melt per fe, but affords an amethyft-colour-
ed glafs with borax. Nitrous acid has little effedt up¬
on it without fugar. It feems to contain clay and.
fome iron, and is of confiderable fpecific gravity. It
is found in fome parts of England as well as in Gaf-
cony and Dauphiny in France. The French potters
and common enamellers fometimes employ this fub¬
ftance in the glazing of their ware.
Black-wadd is likewife an ore of manganefe. It is
found in Derbyfhire, and is of a dark brown colour,
partly in powder, and partly indurated and brittle. If
half a pound of it be dried before the fire, and after¬
wards fuffered to cool for an hour, and two ounces of
linfeed oil afterwards added, mixing the whole iSofely
like barm with flour, little clots will be formed, and,
in fomething more than half an hour the whole will
grow hot, and at laft burft into flame. The heat of
the room in which this experiment was tried might be
about 30° of,Fahrenheit, and.the heat to which it
was expofed in drying about 130. According to
Wedgwood’s Analylis, this ore contains 43 parts of
manganefe, as much iron, of lead, and near 5
micaceous earth.
Befides the ores mentioned above, Mr Scheele in¬
forms us, that he has found manganefe exifting in pot-
afhes. Chemifts, he tells us, have often obferved,
that alkaline falts, when calcined, affume a bluifli or
greenifli colour. The caufe of this has been faid to
be a quantity of phlogifton prefent in the alkali; but
to this he objefts, that fuch a colour is not deftroyed
by fufion with nitre. When fixed alkali is made to
run over the crucible by toe ftrong a fire, the part
that attaches itfelf to the outfide acquires a dark-green
colour in confequence of the afhes uniting with it.
If one part of alkali of tartar be mixed with one-fourth
of fine lifted afhes and one-eighth of nitre, a dark-
green mafs is obtained, which, by folution in water,
affords a beautiful green folution, and, when filtered,
turns red on the addition of a few drops of vitriolic
acid. Some days afterwards a fmall quantity of brown
powder falls to the bottom, which difeovers the fame
chemical properties as manganefe. On diffolving a
quantity of fifted allies' in muriatic acid by digeftion
in a fand-heat, the fame fmell of aqua-regia ariles that
is perceived on mixing manganefe with fpirit of fait.
Adding fome hours afterwards a certain quantity of
vitriolic acid, in order to precipitate the greater part
of the calcareous earth, the liquor had a yellow co¬
lour when filtered, and by means of fixed alkali let
fall a yellow precipitate, which by calcination turned
of a dark-grey, and fhowed figns of containing man¬
ganefe. Hence it appears that manganefe really exifts
in the allies of vegetables, but not equally in all; for
Mr Scheele obferves, that wood-alhes contain much
more than thofe of thyme (thymus ferpillum),
Mr
MAN [ .53° 1 MAN
Manganefe Mr Scheele has laboured exceedingly to deeompofe
w—y~— fu^ftance, and to difcover its component parts.
He candidly acknowledges, however, that he did not
fucceed in this inveftigation according to his wifh,
and therefore cannot be certain that his conclufions
are altogether juft. The following experiments, how¬
ever, he tells us, were made with the greateft accu¬
racy as well as expence of time and trouble.
Half an ounce of phlogifticated manganefe, purified
from all foreign particles, was calcined upon an iron-plate
till it grew black. It was then diffolved in diluted vitriolic
acid, with the addition of a little fugar, in a fandheat till
the folution became limpid. On cooling, a fine fhining
powder precipitated, which proved to be felenite. Ha¬
ving feparated this by filtration, and then diluted the
folution with fix ounces of diftilled water, precipita¬
ting it afterwards by vegetable alkali, the powder was
edulcorated, and again expofed to calcination (a).
The manganefe, when deprived of its phlogifton, was
again diffolved by means of fugar in diluted vitriolic
acid ; by which means as much felenite was obtained
as before. The filtered folution was treated .exactly
in the fame manner, and the operation repeated eleven
times, yielding to appearance as much felenite as be¬
fore. On weighing the refults of all thefe calcina¬
tions, the manganeie was found to be reduced to three
drachms and five grains, and the quantity of felenite
had increafed to 49 grains ; the whole feems therefore
to be convertible into calcareous earth. On attempt¬
ing to invert the experiment, and to produce manga¬
nefe by combining phlogifton with calcareous earth,
he found it impoffible to unite the two fubftances by
any means he could devife.
This analylis of manganefe was undertaken at the
defire of Mr Bergman; who having informed him
that Mr Sage fuppofes manganefe to be nothing elfe
than a mineralifed mixture of cobalt and zinc, he af¬
terwards made feveral experiments with a view to de¬
tect thefe fubftances, but in vain. “ Manganefe (fays
Mr Bergman) has been claffed by all mineralogifts
among the ores of iron ; but Mr Pott fuppofed the
iron to be only accidentally mixed with it ; and at laft
Mr Cronftedt, in his Effay on Mineralogy, 1758,
placed it among the earths. For my part, however,
I muft own that there are feveral circumftances which
make me think that it is a metallic fubftance.' No
pure earth colours glafs, but all metallic calces have
this property. Manganefe, therefore, in this refpedl,
{hows a great refemblance to the latter; which is fur¬
ther increafed by its fpecific gravity, and its ftrong
attra&ion for phlogifton.” Having then mentioned
its precipitation by the Prufiian alkali as an addi¬
tional proof of its metallic nature, he proceeds thus :
“ But what kind of metal it is which manganefe con¬
tains is not fo eafily afcertained. The folution of co¬
balt does not lofe its. colour on adding fugar or any
ether phlogiftic fubftance, and zinc does not impart any
colour to acids. Thefe two fubftances confequently
differ from manganefe, which does not indeed entirely
agree with any other of the known metallic earths.
I have, however, great reafon to conjefture that it
muft be platina, the earth of which is not yet known } Mangane*
or a new metal, which at leaft would agree with pla- —v*"wf
tina in the great difficulty with which it fufes.”
It has already been obferved, that manganefe is
ufed in glafs-vvorks, and is capable both of deftroying
the colour of glafs, and of giving a new colour to it,
viz. that of violet. Mr Scheele deduces its operation from
the properties related under the article Chemistrv^
n° 13 99 & feq. He enumerates itseffe&s on glafs-fluxes
as follows: 1. A colourlefs glafs-flux becomes conftantly
more or lefs red on addition of manganefe, according to
the quantity. 2. If the flux be a little alkaline, the
colour will approach to violet. 3. Arfenic, gypfum,.
and calx of tin, deftroy the red colour in thefe glaffes,
and thus render them clear. The action pf arfenic
is eafily explained jrom Chemistry, n J 919. where
it is ffiown that manganefe decompofes arfenic by
uniting-with its phlogifton, and that arfenic itfelf is
compofed of an acid of a peculiar nature united wkb
phlogifton. On mixing manganeie, therefore, with
glafs in fufion, the phlogifton of the arfenic unites,
with the, manganefe, while the acid of arfenic unites
with the alkali of the glafs. This experiment fuc*
ceeds in a covered crucible, though never when gyp¬
fum or calx of tin are made ufe of; but on adding
powdered charcoal, an effervefcence enfues, the red
colour difappears, and the glafs becomes colourlefs.
The phlogifton of the charcoal is therefore the caufe
of the deftru&ion of the colour, and the effervefcence
is a neeeffary confequence- of the emiffion of the phlo¬
gifton. 4. If glafs coloured red by manganefe be
fufed in a crucible with powdered charcoal, the colour
difappears during the effervefcence without the addi¬
tion of gypfum or calx, of tin ; but on keeping the
glafs a long time in fufion upon charcoal, by means
of the blow-pipe, the colour does not difappear. Nay,
if the colourlefs glafs be kept in this ftate for a ffiort
time upon charcoal, it grows red again. 5. By add¬
ing a little fulphur, the col®ur disappears; and the
fame thing takes place on the addition of any metal¬
lic calx or any neutral fait containing the vitriolic
acid. But here it muft be obferved, that all metals
whofe calces colour glafs, while they deprive it of that
which it has received from the manganefe, will not
fail to communicate their own peculiar colour to it.
If to fuch a colourlefs glafs-globule, nitre, even in the
fmalleft quantity, be added, it prefently grows red
again ; and the fame thing happens if fuch. a colour¬
lefs glafs. globule be kept in fufion for a; few minutes
upon an iron plate ‘r and thus the red colour may be
made to appear and difappear as often as we pleafe.
From, this explanation it appears how manganefe
purifies.glafs. When the colour of it depends on a
quantity of coaly matter, it is improper to add more
than is juft fufficient to faturate the phlogifton. With,
regard to the green colour of common bottle-glafs,
Mr Scheefe made the following experiment to deter¬
mine whether it proceeded from, iron or not. Having-
melted green glafs by the blow-pipe upon a piece of
the fame fubftance, left in ufing a crucible he ftiould
have been, deceived by the iron it contained, he pour¬
ed
(a) Asia this procefs a quantity of fixed air is always expelled from the alkali, it»was neceffary, in ordet
♦o prevent any of the manganefe from being diffolved by it, to place the whole for fome hours upon hot fand,
%o expel the aerial fluid.
1*.
MAN [ 53T ] MAN
upon it a large quantity of tnuflatic acid 5 and ha-
~ ving extrafted atinfture, and poured into it a few drops
of the folution of Pruflian alkali, it a {Turned a bluifti
colour. Hence he concludes, that iron, nearly in its
metallic form, is prefent in common green glafs; for
its calx always gives a yellowilh colour to glafs, and
manganefe added to a folution of iron in acids deftroys
the green colour, fubftituting a yeHow one in its room ;
and in like manner, nitre added to green glafs in fu-
fion takes away its colour. The fame efteft is pro¬
duced by manganefe if added in proper quantity ;
though, according to the experiments of Mr Scheele,
fomewhat- of a yellowilh colour ought to have been
communicated by it; and he is of opinion that it was
really fo, though the quantity of iron was too fmall
to render it diftinftly vifible. It is alfo remarkable,
that the rays of light palling through glafs of this
kind, when nearly red hot, appear of a yellowilh co¬
lour.
Mr Engeftrom’s experiments on this fubjeft are
fomewhat different from thofe of Mr Scheele. Ha¬
ving melted manganefe and borax together upon a piece
of charcoal, the glafs at firft affumed the common co¬
lour of manganefe ; but this was repeatedly deftroy-
ed, and made to appear without adding any thing.
During the operation he took notice of the following
phenomena: 1. When a fmall quantity of manganefe
was taken, the colour was light, hut with a larger it
became nearly black ; and whatever colour it affumed
on the firft fufion was manifefted alfo at the fecond,
when it was made to reappear. 2. Manganefe, on be¬
ing melted with borax, effervefees violently ; which
-ceafes, however, as foon as the manganefe is diflolved.
3. To make the colour of the glafs difappear, it was
■tiecefiary only to direft the blue flame of the candle
opon the glafs, and that equally and conftantly, but
not very violently. On blowing more faintly, and al¬
lowing the brown flame to touch the place, the co-
- lour returned. 4. About the time that the glafs be¬
comes colourlefs, a kind of feftion or partition is ob-
ferved in it; and as foon as the colour difappears, the
blowing muft be immediately difeontinued, fo that the
brown flame (hall not afterwards touch the glafs.
When it is taken out with the forceps, it appears per-
fedlly colourlefs. 5. This deftruftion of the colour
feems not to happen fuddenly, but by degrees ; for
when the blowing was now and then difeontinued be¬
fore the true mark had appeared, the glafs was gene¬
rally lighter than before, though not quite colourlefs.
Though our author had been able to difeharge the
colour thus from glafs, and to make it reappear^ it
feemed doubtful whether this could be done frequent¬
ly ; for having blown the blue flame violently againft
feme glafs, the colour of which he had already twice
tlifeharged and made to reappear, he found that it
could not again be dlfcharged even by conftant blow¬
ing for an hour. In another experiment, having add¬
ed a large quantity of manganefe, he found that the
glafs retained its colour even in the utmoft heat he
could give it, though it always became colourlcfs
when warm, but Regained its colour in the cold.
In both thefe experiments the violence of the flame
had difperfed and driven off fome fmall globules, which
always remained colourlefs: the reafon of this he
thinks is, that manganefe, or its colouring part, has
a ftrong attraction for a iinali part only of borax ; and
that, by means of a violent heat, the fuperfluous part Manganefe
may be feparated, and the reft unite more clofely with K
the earthy particles. The fame thing happened like- ange>rt»
wife with the fmall globules, which fometimes remained
after the mafs was taken away, fixed to the charcoal
by the violence of the flame. “ If this is really the
cafe (fays he), it would follow, that by repeating the
experiment fome of thefe particles would always fe-
parate if a fufficiently ftrong flame was applied, and
it would be impoflible to expel the red colour after¬
wards, I dare not, however, advance this conjedlure,
though it is grounded on fome experiments as a mat¬
ter of certainty.”
Cronftedt obferves, that manganefe communicate?
a colour both to glaffes and faline folutions. Borax,
which has diffolved it, becomes tranfparent, and af-
fumes a reddifh brown or hyacinthine colour; the mi-
crocofinic fait becomes tranfparent, of a crimfon co¬
lour, and moulders in the air. In compofitions for
glafs it becomes violet with the fixed alkali; but if a
great quantity of manganefe be added, the glafs is
in thick lumps and looks black ; by fcorification with
lead the glafs obtains a reddifli brown colour. Maii-
ganeie deflagrates with nitre; and the reiiduum, when
thus deflagrated, communicates a deep-red colour to
its lixivium. The calx, when reckoned tp be light,
weighs as much as an iron ore of the fame texture.
It ferments with vitreous compofitions, and ftill more
when.melted with the microcofmic fait. The colours
communicated by manganefe to glaffes are eafily de-
ftroyed by the calx of tin or arfenic, and likewife va-
nifli of themfelves in the air.
According to Dr Brunnich, manganefe, when melt*
ed with nitre, aflumes a green colour. Tin unites
very readily with manganefe; but zinc not without
great difficulty, perhaps on account of its volatility
and inflammable nature. White arfenic adheres to it,
and, by means of the phlogifton, reduces it to a me¬
tallic form. By frmple calcination a blackilh powder
is produced ; but if the ignition be continued for
twelve days, it acquires a dark-green colour ; produ¬
cing alfo, fometimes, one' of a white or reddifh co¬
lour. All thefe various calces, by means of a fuffi-
cient degree of heat in a common crucible, run into
a yellowifh-red glafs, which is pellucid, unlefs from
too great thicknefs.
MANGbJ, in dogs. See Difcafes of Dogs.
Mange, in farriery. See there, § xxiii.
MANGEART (Dorn Thomas), a Benediaine of
the congregation of St Vanne and St Hidulphe, whofe-
knowledge was an ornament to his order. It gained
him alfo the titles of antiquarian, librarian, and coun-
fellor, to Charles duke of Lorrain. He was prepa¬
ring a very confiderable work when he died, A. D.
1763, before he had put his laft hand to his book,
which was publifhed by Abbe Jacquin. This produc¬
tion appeared in 1763, in folio, with this title: In¬
troduction a la fcience des Medaillest pour fervir a la con-
noijfance des Dkux, de la Religion, des Sciences., des Arts,
et de tout ce qui trppartient a PHiJloire ancienne, avec les
prewoes tirees des Medailles. The elementary treatifes
on the numifmatic fcience were not fufficiently exten-
five, and the particular differtations were by far too
tedious and prolix. This learned Benediftine has col-
letted into a; Angle volume all the principles contained
in the former,, and all the ideas of any confequenee
3X3 which
Mange!
tl '
Mangifera.
M A N. [ 532 j M A N
which arc to be found fcattered through the latter.
His work may ferve as a fupplement to Montfaucon’s
ylnliquity explained. From Mangeart we like wife have
a volume of fermons ; andjj a treatife on Purgatory j.
Nancy, 1739, 2 vols i2mo.
MANGEL-wurzel. See Beta ; and Agricul¬
ture, n° 52.
' MANGER, is a raifed trough under the rack in
the ftall, made for receiving the grain or corn that a
horfe eats.
Manger,.a fmall apartment, extending athwart the
lower-deck of a fliip of war,, immediately within the
haufe-holes, and fenced on the after-part by a partition,,
which feparateS it from the other part of the deck be¬
hind it. This partition ferves as a fence to interrupt
the paflage of the water, which occafionally gufhes in
at the haufe-holes, or falls from the wet cable whilll
it is heaved in by the capf ern. The water, thus pre¬
vented from running aft, is immediately returned into
the fea by feveral fmall channels, called feuppers, cut
through the {hip’s fide within the manger. The man¬
ger is therefore particularly ufeful in giving a con¬
trary direction to the water that enters at the haufe-
holes, which would otherwife run aft in great ftreams
upon the lower-deck, and render it extremely wet
and uncomfortable, particularly in tempeftuous wea¬
ther, to the men who mefs and deep in different parts
thereof.
MANGENOT (Lewis), a canon of the temple at
Paris, where he was bor^i A. D. 1694, and died m
1768 at the age of 74. He was a focial poet, and an
amiable man. But although lively and agreeable in
his converfation, his charafter leaned fomewhat to¬
wards cynical mifanthropy. Of this we may judge
from the following verfes, written on a little parlour
which he had. eredted in a garden dependent on bis
benehce r
Sans inquietude, Jam peine,
Je jouis dans ces lieux du dejiin leplus beau;
Lei l)ieux m'out tsccorde l' Ame Je Uhgene,
Et mes.foibles talens m'ont vatu fou tonneau.
His Poems were publifhed at Amfterdam in 1776.
This colleftion contains two eclogues full of nature,
fimplicity, and elegance; fables, fome of which are
well compofed; tales, which are by far too licentious;
moral refledfions; fentences; madrigals, &c. &c,
MANGET (John-James), an eminent phyfician,
born at Geneva in 1652. The eledtor of Branden¬
burg made him his firft phyfician in 1699; in which
poll he continued till his death, which happened at
Geneva in 1742. He wrote many works; the moft
known of which are, 1. A colledlion of feveral Phar¬
macopoeias, in. folio. 2. Bibliotheca pharmaceutico-me-
dica. 3. Bibliotheca anatomica. 4. Bibliotheca chemic a.
5. Bibliotheca chirurgica. 6. A bibliotheca of all the
authors who have written on medicine, in 4 vols folio.
All thefe works are in Latin. Daniel le Clerc,the author
of a Hiftory of Phyfic, aflifted him in writing them.
MANGIFERA, the mango-tree, in botany: A
genus of the monogynia order, bekniging to the pen-
tandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking with thofe of which the order is doubtful.
The corolla is pentapetalous; the plum kidney-
fhaped. There is but one fpecies, a native of many
parts of the Eaft Indies, whence it has been tranfplant-
ed to Brazil and other warm parts of America. It
4
grows to a large fize ; the wood is brittle, the bark Mangofts®
rough when old; the leaves are feven or eight inches II
long, and more than two inches broad. The flowers ^30'^668;
are produced in loofe panicles at the ends of the ’ ~"
branches, and are fucceeded by large oblong kidney-
fhaped plums. This fruit, when fully ripe, is greatly
elleemed in the countries where it grows; but in Eu¬
rope we have only the unripe fruit brought over in
pickle. All attempts to propagate the plant have hi¬
therto proved ineffedlual; and Mr Miller is of opinion
that the ftones will not vegetate unlefs they are planted
foon after they are ripe. He thinks therefore that
the young plants ought to be brought over in boxes
of earth; after which they may be kept in tire tan-
bed of the ftove.
MANGOS PAN, or Mangosteen. See Garci-
NI*MANGROVE. See Rhizophora.
MANHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Lower
Palatinate, with a very ftrong citadel, and a palace,
where the eleefor Palatine often reives. It is feated.
at the confluence of the rivers Neckar and Rhine, in
E. Long. 8. 33. N. Lat. 49. 25.
MANHOOD, that ffage of life which fucceeds-
puberty or adolefcence. See Man, n° 23.
MANIA, or Madness. See MediciNE-/«r/r«-..
MANICHEES, or Manicheans (Manicheei), a
fedl of ancient heretics, who afferted two principles ;
fo called from their author Manes or Mankhaus, a
Perfian by nation, and educated among the magi, be¬
ing himielf one of that number before he embraced,
Chrittianity.
This herefy had its firft rife about the year 277,.
and fpread rtfelf principally in Arabia, Egypt, and
/Africa. St Epiphanius, who treats of it at large, ob-
ferves, that the true name of this herefiarch was Cu~
bricus; and that he changed it for Manes, which in
the Perfian or Babylonifh language frghifies vejjel. A
rich widow, whofe fervant he had been, dying with¬
out iffue, left him ftore of wealth ; after which he af-
fumed the title of the apojlle or envoy of Jefvs Chriji.
Manes was not contented with the quality of apoftle
of Jefus Chrift, but he alio affumed that of the Para¬
clete, whom Chrift had promifed to fend : which Au-
guftin explains, by faying, that Manes endeavoured to
perfuade men, that the Holy Ghoft did perfonally
dwell in him with full authority. He left feveral dif—
ciples, and among others Addas, i homas, and Her-
mas. Thefe he fent in his lifetime into feveral pro¬
vinces to preach his dodtrine. Manes, having under¬
taken to cure the king of Perfia’s foh, and not fuc—
ceeding, was put in prifon upon the young prince’s
death, whence he made his efcape; but he was appre¬
hended foon after, and flayed alive.
However, the oriental writers, cited by D’Herbelot-
and Hyde, tell us, that Manes, after having been pro-
tefted in a Angular manner by Hormizdas, who fuc¬
ceeded Sapor in the Perflan throne, but who was not.
able to defend him, at length, againft the united ha¬
tred of the Chriftians, tiie Magi, the Jew's, and the
Pagans, was fhut up in a ftrong caftle, to ferve him as
a refuge againft thofe who perfecuted him on account
of his doftrine. They add, that after the death of
Hormizdas, Varanes I. his fucceffor, firft protected
Manes, but afterwards gave him up to the fury of the
Magi, whofe refentment againft him was due to his
having
MAN [ 533 1 MAN
Manichees. having adopted the Sadducean principles, as fame fay;
'““—V”—" while others attribute it to his having mingled the te¬
nets of the Magi with the doftrines of Chriftianity.
However, it is certain that the Manicheans celebrated
the day of their mailer's death. It has been a fubject
of much controverfy whether Manes was an impoltpr.
The learned Dr Lardner has examined the arguments
on both fides; and though he does not choofe to deny
that he was an impollor, he does not difcern evident
proofs of it. He acknowledges, that he was an arro¬
gant philofopher and: a great fchemift; but whether he
was an impollor, he cannot certainly fay. He was
much too fond of philofophical notions, which he en¬
deavoured to bring into religion, for which he is to be
blamed: neverthelefs, he obferves, that every bold dog-
matifer is not an impoftor.
The do&rine of Manes was a motley mixture of the
tenets of Chrillianity with the ancient philofophy of
the Perfians, in which he had been inftnnSted during
his youth. He combined thefe two fyllems, and ap-
plied and accommodated to Jefus Chrift the characters
and aftions which the Perfians attributed to the god
Mithras.
He eltablilhed two principles, vi%. a good and an
evil one : the firit, a moil pure and fubtile matter,
which he called light, did nothing but good; and the
fecond a grofs and corrupt fubllance, which he called
durhnefs, nothing but evil, This philofophy is very
ancient; and Plutarch treats of it at large in his Ifis
and Oliris.
Our fouls, according to Manes, were made by the
good principle, and our bodies by the evil one; thofe
two principles being, according to him, coeternal, and
independent of each other. Each of thefe is fubjeft to,
the dominion of a fuperintendent being, whofe exill-
ence is from all eternity. The being who prelides
over the light is called God;, he that rules the land of
darknefs bears the title of hyle or demon. The ruler of
the light is fupremely happy, and in confequence.there-
of benevolent and good : the prince of darknefs is un¬
happy in himfelf, and defirous of rendering others par¬
takers of his mifery, and is evil and malignant. Thefe
two beings have produced an immenfe multitude of
creatures, refembling themfelves, and; dill rib uted them
through their r*fpective provinces. After a contelV
between the ruler of light and the prince of darknefs,
in which the latter was defeated, this prince of dark
nefs produced the ikll parents of the human race. The
beings engendered from this original Hock, confift of
a body formed out of the corrupt matter of the king¬
dom of darknefs, and of two fouls ; one of which is
fenfitive and lullful, and owes its exillence to the evil
principle ; the other rational and immortal, a particle
of that divine light which had been carried away in
the contefl by the army of darknefs, and immerfed in¬
to the mafs of malignant matter. The earth was
created by God out of this, corrupt mafs of matter, in
order to be a dwelling for the human race, that their
captive fouls might by degrees be delivered from their
corporeal prifons, and the oelellial elements extended,
from the grofs fabhance in which they were involved.
With this view God produced two beings from • his
own fubllance, wz. Chrift. and the Holy Ghoft : for
the Manicheans held a confubllantial Trinity Chrift,
or the glorious intelligence,. called by the Periians
Mithras, fubfifting in and by himfelf, and refiding in Manicheet
the fun, appeared in due time among the Jews, clothed ■“""v r
with the fhadowy form of a human body, to difengage
the rational foul from the corrupt body, and to con¬
quer the violence of malignant matter. The Jews,
incited by the prince of darknefs, put Him to an igno*-
minious death, which he fuffered not in reality, buf
only in appearance, and accprding to the opinion,of
men. When the purpofes of Chrift were accomplilh-
ed, he returned to his throne- in the fun, appointing
apollles to propagate his religion, and leaving his fol¬
lowers the promife of the Paraclete or Comforter, who
is Manes the Perlian. Thofe fouls who believe Jefus
Chrift to be the fon of God, renounce the wbrlhip of
the god of the Jews, who is the prince of darknefs,
and obey the laws delivered by Chrift, and illuftrated
by Manes the comforter, are gradually purified from
the contagion of matter ; and their purification being
completed, after having paffed through two ftates of
trial, by water and-fire, firft in the moon and then in
the fun, theiV bodies return to the original mafs (forv
the Manicheans derided the refurre&ion of bodies), and
their fouls afcend to the regions of light. But the
fouls of thofe who have neglehted the falutary work
of purification, pafs after death into the bodies of other
animals' or natures, where they remain till they have
accomplilhed their probation. Some, however, more
perverfe and obftinate, are configned to a feverer courfe
of trial, being delivered over for a time to the power
of malignant aerial fpirits, who torment them in various
ways. After this, a fire Ihall break, forth and con-
fume the frame of the world; and the prince and
powers of darknefs Ihall return to their primitive feats
of anguilh and mifery, in which they (hall, dwell for
ever. . Thefe manfions (hall be furrounded. by an in--
vincible, guard, to prevent their everrenewing a war in
the regions of light.
Manes borrowed many things from the ancient
Gnoftics; on which account many authors confider
the Manicheans as a branch of the Gaoftics.
In truth, the Manichean dodlrine was a fyftem of
philofophy rather than of religion. They made ufe
of amulets, in imitation of the Bafilidians; and are
faid to have made profelfion of aftronomy and aftro-
logy. They denied that Jefus Chrift, who was only
God, affumed a true human body, and maintained it
was only imaginary : and therefore they denied his
incarnation, death, &c. They pretended that the law
of Mofes did not come from God, or the .good prin- -
ciple, but from the evil one.; and that for this reafon
it was abrogated. They rejected almoft all the (acred,.
books in which Chriftians look for the fublime truths
of their holy religion. They affirmed, that the Old
Teftament was not the work of God, but of the prince,
of darknefs, who was fubftituted by the Jews in the
place of the true God. 1 hey abftained entirely from,
eating the fleffi of any animal; following herein the;
dodlrine of the ancient Pythagoreans: they alfo con¬
demned marriage. The reft of their errors may be.
feen.in btEpiphanius and St Auguftin; which laft,
having been of their feci, may be prCfumed to have-,
been thoroughly acquainted with them.
Tho’ the Manichees profeffed to receive the booka
of the New Teftament, yet in effedl they only took
fo much of them as fuited with their own opinions.
They.-
MAN
[ 534 1
MAN
M'fcmcheeV. They firft formed to thcmfelves a certain idea or rejciting the chimeras of the Valentinians, and their Manlenr^
l‘* fcheme of Chriftianity 5 and to this adjnited the wri- 30 jeons; the fable of Manea, with regard to the
tings of the apoltles, pretending that whatever was in-
confiftent with this had been foifted into the New Te-
ftament by later writers, who were half Jews. On
gin of rain and other dreams ; but {till retained the
impurities of Bafilides. In this manner he reformed 'j
Manicheifm, infomuch that his followers made no fern. 1
the other hand, they made fables and apocryphal books pie of anathematizing Scythian, Buddas, called alfo
jrafs for apoftolical writings 5 and even are fufpedted
to have forged feveral others, the better to maintain
their errors. St Epiphaniu-: gives a catalogue of fe¬
veral pieces publifhed by Manes, and adds extrafts out
of fome of them. Thefc are the Mylteries, Chapters,
Oofpel, and Treafury.
The rule of life and manners which Manes prefcri-
bed to his followers was moll extravagantly rigorous
and fevere. However, he divided his difciples into
two clalfes; one of which comprehended the perfedl
• Chriftians, under the name of the ekcl; and the other,
the imperfect and feeble, under the title of auditors or
hearers. The cleft were obliged to a rigorous and en¬
tire abftinence from flelb, eggs, milk, fifir, wine, all
intoxicating drink, wedlock, and all amorous gra¬
tifications ; and to live in a ftate of the fevereft pe¬
nury, nourilhing their emaciated bodies with bread.
Addas and Terebinth, the contemporaries and difciples,
as fome fay, and, according to others, the predeceffors
and mafters of Manes, and even Manes himfelf, Con-
ftantine being now their great apoftle. After he had
feduced an infinite number of people, he was at lafl
ftoned by order of the emperor.
Idris feft prevailed in Bofnia «nd the adjacent pro¬
vinces about the clofe of the 15 th century ; propa¬
gated their doftrines with confidence, and held their
religious aflemblies with impunity.
MANICORDON, or Manichoru, a mufical in-
ftrument in form of a fpinet; the firings of which,
like thofe of the clarichord, are covered with little
pieces of doth, to deaden as well as to foften their
found, whence it is alfo called the dumb fpinet.
MANIFESTO ; a public declaration made by a
prince in writing, fliovving his intentions to begin a
herb , pulfe, and melons, and depriving themfelves of war or other enterprife, with the motives that induce
all the comforts that arife from the moderate indul- him to it, and the reafons on which he founds his rights
gence of natural paffions, and alfo from a variety of and pretenfions.
innocent and agreeable purfuits. The auditors were MAN1HOT, or Ma
allowed to poffefs houfes, lands, and wealth, to feed
on flelh, to enter into the bonds of conjugal tender-
nefs ; but this liberty was granted them with many
limitations, and under the ftrifteft conditions of mo-
ioc. See Jatropha.
MANILA, Luconia, or Luzon, the name of the
largeft of the Philippine iflands in the Eaft Indies,
fubjeft to Spain. It had the name of Luzon from a
cuftom that prevailed among the natives of beating or
deration and temperance. The general affentbly of bruifing their rice in wooden mortars, before they ei-
the Manicheans was headed by a prefident, who repre- ther boiled or baked it; luzon, in their language, fig-
fented Jefus Chrift. There were joined to him
rulers or mafters, who were defigned to reprefent the
J 2 apofiles, and thefe were followed by 7 2 bilhops,
the images of the 72 difciples of our Lord. Thefe
Ijifhops had prefbyters or deacons under them, and all
the members of thefe religious orders were chofen out
of the clafs of the eleft. Their worftnp was fimple
and plain ; and confifted of prayers, reading the fcrip-
tures, and hearing public difcourfes, at which both the
auditors and eleft were allowed to be prefent. They
alfo obferved the Chriftian appointment of baptifm
and the eucharift. They kept the Lord’s day, ob-
ferving it as a fall; and they likewife kept Eafter and
Pentecoft.
Towards the 4th century, the Manicheans concealed
nifying “ a mortar.” ^
As to fituation, it is remarkably happy, lying be¬
tween the eaftern and weftern continents, and having
China on the north, at the diftance of about 60
leagues; the ifiands of Japan on the north-eaft, at the
dittance of about 250 leagues from the neareft of them ;
the ocean on the eaft; the other iflands on the fouth}
and on the weft Malacca, Patana, Siam, Cambodia,
Cochin-China, and other provinces of India, the near¬
eft at the diftance of 300 leagues.
The middle of this iiland is in the latitude 150 north;
the eaft point in 130 38', and the-mofl>northern point
in 190. The ftiape of it is faid to refemble that of
an arm bent; the whole length being about 160 Spa-
nifti leagues, the greateft breadth between 30 and 40,
themfelves under various names, which they fucceflive- and the circumference about 350. As to the longi-
ly adopted, and changed in proportion as they were tude, the charts differ, fome making the middle of
tlifcovered by them. Thus they affumed the names the ifland to lie 1130 eaft from London, and others in
^ ‘ * ' " 1600. The climate is hot and moift. One thing is
held very extraordinary, that in ftormy weather there
of Encratites, Apotafties, Saccophpri, Hydroparaftates,
Solitaries, and feveral. others, under which they lay
concealed for a certain time, but could not however is much lightning and rain, and that thunder is feldom
long efcape the vigilance of their enemies. About the
clofe of the 6th century, this feft gained a very coii-
fiderable influence, particularly among the Perfians.
Tov ard the middle of the 12th century, the feft
of Manichees took a new face, on occafion of one
Conftantine, an Armenian, and an adherer to it; who
took upon him to fupprefs the reading of all other
heard till this is over. During the months of June,
July, Auguft, and part of September, the weft and
fouth winds blow, which they call vendavaks, bring¬
ing fuch rains and ftorms, that the fields are all over¬
flowed, and they are forced to have little boats to go
from one place to another. From Oftober till the
middle of December, the north wind prevails; and
books hefides the Evangelifts and the Epiftles of from that time till May, the eaft and fouth-eaft; which
St Paul, which he explained in fuch a manner as to winds are there called breezes. Thus there are two
make them contain a new fyftem of Manicheifm. He
entirely difcarded all the writings of his predeceffors;
feafons in thofe feas, by the Pbrtuguefe called mon-
ziem : whence our word monfoms, that is, the breezes
half
MAN. r 535 3 MAN
half the yc*r, with a ferene dry air; and the venda-
vales the other half, wet and ftormy. It is further to
be obferved, that in this climate no vermin breed up¬
on Europeans, though they wear dirty ihirts, whereas
it is otherwife with the Indians. The days here being
always of an equal length, and the weather never
cold, neither their clothes, nor the hour of dining,
fupping, doing bvifinefs, ftudying, or praying, are
ever changed; nor is cloth worn, but only againft
the rain.
The air here being, as has been obferved, very hot
and moift, is not whblefome; but is. worfe for young
men that come from Europe than for the old. As
for the natives, without ufmg many precautions, they
live very commonly to fourfcore or 1O0. The foil is fo
rich, that rice grows even on the tops of the moun¬
tains without being watered ; and this makes it fo
plentiful, that the Indians value gold fo little as not to
pick it up, though it lies almoft every where under
their feet.
Among the difadvantages of the ifland, befides fre¬
quent and terrible earthquakes, here are feveral burning
mountains. The face of the iiland, however, is far from
being disfigured by them, or by the confequences of
their explofions.
The mountaineers, called Tingianr, have no particu¬
lar place of abode, but always live under the iheltef of
trees, which ferve them inftead of houfes, and furnifh
them with food; and when the fruit is eaten up, they
remove where there is a freih fort.
Here are 40 different forts of palm-trees, the mofl
excellent cocoas, wild cinnamon, wild nutmegs, and
fome fay wild cloves alfo; ebony; fandal-wood; the
beft caffia, and in fuch plenty, that they feed their
hogs with its fruit; all kinds of cattle, and prodigious
quantities of gold, amber, and ambergrife.
There are feveral forts of people in this ifland be¬
fides the Spaniards, as the Tagalians or Tagaleze, the
Pintadoes or painted negroes, the Ilayas or Tingli-
anos, and the Negrellos. The Tagalians, who are
thought to be Malayans by defcent, are a modefl, trac¬
table, and well difpofed people. The Pintadoes, or
painted negroes, are tall, ftraight, ftrong, aftive, and
of an excellent difpofition. The Tinglianos, whom
fome fuppofe to be defcended from the Japanefe, are
very brave, yet very courteous and humane. They live
entirely on the gifts of nature ; and never fleep under
any other fhade than that of the trees or a cave. The
Negrellos, who are held to be the Aborigines of the
ifland, are barbarous and brutal to the lafl degree..
When they kill a Spaniard, they make a cup of his
fkull and drink out of it.
This ifland is divided into feveral provinces, con¬
taining divers towns, the chief of which are Manila,
Caceres, New-Segovia, Bondo, Paffacao, Ibalon, Bu-
law, Serfocon, or Bagatao, Lamport, Fernandina, Bo-
finao, Playahonda, Cavite, Mindora, Cafeleya, and
Balayan.
Manila, the capital of an ifland of the fame name
in the Eaft Indies, on the fouth-eaft fide of the ifland,
where a large river falls into the fea, and forms a noble
bay 30 leagues in compafs, to which the Spaniards
have given the name of Bahia, becaufe the river runs
out of the great lake Bahi, which lies at the diftance
of fix leagues behind it. In compafs it is two milts,.
in length one third of a mile ; the fhape irregular, be¬
ing narrow at both ends, and wide in the middle. On '
the fouth it is wafhed by the fea, and on the north and
eaft by the river ; being alfo ftrongly fortified with
walls, baftions, forts, and batteries.—Manila contains
about 30,000 fouls, who are a very motely race, diftin-
guiftied by feveral ftrange names, and produced by the
conjunftion of Spaniards, Chinefe, Malabars, Blacks,
and others inhabiting the city and iflands depending
on it. Without the walls are large fuburbs, partieu'
larly that inhabited by the Chinefe merchants, calletl
Sangleys. In proportion to the fize of the place, the
number of churches and religious houfes is very great.
Only fmtfll veflels can come up to Manilabut three
leagues fouth of it is the town and port of Cavite, de¬
fended by the caftle of St Philip, and capable of re¬
ceiving the largeft (hips. Here (lands the arfenal
where the galleons are built, for which there are from
300 to 600 or 800 men conftantly employed, who are
relieved every month, and while upoa duty art main¬
tained at the king’s expence. By an earthquake which
happened here in 164;, a third part of tlx: city of
Manila was deftroyed,. and no lefs than 3000 people-
periftied in the ruins.
In the warbeforelaft,Spain having entered into engage¬
ments with France, in confequence of the family-com-
paft of the houfe of Bourbon, it was found expedient
by Britain to declare war alfo againft Spain. Where¬
upon a force was fent out from our Eaft-India fettle-
ments, particularly Madras,, for the- conqueft of the
Philippine Illands, under General Draper and Admi¬
ral Cornifli: who, after a fiege of 12 days, took Ma¬
nila on the 6th of Odlober 1762 by ftorm ;. but, to
fave fo fine a city from deftruftion, agreed to accept a
ranfom, amounting to a million fterling, a part of
which, it is faid, was never paid. The Spanilh vice¬
roy refides in this city, and lives like a fovereign-
prince. The government , is faid to be one of the beft
in the gift of the king of Spain.. When the city was
taken, as above, the archbifliop, who is a kind of
pope in this part of the world, was alfo viceroy. Five,
large fhips, loaded with the riches of the Eaft, as dia¬
monds from Golconda, cinnamon from Ceylon, pepper
from Sumatra and Java, cloves and nutmegs from the
Moluccas and Banda iflands, camphire from Borr- .,
benjamin and ivory from Cambodia, filks, tA. and
china-ware from China, &c. fail yearly from hence to
Acapulco in Mexico, and return freighted with filver,
making 400 per cent, profit.
The city of Manila is governed by two alcaides: the
reft of the cities and great towns have each an alcaide;
and in every village there is a corregidore. Appeals
from their fentences. are made to the royal court at
Manila, in which there are four judges, and a fifcal or
attorney-general; each of theft; judges has a falary of
3300 pieces of eight per annum. The viceroy is pre-
fident; and in that quality has an income of 400D
pieces of eight, but he has no vote yet if the jifdges
are equally divided, the prefident names a doctor of
the civil law,-who, in virtue of his appointment, has
a decifive voice. The attorney-general, in right of
his. office, is protedlor of the Chinefc, in confideration
of which he receives 600 pieces of eight every year.
As for the Indians that are in fubjection,. they pay tri¬
bute in the following proportions ; Young men from
Manila,
MAN [ 536 ] MAN
Manllius 18, and from thence, if they continue fingle, to the
.11 ^ age of 60, pay five rials of plate by way of capita-
an*Pu 118 tjqn: as iingle women likewife do from 24 to 50 :
married men pay ten lials. It is computed, that there
are within the compafs of this government 250,000
Indians, fubjedt to his Catholic majefty, of whom
two-fifths hold immediately from the king, and the
reft from lords or proprietors, who pay two rials each
for the maintenance of the forces, and the like fum
for the parifh-prieft. The royal revenue is computed
at about half a million of pieces of eight, exclufive
of cafualties. In regard to the ^military eftablifh-
ment, the garrifon of Manila confifts of about 800
or icoo men, and there are about 3000 more in
the Philippines. The viceroy is by his office cap¬
tain-general, with a falary of about 4000 pieces of
eight.
MANILIUS (Marcus), a Latin poet, whofepoem
had the ill luck to lie buried in fome German libraries,
and was not heard of in the world until Poggius, about
two centuries ago, publifhed him from fome old ma-
nufcripts he found there. There is no account to be
found of him but what can be drawn from his poem,
which is called djlronomicon; and contains a fyftem of
the ancient aftronomy and aftrology, together with the
philofophy of the Stoics. It confifts of five books;
though there was a fixth, which has not been recover¬
ed. From the ftyle, and no mention of the author
being found in ancient writers* it is probable he died
young. It is collefted, however, that he was a Roman
of illuftrious extradfion, and lived under the reign of
Auguftus, whom he invokes, though not by name,
^ yet by circumftances and charadler that fuit no other
emperor. The beft editions of Manilius are, that of
Tofeph Scaliger in 1600, and that of Bently at Lon¬
don in 1738.
MANILLE, in commerce, a large brafs ring in the
form of a bracelet, either plain or engraven, flat or
round.
Manilles are the principal commodities which the
Europeans carry to the coaft of Africa, and exchange
with the natives for flaves. Thefe people wear them
as ornaments on the fmall of the leg, and on the thick
part of the arm above the elbow. The great men wear
manilles of gold and filver; but thefe are made in the
country by the natives themfelves.
MANIOC, or Manihot. See Jatropha.
MANIPULUS, Manipvle, among the Romans,
was a little body of infantry, which in the time of Ro-
-roulus confifted of 100 men ; and in the time of ,the
eonfuls, and firft Caefars, of 200,
The word properly fignifies “ a handfuland, ac¬
cording to fome autho-s, was firft given to the hand¬
ful of hay which they bore at the end of a pole, to
diftinguifh themfelves by, before the cuftom was in¬
troduced of bearing an eagle for their enfign ; and
hence alfo the phrafe, a handful of men. But Vege-
tius, Modeftus, and Varro, gave other etymologies of
the word: the laft derives it from manus, a little
body of men following the fame ftandard. According
to the former, this corps was called manipulus, becaufe
they fought hand in hand or all together: Contuhernium
ouUm manipulus vocabatur ab eo, quod conjundis manilus
par 'tter dimicabant.
Each manipule had two centurions, or captains,
Nu 194.
called manipularii, to command it 5 one whereof was Mmipulu*,
lieutenant to the other. Each cohort was divided
into three raanipules, and each manipule into two cen-
turies.
Aulus Gellius quotes an old author, one Cincius,
who lived in the time of Hannibal (whofe prifoner he
was), and who, writing on the art of war, obferves,
that then each legion confifted of 60 centuries, of 30
manipules, and of ten cohorts. And again, Varr*
and Vegetlus mention it as the leaft divifion in the
army, only confifting of the tenth part of a century;
and Spartian adds, that it contained no more than ten
men. i his (hows that the manipulus was not always
the fame thing.
Manipulus is alfo an ecclefiafticalornament, worn
by the priefts, deacons, and fubdeacons in the Romiffi
church. It confifts of a little fillet in form of a ftole,
three or four inches broad, and made of the fame fluff
with the chafuble; fignifying and reprefenting an
handkerchief which the priefts in the primitive church
wore on the arm to wipe off the tears they were con¬
tinually ffiedding for the fins of the people. There
ftill remains a mark of this ufage in a prayer rehearfed
by thofe who wear it; Merear, Domine, portare manU
pulum Jletus tsf doloris.—The Greeks and Maronites
wear two manipules, one on each arm.
Manipulus, among phyficians, is ufed to fignify a
handful of herbs or leaves, or fo much as a man can
grafp in hi hand at once; which quantity is frequent¬
ly denoted by the abbreviature, M, or m.
MANIS, the Scaly Lizard, in zoology ; a genu#
of quadrupeds belonging to the order of bruta, the
ha rafters of which are thefe: They have no foreteeth
either in the upper or under jaw; the tongue is long
and cylindrical; the fnout is long and narrov/; and the
body is covered with hard fcales. There are two fpe-
cies: 1. 1 he pentadaftyla, or ffiort-tailed mam's, with
five toes on each foot. The head is fmaller than the
neck ; the eyes are very fmall; the length of the body,
including the tail, is from fix to eight feet. The
whole body is covered with hard fcales, excepting
the under-part of the head and neck, the breaft, the
belly, and the internal fide of each leg. Betwixt plate
the fcales of this animal there are fome hairs like the cclxxis,
briftles of a hog, brownifh at the points. The fcales
are of a reddiffi colour, very hard, convex above, and
concave below. All the parts which want fcales are
naked. The fcales are unconnefted ; and the ani¬
mal can raife or lower them at pleafure, like the quills
of the porcupine. When irritated, he erefts his fcales, -
and rolls himfelf up like a hedge-hog. In this fitua-
tion, neither the lion, tiger, nor any other animal can
hurt him. It is faid to deftroy the elephant by twitt¬
ing itfelf round his trunk, and compreffing that tender
organ with ita hard fcales. It feeds on lizards and in-
fefts; turns up the ground with its nofe; walks with
its claws bent under its feet; grows very fat ; and is
efteemed delicate eating ; makes no other noiie thana
kind of fnorting. It is a mild inbffenfive creature, is
flow of motion, and has no other method of efcaping
the purfuit of man, but by concealing himfelf in cran¬
nies of rocks, and in holes which they dig in the
ground, and where they likewife bring forth their
young. It is a native of the Eaft Indies, and is very
rare. Mr Pennant conjeftures that it may be a native
MAN r 537 ] MAN
Manl«r. of Guinea ; the quogeU of the Negroes, which, Dcs
Manillls Marchais fays, grows to the length of eight feet, of
' " m which the tail is four. It lives in woods and marfhy
places; feeds on ants, which it takes by laying its long
tongue acrofs their paths, which is covered with a vif.
cous faliva, fo that the infefts which attempt to pafs
over it cannot extricate themfelves.
Z. The tetrada&yla, or long-tailed manis, with four
toes on each foot. This fpecies is very fimilar to
the former; only the tail of it is much longer in pro¬
portion to the body ; and fuch parts as want fcales,
inftead of being naked, are covered with a foft hair.
It inhabits Guinea, and is alfo found in the Eaft In¬
dies.
MANLEY (Mrs), the celebrated writer of the J-
talantis, was the daughter of Sir Roger Manley, the
reputed author of the firil volume of the Turltjh Spy.
She loft her parents very early ; and after having been
deluded into a falfe marriage by her guardian, who was
her coufin, and afterwards deferted her, (he was pa¬
tronized by the duchefs of Cleveland, miftrefs of
Charles II. But the duchefs, being a woman of a
very fickle temper, grew tired of Mrs Manley in fix
months time; and difcharged her upon a pretence,
whether groundlefs or not is uncertain, that fhe in¬
trigued with her fon. After this (he wrote her firft
tragedy, called Royal Mifchief, which was a died with
great applaufe in 1696; and her apartment being fre¬
quented by men of wit and gaiety, ihe foon engaged in
amours, and was taken into keeping. Her pen now
grew as licentious as her condudl: for, in her retired
hours, flie wrote four volumes, called Memoirs of the
New Atalantis ; in which fhe was not only very free
in her wanton tales of love-adventures, but fatirized
the characters of many diftinguifhed perfonages, efpe-
cially thofe who had a principal concern in the Revo¬
lution. A profecution was commenced againft her for
this work ; but whether thofe in power were afhamed
to bring a woman to trial for a few amorous trifles,
or whether the laws could not reach her difguifed fa-
tire, fhe was difcharged ; and a total change of the
miniftry enfuing, Mrs Manley lived in high reputation
and gaiety, amufing herfelf with the converfation of
wits, and writing plays, poems, and letters. She died
in 1724.
MANLIUS (Capitolinus), the renowned Roman
conful and general, who faved the capitol when it was
attacked by the Gauls in the night: he was alarmed
by the cries of geefe, which were ever after held fa-
cred. But being afterwards accufed of afpiring at the
fovereignty, he was thrown from the Tarpeian rock.
See Gaul and Rome.
Manlius (Torqsatus), a celebrated conful and Ro¬
man captain ; had great wit, but a difficulty in expref-
fing himfelf, which induced Manlius Imperiofus, his
father, to keep him almoft by force in the country.
Tompey, tribune of the people, enraged at this in-
ftance of feverity, formed a defign of accufing Man¬
lius the father before the judges; but Torquatus be¬
ing informed of it, went to that tribune, and, with a
poniard in his hand, made him fwear that he would
not proceed in that accufation againft him to whom he
owed his life. At length Torquatus was made mili¬
tary tribune, and killed a foldier of the Gauls in finglc
Vol. X. Part II.
combat, from whom he took a gold chain that he
wore about his neck. From this action he obtained
the name of Torquatus. He was conful in the war
againft the Latins; when he ordered his own fon to
be beheaded, for fighting contrary to his orders, though
he had gained the victory. He conquered the enemies
of the republic, and was feveral times made conful;
but at laft refufed the confulftiip, faying, That it was
no more poffible for him to bear with the vices of the
people, than it was for the people to bear with his fe¬
verity.
MANNA, in the materia medica, the juice of cer¬
tain trees of the afti-kind*, either naturally concreted *c’ee Man.
on the plants, or exficcated and purified by art. There
are feveral forts of manna in the (hops. The larger ^ yW‘
■ pieces, called flake mannaf are ufually preferred; though
the fmaller grains are equally good, provided they are
white, or of a pale yellow colour; very light, of a fweet,
not unpleafant tafte, and free from any vifible impuri¬
ties. Some people injudicioufly prefer the fat honey-like
manna to the foregoing; this has either been expofed
to a moift air, or damaged by fea or other water. This
kind of manna is faid to be fometimes counterfeited by
a compofition of fugar and honey mixed with a little
fcammony ; there is alfo a faftitious manna, which is
white and dry, faid to be compofed of fugar, manna,
and fome purgative ingredient, boiled to a proper con-
fiftence. This may be diftinguiftied by its weight, fo-
lidity, untranfparent whitenefs, and by its tafte, which
is different from that of manna.
Manna is a mild, agreeable laxative; and may be
given with fafety to children and pregnant women:
nevertheleis, in fome particular conftitutions, it a£Is
very unkindly, producing flatulencies and diftenfions
of the vifeera : thefe inconveniencies may be prevented
by the addition of any grateful warm aromatic. It
operates fo weakly, that it does not produce the full
effedt of a cathartic, unlefs taken in large dofes; and
hence it is rarely given in this intention by itfelf. It
may be commodioufly diffolved in the purging mineral
waters, or joined to the cathartic falls, fenna, rhubarb,
or the like. Geoffroy recommends acuating it with a
few grains of emetic tartar : by this management, he
fays, bilious ferum will be plentifully evacuated, with¬
out any naufea, gripes, or other inconvenience. It is
remarkable, that the efficacy of this drug is greatly
promoted (if the account of Vallifnieri is to be relied
on) by a fubftance which is itfelf very flow of opera¬
tion, viz. cafia. See Casia.
Manna, is alfo a Scripture-term, fignifying a mi¬
raculous kind of food which fell from heaven for ther
fupport of the Ifraelites in their paffage through tiny
wildernefs, being in form of coriander-feeds, its co¬
lour like that of bdellium, and its tafte like honey.
The Scripture gives to manna the name of the bread
of heaven, and the food of angels, Pfal. Ixxviii. 25.
whether it would infinuate to us, that the angels fent
and prepared this food, or that angels themfelves, if
they had need of any food, could not have any that
was more agreeable than manna was. The author of
the Book of Wifdom fays, xvi. 20. 21. that manna
fo accommodated itfelf to every one’s tafte, that every
one found it pleafing to him ; and that it included every
thing that was agreeable to the palate and fit for good
3 Y nouriih-
MAN [ 538 ] MAN
Manna noimfhment ; which cxpreffion feme have taken in
the literal fenfe, though others underhand them figu¬
ratively.
The critics are divided'about the original of the
word manna. Some think that man is put inftead of
the Hebrew word maA, which figniiies “ What is this
and that the Hebrews, then firft feeing that new
food which God had fent them, cried to one another,
Kirnra man-hu, inftead of mah-hu, “ What is this?”
Others maintain, that the Hebrews very well knew
before what manna was ; and that, feeing it in great
abundance about their camp, they faid one to another,
Man-hiit “ This is manna.” Mr Saumaife and fome
other moderns are of this laft: opinion. They ima¬
gine, that the manna which God fent the Ifraelites
was nothing elfe but that fat and thick dew which ftill
falls in Arabia, which prefently condenfed, and ferved
for food to the people ; that this is the fame thing as
the wild honey, mentioned Matt. iii. 4. wherewith
John the Baptifl; was fed ; and that the miracle of
Mofes did not confift in the production of any new
fubftance, but in the exaCt and uniform manner in
which the manna was difpenfed by Providence for the
maintenance of fuch a great multitude-
On the contrary, the Hebrews and Orientals believe,
that the fall of the manna was wholly miraculous.
The Arabians call it the fugar-plums of the Almighty ;
and the Jews are fo jealous of this miracle, that they
pronounce a curfe againft all fuch as prefume to deny
the interpofition of a miraculous power.
Our tranflation, and fome others, make Mofes fall
into a plain contradiction in relating this ftory of the
manna, which they render thus: “ And when the
children of Ifrael faw it, they faid one to another, It
is manna ; for they will not what it was.” Exo¬
dus xvi. \ y. Whereas the Septuagint, and feveral au¬
thors both ancient and modern, have tranflated the
text according to the original, “ The Ifraelites fee¬
ing this, faid one to another, What is this? for they
knew not what it was.” For we muft obferve, that
the word by which they alked, 'what this is ? was in
their language man, which fgnifies likewife meat
ready provided ; and therefore it was always afterwards
called man or manna.
Whether this manna had thofe extraordinary qua¬
lities in it or no, which fome imagine, it muft be al¬
lowed to be truly miraculous, upon the following ac¬
counts. j. That it fell but fix days in the week.
' 2. That it fell in fuch a prodigious quantity, as fuf-
tained almoft three millions of fouls. 3. That there
fell a double quantity every Friday, to ferve them for
the next day, which was their Sabbath. 4.. That
what was gathered on the firft five days flunk and
bred worms if kept above one day : but that which
was gathered on Friday kept fweet for two days.
And, laftly, That it continued falling while, the Ifra¬
elites abode in the wildernefs, but ceafed as foon as
they came out of it and had got corn to eat in the
land of Canaan.
$ See As*- MANNA-Tree, is a fpecies of the afh J, and a na-
inus. tive of Calabria in Italy. The fhoots of this tree are
much fhorter, and the joints clofer together, than
thofe of the common afh ; the fmall leaves are fhorter,
and deeper fawed on their edges, and are of a lighter
green. The flowers come out from the fide of the Manna
branches, which are of a purple colour, and appear II
in the fpring before the leaves come out. This tree is Manner9‘.
of humble growth, feldom rifing more than 15 or 16 J
feet high in this country.
A great quantity of fine manna is gathered at Ca-
rini in Sicily, oozing from a kind of afli-tree with a
bark fimilar to that of the ebony, and a leaf fomewhat
like the acacia. M. de Non*, who gives an account. Travels in
of this manna, fays, that it is produced from young Sicily.
trees about feven or eight years old when they are
only about eight feet high. Incifions are then made
horizontally in the bark, and from thefe the manna
flows. The incifions are made from the earth to the
top of the tree, and are repeated every two days from
the end of July till the circulation is flopped in the
courfe of the year, or till the manna becomes worfe
in quality. It exfudes firft; as a white frothy liquor
extremely light, pleafant to the tafle, and of an agree¬
able flavour, which is coagulated by the heat of the
fun, and affumes an appearance fomewbat refembling
flaladlites. This is the bell kind, and by the people
of that country is called lachrymatory or cane manna.
The inferior kind appears firft: in the form of a glu¬
tinous and higher coloured liquor, which is received
on the leaves of the Indian fig, which are placed for
that purpofe at the foot of the tree. This alfo con¬
geals by the heat of the fun; though it is more heavy,
purgative, and of much lefs value, than the former.
It is called fat manna : In this part only refides
the faint and difagreeable flavour obfervable in manna;
for the cane manna is of an agreeable flavour, and of
an excellent flomachic. It is got of! from the bark of
the tree by bending and fhaking it. In rainy feafons,
they mull gather the manna every day, which both
leflens the quantity and renders it of inferior quality.
When the flem of the tree is entirely covered with
incifions, they cut it down clofe to the ground; after
which it pufties out new tufts of wood, one or two
items of which are preferved, and at a proper age pro¬
duce manna as before. The tree itfelf is propagated
by feed, and afterwards tranfplanting it. The wood
is hard and heavy, of a bitter tafte, and recommended
in the dropfy. It thrives only in hot climates, and
requires to be expofed to the north winds in order to
make it productive ; but M. de Non is of opinion,
that it might be propagated, and would produce
manna in Provence in France. The Sicilian manna
is dearer and more eileemed than that of Calabria,
though the latter is more generally known and cultu
vated. The tree does not grow in any other part
of the ifland excepting about Carini, where it is a
native.
MANNER, in painting, a habitude that a man ac-
quiresinthe three principal parts of painting, the ma¬
nagement of colours, lights, and flradows ; which is ei¬
ther good or bad according as. the painter has prafti-
fed more or lefs after the truth, with judgment and
ftudy. But the bell painter is he who has no manner
at all. The good or bad choice he makes is calledgoute..
MANNERS, the plural noun, has various fignifi-
cations ; as, the general way of life, the morals, or
the habits, of any perfon or people ; alfo ceremonious
behaviour, or lludied civility. See the next article.
Good-
MAN [ 539 ] M A N
GoocI-Mannf.rs, according to Swift, I* the art of
making thofe people eafy with whom we converfe.
Whoever makes the feweft perfons uneafy, is the beft
bred in the company.
As the beft law is founded upon reafon, fo are the
beft manners. And as fome lawyers have introduced
unreafonable things into common law; fo likewife many
teachers have introduced abfurd things into common
good-manners.
One principal point of this art is to fuit our beha¬
viour to the three feveral degrees of men ; our fuperi-
ors, our equals, and thofe below us.
For inftance, to prefs either of the two former to
eat or drink is a breach of manners; but a tradefman
or a farmer muft be thus treated, or elfe it will be dif¬
ficult to perfuade them that they ate welcome.
Pride, ill-nature, and want of fenfe, are the three
great fources of ill-manners : without fome one of thefe
defeats, no man will behave himfelf ill for want of ex¬
perience ; or of what, in the language of fools, is call¬
ed knqiving the world.
“ I defy (proceeds our author) any one to affign
an incident wherein reafon will not direft us what we
are to fay or to do in company, if we are not milled by
pride or ill-nature. Therefore, I infill that good fenfe
is the principal foundation of good manners ; but be-
caufe the former is a gift which very few among man¬
kind are pofiefied of, therefore all the civilized nations
of the world have agreed upon fixing fome rules for
common behaviour, beft fuited to their general cu-
ftoms, or fancies, as a kind of artificial good-fenfe to
fupplythe defers of reafon. Without which, thegentle-
manly part of dunces would be perpetually at cuffs,
as they feidom fail when they happen to be drunk, or
engaged in fquabbles about women or play. And,
God be thanked, there hardly happeneth a duel in a
year, which may not be imputed to one of thofe three
motives. Upon which account, I Ihould be exceed¬
ingly forry to find the legillature make any new laws
againft the practice of duelling ; becaufe the methods
are eafy, and many, for a wife man to avoid a quarrel
with honour, or engage in it with innocence. And I
can difcover no political evil, in fuffering bullies, {harp¬
ers, and rakes, to rid the world of each other by a me¬
thod of their own, where the law hath not been able to
find an expedient.
“ As the common forms of good-manners were in¬
tended for regulating the conduA of thofe who have
weak underftandings; fo they have been corrupted by
the perfons for whofe ufe they were contrived. For
thefe people have fallen into a needlefs and endlefs way
of multiplying ceremonies, which have been extremely
troublefome to thofe who praftife them, and infup-
portable to every body elfe ; infomuch that wife men
are often more uneafy at the over-civility of thefe re¬
finers, than they could poflibly be in the converfations
of peafants or mechanics.
“ The impertinencies of this ceremonial behaviour
are nowhere better feen than at thofe tables where la¬
dies prefide, who value themfelves upon account of
their good-breeding ; where a man muft reckon upon
palling an hour without doing any one thing he hath a
mind to, unlefs he will be fo hardy as to break through
all the fettled decorum of the family. She determines
what he loveth beft, and how much he Ihall eat; and
if the mailer of the houfe happeneth to be of the fame
difpofition, he proceedeth in the fame tyrannical man¬
ner to prefcribe in the drinking part: at the fame time
you are under the neceffity of anfwering a thoufand
apologies for your entertainment. And although a
good deal of this humour is pretty well worn off among
many people of the beft falhion, yet too much of it
ftill remaineth, efpeciaily in the country; where an ho-
neft gentleman affured me, that having been kept four
days againft his will at a friend’s houfe, with all the
circumftances of hiding his boots, locking up the liable,
and other contrivances of the like nature, he could not
remember, from the moment he came into the houfe
to the moment he left it, any one thing wherein his
inclination was not dire ft ly contradifted; as if the
whole family had entered into a combination to tor¬
ment him.
“ But, befides all this, it would be endlefs to re¬
count the many foolilh and ridiculous accidents I have
obferved among thefe unfortunate profelytes to cere¬
mony. I have feen a duchefs fairly knocked down by
the precipitancy of an officious coxcomb running to
fave her the trouble of opening a door. I remember,
upon a birth-day at court, a great lady was rendered
utterly difconfolate, by a dilh of fauce let fall by a
page direftly upon her head-drefs and brocade, while
Ihe gave a fudden turn to her elbow upon fome point of
ceremony with the perfon who fat next her. Monfieut*
Buys, the Dutch envoy, whofe politics and manners
were much of a fize, brought a fon with him about 13
years old to a great table at court. The boy and his
father, whatever they put on their plates, they firft of¬
fered round in order, to every perfon in the company ;
fo that we could not get a minute’s quiet during the
whole dinner. At laft their two plates happened to
encounter, and with fo much violence, that, being
china, they broke in 20 pieces, and ftained half the
company with wet fweatmeats and cream.
“ There is a pedantry in manners as in all arts and
fciences, and fometimes in trades. Pedantry is pro¬
perly the over-rating any kind of knowledge we pre¬
tend to. And if that kind of knowledge be a trifle in
itfelf, the pedantry is the greater. For which reafon
I look upon fiddlers, dancing-mailers, heralds, mailers
of the ceremony, &c. to be greater pedants than Lip-
fius, or the elder Scaliger. With thefe kind of pedants,
the court, while I knew it, was always plentifully
flocked : I mean from the gentleman-ulher (at leall)
inclufive, downward to the gentleman porter; who are,
generally fpeaking, the molt infignificant race of peo¬
ple that this illand can afford, and with the fmalleil
tinfture of good-manners, which is the only trade they
profefs. For being wholly illiterate, converfing chiefly
with each other, they reduce the whole fyftem of
breeding within the forms and circles of their feveral
offices: and as they are below the notice of miniilers,
they live and die in court under all revolutions, with
great obfequioufnefs to thofe who are in any degree of
credit or favour, and with rudenefs and infolence to
every body elfe. From whence I have long concluded,
that good-manners arc not a plant of the court-growth;
for if they were, thofe people who have underftand¬
ings direftly of a level for fuch acquirements, and who
have ferved fuch long apprenticelhips to nothing elfe,
would certainly have picked them up. For as to the
3 Y 2 great
MAN [ 540 ] MAN
Good- great officers who attend the prince’s perfon or coun-
^Manners. c;i3) or pre{ide in his family, they are a tranfient body,
'L"1 ^ who have no better a title to good-manners than their
neighbours, nor will probably have recourfe to gentle-
men-uihers for inftruftion. So that I know little to
be learned at court on this head, except in the mate¬
rial circnmftance of drefs; wherein the authority of
the maids of honour mutt indeed be allowed to be al-
moft equal to that of a favourite adlrefs.
“ I remember a paffage my lord Bolinbroke told
me : That going to receive prince Eugene of Savoy at
his landing, in order to conduit him immediately to
the queen, the prince faid he was much concerned that
he could not fee her majefty that night: for Monfieur
Hoffman (who was then by) had affured his highnefs,
that he could not be admitted into her prefence with
a tied-up periwig; that his equipage was not arrived ;
and that he had endeavoured in vain to borrow a long
one among all his valets and pages. My lord turned
the matter to a jeft, and brought the prince to her ma¬
jefty : for which he was highly cenfured by the whole
tribe of gentlemen-ufhers ; among whom Monfieur
Hoffman, an old dull refident of the emperor’s, had
picked up this material point of ceremony; and which,
I believe, was the beft lefl’on he had learned in 25
years refidence.
“ I make a difference between good-manners and
good-breeding ; although, in order to vary my expref-
fion, I am fometimes forced to confound them. By
the firft, I only underttand the art of remembering,
and applying, certain fettled forms of general behavi¬
our. But good-breeding is of a much larger extent:
for befides an uncommon degree of literature fufficient
to qualify a gentleman for reading a play, or a poli¬
tical pamphlet, it taketh in a great compafs of know¬
ledge ; no lefs than that of dancing, fighting, gaming,
making the circle of Italy, riding the great horfe, and
fpeaking French ; not to mention fome other fecon-
dary or fubaltern accompliftiments, which are more
eafily acquired. So that the difference between good¬
breeding and good-manners lieth in this, That the for-
tner cannot be attained to by the beft underftandings
without ftudy and labour ; whereas a tolerable degree
of reafon will inftruft us in every part of good-man¬
ners without other affiftance.
“ I can think of nothing more ufeful upon this fub-
jeft, than to point out fome particulars wherein the
very effentials of good-manners are concerned, the ne-
gle& or perverting of which doth very much difturb
the good commerce of the world, by introducing a
traffic of a mutual uneafinefs in moft companies.
“ Eirft, a neceffary part of good-manners is a punc¬
tual obfervance of time at our own dwellings, or thofe
of others, or at third places ; whether upon matters
of civility, bufinefs, or diverfion; which rule, though it
be a plain dictate of common reafon, yet the greateft
| Harley minifterf I ever knew, was the greateft trefpaffer againft
earl of Ox- it; by which all his bufinefs doubled upon him, and
ford, lord placed him in a continual arrear. Upon which I often
Ifurer to^' ufed to rally him as deficient in point of good-man-
Queen ners. I have known more than one ambaffador, and
Anne. fecretary of ftate, with a very moderate portion of in-
telleftuals, execute their office with great fuccefs and
applaufe, by the mere force of exaftaefs and regula¬
rity. If you duly obferve time for the fervice of ano Mannory,
ther, it doubles the obligation ; if upon your own ac- Manceuvre.
count, it would be manifett folly, as well as ingrati-
tude, to negleft it; if both are concerned, to make
your equal or inferior attend on you to his own difad-
vantage, is pride and injuftice.
“ Ignorance of forms cannot properly be ftylcd ///->
manners: becaufe forms are fubjedt to frequent changes;
and confequently, being not founded upon reafon, are
beneath a wife man’s regard. Befides, they vary in
every country ; and after a (hort period of time vary
frequently in the fame : fo that a man who travelleth,
muft needs be at firft a ftranger to them in every court
through which he paffeth ; and perhaps, at his return,
as much a ftranger in his own ; and, after all, they are
eafier to be remembered orforgotten thanfacesornames.
“ Indeed, among the many impertirymcies that fu»
perficial young men bring with them from abroad, this
bigotry of forms is one of the principal, and more
predominant than the reft ; who look upon them not
only as if they were matters capable of admitting of
choice, but even as points of importance; and there¬
fore are zealous upon all occafions to introduce and pro¬
pagate the new forms and faffiions they have brought
back with them : fo that, ufually fpeaking, the worft-
bred perfon in the company is a young traveller juft
arrived from abroad.”
MANNORY (Lewis), late advocate of the par¬
liament of Paris, where he was born in 1696, and
died in 1777. From him we have 18 vols i2mo of
Pleadings and Memoirs. A great number of Angular
cafes occur in this colleftion : and the author has the
talent of rendering them more ftriking by the a-
greeable manner in which they are ftated. He was
Travenol’s counfel in his procefs againft Voltaire, and
was very fatirical againft that poet. The latter took
revenge by deferibing him as a mercenary babbler, who
fold his pen and his abufe to the higheft bidder.—
Whatever may be the cafe, Mannory would certainly
have been more efteemed both as an advocate and as a
writer, if he had paid more attention to his ftyle, and
had been lefs prolix ; if he had thought more deeply,
and been more fparing of his pleafantry in caufes
where nothing was required but knowledge and found
reafoning. He publiffied alfo a tranfiation into French
of Father Paree’s funeral Oration on Louis XIV.
and very judicious Obfervations on the Semiramis of
Voltaire. In company Mannory was full of wit and
fpirit, but fometimes a little too cutting and fevere.
MANOEUVRE, in a military fenfe, confifts folely
in diftributing equal motion to every part of a body of
troops, to enable the whole to form, or change their
pofition, in the naoft expeditious and beft method, to
anfwer the purpofes required of a battalion, brigade,
or line, of cavalry, artillery, or infantry. It has al¬
ways been lamented, that men have been brought on
fervice without being informed of the ufes of the
different manoeuvres they have been pra&ifing; and,
having no ideas of any thing but the uniformity of
the parade, inttantly fall into diforder and confufion
when they lofe the ftep, or fee a deviation from the
ftraight lines they have been accuftomed to at exercife.
It is a pity to fee fo much attention given to ffiow, and
fo little to inttruct the troops in what may be of ufe
to
MAN [ 541 1 MAN
Manome- to them in real fervice. No manoeuvre (hould be exe-
te'j cuted in prefence of the enemy, unlefs protected by
fome divifion of the troops.
MANOMETER, or Minoscope, an inftrument
to fhow or meafure the alterations in the rarity or
denfity of the air. The manometer differs from the
barometer in this, That the latter only ferves to mea¬
fure the weight of the atmofphere, or of the column
of air over it; but the former, the denfity of the air
in which it is found ; which denfity depends not only
on the weight of the atmofphere, but alfo on the
action of heat and cold, &c. Authors, however, ge¬
nerally confound the two together; and Mr Boyle
himfelf gives us a very good manometer of his contri¬
vance, under the name of a Jiatical barometer, con¬
fiding of a bubble of thin glafs, about , the fize of an
orange, which, being counterpoifed when the air was
in a mean ftate of denfity, by means of a nice pair of
fcales, funk when the atmofphere became lighter, and
rofe as it grew heavier.
Another kind of manometers were made ufe of by
colonel Roy, in his attempts to correft the errors of
the barometer, and are deferibed in the Philofophical
Tranfa&ions, Vol. LXVII. p. 689. “ They were
(fays he) of various lengths, from four to upwards of
eight feet: they confided of ftraight tubes, whofe
bores were commonly from x'Tth to Tf-th cf an inch
in diameter. The capacity of the tube was carefully
meafured, by making a column of quickfilver, about
three or four inches in length, move along it from one
end to the other. Thefc fpaces were feverally marked,
with a fine-edged -file, on the tubes ; and transferred
from them to long flips of padeboard, for the fubfe-
quent condru6tion of the fcales refpe&ively belonging
to each. The bulb, attached to one end of the mano¬
meter at the glafs-houfe, was of the form of a pear,
whofe point being occaiionally opened, dry or moid air
could be readily admitted, and the bulb fealed again,
without any fenfible alteration in its capacity.
“ The air was confined by means of a column of
quickfilver, long or fliort, and with the bulb down¬
ward or upwards, according to the nature of the pro-
pofed experiment. Here it mud; be obferved, that,
from the adhefion of the quickfilver to the tube, the
indrument will not aft truly, except it be in a vertical
pofition; and even then it is neceffary to give it a
fmall degree of motion, to bring the quickfilver into
its true place ; where it will remain in equilibrio, be¬
tween the exterior preffure of the atmofphere on one
fide, and the interior eladic force of the confined air
on the other.
“ Pounded ice and water were ufed to fix a free¬
zing point on the tube; and by means of fait and ice,
the air was farther condenfed, generally four, and
fometimes five or fix degrees below zero. The ther¬
mometer and manometer were then placed in a tin
veflel among water, which was brought into violent
ebullition; where having remained a fufficient time,
and motion being given to the manometer, a boiling
point was marked thereon. After this the fire was re¬
moved, and the gradual defeents of the piece of quick¬
filver, correfponding to every 20 degrees of tempera¬
ture in the thermometer, were fucceffively marked- on
a deal rod applied to the manometer. It is to be
obferved, that both indruments, while in the water,
5
were in circumdances perfectly fimilar ; that is to fay, Manmne-
the ball and bulb were at the bottom of the veffel. ter>
“ In order to be certain that no air had efcaped, Manor* ,
by the fide of the quickfilver during the operation, ”'
the manometer was frequently placed a fecond time
in melting ice. If the barometer had not altered be¬
tween the beginning and end of the experiment, the
quickfilver always became Aationary at or near' the
fird mark. If any fudden change had taken place in
the weight of the atmofphere during that interval, the
fame was noted, and allowance made for it in after¬
wards proportioning the fpaces.
“ Long tubes, with bores truly cylindrical, or of
any uniform figure, are fcarcely ever met with. Such
however as were ufed in thefe experiments^ generally
tapered in a pretty regular manner from one end to
the other. When the bulb was downwards, and the
tube narrowed that way, the column of quickfilver
confining the air lengthened in the lower-half of the
fcale, and augmented the preffure above the mean.
In the upper half, the column being Ihortened, the
preffure was diminilhed below the mean. In this
cafe, the obferved fpaces both ways from the centre
were diminifhed in the inverfe ratio of the heights of
the barometer at each fpace, compared with its mean
height. If the bore widened towards the bulb when
downwards, the obferved fpaces, each way from the
centre, were augmented in the fame inverfe ratio; but
in the experiments on air lefs denfe than the atmo¬
fphere, the bulb being upwards, the fame equation was
applied with contrary figns : and if any extraordinary
irregularity took place in the tube, the correfponding
fpaces were proportioned both ways from that point,
whether high or low, that anfwered to the mean.
“ The obferved and equated manobietrical fpaces
being thus laid down on the pafteboard containing
the meafures of the tube ; the 2120 of the thermo¬
meter, in exaft proportion to the feftions of the bore,
were conftrufted along-fide of them: hence the co¬
incidences with each other were eafily feen; and the
number of thermometrical degrees anfwering to each
manometrical fpace readily transferred into a table
prepared for the purpofe.”
MANOR, Manerium, (a manendo, becaufe the t
ufual rcfidence of the owner), feems to have been a
diftrift of ground held by lords or great petfonages ;
who kept in their own hands fo much land as was
neceffary for the ufe of their families, which were
called term dominicalcs, or demefne lands ; being oc- Bltutfl,
cupied by the lord, or dominus manerii, and his ter-Comment,
vants. The other, or tenemental lands, they diftri-
buted among their tenants ; which, from the different
modes of tenure, were called and diilinguifhed by two
different names.—Firft, book-land, or charter-land,
which was held by deed under certain rents and free
fervices, and in effeft differed nothing from free focage
lands: and from hence have arifen moft of the free¬
hold tenants who hold of particular manors, and owe
fuit and fervice to the fame. The other fpecies was
called folk-land, which was held by no affurance in
writing, but diftributed among the common folk or
people at the pleafure of the lord, and refumed at his
diferetion ; being indeed land held in villenage. See
V illenage.
The refidue of the manor, being uncultivated, was
termed
MAN [ 542 j MAN
Manor, termed the lord’s tuajle, and ferved for public roads, and
Mans for common of pafture to the lord and his tenants. Ma-
nors were formerly called baronies, as they ftill are lord-
Jlsips; and each lord or baron was empowered to hold
a domeftic court, called the court-baron, for redreffing
mifdemefnors and nufances within the manor, and for
fettling difputes of property among the tenants. This
court is an infeparable ingredient of every manor ; and
if the number of fuitors fhould fo fail, as not to leave
fufficient to make a jury or homage, that is, two te¬
nants at the lead, the manor itfelf is loft.
In the early times of our legal conftitution, the king’s
greater barons, who had a large extent of territory
held under the-crown, granted out frequently fmaller
manors to inferior perfons to be held of themfelves ;
which do therefore now continue to be held under a
fuperior lord, who is called in fuch cafes the lord pa¬
ramount over all thefe manors ; and his feignory is
frequently termed an honour, not a manor ; efpecially
if it hath belonged to an ancient feodal baron, or hath
been at any time in the hands of the crown. In imi¬
tation whereof, thefe inferior lords began to carve out
and grant to others ftill more minute eftates, to be
held as of themfelves, and were fo proceeding down¬
wards in infinitum, till the fuperior lords obferved,
that, by this method of fubinfeudation, they loft all
their feodal profits of wardftiips, marriages, and ef-
cheats, which fell into the hands of thefe mefne or
middle lords, who were the immediate fuperiors of
the terre-tenant, or him who occupied the land; and
alfo that the mefne lords themfelves were fo impove-
rilhed thereby, that they were difabled from perform¬
ing their fervices to their own fuperiors. This occa-
fioned, firft, that provifion in the 3 2d chapter of magna
charta, 9 Hen. HI. (which is not to be found in the
firft chapter granted by that prince, nor in the great
charter of King John), that no man ftiould either
give or fell his land without referving fufficient
to anfwer the demands of his lord; and, afterwards,
the ftatute of Weftm. 3. or quia emptores, 18 Edw. I.
c. 1. which directs, that, upon all fales, or feoffments
of land, the feoffee ftiall hold the fame, not of his im¬
mediate feoffor, but of the chief lord of the fee, of
whom fuch feoffor himfelf held it. But thefe provifions
not*extending to the king’s own tenants in capite,x)xt
like law concerning them is declared by the ftatutes
of pr&rogativa regis, 17 Edw. II. c. 6. and of
34 Edw. III. c. 15. by which laft all fubinfeudations,
previous to the reign of king Edward I. were con¬
firmed; but all fubfequent to that period were left
open to the king’s prerogative. And from hence it
is clear, that all manors exifting at this day, mull
have exifted as early as kind Edward the Firft : for
it is effential to a manor, that there be tenants who
hold of the lord ; and, by the operation of thefe fta¬
tutes, no tenant in capita fince the acceffion of that
prince, and no tenant of a common lord fince the fta¬
tute of quia emptores, could create any new tenants
to hold of himfelf. See Villenage.
MANS, an ancient, rich, and populous town of
France, capital of the county of Maine, with a bifhop’s
fee. Its wax and fluff’s are famous. It is feated on a
high hill near the river Sarr, in E. Long. o. 1 o. N. Lat.
47. 58. It is an earldom beftowed on William Mur¬
ray, chief juftice of England, with remainder to the Manfe
family of Stormont in Scotland. I!
MANSE, Mansus, Manfia, or Manfum; in an- M<u'sfe!d’.
cient law-books, denotes an h»ufe, or habitation, ei¬
ther with or without land. See House, and Man¬
sion. The word is formed a tnanendo, “ abiding
as being the place of dwelling or refidence
Capital Manse, (Manfum CapitaleJ, denotes the
manor-houfe, or lord’s court. See Manor.
Mansus Pre/byteri, is a parfonage or vicarage
houfe for the incumbent to refide in. This was ori-
ginallyv and ftill remains, an effential part of the en¬
dowment of a parifli-church, together with the glebe
and tythes. It is fometimes called Prejbyterium. See
Presbytery.
MANSFELD, a city of Germany, and capital of
a county of the fame name, in the circle of Upper
Saxony. E. Long. 12. 55. N. Lat. 51. 35.
Mansfeld (Peter Erneft, count of), was de-
fcended from one of the mpft illuftrious families in
Germany, and which has produced the greateft num¬
ber of diftinguilhed charafters. In 1552, he was ta¬
ken prifoner at Ivoy, where he commanded; and he
was afterwards of great fervice to the Catholics at the
battle of Montcontour. In confequence of his great
talents, he was employed in affairs of the utmoft de¬
licacy and importance. Being made governor of
Luxembourg, he maintained tranquillity in that pro¬
vince, while the reft of the Low Countries was a prey
to the horrors of civil war. In teftimony of their
gratitude, the States caufed the following infcription
to be placed on the gate of the hotel de ville : In Bel-
gio omnia dum vqftat civile helium, Manseeldus hello et
pace fidus, hanc provinciam in fide continet fervatquc ill/e-
fam, cum fummo populi confenfu et hilari jucunditate. He
was afterward appointed to the-command of the Low
Countries; and died at Luxembourg, March 21. 1604,
at the age of 87, with the title of Prince of the Holy
Empire. His maufoleum in bronze, which is to be
feen in the chapel bearing his name, and adjoining to
the Church of the Recollets at Luxembourg, is an ad¬
mirable work. Four highly finifhed weepers, with
which this monument was ornamented, were carried
off by Louis XIV. when he took this city in 1684.
To a love of war, Mansfeld united a tafte for the
fciences; and he was a lover and encourager of the arts:
he poffeffed a great and elevated mind; but, like many
heroes ancient, and modern, he was greedy of gain and
lavifh of blood. Abbe Schannat has written the hif*
tory of the count of Mansfeld in Latin ; piinted at
Luxembourg, 1707. Charles prince of Mansfeld,
his lawful fon, fignalized himfelf in the wars of Flan¬
ders and Hungary; and died without iflue in 1595,
after having beaten the Turks who attempted to re¬
lieve the city of Gran (Strigonia), which he was be-
fieging.
Mansfeld (Erneft de), the illegitimate fon of
Peter Erneft by a lady of Malines, was educated at
Bruffels, in the principles of the Roman Catholic re¬
ligion, by his godfather Erneft archduke of Auftria.
He was employed in the fervice of the king of Spain
in the Low Countries, and in that of the emperor in
Hungary, together with his brother Charles count of
Mansfeld. He was legitimated on account of his
bravery
MAN r 543 ] MAN
MangfeM, bravery by the emperor Rodolphus II. ; but his fa-
Mansfield. tjjer>s p0fts and poffeffions in the Spanifh Netherlands
' having been refufed him, contrary to promifes which
he had received, he, in 1610, joined the party of the
Proteftant princes. Being now become one of the
moft dangerous enemies of the houfe of Auftria, who
called him the Attllaof Chrlftianlty, he fet himfelf, in
1618, at the head of the rebels in Bohemia, and got
poffefiion of Pilfen in 1619. Though his troops
were defeated in feveral battles, he was able to pene¬
trate into the palatinate. He there took feveral places,
ravaged Alface, made himfelf matter of Haguenau,
and defeated the Bavarians. At length he was to¬
tally defeated by Walftein, at the battle of Daffou,
which happened in the month of April 1626. He
gave over his remaining troops to the Duke of Wei¬
mar, and intended to pafs into the Venetian States ;
but fell fick in a village between Zara and Spalatro,
and there expired, A. D. 1626, aged 46. The pro¬
curator Nani thus defcribes him : “ He was bold, in¬
trepid in danger, and the moft Ikilful negociator of
the age in which he lived. He poffefled a natural elo¬
quence, and well knew how to infinuate himfelf into
the hearts of thofe whom he wiftied to gain. He was
greedy of others wealth, and prodigal of his own.—
He was full of vaft projects and great hopes, and yet
pofieffed neither lands ner money at his death.” He
did not wifti to die in his bed; but drefled himfelf in
his fineft robes, put on his fword, fat up, leaning up¬
on two domeftics, and in this pofition, highly be¬
coming a warrior, breathed his laft. But of all the
aftions of this great captain and Angular man, the
following is without doubt the moft extraordinary :
Having got the moft certain information that Cazel,
in whom of all his officers he placed the greateft con¬
fidence, had communicated his plans to the Auftrian
chief, he ffiowed neither paffion nor refentment at his
treachery, but gave him 300 rix-dollar?, and fent him
to count Buquoy, with a letter expreffed in thefe words,
“Cazel being attached to you and not to me, I fend him
to you, that you may have the benefit of his fervices.”
The opinions of men were divided about this adfion,
and it was as much cenftired as applauded. Be this
as it may, Erneft is defervedly efteemed one of the
greatett generals of his age. There never was a leader
more patient, more indefatigable, more inured to toil
and hardfhip, to watchings, to cold, and to hunger.
He raifed armies, and ravaged the enemy’s territories
with an incredible celerity. The Hollanders faid of
him, that he was bonus in auxiho, cams in pretio ; that
is, that he rendered great fervices to thofe who em¬
ployed him, but that he made them pay well for it.
Mansfeld (Henry-Francis, count of), was of the
feme houfe with the former, and fignalized himfelf in
the wars for the Spanifti fucceffion. He died at
Vienna on the 8th of June 1715, at the age of 74,
after being a prince of the Holy Empire, a grandee
©f Spain, field-marlhal general of the emperor’s armies,
general of artillery, ambaffador to France and Spain,
prefident of the Aulic council, and great chamberlain
to the emperor.
MANSFIELD, a town of Nottinghamlhire, in
England, feated in the foreft of Sherwood, 140 miles
from London. It was anciently a royal demefne. It
has a market on Thurfdays, and two fairs. By an an- Manfio-
cient cuftom of this manor, the heirs were declared of U
age as foon as born. It is a well-built town, and „
drives a great trade in malt. Its market is well ftock- au^ e \
ed with corn, cattle1, &c. Here is a charity-fchool
for 36 boys.
MANSIO, a term often mentioned in itineraries,
denoting inns on the public roads to lodge in, at
the diftance of eighteen miles from each other 4
(La&antius). Alfo, in the lower ages, it came to
denote “ an encampment for one night,” (Lampri-
dius).
Mansio, or Manfus, was fometimes alfo ufed in
the fame fenfe with hide ; that is, for as much land as
one plough could till in a year. See Hide.
MANvSION, Mansio, a dwelling-houfe, or habi¬
tation, efpecially in the country'. See Manse.
Mansion is more particularly ufed for the lord's
chief dwelling-houfe within his fee 5 otherwife called
the capital mejfuage or manfe, or chief manor-place. See
Manor.
MANSLAUGHTER, the unlawful killing of a-
nother, without malice either exp refs or implied :
Winch may be either voluntarily, upon a fudden
heat ; or involuntarily, but in the commiffion of fome
unlawful aft. Thefe were called, in the Gothic
conftitutions, homicidia vulgaria; qua aut cafu, aut
etiam fponte committuntury fed in fubitaneo quodam ira-
cundia caiore et impetu. And hence it follows, that
in manflaughter there can be no accefibries before
the faft ; becaufe it mutt be done without premedi¬
tation.
/. As to the firft, or voluntary branch : If upon a
fudden quarrel two perfons fight, and one of them kills
the other, this is manflaughter: and fo it is, if they
upon fuch an occafion go out and fight in a field; for
this is one continued aft of paffion : and the law pays
that regard to human frailty, as not to put a haity
and deliberate aft upon the fame footing with regard
to guilt. So alfo if a man be greatly, provoked, as by
pulling his nofe, or "other great indignity, and imme¬
diately kills the aggreffor; though this is not excu-
fable fe defendendo, fince there is no abfolute neeeffity
for doing it to preferve himfelf; yet. neither is it mur¬
der, for there is no previous malice ; but it is man¬
flaughter. But in this, and in every other cafe of ho¬
micide upon provocation, if there be a fufficient
cooling-time for paffion to fubfide and reafon to inter-
pofe, and the perfon fo provoked afterwards kills the
other, this is deliberate revenge, and not heat of blood ;
and accordingly amounts to murder. So if a man
takes another in the aft. of adultery with his wife, and
kills him direftly upon the fpot; though this was al¬
lowed by the law of Solon, as likewife by the Roman
civil law (if the adulterer was found in the hufband’s
own houfe), and alfo among the ancient Goths; yet
in England it is not abfolutely ranked in the clafs of
juftifiable hcmicide, as. in cafe of. a forcible rape, but
it is manflaughter. It is, however, the loweit degree
of it ; and therefore in fuch a cafe the court direfted
the burning in the hand to be gently inflifted) becaufe
there could not be a greater provocation. Manflaugh¬
ter, therefore, on a fudden provocation, differs from
excufable homicide fe defendendo in this : That in one
1 cafe-
MAN [ 544 1 MAN
Man- cafe there is apparent neceffity, for felf-prefervation,
flaughter, t0 aggre{for. ;n the other no neceffity at all,
i -a° ein‘ being only a fudden aft of revenge.
2. The fecond branch, or involuntary manflaughter,
differs alfo from homicide excufable by mifadventure,
in this: That mifadventure always happens in confe-
quence of a lawful aft, but this fpecies of manflaugh¬
ter in confequence of an unlawful one. As if two
perfons play at fword and buckler, unlefs by the king’s
command, and one of them kills the other: this is
manflaughter, becaufe the original aft was unlawful 5
but it is not murder, for the one had no intent to do
the other any perfonal mifchief. So where a perfon
does an aft, lawful in itfelf, but in an unlawful man¬
ner, and without due caution and circumfpeftion ; as
when a workman flings down a ftone or piece of tim¬
ber into the ftreet, and kills a man; this may be ei¬
ther mifadventure, manflaughter, or murder accord¬
ing to the circumftances under which the original aft
was done. If it were in a country village, where few
paffengers are, and he calls out to all people to have
a care, it is mifadventure only : but if it were in Lon¬
don, or other populous towns, where people are con¬
tinually paffing, it is manflaughter, though he gives
loud warning ; and murder, if he knows of their paf¬
fing aifd gives no warning at all, for then it is malice
againft all mankind. And, in general, when an in¬
voluntary killing happens in confequence of an unlaw¬
ful aft, it will be either murder or manflaughter ac¬
cording to the nature of the aft which occafioned it.
If it be in profecution of a felonious intent, or in its
confequences naturally tending to bloodflied, it will
be murder; but if no more was intended than a mere
civil trefpafs, it will only amount to manflaughter.
3. As to the punifliment of this degree of homi¬
cide : The crime of manflaughter amounts to felony,
but within the benefit of clergy; and the offender
(hall be burnt in the hand, and forfeit all his goods
and chattels.
But there is one fpecies of manflaughter, which is
punilhed as murder, the benefit of clergy being taken
away from it by flatute ; namely, the offence of mor¬
tally ftabbing another, though done upon fudden pro¬
vocation. See Stabbing.
MANSTEIN (Chriftopher Herman of), was born
at Peterfburgh, Sept. 1. 1711, and for a long time
ferved with great dillinftion as a colonel in the Ruf¬
fian armies. In 1745 went into th? fervice of the
king of Pruffi?.; was appointed major-general of infan¬
try in 1754 ; and diftinguifhed himfelf on all occafions
by his bravery and his knowledge of the art of war.
He was wounded at the battle of Kolin, and foan af¬
ter killed near Leutmeritz. He was univerfally re¬
gretted by thofe who knew him ; and even the enemy
fhed tears upon the occafion.—Thofe leifure moments
which the laborious profeffion of war allowed him to
enjoy, Manftein dedicated to ftudy. He was acquaint¬
ed with almoft all the languages of Europe. From him
we have Hiftorical, Political, and Military Memoirs of
(Ruffia, Lyons, 1772), 2 vols, 8vo, with plans and
charts. Thefe memoirs commence with the death of
Catherine I. 1727, and end in 1744. He was an eye-
witnefs, or had a very intimate knowlege, of all the e-
vents contained in them. A fupplement is addecj,
N°ic,4.
which goes back to the times of the ancient Czars, Manta
and in particular treats to a conuderable length on II
Peter I. At the conclufion of the work, the author M‘>llie.?nil»
gives an idea of the military and naval force, of the v
trade, &c. of this extenfive empire. The fafts con¬
tained in this little hiftorical traft, are not more in-
terefting in themfelves than they are valuable on ac¬
count of the candor of the hiftorian, who witneffed eve¬
ry event which he relates. Mr Hume having teceived
the original French of thefe memoirs, caufed them to
be tranflated into Englifli, and publiftied at London ;
foon after there appeared^ German tranflation of them,
publiftied at Hamburgh. A French edition was pu¬
bliftied by M. Huber at Leipfic in 1771 ; and there
appeared a new and enlarged edition in 1782.
MANTA, in ichthyology; a flat fifti mentioned
by Ulloa and others, as exceedingly hurtful to the
pearl-fiftiers, and which feems to be the fame with that
which Pliny has deferibed under the name of nuies or
nebula : Ipji ferunt (Urinatores) et nuhem quondam craf-
fefeere fuper capita, planorum pifeium Jimilem, prementem
eos, arcentemque a rcciprocando et ob Jlilos praacutos lineis
annexes habere fefe ; quia in Ji perfoffa ita, non recedant
caliginis et pavoris, ut arbitror, opere. Nubem enim Jive
nebulam (cujus nomine id malum appellantJ inter animalia
baud ullam reperit quifquam. (Plin. Hiftor. Nat. lib. ix.
cap. 46.) The account given oT this cloud by thofe
divers is much the fame with that which the divers in
the American feas give of the^manta, and the name of
the cloud is perfeftly applicable to it, as it really feems
to be a cloud to thofe who are in the water below it:
the fwimmers likewife carry long knives, or ftiarp
fticks, for the purpofe of difperiing this animal. It
is not improbable, that this fifti has made its way
into thefe feas from thofe of the old world in the fame
manner as fome others appear to have done. The
ftrength of this fifti is fo great, that it will not only
ftrangle a man whom it embraces or winds itfelf about*
but it has even been feen to take the cable of an an¬
chor and move it from the place where it had been
call. It has been called manta, becaufe, when it lies
ftretched upon the fea, as it frequently does, it feems
like a fleece of wool floating upon the water.
MANTE, a confiderable town of France, capital
of the Mantois ; feated on the river Seine, in E.Long.
I. 45. N. Lat 48. 58.
MANTEGAR, or Man-tiger, as it is fometimes
written, in zoology, is the tufted ape, a fpecies of
fimia. See Si mi a.
MANTEGNA (Andrew), was born in a village
near Padua in 1451, and at firft employed in keeping
ftieep. It was obferved, that inftead of watching over
his flock, he amufed himfelf with drawing; and he was
placed with a painter who, being delighted with his
eafe and tafte in work, and with his gentle and agree¬
able conduft in fociety, adopted him for his fon, and
made him his heir. At the age of 17, Mantegna was
employed to paint the altar of St Sophia in Padua,
and the four evangelifts. James Bellini, who admired
his talents, gave him his daughter in marriage. Man¬
tegna painted, for the duke of Mantua, the 'Triumph
of Ccefar, which is the chef d’oeuvre of this painter,
and has been engraved-in claro-obfcuro, in nine plates.
From refpeft to his extraordinary merit, the duke
made
M A L t 54? 1 MAN
MtmtcUts made him knight of his order. The invention of en-
il , graving prints with the graver is commonly afcribed to
. Mantl‘- Mantegna, who died at Mantua in 1517.
V‘"—v ' MANTELETS, in the art of war, a kind of
moveable parapets, made of planks about three inches
thick, nailed one over another, to the height of almoft
fix feet, generally cafed with tin, and fet upon little-
wheels, fo that in a fiege they may be driven before
the pioneers, and ferve as blinds to firelter them from
the enemy’s fmall Ihot.
MANTICHORA,in natural hiftory, a name given
by the Roman authors to a fierce and terrible creature,
which they defcribe from the Greeks, who call it fome-
times alfo mantichora ; but when they write more cor-
reftly, martichora and martiora. We have formed the
name man-tiger on the found of the Roman name, tho’
exprefiing a very different fenfe ; and our authors of
the hiflories of animals, figure to us under this name
a terrible creature, partly from the accounts of Pliny
exaggerated, and partly from their own imagination,
with three rows of teeth, and with fuch a fliape as no
animal ever pofleffed. See Mantegar.
The whole ftory of this animal feems founded on
the love of the wonderful; and very probably the man¬
tichora, properly fpeaking, was no other than fome of
the larger hyaenas, which was at firft ill defcribed, and
afterwards more and more wonders were added to the
ftory, till all fhadow of truth was loft.
MANTINEA (anc. geog.), a town fituated in the
fouth of Arcadia, on the confines of Laconia (Pto¬
lemy ) ; called afterwards Antigonea, in honour of king
Antigonus. It is memorable for a battle fought in
its neighbourhood between the Thebans and Spartans,
in which fell the celebrated commander Epaminondas.
See Thebes.
MANTIS, in zoology, a genus of infefts belong-
in to the order of hemiptera, the chara&ers of w'hieh
are thefe : The head is unfteady, or appears from its
continual nodding motion to be flightly attached to
the thorax : The mouth is armed with jaws, and fur-
nifhed with filiform palpi: The antennae are fetaceous:
The four wings are membranaceous, and wrapped
round the body ; the under ones folded : The anterior
or firft pair of feet are compreffed, armed on the under
fide with teeth like a faw, and terminated by a fingle
nail or crotchet; the four hindermoft are grefforii, or
formed rather for advancing flowly than for perform¬
ing quick movements : The thorax is extended to a
eonfiderable length, narrow, and throughout of equal
fize. The name mantis, given to this genus, denotes
foothfayer ; becaufe it has been imagined, that this in-
feft, by ftretching out its forefeet, divined and point¬
ed out thofe things that were alked of it. The infedf
often refts on its four hinder legs only, and holding
the two fore ones, raifed up, joins them together,
which has occafioned its being called by the people of
Languedoc, where it is very common, pregadiou, as if
it prayed to God. 1 he country folks moreover main-
‘Barlut's Tn- tain, that this creature (hows the way when alked,
p. 106. becaufe it ftretches thofe fame fore legs fometimes to
the right and fometimes to the left: and indeed it is
looked upon as an infeft almoft facred, that muft not
be hurt. Its colour is all over of a brownilh green.
The young ones have more of the green, the old more
of the brown, call. It depofits its eggs collected in-
Von. X. Part II.
to a hemifphcrical parcel, flat on one fide. There are Mantle
in the parcel two rows of oblong eggs placed tranf-
verfely, and one row of Ihells placed longitudinally, in
form of a roof, one over the other, which cover the
joining of the two rows of eggs. The whole parcel is
light, and as it were compofed of very thin parch'*
ment.
There are 53 fpecies of this genus. In plate
CCLXXIX is reprefented the gongylodes, the fhape
of which is extraordinary, being narrow and long.
The head is fmall, flat, with two filiform fhort an¬
tennas. On the fides of the head are fituated two large
polilhed eye°. The thorax is fubciliated, long, nar-
row, margined, with a longitudinal rifing in the mid¬
dle, and a tranfverfe depreflion at one-third of its length.
The elytra, which cover two thirds of the infefl, are
veined, reticulated, crofted one over the other, and
cover the wings, which are veined, and diaphanous.
The hinder legs are very long, the middle ones Ihort-
er; and the foremoft pair of thighs are terminated
with fpines, the reft winged, as it were, with membra¬
naceous lobes. The top of the head has the fhape of
an awl; is membranaceous, often fplit in two at the
extremity. It is an inhabitant of China.
The infe&s belonging to this genus, in their moft
perfect ftate, are generally of very beautiful green co¬
lours, which foon fade, and become the colour of dead
leaves. Their elytra bearing fo ftrong a refemblance
to the leaves of fome plants, have procured them the
name of walking leaves.
MANTLE, or MAtsTLR-Tree, in architefture, the
lower part of the chimney, or that piece of timber
which is laid acrofs the jaumbs, and fuftains the com¬
partments of the chimney-piece.
Mantle, or Mantling, in heraldry, that appearance
of folding of cloth, flourifhing, or drapery, which in
any atchievement is drawn about a coat of arms. See
Heraldry, p. 464. Seft. V.
MANTO, in poetic hiftory, the daughter of Tire-
fias, and like her father ftrongly infpired with prophe¬
cy. She was in fo great efteem, that when the Ar-
gives pillaged Thebes, they thought they could not
acquit their vow to Apollo, of confecrating to him the
moft precious thing in their plunder, without offering
him this young woman. She was therefore fent to the
temple of Delphi. But this did not engage her in
any vow of continency; or, if it did, (he obferved it
very ill: for (he bore a fon called Amphilocus to Alc-
meon, who had been generaliffimo of the army which
took Thebes; and a daughter to the fame, named 77-
Jiphone. Thefe children were the fruits of an amour
carried on during the madnefs which had feized Alc-
meon, after he had put his mother to death. Virgil
tranfports her into Italy, not for the fake of fecuring
her virginity, but to produce a fon of her who built
Mantua.
MANTUA, anciently a town of the-Tranfpadana
in Italy, fituated on the Mincius, a river running from
the Lacus Benacus. It is faid to have been founded
about 300 years before Rome by Bianor or Ocnus,
the fon of Manto ; and was the ancient capital of E-
truria. When Cremona, which had followed the in-
tereft of Brutus, was given to the foldiers of Oftavius,
Mantua alfo, which was in the neighbourhood, (hared
the common calamity, and many of the inhabitants
3 Z ware
Mantu*
II
Manual.
MAN
were tyrannically deprived of their pofftflions. Virgil,
who-was among them and a native of the town, applied
for redrefs to AuguJlus, and obtained it by means of
his poetical talents.
It is Hill called Mantua, and is the capital of the
duchy of that name. It is now a large place, having
eight gates and about x 6,000 inhabitants. The ftreets
are broad and ftraight, and the houfes well built. It
is very ftrong by fituation as well as by art; lying in
the middle of a lake, or rather morafs, formed by the
river Minchio. There is no accefs to the city but by
two caufeways which crofs this morafs, and which are
ftrongly fortified : fo that the city is looked upon to
be one of the moft confiderable fortreffes of Europe ;
and the allies in 1745, though their army was in the
.duchy, durft not undertake the fiege. It was greatly
noted for its filk-manufafttires, which are now much
decayed. The air in the iummer-time is very un-
wholefome. The celebrated poet Virgil was born at
a village near this city. E. Long. 10.47. N. Lat.
45-IO-
Mantua, the duchy of, a country of Italy, lying
along the river Po, which divides it into two parts. It
is bounded on the north by the Veronefe; onthefouth
by the duchies of Reggio, Modena, and Mirandola ;
on the eaft by the Ferrarefe 5 and on the weft by the
Cremonefe. It is about 50 miles in length, and 25 in
breadth ; is fruitful in corn, paftures, flax, fruits, and
excellent wine. Charles IV. the laft duke of Mantua,
being a vaflal of the empire, took part with the French
in the difpute relating to the fucceflion of Spain; for
which reafon he was put under the ban of the em¬
pire, and died at Venice in xyoS. He having no heirs,
the emperor kept the Mantuan in his own hands, and
the duke of Savoy had Montferrat, which were con¬
firmed to them by fubfequent treaties. After the
death of the emperor in 1740, his eldeft daughter,
now emprefs-queen, kept poffeflion of the Mantuan ;
and the governor of the Milanefe had the admin iftra-
tion of affairs. The Mantuan comprehends the du¬
chies of Mantua, Guaftalla, and Sabioneta; the prin¬
cipalities of Caftiglione, Solforino, and Bofolo ; like-
wife the county of-Novellara. The principal rivers are
the Po, the Oglio, and the Minchio ; and the princi¬
pal town is Mantua.
MANTUAN (Baptift), a famous Italian poet,
born at Mantua in 1448. He took his name from the
town ; not having a right toth,;t of his father, as.be-
ing a natural fon. In his youth, he applied himfelf
to Latin poetry, which he cultivated all his life ; for
it does not appear that he wrote any thing in Italian.
He entered among the Carmelites, and became gene¬
ral of the order t though he quitted that dignity upon
fome difguft in 1515, and died the year following.
The duke of Mantua, fome years after, ere died a
marble ftatue to his memory crowned with laurel, and
placed it next to Virgil. His works were collected
and publiftied at Paris in three volumes folio in 1513,
■with the commenuiries of St Murrhon, S. Brant, and
I. Badius.
MANUAL, a word fignifying any thing perform¬
ed by the hand.
Manual (manuaUs)t.m law, fignifies what. is. em¬
ployed or ufed by the hand,. and whereof a prefent
profit may be. made: as fuch a thing in the manual
MAN
occupation of one is where It is actually ufed or ern- Manual-
ployed by him. v-—
Manual is the name of a fervice-book ufed in the
church of Rome, containing the rites, directions to
the priefts, and prayers ufed in the adminiftration of
baptifm and other facraments; the form of bleffing
holy water, and the whole fervice ufed in proceflions.
Manual Exercife, in the army, confifts in the ob"
fervance of certain words of command appointed for
this purpofe. When a regiment is drawn up, or para¬
ded for exercife, the men are placed three deep, either
by companies, or divided into platoons, with the gre¬
nadiers on the right. When foldiers are drawn up for
exercife, the ranks and files ftxould be exactly even; and
each foldier fhould be inftrudted to carry his arms well,
to keep his firelock Heady and even upon his flioulder,
with the right hand hanging down, and the whole body
without conftraint. The diftances between the files
muft be equal, and the ranks eight feet diftant from
each other. Every motion ftiould be performed with
life, and the greateft exadtnefs obferved in all firings,
wheelings, and marching ; and therefore a regi¬
ment fliould never be under arms longer than two
hours.
The following is an ab ft raft of the words of com¬
mand at the manual exercife, with their explanations.
1. Poifeyaurfirelock: i. e. Seize the firelock with your
right hand, and turn the lock outwards, keeping the
firelock perpendicular; then bring up the firelock with
a quick motion from the Ihoulder, and feize it with
the left hand, juft above the lock, fo that the fingers
may lie upon the ftock, with the elbows down, and
the thumb upon the ftock; the firelock muft not be
held too far from the body, and the left-hand muft be
of an equal height with the eyes. 2. Cock your fire¬
lock: i. e. Turn the barrel oppofite to your face, and
place your thumb upon the cock, raifing your elbow
fquare at this motion ; then cock your firelock, by
drawing your elbow down, placing your right-thumb
on the breech-pin, and the fingers under the guard.
3. Prefint: i. e. Step back about fix inches to the
rear with the right-foot, bringing the left-toe to the
front; at the fame time the butt-end of the firelock
muft be brought to an equal height with the ftioulder,
placing the left-hand on the fwell, and the fore-finger
of the right-hand before the trigger, finking the
muzzle a little. 4. Fire: i. e. Pull the trigger brilk-
ly, and immediately after, bringing up the right-foot
to the infide of the left, come to the priming poii-
tion, with the lock oppofite to the right-breaft, the
muzzle to the height of the hat, keeping it firm and.
fteady ; and at the fame time feize the cock with the
fore-fingef and thumb of the right hand, the. back of
the hand being turned up. 5. Half-cock your firelock .•
i. e. Half-bend the cock brilkly with a draw-back of.
the right-elbow, bringing it clofe to the butt of the
fire-lock. 6. Handle your cartridge: i. e. Bring your
right-hand with a ftiort round to your pouch, flap¬
ping it hard ; feize the cartridge, and bring it with a
quick motion to your mouth; bite the top well off,
and bring the hand as low as the chin, with the elbow
down. 7. Prime : i. e.. Shake the powder into the
pan, placing the three laft.fingers behind the rammer^
with the elbow up. 8. Shut yourt pans : i. e. Shut
yoiur pans, brilkly, drawing your right-arm at this
i motion.
[ 546 1
.Plate CCLXX1X.
- ///*'/</ S/fz/t',/.
// /?M o r
MAN [ J47 ] M A N
Manual, motion towards your body, holding the cartridge faft
in your hand, as before; then turn the piece nimbly
round to the loading pofition, with the lock to the
front, and the muzzle to the height of the chin, bring¬
ing the right hand behind the muzzle, with both feet
kept faft in this motion. 9. Charge with cartridge :
i. e. Turn up your hand, and put the cartridge into the
muzzle, (baking the powder into the barrel; place
your hand, doled, with a quick and ftrong motion,
upon the rammer. 10. Draw your rammer: i. e. Draw
the rammer with a quick motion half out, feizing it at
the muzzle back-handed; draw it quite out, turn it,
and eater it into the muzzle. 11. Ram down your
charge : i. e. Ram the cartridge well down in the bar¬
rel, inftantly recovering and feizing the rammer back¬
handed at the centre, turning it, and. entering it as
far as the lower pipe, placing at the fame time the
edge of the hand on the butt end of the rammer, with
fingers extended. 12. Return your rammer : i. e. Re¬
turn the rammer, bringing up the piece with the left-
hand to the Ihoulder, feizing it with the right-hand
under the cock, keeping the left-hand faft at the fwell,
turning the body fquare to the front. 13. Shoulder
your firelock: i. e. Quit the left-hand, and place it
ftrong upon the butt; quit the right hand, and throw
it down the right-lide. 14. Rejl your firelock: i. e.
Seize the firelock with the right-hand, turning the
lock outwards; raife the firelock from the Ihoulder,
and place your left-hand with a quick motion above
the lock, holding the piece right up and down in both
hands before you, and your kft-hand even with your
<yes ; ftep brilkly back with your right-foot, placing
it a hand’s-breadth diftance from your left-heel, and
at the fame time bring down your firelock as quick
as poflible to the reft, finking it as far down before
your left-hand as your right-hand will permit without
conftraint; your left hand being at the feather-fpring,
and your right, with fingers extended, held under the
guard, taking care to draw in the muzzle well towards
your body, and to drefs in a line with the butt-end.
15. Order your firelock: i. e. Place your firelock nimb¬
ly with your left-hand againft your right-lhoulder;
quit the firelock with the right-hand, finking it at
the fame time with your left; feize it at the muzzle,
which muft be of an equal height with your chin, and
hold it clofe againft your right-fide; lift up your right-
foot, and place it by your left; at the fame time throw
back your left-hand by your left-fide, and with your
right bring down the butt-end-ftrong upon the ground,
placing it even with the toe of your right-foot; the
ti umb of your right-hand lying along the barrel, and
the muzzle kept at a little diftance from your body.
16. Ground your firelock : i. e. Half-face to the right
upon yout heels, and at the fame time turn the fire¬
lock, fo that the lock may point to the rear, and the
flat of the butt-end lie againft the infide of your foot;
at the fame time Hipping the right-foot behind the
butt of the firelock, the right-toe pointing to the
right, and the left to the front: ftep diretftly forward
with your left-foot, about as far as the fwell of the
firelock, and lay it upon the ground, your left-hand
hanging down by your left-leg, and your right kept
faft, with the butt-end againft it; raife yourfelf up
again nimbly, bringing back your left-foot to its for¬
mer pofition, keeping your body faced to the right;
face again to the left upon your heels, and come'td
your proper front, letting your hands hang down
without motion. 17. Take up your firelock : i. e. Face
to the right upon both heels ; fink your body down,
and come to the pofition deferibed in the fecond mo¬
tion of grounding; raife yourfelf and firelock, bringing
it clofe to your right fide; come to your proper front,
feizing your firelock at the muzzle, ,as in explana¬
tion 15. 18. Refi your firelock : i. e. Bring your right-
hand as far as the fwell; raife the firelock high up in
a perpendicular line From the ground with your right-
hand, and feize it with your left above the fpring, the
cock being at the height of the waift-belt; ftep back
with your right-foot, placing it behind your left-heel,
and come to the reft. 19. Shoulder your firelock: i. e.
Lift up your right-foot, and place it by your left; bring
the firelock at the fame time to your left-lhoulder, and
feize the butt-end with the left-hand, keeping it in the
fame pofition as above deferibed ; throw your right-
hand brilkly back. 28. Secure your firelock : i. e. Bring
the right-hand brilkly up, and place it under the cock,
keeping the firelock fteady in the fame pofition ; quit
the butt with the left-hand, and feize the firelock with
it at the fwell, bringing the elbow clofe down upon
the lock ; the right-hand being kept faft in this mo¬
tion, and the piece ftill upright ; quit the right-hand,
and bring it down your right-fide, bringing the fire¬
lock nimbly down to the fecure; the left-hand in a
line with the waift-belt. 21. Shoulder your firelock :
i. e. Bring the firelock up to a perpendicular line, fei¬
zing it with the right-hand under the cock ; quit the
left-hand, and place it ftrong upon the butt; quit the
right hand, and bring it fmartly down the right-fide.
2 2,. Fix your bayonet - i. e. Firft and fecond motions,
as in the two firft of the fecure; quit the right-hand,
and bring the firelock fmartly down to the left-fide
with the left-hand, as far as it will admit without con¬
ftraint, feizing the bayonet at the fame time with the
right-hand, and fixing it, placing that hand juft be¬
low the brafs, with the piece kept clofe to the hollow
of the Ihoulder. 23. Shoulder your firelock : i. e. Quit'
the right-hand, and bring up the firelock with the left;
feize it again under the cock with your right, as in the
fecond motion of the fecure ; quit the left-hand, and
place it ftrong upon the butt; quit the right-hand,
and bring it down the right fide. 24. Prefient your
arms ; i. e. as explained in three motions of the 14th
word of command. 25. To the right face: i. e. Bring
up the firelock with a quick motion high before you,
till your left-hand comes even with your eyes, with
the fingers of that hand extended along the ftock, juft
above the feather-fpring, the. right-foot to be brought
clofe up to the left-hed in this* motion ; face to the
right, taking care in facing to hold the firelock right
up and down, and fteady in your hands; ftep back
with your right-foot, and come down to your prefent,
as in the foregoing explanation. 26. To the right
face ; i. e. as in the foregoing explanation, facing to
the right. 27. To the right-about face ; i. e. as in the
2 5 th explanation, only coming to the right-about in-
ftead of to the right. 28. To the left face : i. e. Bring
the right-foot brifkly to the hollow of your left, with
the firelock in the fame pofition as in the firft motion
of facing to the right; face to the left; come down to
the prefent, as before. 29. To the left faces i. e. as
3 Z 2 in
MAN [ 548 1 MAN
Manna), in the foregoing explanation. 30. To the kft-alout
j-ace . j. e. as before, coining to the left-about inftead
of to the left. 31. Shoulder your jirelock } i. e. as in
the two motions of the 19th explanation. 32. Charge
your bjyoret; i. e. as in the firfl explanation : bring
the fwell of the firelock down ftrong upon the palm
.of the .hand, grafping the piece at the fmall, behind the
loek, and as high as the waift-belt; the firelock upon
a level the barrel upwards. 33. Shoulder your
firelock: 1. e. Bring up the firelock to the fhoulder,
-place the left-hand upon the butt, bringing the feet
fquare to the front; quit the right-hand, and throw
it down the right fide. 34. Advance your arms; i. e.
fiirfi: and fecond motions, as in the firft explanation :
bring the firelock down the right-fide, with the right-
, hand as low as it will admit without conilraint, flip¬
ping up the left-hand at the fame time to the fwell,
the guard between the thumb and fore-finger of the
right-hand, the three laft fingers under the cock, with
the barrel to the rear; quit the left-hand. 35. Shoul¬
der your firelock ; i. e. bring up the left-hand, and feize
it at the fwell; come fmartly up to the poife ; (boul¬
der. 36. Prime and load: i. e. Come fmartly to the
recover, by fpringirig the firelock ftraight up with the
left-hand, turning the barrel inwards to the proper
height of the recover: at the fame time that the left-
hand fprings the firelock, the right-handis raifed brifldy
from the right-fide, and feizes the firelock acrofs the
bread : as it rifes below the cock, the left-hand comes
with a quick motion from the butt, and feizes the
firelock drong above the lock, the little finger of the
left-hand at the fpring of the lock, the left-hand at an
equal height with the face, the butt clofe to the bo¬
dy, bufnot prefled, the firelock, perpendicular oppo-
iite the leit-fide of the face: bring the firelock down
with a briflt motion to the priming pofition, the left-
hand holding the firelock, as in priming ; the thumb
of the right-hand placed againd the face of the deel,
the fingers clinched, and the elbow a little turned out,
that the wrid may be clear of the cock: open the pan,
by throwing up the fleel with a drong motion of the
right arm, turning the elbow in, and keeping the fire¬
lock deady in the left-hand; handle your cartridge,
prime, (hut your pan, cad about, load, draw ram¬
mers, ram down the cartridge, return the rammers,
(houlder. N. B. The motion of recover, and coming
down to the priming pofition and opening pans, are to
be done in the ufual time. The motions of handling
cartridge to (hutting the pans, are to be done as quick
as poffible: when the pans are (hut, a fmall paufe
is to be made, and then cad about together; then
the loading motions are to be done as quick as
pofiible; but before the rammer is returned, another
fmall paufe is to be made, counting 1, 2, between each
motion, till the firelock is (houldered.—Front rank,
make ready : i. e. Spring the firelock brifldy to the
recover, keeping the left-foot fad in this motion ; as
fbon as the firelock is at the recover, without any flop,
■fink the body brifldy without dooping forward, with a
quick motion down upon the right-knee ; the butt-
end of the firelock at the fame time falls upon the
ground, the front part of the butt being in a line with
the heel of the left-foot. As foon as the butt conies
to the ground, the firelock is to be cocked, immediare-
iy feizing the cock and fteel in the right-hand j the
firelock to be held firm in the left-hand, about the Manual
middle of that part of the firelock between the lock
and the fwell of the dock; the point of the left-thumb
to be clofe to the fwell, pointing upwards. As the
body is finking, the right-knee is to be thrown as far
back as the left-leg may be right up and down ; the
right foot to be thrown a little to the right; the body
to be kept ftraight 5 the head up, looking to the right
along the rank, the fame as if (houldered; the firelock
to be upright, and the butt about four inches to the
right of the infide of the left-foot. Prefcnt: i. e.
Bring the firelock briikly down to the prefent, by ex¬
tending the left-arm to the full length with a ftrong
motion ; at the fame time fpring up the butt by the
cock with the right-hand, and raife the butt fo high
upon the right-dioulder, that you may not be obliged
to ftoop too much with the head ; the right-cheek to
be clofe to the butt, and the left-eye (hut, and look
along the barrel with the right-eye from the breech-
pin to the muzzle ; keep the left-elbow down in an
eafy pofition, and ftand as fteady as poffible; the thumb
of the right-hand to remain in the polition as deferi-
bed in the third explanation of the manual. Fire: i. e.
Pull the trigger as directed in the manual; and as
foon as the piece is fired, give yourfelf a ftrong
fpring upon your left-leg, raifing your body briik-
ly, and ftraight up, keeping your left-foot fad,
and bringing the right-heel to the infide of the left ;
at the fame time the firelock is to be brought up to
the priming-poiition, and half-cocked immediately : a
(hort paufe is to be made ; then handle cartridge, and
go on with the loading motions deferibed in the ex¬
planation oiprinie and load.—-Centre rank, make ready :
i. e. Spring the firelock brifldy to the recover; fo
foon as the left-hand feizes the firelock above the lock,
the right-elbow is to be nimbly raifed a little, placing
the thumb of that hand upon the cock ; the fingers
open by the plate of the lock, and as quick as poffible
force the piece to the cock, by dropping the elbow,
and forcing down the cock with the thumb, ftepping
at the fame time a moderate pace to the right, keeping
the left foot fad; as the firelock is cocked, the thumb
is to fall below the cock, the right-hand feizing the
firelock clofe Under the cock firmly, the fore-finger
not to be befoie the trigger ; the piece to be held in
this pofition perpendicular, oppolite the left-fide of the
face, the butt clofe to the left-bread, but not prefled;
the body to be draight, and as full to the front as pof¬
fible ; the head kept up, looking to the right of the
rank, that the body and the firelock may not ftoop for¬
ward, nor lean much out of the rank. Prefent: i. e..
Spring the firelock from the body to the arm’s length
with a quick motion, preffing down the muzzle with
the left-hand, and fpring up the butt with the right-
hand, as in the foregoing explanation of the front-rank.
Fire. As in explanation 4, in the manual,, with this
difference, that the left-foot is to be brought up to
the right, at the fame time that the firelock is brought-
down to the priming pofition. The loading motions
as in the explanations of priming and loading; and at
the laft motion, of (houldering, to fpring to the left
again, and cover the file-leaders.—Rear rank, makeready:
i. e.. Recover the firelock, and cock as before direcled
for the centre-rank; as the firelock is recovered and
cocked, ftep brifldy draight to the right, with the right-
MAN [ 549 ] MAN
i Ma- u
i w
\f Manuduc- foot, a full pace ; bring the left-heel about fix inches
,or before the right-foot; the body ftraight, and as fquare
Y. to the front as poflible, as in the explanation of the
centre-rank. Prejent: As in explanation prejent^ before.
— Fire; As in explanation of the centre rank} and as
the firelock is coming down to the priming pofition,
the left is to be brought back to the right; and at
the laft motion of fhouldering, to fpring to the left
again, and cover the file-leader.
There are fome peculiar words of command at the
manual exercife of the grenadiers, when apart from the
battalion ; and alfo for the cavalry and artillery.
MANUDUCTOR, a name given to an ancient
officer in the church; who, from the middle of the
choir, where he was placed, gave the fignal for the
choirifters to ling, and marked the meafure, beat time,
and regulated the mufic. The Greeks called him me-
-fachorcs, becaufe feated in the middle of the choir :
but in the Latin church he was called manuduSor;
from manrt and duco, “ I leadbecaufe he led and
guided the choir by the motions and gefture of the
hand.
MANUFACTURE, a commodity produced from
raw or natural materials, either by the work of the
hand or by machinery.
MANUFACTURER, one who works up a natu¬
ral produd: into an artificial commodity.
MANUMISSION, an ad whereby a flave or vil¬
lain is fet at liberty, or let out of bondage. The
word comes from the Latin manus, “ hand and
mittere, “ to fend;” quiafervus mittebatur extra mamm
feu potejlatem domini fui. Some authors define manumif-
fion an ad by which a lord enfranchifes his tenants,
who till that time had been his vaflals, and in a ftate
of ilavery inconfiftent with the fandity of the Ghri-
ftian faith.
Among the Romans, the manumiffion of fiaveswas
performed three feveral ways. I. When,, with his
mafter’s .confent, a flave had his name entered in the
cenfus or public regiller of the citizens. 2. When
the flave was led before the praetor, and that magi-
ftrate laid his wand called lindiaa on his head-
3. When the mafter gave the flave his freedom by his
teftament. Servius Tull us is faid to have fet on foot
the firft manner; and P. Valerius Publicola the fe-
cond. A particular account is given of the third in
the Inftitutes of Juftinian. It was not needfary that
the praetor ffiould be on his tribunal to perform the
ceremony of manumiffion : he did it any where indif¬
ferently, in his houfe, in the ftreet, in going to bathe,
&c. He laid the rod on the flave’s head, pronouncing
thefe words, Dico eum liberum effe more Quiritum, “ I
declare him a freeman,, after the manner of the Ro¬
mans.” This done, he gave the rod to the lidor,
who ftruck the flave with it on the head, and after¬
wards with his hand on his face and back; and the
sotary or feribe entered the name of the new-freed
man in the regifter, with the reafons of his manumif¬
fion. The flave had likewife his head (haved, and a
cup given him by his mailer as a token of freedom.
Tertullian adds, that he had then alfo a third name
given him: if this were fo, three names were not a
token of nobility, but of freedom. The emperor
Conftantine ordered the manumiffions at Rome to be
perfeuned in the churches.
Of manumiffion there have alfo been various forms
in England. In the time of the Conqueror, villains
were manumitted, by the mafter’s delivering them by
the right hand to the vifeount, in full court, (hawing
them the door, giving them a lance and a fword,
and proclaiming them free. Others were manumitted
- by charter. There was alfo an implicit manumiffion ;
as when the lord made an obligation for payment of
money to the bondman at a certain day, or fued him
where he might enter without fuit, and the like.
MANURE, any thing ufed for fattening and im¬
proving land. See Agriculture, Parti. Seft. I.
II. and III.
MANUSCRIPT, a book or paper written with the
hand; by which it Hands oppofed to a printed book or
paper. A manufeript is ufually denoted by the two
letters 1\IS. and in the plural by MSS. What makes
public libraries valuable is the number of ancient ma-
nuferipts repofited in them ; fee Alexandrian, Cam¬
bridge, Clermont, Cottonian, Harleian, Va¬
tican, &c.
MANUTIUS (Aldus), the firft of thofe cele¬
brated Venetian printers who were as illuftrious for
their learning as for uncommon (kill in their profef-
fion. He was born at Bafiano in Italy about the
middle of the 15th century; and hence is fometimes
called Bafianusy though generally better known by
the name of Aldus. He was the firft who printed
Greek neatly and correftly ; and acquired fo much
reputation by it, that whatever was finely printed was
proverbially faid to have “ come from the prefs of
Aldus.” We have a kind of Greek grammar of his ;
with Notes upon Homer, Horace, &c. He died at
Venice, where he exercifed his profeffion, in 1516.
Manutius (Paulus), fon of the former, was brought
up to his father’s profeffion. He was more learned
than him ; and he acquired, by continual reading of
Tully, fuch a purity in writing Latin, that even Sca-
liger allows a Roman could not exceed. Pope PiusIV.
placed him at the head of the apoftolical prefs, and
gave him the charge of the Vatican library. His
Epiftles are infinitely laboured, and very correft ; but,,
as may be faid of moft of the Ciceronians, they con¬
tain fcarcely any thing but mere words. This con-
ftant reading of Tully, however, together with his
profound knowledge of antiquity, qualified bim ex¬
tremely well for an editor of Tully ; whofe works he
accordingly publiftied, with Commentaries on them,
in 4 vols folio, at Venice in 1523. He died in 1 ryq.'
Manutius (Aldus), the Younger, the fon of Pau¬
lus, and the grandfon of Aldus, was efteemed one of
the greateft geniufes and moft learned men of his time.
Clement VIII. gave him the direction of the Vatican
printing-houfe ;, but probably the profits of that place
were very fmall, fince Manutius was obliged, for his
fubfiftence, to accept of aprofefibrof rhetoric’s chair,,
and to fell the excellent library that was in his family,,
which his father, his uncle, and his great-uncle, had
collected with, extraordinary care, and which it is faid
contained 80,000 volumes. He died at Rome in 1 $97,
without any other recompenfe than the praifes due to
his merit. He wrote, 1. Commentarres on Cicero.
2. A treatife on orthography. 3. Three books of
epiftles ; and other works in Latin and Italian, which
are efteemed.
Manure
MAON^.
MAR [ 550 ] MAR
Maon MAON (anc. geog.), a town of the tribe of Judah,
il to the fouth-eaft, towards the Dead Sea. It gave
Maracaybo. name to the ivildernefs of Maori, X Sam. xxii.
* MAP, a plain figure, reprefenting the furface of
the earth, or a part thereof, according to the laws of
perfpe&ive. See Geography, n° 63—73.
MAPLE. See Acer.
Mapis-Sugar. See Sugar.
MAPLETOFT (Dr John), defcended from a good
family in Huntingdonfixire, was bom in 1631. He
was educated in Trinity-college, Cambridge, and qua¬
lified himfelf for the profeffion of phyfic ; and in 1675
was chofen’profefibr of that art at Greiham college.
He tranflated Dr Sydenham’s Obfervationes Me die a
circa morborum acutorum hijloriam et curationem into
the Latin, and Sydenham dedicated them to Maple-
toft. He married in 1679, and foon after transferred
his ftudies from phyfic to divinity ; took orders ; ob¬
tained the vicarage of St Laurence Jewry, with the
Jedfurefliip of St Chriftopher’s in London ; and ha¬
ving been a benefaftor to Sion college, was, in 1707,
elefted prefident. He continued to preach in his
church of St Laurence Jewry till he was above 80 years
of age ; and in his decline printed a book intitled The
principles and duties of the ChriJlian religion, &C. 8vo.
J 710, a copy of which he fent to every houfe in his
parifli. He was a polite fcholar; and befides fome other
pieces on moral and theological fubjetts, there are in
the Appendix to Ward’s Lives of the profefibrs of
Grelham-college, three Latin lectures read there by
him, on the origin of the art of medicine, and the hi-
ftory of its invention.
MAPPA, in the public games of the Roman cir¬
cus, was a napkin hung out at the praetor’s or other
great magiftrate's feat, as a iignal for the race or other
diveriions to begin. The mappa was received by the
mapparius, or perfon who held it, from the conful,
praetor, or other great' officer. Notice was anciently
given by found of trumpet; but Nero is faid to have
introduced the mappa, by throwing his napkin out of
the window to fatisfy the people, who grew noify at
the delay of the fports while he was at dinner.
MAPPARIUS, in Roman antiquity, the officer
who gave the fignal to the gladiators to begin fight¬
ing ; whici he did by throwing an handkerchief that
he had-received from the emoeror or other magi-
ftrate.
MARAC ANDA (anc. geog.), capital of the Sog-
diana. Now thought to be Samarcand, a city of
Ulbec Tartary in Afia, the country and royal refi-
dence of Tamerlane. See Samarcand.
MARACAYBO, a rich and cojifiderable town of
South America, and capital of the province of Vene-
uela, feated near a lake of the fame name. It carries
on a great trade in (kins and chocolate, which is the
bell in America ; and they have likewife very fine to¬
bacco. It was taken by the French bucaneers in 1666
and 1678. W. Long, 70. 45. N. Lat. 10. o.
Maracaybo, a lake in South America, 200 miles
long and 1 oc broad, which difeharges itfelf by a river
into the North Sea. It is well defended by ftrong
forts; which, however, did not hinder Sir Henry Mor¬
gan, a bucaneer, from entering it, and plundering fe-
yeral Spanilh towns on the coaft, after defeating a fqua-
dron fent out againlt him.
MARAGNAN, a province of Brazil in South A- Maragran
merica, which comprehends a fertile populous ifiand, II
112 miles in circumference. The French fettled here Maranta'',
in i6x 2, and built a town ; but they were foon driven ’
from thence by the Portuguefer who have polTefled it
ever fince. The town is little, but ftrong 5 and has a
caftle, a harbour, and a bilhop’s fee. The climate is
very agreeable and wholefome, and the foil produces
plenty of all the needfaries of life. W. Long. 54. 35.
S. Lat. 2. o.
MARALDI (James Philip), a learned mathema¬
tician and aftronomer, of the academy of fciences at
Paris, was born in 1665. He was the fon of Francis
Maraldi and Angela Catharine Cafini, the lifter of the
famous aftronomer of that name. His uncle made him
go to France in 1687, where he acquired great repu¬
tation on account of his learning and obfervations. He
made a catalogue of the fixed liars, which is more par¬
ticular and exadl than Bayer’s ; and has given a great
number of curious and interefting obfervations in the
memoirs of the academy ; in particular, thofe on bees
and petrifaftions have been univerfally applauded. He
died in 1729.
MARANA (John Paul), an ingenious writer of
the 17th century, was of a dillinguifhed family, and
born at Genoa; where he received an education fuit-
able to his birth, and made a great progrefs in the
ftudy of polite literature and the fciences. Having
been engaged in the confpiracy of Raphael della Terra,
to deliver up Genoa to the duke of Savoy, he was in
1670, when 28 years of age, imprifoned in the tower
of that city, and remained there four years. Being
at length fet at liberty, he was ordered to write the
hiltory of that confpiracy ; but, when finilhed, it was
feized and prevented from being publilhed. When the
republic of Genoa was at variance with the court of
France, Marana, who had always an inclination for
that court, was afraid of being imprifoned a fecond
time ; and retired to Monaco, where he again wrote
the hiftory of the confpiracy in Italian ; and, in 1682,
went to Lyons to get it printed. From Lyons he
went to Paris, where his merit foon acquired him pow¬
erful prote&ors. He fpent the reft of his life in a
happy and tranquil mediocrity, devoted to ftudy and
the fociety of men of learning; and died in 1693.
His hiftory of the confpiracy contains many curious
and interefting anecdotes, which are nowhere elfe to
be found. He alfo wrote feveral other works ; the
moll known of which is the Turkilh Spy, in 6 vols
X2mo, which was in 1742 augmented to feven. Of
this ingenious work we have an excellent Englilh
tranllation.
M.vRANO, a town of Italy, in the territory of
Venice and province of Friuli, with a ftrong citadel;
feated in a marfh at the bottom of the Gulph of Ve¬
nice, which renders it difficult of accefs.
MARANS, a rich town of France, in the territory
of Aunis and diocefe of Rochelle, feated among fait
marfhes, near the river Sevre, three miles from the fea.
It carries on a very great trade in corn ; and is feated
in W. Long. o. 55. N. Lat. 46. 20.
MARANTA, Indian Arrow-root: A genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the monandria
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the eighth order, Scitaminea. The corolla is
ringent
MAR
isngcnt and quinquefid, with two fegments alternately
patent. There are three fpecies, the arundinacea, ga-
langa, and comofa, all of them herbaceous perennial
exotics of the Indies, kept here in hot-houfes for cu-
■iofity: they have thick, knotty, creeping roots,
[ SSI ]
MAR
very name of the Medes or Perfians. The Laceda*- Marathon;
monians alone promifed troops; but various obftacles '
did not allow them immediately to form a junction
with thofe of Athens. This city therefore could only
rely on its own ftrength ; and happily at this moment
crowned with long, broad, arundinaceous leaves, end- there appeared three men deftined to give new energy
ing in points, and upright ftalks, half a yard high,
terminated by bunches of monopetalous, ringent, five-
parted flowers. They are propagated by parting the
roots in fpring,- and planting them in pots of light
rich earth, and then plunging them in the bark-bed.
The root of the galanga is ufed by the Indians to ex-
trad! the virus communicated by their poifoned ar¬
rows ; from whence it has derived its name of arrow
root. The arundinacea, or ftarch plant, rifes to two
feet, has broad pointed leaves, fmall white flowers,
and one feed. It is cultivated in gardens and in pro-
vifion-grounds in the Weft Indies; and the ftarch is
obtained from it by the following procefs defcribed by
Dr Wright. “ The roots when a year old are dug
up, well walked in water, and then beaten in large
deep wooden mortars to a pulp. This is thrown into
large tub of clean water. The whole is then well
to the ftate. Thefe were Miltiades, Ariftides, and
Themiftocles; whofe example and harangues kindled
the flame of the nobleft heroifm in the minds of the
Athenians. Levies were immediately made. Each
of the ten.iribes furnilhed i ooo foot foldiers with a
commander at their head. To complete this number
it was neceflary to enrol the Haves (a.) No fooner were
the troops aflembled than they marched out of the
city into the plain of Marathon, where the inhabitants
of Plataea in Boeotia fent them a reinforcement of toco
infantry.
Scarcely were the two armies in fight of each other,
before Miltiades propofed to attack the enemy. Ari¬
ftides and feveral of the commanders warmly fupported
this meafure : but the reft, terrified at the exceffive
difproportion of the armies, were defirous of waiting
for the fuccours from Lacedaemon. Opinions being
ftirred, and the fibrous part wrung out by the hands, divided, they had recourfe to that of the polemarch.
and thrown away. The milky liquor being pafled
through a hair fieve, or coarfe cloth, is fuffered to
fettle, and the clear water is drained off. At the bot¬
tom of the veffel is a white mafs, which is again mixed
with clean water and drained : laftly, the mafs is dried
on Iheets in the fun, and is pure ftarch.”—A deeoftion
of the frelh roots (the Doctor informs us) makes an
excellent ptifan in acute difeafes.
MARASMUS, among phyficians,' denotes an a-
trophy or confumption in its laft and moft deplorable
ftage.
MARATHON (anc. geog.), ojie of the demi or
hamlets of Attica ; about i o miles to the north-eaft
of Athens, towards Bceetia, near the fea. It ftill
retains its ancient name (Dr Chandler informs us) ;
but is very inconfiderable, confifting only of a few
houfes and gardens. The plain of Marathon, famous
for Miltiades’s victory over the Perfians, by which
the liberties of Athens and other cities of Greece were
or chief of the militia, who was confulted on fuch c
cafions, to put an end to the equality of fuffrages.
Miltiades addrefled himfelf to him, with the ardour of
a man deeply impreffed with the importance of pre-
fent circumftances: “ Athens (faid he to him) is on
the point of experiencing the greateft of viciflitudes.
Ready to become the firft power of Greece, or the
theatre of the tyranny and fury of Hippias, from you
alone, Callimachus, Ihe now awaits her deftiny. IT
we fuffer the ardour of the troops to cool, they will
lhamefully bow beneath the Perfian yoke ; but if we
lead them on to battle, the gods and victory will fa¬
vour us. A word from your mouth muft now preci¬
pitate your country into flavery or preferve her li-‘
berty.” Callimachus gave his fuffrage, and the battle
was refolved. To enfure fuccefs, Ariftides, and the
other generals after his example, yielded to Miltiades
the honour of the command which belonged to them
in rotation : but, to fecure tliCm from every hazard.
faved, is long and narrow, but confifting chiefly of he preferred waiting for the day which of right placed
level ground, and therefore admitting the operations him at-the head of the army.
of cavalry, which formed the main ftrength of the
barbarian army, and with which the Greeks were very
poorly provided. Here the Peifians, under the com-
When that day arrived, Miltiades drew up his troops
at the foot of a-mountain, on a fpot of ground Mat¬
tered over with trees to impede the Perfian cavalry.
mand of Datis, pitched their camp, by the advice of The Platseans were placed on the left wing ; Calli-
Hippias the banilhed king of Athens, whofe felici¬
tations and intrigues had promoted the expedition, and
madras commanded the right; Ariftides and The¬
miftocles were in the centre of the battle, and Mil-
whofe perfedt knowledge of the country, and inti- tiades every where; An interval of nearly a mile fe*
mate acquaintance with the affairs of Greece, ren- parated the Grecian army from that of the Perfians;
dered his opinion on all occafions refpedtable. The At the firft fignal the Greeks advanced over this fpaca
Perfian army is faid to have confifted of 100,000
infantry, and 10,000 horfe.—Athens was in the
utmoft confternation and difmay. She had, upon the
firft appearance of the Perfian fleet, fent to implore
affiftance from the other nations of Greece ; but fome
had fubmitted to Darius, and - others trembled at the
running. The Perfians, aftoniftied at a mode of at¬
tack fo novel to both nations, for a moment remained
motionlefs ; but to the impetuous fury of the enemy
they foon oppofed a more fedate and not lefs form:-*
dable-fury. After an obftinate conflict of fome hours,
victory began - to- declare herfelf in the two wings of
the
(a) Travels of Anacharfis; authority, Pan fan. i. 79. But Dr Gillies feems to think that the armed
Haves were not included in the x 0,000 ; but amounted of themfelves to a greater number,. and- which formed -
the. centre of the battle. -
MAR C 552 ] MAR
Marathon, the Grecian army. The right difperfed the enemy
  * in the plain, while the left drove them back on a mo-
rafs that hat the appearance of a meadow, in which
they ftuck f. <1 and were loft. Both thefe bodies of
troops now flew to the fuccour of Ariftides and The-
miftocles, ready to give way before the flower of the
Perfian troops placed by Datis in the centre of his
battle. From this moment the rout became general.
The Perfians, repulfed on all ftdes, found their only
afylum in the fleet which had approached the Ihore.
"The conquerors purfued them with fire and fword,
and took, burnt, or funk the greater part of their
wefiels: the reft efcaped by dint of rowing.
The Perfian army loft about 6400 men ; that of
the Athenians 192. Miltiades was wounded; Hip-
pias was left dead on the field, as were Stefileus and
Callimachus, two of the Athenian generals. Scarcely
was the battle over, when a foldier worn out with
Fatigue forms the project of carrying the firft news of
fo fignal a fuccefs to the magiftrates of Athens, and
without quitting his arms, he runs, flies, arrives, an¬
nounces the viftory, and falls dead at their feet.
This battle was fought on the 6th of Boedromion,
in the third year of the 72 Olympiad (or 29th Septem¬
ber anno 490 B. C.). The next day 2000 Spartans
arrived. In three days and nights they had marched
j 200 ftadia. Though informed of the defeat of the
Perfians, they continued their march to Marathon,
nor did they envioufly fhun to behold thofe fields
where a rival nation had fignalized itfelf by fo heroic
■an action : they there beheld the tents of the Perfians
Hill Handing, the plain ftrewed over with dead, and
covered with coftly fpoils: they there found Ariftides,
who with his tribe was guarding the prifoners and
booty; and did not retire until they had beftowed
juft applaufes on the viftors.
The Athenians neglected nothing to eternife the
memory of thofe who fell in the battle. It had been
ufual to inter the citizens who perilhed in war, at the
public expence, in the Ceramicus without the city;
but the death of thefe was deemed uncommonly meri¬
torious. They were buried, and a barrow was made
for them, where their bravery had been manifefted.
Their names were engraven on half columns eredted
on the plain of Marathon. Thefe monuments, not
excepting thofe of the generals Callimachus and Ste¬
fileus, were in a ftyle of tire greateft fimplicity. In
the intervals between them were eredted trophies bear¬
ing the arms of the Perfians. An artift of eminence
had painted all the circumftances of the battle in one
of the moft frequented porticoes of the city : Miltia¬
des was there reprefented at the head of the generals,
and in the adl of exhorting the troops to fight for
their country.
Paufanias examined the field of battle about 600
years after this event. His account of it is as follows.
The barrow of the Athenians is in the plain, and
-on it are pillars containing the names of the dead un¬
der thofe of the tribes to which they belonged ; and
there is another for the Platasenfians and flaves; and
a diftindt monument of Miltiades the commander, who
•furvived this exploit. There may be perceived nightly
-the neighing of horfes and the clalhing of arms. No
perfon has derived any good from waiting on purpofe
■to behold the fpedlres; but their anger does not fall
N° 194. J
on any one who happens to fee them without defign,
The Marathonians worlhip thofe who were ilain in
the battle, ftyling them heroes.—A trophy alfo of v J
white marble has been eredted. The Athenians fay
the Medes were buried, religion requiring that the
corpfe of a man be covered with earth ; though I was
not able to find any place of' fepulture 5 for there is
no barrow or other fign vifible, but they threw them
promifeuoufly into a pit.—Above the lake are the
marble mangers of the horfes of Artaphernes, with
marks of a tent on the rocks.”
Many centuries have elapfed fince the age of Pau¬
fanias ; but the principal barrow, it is likely that of
the gallant Athenians, ftill towers above the level of
the plain. It is of light fine earth, and has a bufli
or two growing on it. Dr Chandler informs us that
he enjoyed a pleafing and fatisfadlory view from the
fummit; and looked, but in vain, for the pillars on
which the names were recorded, lamenting that fuch
memorials ftiould ever be removed. At a fmall di-
ftance northward is a fquare bai'ement of white marble,
perhaps part of the trophy. A Greek church has
ftoodnearit; and fome ftones and rubbifti, difpofed
fo as to form an open place of worlhip, remain.
MARATTA. See Marhattas.
MARATTI (Carlo), a celebrated painter, was
born at Camorano, near Ancona, in 1625. He came
a poor boy to Rome, when only 11 years old; and
at 12 recommended himfelf fo effedtually to Andrea
Sacchi, by his drawings after Raphael in the Vatican,
that he took him into his fchool, where he continued
25 years till his mailer’s death. His graceful and
beautiful ideas occafioned his being generally employ¬
ed in painting madonas and female faints. No man
ever performed in a better ftyle, or with a greater
elegance. From the fineft ftatues and pictures, he
made himfelf mailer of the moll perfedl forms, and the
moft charming airs of heads, which he Iketched with
equal eafe and grace. He has produced a noble va¬
riety of draperies, more artfully managed, more richly
ornamented, and with greater propriety than even the
bell of the moderns. He was inimitable in adorning
the head, in the difpofal of the hair, and the elegance
of his hands and feet, which are equal to thofe of Ra¬
phael; and he particularly excelled in gracefulnefs. In
his younger days he etched a few prints, as well of his
own invention as after others, with equal fpirit and
corre&nefs. It would be endlefs to recount the cele¬
brated paintings done by this great man. Yet he exe¬
cuted nothing llightly, often changed his defign, and
almoft always for the better, whence his pictures were
long in hand. By the example of his mailer, he made
feveral admirable portraits of popes, cardinals, and
other people of diftindtion, from whom he received the
higheft tellimonies of efteem, as he likewife did from
almoft all the monarchs and princes of Europe. Inno¬
cent XI. appointed him keeper of the paintings in his
chapel and the Vatican. Maratti eredted two noble
monuments for Raphael and Hannibal, at his own ex¬
pence, in the Pantheon. How well he maintained the
dignity of his profeffion, appears by his anfwer to a
Roman prince, who complaining of the exceffive price
of his pidlures, he told him there was a vaft debt due
from the world to the famous artills his predeceffors,
and that he, as their rightful fuccefibr, w'as come to
claim
MAR [ 553 I MAR
Marauding claim thofe arrears. His abilities in painting were ac-
I! companied with many -virtues, and particularly with an
t Marble. ^ extenfive charity. This great painter died at Rome
in 1713, in the 88th year of his age.
MARAUDING, in a military fenfe, means a party
of foldiers, who, without any order, go into the neigh¬
bouring houfes and villages, when the army is either
in camp or garrifon, to plunder and deftroy, See. Ma¬
rauders are a difgrace to the camp, to the military pro-
fefiion, and deferve no better quarter from their officers
than they give to poor peafants, &c.
MARAVEDI, a little Spamfh copper coin, worth
fomewhat more than a French denier, or half a far¬
thing Englilh.
The Spaniards always count by maravedis, both in
commerce and in their finances, though the coin it-
felf is no longer current among them. Sixty-three
maravedis are equivalent to a rial of filyer ; fo that the
piafter, or piece of eight rials, contains 504; and the
piftole of four pieces of eight, 2016 maravedis.
This fmallnefs of the coin produces vaft numbers in
the Spanifh accounts and calculation; infomuch that
a ftranger or correfpondent would think himfelf • in¬
debted feveral millions for a commodity that coft but
a few pounds.
In the laws of Spain, we meet with feveral kinds
of maravedis ; Alphonfine maravedis, white maravedis,
maravedis of good money, maarvedis Combrenos, black
maravedis, and old maravedis. When we find maravedis
alone, and without any addition, it- is to be underftood
of thofe mentioned above. The reft are different in
value, finenefs of metal, time, Sec. Mariana afferts,
that this coin is older than the Moors ; that it came
from the Goths ; that it was anciently equal to a third
part of the rial, and confequently of 12 times the value
of the prefent maravedi. Under Alphonfus XI. the
maravedi was 17 times, under Henry II. ten times,
under Henry III. five times, and under John II. two
times and an half, the value of the prefent maravedi.
MARBELLA, a town of Andalufia in Spain, fi-
tuated at the mouth of the Rio Verde, 30 miles north-
e-aft of Gibraltar, and 28 fouth-weft of Malaga. W.
.Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 30. 2$.
MARBLE, in natural hiftory, a genus of foffds;
being bright and beautiful ftones compofed of fmall
feparate concretions, moderately hard, not giving fire
with Reel, fermenting with and foluble in acid menftrua,
and calcining in a flight fire.—-The word comes from
the French marbre, and that from the Latin marmor,
of the Greek to “ fliine or glitter.”
The colours by which marbles are diftihguiftied are
almoft innumerable ; but the moft remarkable are,
1. The black marble of Flanders. 2. Plain yellow.
3. Yellow with fame white veins. 4. Yellow with
black dendrites. 5. Yellow with brown figures re-
fembling ruins. 6. Black and yellow. 7. Black and
white. 8. Pale yellow, with fpots of a blackifli-grey
colour. 9. Yellow, white, and red. 10. Pale yel-
Ibw. 11. Olive colour, with deeper coloured crofs
lines, and dendrites. 12. Brownifli red. 13. Flefh-
coloured and yellow. 14. Common red marble. 15.
Crimfon, white, and grey. 16. Reddifh-brown lumps,
en a whitifli ground. 17.Bluilh grey. 18. Snowy-white.
The varieties of marble, numerous as they are, have
. Vox.. X. Part II.
been improperly augmented by virtuofos, and fome Marble,
people who colledt fpecimens for the fake of gain. v““"
The Italians are particularly curious in this way ; and
moft of the names irspofed upon marbles are given by
them. Every marble brought from an unknown place
is called by them antico; when diltinguilhed by a num¬
ber of bright colours, it is called brocatello, or IrccateU
lato. When they want fome of the originals to com¬
plete a whole fet of marbles, they either fubftitute
others which have the neareft refemblance to them ;
or, laftly, they ftain white marbles according to their
own fancy, and impofe them on the world as natural.
The fineft folid modern marbles are thofe of It^ly,
Blankenburg, France, and Flanders. It has alio
been lately difeovered, that very fine marble is con¬
tained in fome of the Weftern Iflands of Scotland.
Thofe of Germany, Norway, and Sweden, are of an
inferior kind, being mixed with a kind of fcaly lime-
ftone ; and even feveral of thofe above mentioned are
partly mixed with this fubftance, though in an inferior
degree. Cronftedt, however, mentions a new quarry
of white marble in Sweden, which, from the fpeci¬
mens he had feen, promifed to be excellent.
The fpecific gravity of marble is ’from 2700 to
2800 ; that of Camera, a very fine Italian marble, is
2717.—Black marble owes its colour to a flight mix¬
ture of iron. Mr Bayen found fome which contained
5 per cent, of the metal; notwithftanding which, the
lime prepared'from it was white, but in time it ac¬
quired an ochry or reddifh-yellow colour.
Marble, when chemically examined, appears to confift
of calcareous earth united with much fixed air; and is,
like limeftone or chalk, capable of being converted in¬
to a ftrong quicklime.—Dr Black derives the origin
of marbles, as well as limeftone and marie, from the
fame fource, viz. from the calcareous matter of {hells
and lithophyta. In one kind of limeftone known by
the name of Portland-Jione, and confifting of round
grains united together, it was fuppofed to be com¬
pofed of the {pawn of fifti; but comparifons of other
phenomena have explained it. It is plain that it has
been produced from a calcareous fand, whichis found on
the fliore of fome of the iflands in the fouthern climates.
By the conftant agitation the fofter parts are worn off,
and the harder parts remain in the form of particles
that are highly polifhed, and which are afterwards
, gradually made to concrete together by caufes of which
we have yet no knowledge.—There are indeed fome
few of the limeftones and marbles in which we cafinot
difeover any of the relics of the fliells ; but there are
many figns of their having been in a diffolved or liqui¬
fied ftate ; fo we cannot expect to fee the remains of
the form of the (hells: but even'in,many of the marbles
that have the greateft appearance of a complete mix¬
ture, we ftill find often the confufed remains of the
{hells of which they have been originally compofed.
We ftiould ftill find it difficult to conceive how fuqh
maffes ftiould have derived their origin from {hells ;
but, confidering the many colleftioris that we have an
opportunity of feeing in their fteps towards this pro-
cefs, and a little concreted together, fo that by their
going a ftep farther they might form limeftone and
marbles, we (hall foon fee the poffibility of their be¬
ing all produced in the fame manner. Thus vaft quan-
4 A . . titles
MarWa
f Ptil.
'Tranf. vol.
iviii, 12.
MAR r 554 ] MAR
titles of flielk have been found in the province of Tu¬
rin in France; and indeed there is no place where they
have not been found. The lithophyta likewife feera
to be a very fruitful fource of this kind of earth. In:
the.cold climates, where the moderate degree of heat
is not fo produftive of animal-life, we have not fuch an
opportunity of obferving this: but in the hot climates,
the fea, as well as the land, fwarms with innumerable
animals ; and, at the bottom, with thofe that produce
the corals and madripores. We learn from the hiftory
of a ihip that was funk in a llorm in the Gulf of
Mexico, the vaft growth there is of thefe bodies. A-
bout 30 years after, they attempted to dive into it to
get out a quantity of fxlver; but they found great dif¬
ficulty in getting it, from the Ihip being overgrown
with coral. Sir Hans Sloan, in the PhilofophicalTranf-
a&ions, and in his hiftory of Jamaica, obferves, that
the ftiip’s timber, the iron, and money, were all con¬
creted by the growth of the calcareous matter. So in
a traft of many thoufands of years the quantity of it
ftould be very great; and as this is going on through
a very great extent of the bottom of the fea, it- will
produce very extenfive as well as maffy collections of
calcareous matter.
According to Sir William Hamilton many va¬
riegated marbles and precious ftones are the produce
of volcanoes.
Artificial M.-irblrs. The ftucco, whereof they
make ftatues, bufts, baffo-relievos, and other orna¬
ments of architecture, ought to be marble pulverized,
.mixed in a certain proportion with plafter; the whole
well fifted, worked up with water, and ufed like com¬
mon plafter. See Stucco.
There is alfo a kind of artificial marble made of
the flaky felenites, or a tranfparent ftone refembling
plafter; which becomes very hard, receives a tolerable
polilh, and may deceive a good eye. This kind of fe¬
lenites refembles Mufcovy talc.
There is another fort of artificial marble formed by
Corrofive tin&ures, which, penetrating into white
marble to the depth of a line or more, imitate the va¬
rious colours of other dearer marbles.
There is alfo a preparation of brftnftone in imita¬
tion of marble.
To do this, you muft provide yourfelf with a flat
and fmooth piece of marble ; on this make a border
»r wall, to encompafs either a fquare or oval table,
■which may be done either with wax or clay. Then
having feveral forts of colours, as white lead, vermi-
Ifon, lake, orpiment, mafticot, fmalt, Pruffian blue,
&c. melt on a flow fire feme brimftone in feveral
glazed pipkins; put one particular fort of colour into
each, and ftir it well together ; then having before
oiled the ..arble all over within the wall, with one co¬
lour quickly drop fpots upon it of larger and lefsfize;
after this, take another colour and do as before, and
fo on till the ftone is covered with fpots of all the co
Jours you defign to ufe. When this is done, you are
next to confider what colour the mafs or ground of
your table is to be; if of a grey colour, then take fine
fifted afhes, and mix. it up with melted brimftone ; or
if red, with Englifli red ochre ; if white, with white-
lead ; if black, with lamp or ivory black. Your brim-
SLoae for the ground nagft be pretty hot, that the co¬
loured drops ©n the ftone may unite and incorporate
with it. When the ground is poured even all over,
you are next, if judged neceflary, to put a thin wain-
fcot board upon it: this muft be done whilft the brim¬
ftone is hot, making alfo the board hot which ought
to be thoroughly dry, in order to caufe the brimftone
to ftick the better to it. When the whole is cold,
take it up, and polifti it with a cloth and oil, and it
will look very beautiful.
Elajltc Marble, an extraordinary fpecies of foflil
which has furprifed all the naturalifts who have feen
it. There are feveral tables of it preferved in the
houfe of Prince Borghefe at Rome, and fhown to the
curious. F. Jacquer, a celebrated mathematician, has.
given a defeription in the Literary Gazette of Paris,
but the naturalifts cannot be contented with it. If
permiflion was given to make the requifite experi¬
ments, this curious phenomenon might be better illu-
ftrated. There are five or fix tables of that marble ;;
their length is about two feet and a half, the breadth
about ten inches, and the thicknefs a little lefs than
three. They were dug up, as the Abbe Fortis was
told, in the feod of Mondragone ; the grain is of Car-
rarefe marble, or perhaps of the fineft Greek. They
feem to have fuffered fome attack of fire r though the
firft degree of pulverization obfervable in the angles^
can, perhaps, fcarcely be called that of imperfeci: cal-,
cination. They are very dry, do not yield to exter¬
nal impreffion, refound to the hammer, like other eon-
generous marble, and are perhaps fufceptible of a po-
lifh. Being fet on end, they bend, ofcillating back¬
ward and forward ; when laid horizontally, and raifei
at one end, they form a curve, beginning towards the
middle; if placed tm a table, and a piece of wood or
any thing elfe is laid under them, they make a falient.
curve, and touch the table with both ends. Notwith-
ftanding this flexibility, they are liable to be broken
if indifcreetly handled,; and therefore one table only,
and that not the beft, is fhown to the curious. For¬
merly they were all together in the prince’s apartment
on the ground-floor.
Colouring of Marble. This is a nice art; and, in or¬
der to fucceed in it, the pieces of marble on which the
experiments are tried, muft be well poliihed, and free
from the leaft fpot or vein. The harder the marble
is, the better will it bear the heat neceffary in the ope¬
ration ; therefore alabafter and the common foft white
marble are very improper for performing thefe opera¬
tions upon.
Heat is always neceflary for opening the pores of
marble, fo as to render it fit to receive the colours:
but the marble muft never be mad© red-hot; for then
the texture of it is injured, and the colours are burnt,
and lofe their beauty. Too fmall a degree of heat is
as bad as one too great ; for, in this cafe, though the
marble receives the colour, it will not be fixed in it,,
nor ftrike deep enough. Some colours will ftrike even
cold ; but they are never fo well funk in as when *
juft degree of heat is ufedi The proper degree, is that
which, without making the marble redj will make the
liquor boil upon its furface. The menftraums ufed to
ftrike in the colours muft be varied according to the
nature of the colour to be ufed. A lixivium made
with hoife’s or dog's urine, with four part*, of quick¬
lime
Marb'e.
MAR
Ume and one of pot-«rtit», is excellent for fome co¬
lours ; common ley of wood-allies is very good for
others; for fome, fpirit of wine is bed; and laftly, for
others, oily liquors, or common white-wine.
The colours which have been found to fuccecd beft
with the peculiar mertftruums, are thefe. Stone-blue
diffolved in fix times the quantity of fpirit of wine, or
of the urinous lixivium, and that colour which the
painters call litmust diffolved in common ley of Wood-
aflies. An extraft of faffron, and that colour made of
buckthorn berries, and called by painters fap greeny
both fucceed well when diflbtvcd in urine and quick¬
lime ; and tolerably Well when diffolved in fpirit of
wine. Vermilion, and a very fine powder of Cochi¬
neal, alfo fiicceed very well in the fame liquors. Dra¬
gon's-blood fucceeda in fpirit of wine, as does alfo a
tin&ure of logwood in the fame fpirit. Alkanet-root
gives « fine colour: but the only menftruum to be ufed
for it is oil of turpentine ; for neither fpirit of wine,
tior any lixivium, will do with it. There is another
kind of fanguis draconis, commonly called dragon's-
blood in tears, which, mixed with urine, gives a very
elegant colour,
Befide- thefe mixtures of colours and menftruums,
there are other colours which muff be laid on dry and
'tiumixed. Thefe are, dragon’s-blood of the pureft kind,
For a red ; gamboge for a yellow ; green wax, for a
green.; common brimftone, pitch, and turpentine, for
a brown colour. The marble for thefe experiments
muff be made confiderably hot, and then the colours
are to be rubbed on dry in the lump. Some of thefe
'Colours, when once given, remain immutable, others
are eaiily changed or deltroyed. Thus, the red colour
given by dragon’s-blood, or by a deco&ion of log¬
wood, will be wholly taken away by oil of tartar, and
the polilh of the marble not hurt by it.
A fine gold Colour is given in the following man¬
ner : Take crude fal ammoniac, vitriol, and verdi-
grife, of each equal quantities. White vitriol fuc-
ceeds beft ; and all muft be thoroughly mixed in fine
powder.
The ftaining of marble to all the degrees of red or
yellow, by folutions of dragon’s-blood or gamboge,
may be done by reducing thefe gums to powder, and
grinding them with the fpirit of wine in a ghfs
mortar. But, for fmaller attempts, no method is fo
good as the mixing a little of either of thofe powders
with fpirit of Wine in a filver fpoon, and holding it
over burning charcoal. By this means a fine tincture
Will be extracted : and, with a pencil dipt in this, the
fineft traces may be made on the marble while cold ;
■which, on the heating of it afterwards, either on fand,
or in a baker’s oven, will all fink very deep, and re¬
main perfectly diftinct on the flone. It is very eafy
to make the ground-colour of tjie marble red or yel¬
low by this means, and leave white veins in it. This
is to be done by covering the places where the white-
nefs is to remain with fome white paint, or even with
two or three doubles only of paper j either of which
will prevent the colour from penetrating. All the de¬
grees of red are to be given to marble by this gum
alone ; a flight tin&ure of it, without the affiftance of
beat to the marble, gives only a pale flefh colour: but
ftrenger tin&ures give it yet -deeper-; to this the
MAR
afiiftanee of heat adds greatly ; and finally, the addi- Marhte,
tion of a little pitch to the tincture, gives it a tenden- Marbled*J
cy to blacknefs, or any degree of deep red that may "*
be defired.
A blue colour may be given alfo to marble by dif-
folving turnfol in lixivium, in lime and urine, or in
the Volatile fpirit of urine ; but this has always a ten¬
dency to purple, whether made by the one or the
other of thefe ways. ri better blue, and ufed in an
eafier manner, is furniftied by the Canary turnfol,
a fubftance well known among the dyers. This needs
only to be diffolved in water, and drawn on the place
with a pencil i it penetrates very deeply into ths
marble ; and the colour may be increafed, by drawing
the pencil wetted afrefli feveral times over the fame
lines. This colour is fubjeA to fpread and diffufe it*
felf irregularly s but it may be kept in regular bounds,
by circumfcribing its lines with beds of wax, or any
fuch fubftance. It is alfo to be obferved, that this
colour ftiould always be laid on cold, and no heat
given even afterwards to the marble: and one great
advantage of this colour is, that it is therefore eafily
added to marbles already ftained with other colours,
is a very beautiful tinge, and lafts a long time.—•
See alfo Chemistry, n 753.
Arundel Marbles, marble with a chronicle of the
city of Athens, inferibed on them (as was fuppofed)
many years before our Saviour’s birth ; prefented to
the univerfity of Oxford by Thomas earl of Arundel,
whence the name. See Arundelian Marbles.
MARBLED, fomething veined or clouded, re-
fanbling marble. Bee Marbling.
Marbled China-ware, a name given by many to &
fpecies of porcelain or china-ware, which feems to be
full of cemented flaws. It is called by the Chinefe,
who are very fond of it, tfou tchi. It is generally
plain white, fometimes blue, and has exactly the ap¬
pearance of a piece of China which had been firft bro¬
ken, and then had all the pieces cemented in their pla¬
ces again, and covered with the original varnifh. The
manner of preparing it is eafy, and might be imitated
with us. Inftead of the Common varnifh of the Chi¬
na-ware, which is made of what they call oil of flone
and oil of fern mixed together, they cover this with a
Ample thing made only of a fort of coarfe agates, cal¬
cined to a white powder, and feparated from the grof-
fet parts by means of water, after long grinding in
mortars. When the powder has been thus prepared*
it is left ttloift, or in form of a fort of cream, with
the laft water that is fuffered to remain in it. and this
is ufed as the varnifh. Our cryftal would ferve full a*
well as tfcofe coarfe agates, and the method of prepa¬
ration is perfeftly eafy. The occafion of the Angular
appearance of this fort of porcelain is, that the varnifh
never fpreads evenly, but runs into r dges and veins.
Thefe often run naturally into a fort of mofaic-work,
which can fcarce be taken for the effeeft of chance.
If the marbled China be defired blue, they firft give
it a general coat of this colour, by dipping the veffet
into a blue varnifh; and when this is thoroughly dry,
they add another coat of this agate-oil.
Playing Marbles, are mofily imported from Hol¬
land ; where it is faid they are made by breaking the
ft one alabafter, or other fubftance, into pieces or chip*
4A * of
l J5t 1
MAR [ 556 ] MAR
Mart>l!ng. of a fuitable fize ; thefe are put into atviron mill which
1V’”*" turns by water : there are feveral partitions with rafps
within, cut fioatways, not with teeth, which turn con-
ftantly round with great fwiftnefs ; the'fviition again ft
the rafps makes them round, and as they ate formed,
they fall out of different holes, into which fize or
chance throws them. They are brought from Nurem¬
berg to Rotterdam, down the Rhine, and from thence
difperfed over Europe.
MARBLING, the method of preparing and co¬
louring the marbled paper.
There are feveral kinds of marbled paper; but the
principal difference of them lies in the forms in which
the colours are laid on the ground: fome being dif-
pofed in whirls or circumvolutions; fome in jagged
lengths; and others only in fpots of a roundifh or
oval figure. The general manner of managing each
kind is, neverthelefs, the fame ; being the dipping
the paper in a folution of gum-tragacanth, or, as it
is commonly called, gum-dragon ; over which the co¬
lours, previoufly prepared with ox-gall and fpirit of
wine, are firfl fpread.
The peculiar apparatus neceffary for this purpofe,
is a trough for containing the gum-tragacanth and
the colours ; a comb for difpoilng them in the figure
ufually chofen ; and a burnifhing {tone for polifhing
the paper. The trough may be of any kind of wood;
and muft be fomewhat larger than the fheets of paper
for marbling which it is to be employed: but the
fides of it need only rife about two inches above the
bottom ; for by making it thus fhallow, the lefs
quantity of the folution of the glim will ferve to fill it.
The comb may be alfo of wood, and five inches in
length ; but fhould have brafs teeth, which may be
about two inches long, and placed at about a quarter
of an inch diftance from each other. The burnifliing
ftone may be of jafper or agate ; but as thofe {tones
are very dear when of fufficient largenefs, marble or
glafs may be ufed, provided their furface be poliflred
to a greater degree of fmoothnefs.'
Thefe implements being prepared, the folution of
gum-tragacanth muft be made, by putting a fufficient
proportion of the gum, which ffiould be white and
clear from all foulnefles, into clean water, and letting
it remain there a day or two, frequently breaking the
lumps and ftirring it till the whole Ihall appear dif-
folved and equally mixed with the water. The con-
fiftence of the folution fhould be nearly that of ftrong
gum-water ufed in miniature-painting ; and if it ap¬
pear thicker, water muft be added ; or if thinner,
more of the gum. When the folution is thus brought
to a due ftate, it muft be pafled through a linen cloth;
and being then put into the trough, it will be ready
to receive the colours.
The colours employed for red are carmine, lake,
rofe-pink, and vermilion ; but the two laft are too
hard and glaring, unlefe they be mixed with rofe-
pink or lake, to bring them to a fofter call; and
with refpedt to the carmine and lake, they are too
4ear for, common purpofes: for yellow, Dutch pink
and yellow ochre may be employed :—for blue, Pruf-
fian blue and verditer may be ufed:—for green, ver-
digrife, a mixture of Dutch pink and Pruffian blue,
cr verditer, in different proportions for orange,
the orange-lake, or a mixture of vermilion, or red Marbling!
lead, with Dutch pink for purple, rofe-pink and —v-—*
Pruffian blue.
Thefe feveral colours ftiould be ground with fpirit
of wine till they be of a proper finenefs ; and then, at
the time of ufing them, a little fifh-gall, or in de¬
fault of it the gall of a beaft, ftiould be added, by
grinding them .over again with it. The proper pro¬
portion of the gall muft be found by trying them ;
for there muft be juft fo much as will fuffer the fpots
of colour, when fprinkled on the folution of the gum-
tragacanth, to join together, without intermixing or
running into each other.
When every thing is thus prepared, the folution of
the gum-tragacanth muft be poured into the' trough ;
and the colours, being in a feparate pot, with a pen¬
cil appropriated to each, muft be fprinkled on the fur-
face of the folution, by {baking the pencil, charged
with its proper colour, over it; and this muft be done
-with the feveral kinds of colour defired, till the furface
be wholly covered.
When the marbling is propofed to be in fpots of a
fimple form, nothing more is neceffary : but where
the whirls or fnail-lhell figures are wanted, they muft
be made by means of a quill; which muft be put
among the fpots to turn them about, till the effedt be
produced. The jagged lengths muft be made by
means of the comb above deferibed, which muft be
paffed through the colours from one end of the trough
to the other, and will give them that appearance: but
if they be defired to be pointed both ways, the comb
- muft be again paffed through the trough in a contrary
direftion ; or if fome of the whirls or fnail-fliell figures
be required to be added, they may be yet made by
the means before direfted.
The paper fhould be previoufly prepared for recei¬
ving the colours, by dipping it over-night in water ;
and laying the ffieets on each other with a weight
over them. The whole being thus ready, the paper
muft be held by two corners, and laid in the moft
gentle and even manner on the folution covered with
the colours ; and there foftly prefled with the hand,
that it may bear every-where on the folution. After
which it muft be raifed and taken off with the fame
care, and then hung to dry acrofs a proper cord,
fubtended near at hand for that purpofe: and in that
ftate it muft continue till it be perfeftly dry. It
then remains only to give the paper a proper polifh :
in order to which, it is firft rubbed with a little foap ;
and then muft be thoroughly fmoothed by the glafs
polifhers, fuch as are ufed for linen, and called the ca¬
lender glajjes. After which it fhould be again rubbed by
a burniftier of jafper or agate ; or, in default of them,
of glafs ground to the higheft polifh: for on the per¬
fect poliib of the paper depends in a great meafure its
beauty and value.
Gold or filver powders may be ufed, where defired;
along with the colour, ; and require only the fame
treatment as them, except that they muft be firft tem¬
pered with gum-water.
Marbling of books or papex is performed thus :
Difiblve four ounces of gum-arabic into two quarts of
fair wa er; then provide feveral colours mixed with
water in pots or fhells; and, with pencils peculiar to-
each.
MAR [ $57 ] MAR
Marc-An- each colour, fprinkle them by way of intermixture altogether incompatible with the belief of three dif- Marce’H
tomo Up0n jjjg gUm.water, which muft be put into a tindt perfons in the Godhead. • mis
Marcellia trou^ or fome broad-veflel; then with a {tick curl MARCELLINUS (Ammianus.) See Ammiakus. ^
n^n. 3 them, or draw them out in ftreaks, to as much variety MARCELLO (Benedict), a celebrated mufician, Marcgrav
as may be done. Having done this, hold your book and defcended from one of the moft illuftrious fami- '
or books clofe together, and only dip the edges in, on lies in Venice. He lived in the beginning of the pre-
the top of the water and colours, very lightly ; which fent century. We have of his compofition, anthems,
done, take them off,. and the plain imprefiiOn of the cantatas, and other works, which the connoiffeurs
colours in mixture will be upon the leaves ; doing as
well the ends as the front of the book in the like
manner.
Marbling a book on the covers is performed by
forming clouds -with aqua-fortis or fpirit of vitriol
mixed with ink, and afterwards glazing the covers.
See the article Book-binding.
MARC-Antonio. See Raimondi.
MARCA (Peter de), one of the greateft orna¬
ments of the Galilean church, was born in Bearn, of
an ancient family, in 1594. He firft ftudied the law,
was made prefident of the parliament of Bearn, and,
going to Paris in 1639, was made a counfellor of
Hate : the good opinion entertained of his knowledge
was confirmed by his Hiftory of Bearn. By the king’s
order he publifhed a work, De concordia facerdotii et
imperii, five de libertatilus ecclefa Gallic/e, in refuta¬
tion of a book that appeared under the title of Optatus
Callus ; and on this account, when on the death of
his wife he was nominated bilhop of Conferans, the
court" bf Rome refufed the bulls in his favour, until
by another book he explained arvay all he had faid on
behalf of the ftate, to the limitation of the papal
power. He obtained his confirmation, after feven
years fufpenfe, in 1648 ; w’as tranllated to the arch-
bifhopric of Touloufe in 1652 ; and wTas made mini-
fter of ftate in 1658. He died at Paris in 1662, a
fliort time after he had received the bulls as the arch-
bifhop of tha* metropolis. After his death appeared his
Pof humous works, with prefaces, notes. See. by M.
Baluze. In all he wrote, he fhowed great abilities
and learning, but is reproached for accommodating
them to his views of intereft and ambition.
MARCASITE, in mineralogy. This name has
long been given indifferently to all forts of minerals ;
to ores, pyrites, and to femimetals. Lately, it feems
to be confined to pyrites, and Wallerius propofes to
confine it to fuch pyrites as are regularly formed.
This feems to be better than to leave it a vague and
indeterminate fignification, on account of the ambi¬
guity and obfeurity which might thereby be introduced.
See Pyrites.
MA RCELLIANISM, thedo&rines and opinions
of the Marcellians, a feft of ancient heretics, towards
the clofe of the fecond century, fo called from Mar-
eellus of Ancyra, their leader, who was accufed of
reviving the errors of Sabellius. Some, however, are
of opinion, that Marcellus was orthodox, and that
they were his enemies the Arians, who fathered their,
errors upon him. St Epiphanius obferves, that there
was a great deal of difpute with regard to the real te¬
nets of Marcellus ; but that, as to his followers, it is
evident they did not own the three hypoftafes: for
Marcellus confidered the Son and Holy Ghoft as two
emanations from the divine nature, which, after per¬
forming their refpeftive offices, were to return again
into the fubftance of the. Father ; and this opinion is
rank as high as any of the numerous and excellent mu*
fical epmpofitions which the Italian fchool has produ¬
ced. “ He is the Pindar of mufic, (fays M. de la
Borde'. In boldnefs and regularity of defign, he is
the Michael Angelo of it. In analyfing his works,
we difeover a profound knowledge and great addrefs;
but there is a difficulty attending the execution of
them which is almoft infurmountable. It requires a
voice pofleffed of great powers, and accuftomed to the
moft extraordinary intervals.” The chief of the fa¬
mily which ttill exifts was the ambaflador of Venice to
the Porte in 1770.
MARCELLUS (Marcus Claudius), a famous Ro¬
man general, who, after the firft Punic war, had the
management of an expedition againft the Gauls. Here
he obtained the Spolia opima, by killing with his own-
hand Viridomarus the king of the enemy. Such fuc-
cefs rendered him popular, and foon after he was en-
trufted to oppofe Hannibal in Italy. He was the firft
Roman who obtained fome advantage over this cele¬
brated Carthaginian, and fhowed his countrymen that
Hannibal was not invincible. The troubles which
were railed in Sicily by the Carthaginians at the death
of Hieronymus, alarmed the Romans; and Marcellus,
in his third confulftiip, was fent with a powerfulJbrco
againft Syracufe. He attacked it by fea and land ;
but his operations proved long ineffetftual, and the in¬
vention and induftry of Archimedes were able to
baffle all the efforts, and to deftroy all the great and
ftupendous machines and military engines of the R.o-
mans during three fucceffive years. The perfeverance
of Marcellus at laft obtained the victory. After this
conqueft, Marcellus was called upon by his country to
oppofe a fecond time Hannibal. In this campaign he.
behaved with greater vigour than before ; the greateft
part of the towns of the Sajnnites, which had re¬
volted, were recovered by force of arms, and 3000
of the ,foldiers of Hannibal made prifoners. Some
time after, in an engagement with, the Carthaginian
genera], Marcellus had the difadvahtage: but on
the morrow a more fuccefsful fkirmifti vindicated
his military charadfer and the honour of the Roman,
foldiers; Marcellus, however, was not fufficiently vi¬
gilant againft the fnares of his adverfary. He'impru¬
dently feparated himfelf from his camp, .and was killed '
in an ambufead'e, in the 60th year of his age, in his 5 th..
confulffiip, A. U. C. 544. His body was honoured-
with a magnificent funeral by the conqueror, and his
allies were conveyed in a filver urn to his fon. Mar¬
cellus claims our commendation for his private as well *
as public virtues; and the humanity of a general will
ever be remembered^ who, at the furrender of Syra¬
cufe, wept on the thought that many were going t<x
be expofed to the avarice and rapacioufnefs of an in-
cenfed foldiery, which the policy of Rome and the.
laws of war rendered inevitable.
MARCGRAVE, or Margiuve, a kind of dig-
nityv
MAR
m'ty in Germany, answering to our marquis { (fee
" Marquis.) The word is derived from the German
Marche, or March:, which figriifies “ a frontierand
Graffe, “ count, governor j” Maregraves being origi¬
nally governors of cities lying on the frontiers of a
country or ftate.
MARCH, Martius, the third month of the
year, according to the common way of computing.
See Month, and Year.
^mong the Romans, March was the firfl month ;
and in fome eccleliaftical computatfons, that order is
Hill preferved ; as particularly reckoning the number
of years from the incarnation of our Saviour ; that is,
from the 25th of March.
It was Romulus who divided the year into months;
to the firft of which he gave the name of his fuppo-
fed father Mars. Ovid, however, obferves, that the
people of Italy had the month of March before Ro¬
mulus's time ; but that they placed it very differently,
fome making it the third, fome the fourth, fome the
'fifth, and others the tenth month of the year.
In this month it was that the Romans facrificed to
Anna Perenna ; that they begun their comitia; that
they adjudged their public farms and leafes ; that the
millreffes ferved the flaves and fervants at table, as the
mailers did in the Saturnalia} and that the veftals re¬
newed the facred fife.
> The month of March was always under the protec¬
tion of Minerva, and always confifted of 31 days.—
The ancients held it an unhappy month for marriage,
as well as the month of May.
March, in the military art, is the moving of a
' body of men from once place to another. Nothing is
laid down particularly concerning the marches of the
Jewilh armies 5 only thus much we may collefl, that
they made ufe of trumpets, to the different founds of
which they prepared themfelves by packing up their
baggage, putting themfelves in readinefs, and attend¬
ing at the ftandards, to wait the fignal for marching.
We are told that the amy of the Ifraelites marched ia
general no more than one league in a day and an half;
but this appears to hold good only of their progrefs
through difficult road,: For Follard fays they might,
in an open country, march four leagues in a day or
more. The Rabbins fuppofe that the Ifraelites march¬
ed in the fame Order they were placed in their camp.
The Greeks, let the pofture of their affairs be what
it would, never marched again!! their enemies till fa¬
vourable omens encouraged the enterprize. An eclipfe
of the moon, or any untoward accident, or the in¬
tervening of what they dleemed an unlucky day, en¬
tirely prevented their mar«h. But of all the Greeks
the Lacedemonians were the moll nice and feru-
pulous. The heavenly bodies directed all their mo¬
tions ; and it was an invariable maxim with them
never to march before the full moon. The Greeks
are particularly remarked by Homer for marching
In good order and profound fxlence; whereas the
Barbarian forces were all noife, clamour, and confu-
fvon. I*t is needlefs to fay any thing concerning the
marches of the Roman armies, more than that they
were performad with the greateft order and difpatch,
infomach that their unexpc-£led prefence frequently
[ 558 1
MAR
damped the fpirits of their enemies. The Roman Marslfe
foldiers were enured to the military pace, that is, to
walk 20 miles in five hours, though at the fame time
they carried burdens of fixty pounds weight.
Of all the mechanical parts of war, in modern
times, none is more effential than that of marching.
It may be juftly called the key which leads to all fu-
blime motions and manoeuvres of an army; for they
depend entirely on this point. A man can be attack¬
ed in four different ways 4 in the front, on both flanks,
and in the rear : but he can defend himfelf, and an¬
noy the enemy, only when placed with his face to¬
wards him. Hence it follows, that the general ob-
je& of marching is reduced to three points only ; to
march forwards, and on both fides, bficaufe it is ira-
poffible to do it for any time backwards, and by that
means face the enemy wherever he prefent himfelf.—•
The different fteps to be made ufe of are three ; flow,
fad, and oblique. The firft is proper in advancing*
when at a confiderable diftance from the enemy, and
when the ground is unequal, that the line may not be
broke, and a regular fire kept up without intermiffion.
The fecond is chiefly neceffary when you want to an¬
ticipate the enemy in occupying fome poll, in palling
a defile, and, above all, in attacking an entrenchment*
to avoid being a long while expofed to the fire of the
artillery and Imall arms, &c. The third Hep is of in¬
finite confequence, both in the infantry and cavalry;
columns may be opened and formed into lines, and,
vice verfa, lines into columns, by this kind of Hep, in
a leffer fpace, and confequently in lefs time, than Irf
any other method whatfoevef. In coming out of a de¬
file, you may inllantly form the line without prefent-
ing the flank to the enemy. The line may be formed,
though ever fo near to the enemy, with fafety, becaufe
you face him, and can with cafe and fafety protelt and
cover the motion of the troops, while they are coming
out of the defiles, and forming. The fame thing
may he equally executed, when a column is to be
formed in order to advance or retreat; which is a
point of infinite confequence, and Ihould be ellablilh-
ed as an axiom.
The order of march of the troops mull be fo dif-
pofed, that each ftiould arrive at their rendezvous, if
poflible, on the fame day. The quarter-mafter-general,
of his deputy, with an able engineer, ftiould fuffi-
ciently reconnoitre the country, to obtain a perfe6t
knowledge of it and the enemy, before he Forms his
routes.
Before a march, the army generally receives feveraJ
days bread. The quartet-mailers, Catnp colour-men,
and pioneers, parade according to orders, and march
immediately after, commanded by the quarter-mafter-
general of his deputy. They are to clear the roads,
level the ways, make preparations for the march of
the army, &c. The genera!, for inltance, beats at 2,
the ajjembly at 3, and the army to march in 20 minutes
after. Upon beating the general, the village, and ge¬
neral officer’s guards, quarter and rear-guards, join
their refpe&ive corps ; and the army pack up theif
baggage. Upon beating the ajfembty, the tents are to
be llruck, and fent with the baggage to the place ap¬
pointed, &c.
Tht
MAR r 559 1 MAR
Ma»ch, The companies draw up in their feveral ftreets, and
rlMaichard. ^ rojj3 ^ ca]{e<J. At the time appointed, the drum¬
mers are to beat a march, and fifers play at the head
of the line, upon which the companies march out from
their feveral ftreets, form battalions as they advance to
the head of the line, and then halt.
The feveral battalions will be formed into co¬
lumns fey the adjutant-general,, and the order of
march, See. be given to the general officers who lead
the columns.
The cavalry generally march by regiments or fqua-
drons. The heavy artillery always keeps the great
roads, in the centre of the columns, efcorted by a ftrong-
party of infantry and cavalry. The field-pieces march
with the columns.
Each foldier generally marches with 36 rounds of
powder and ball, and 2 good flints; one of which is
to be fixed in the cock of his firelock. The routes
muft be formed fo that no columns crofs one another
qn the march.
MARCHAND (John-Louisj, a native of Lyons,
who fliares with the ce-ebrated & A quin the glory of ha¬
sting carried the art of playing on the organ to the high-
eft degree of perfection. When very young he went to
Paris; and happening to be in the chapel of the college
of Louis the Great, when they were waitingfor the orga-
nift to begin divine fervice,he offered himfelf in his place.
His playing gave fo great fatisfaftion, that the Jefuits
kept him in the college, and fupplied him with every
neceffary to perfeCt his talents. Marchand continued
*0 play the organ of their chapel; and though many
advantageous places were offered to him, he always re
fufed to accept them. This difinte.efted conduct was
aot folely owing to his gratitude; for he was of fo
whimfical and independent a difpofition of mind, that
he was equally carelefs about reputation and glory. He
died at Paris in 1732, at the age of 63. From him
we have two books of Pieces for the Harpfichord,
much efteemed by the connoiffeurs.
Marchand (Profeffor), was from his youth brought
up at Paris, in the profeffion of a bookfeller, and in
the knowledge of books. He kept a regular corre-
ondence with feveral learned men, among whom was
ernard the continuator of the NouveHes de la Repu-
blique des Lettrety and furnilhed this, writer with the li¬
terary anecdotes of France. Marchand, having em¬
braced the Proteftant religion, went to join Bernard
in Holland, where he might be at liberty to profefs
Bris religious opinions. He continued tbe trade of
feookfeller for fame time ; but afterwards quitted it,
that he might dedicate himfelf wholly to the purfuits
*f literature. The hiftory of France, together with
a knowlege of books and authors, was always his fa¬
vourite ftudy. In the latter he was fo eminently di-
ftinguilhed, that he was confulted from all parts of
Europe. He was alfo one of the principal authors of
the Journal JLiVerdire, one of the beft periodical works-
which have appeared in Holland; and he furnifhed ex¬
cellent extracts for the other journals. This valuable
and learned man died at an advanced age, the 14th of
June 1756 and left the little fortune which he had, to
a fociety inftituted at the Hague, for the education
and inftru&ion of a certain number of poor people.
His library, which was excellently cfeofen for literary
hiftory, together with his maauferipts, was left by his
will to the univerfity of Leyden. From him we have, Marchand-
1. The Hiflory of Printin', a new edition of which has ^
been promifed by oue of his friends This work, ’f
which is full of notes and critical difeuffions, appeared
in 1740 at the Hague, in 410, There is fuch a pro¬
digious difplay of erudition, and remarks and quota¬
tions are heaped together iu fuch confufion, that when
you get to the end of the chaos, you know not what
conclufion to form concerning the points which have
been difeuffed. Abbe Mercier, abbot of Saint-Leger
de Soilfons, gave, in 17J5, 4to, a fupplement to this
hiftory, which is equally curious and accurate. 2. An
Hiftorical Di&ionary, or Memoirs Critical and Lite¬
rary, printed at the Hague in 1758, in two fmall vo¬
lumes, folio. In this work we meet with hiftorical
fingularities, literary anecdotes, and a difeuffion of
points of bibliography ; but too great minutenefs pre¬
vails in it, the ftyle is deficient in point of purity, and
the author is too much carried away by the heat and
eagernefs of his charafter. More erudition could not
well be collected; efpecially upon fubjedls which, at
leaft to the generality of readers, are fo uninterefting.,
3. A new edition of Bayle’s Dictionary, and Letters
of the Cymbalum mundi. See.
MARCHANTIA, in botany: A genus of the
natural order of algse, belonging to the cryptogamia
dafs of plants. The male calyx is peltated, and cover¬
ed below with monopetalous coroflae ; the antherae are
multifid; the female calyx is feffile, campanulated,
and polyfpermous. There are eight fpecies; of which
themoft remarkable are, 1. The poly morpha, or great
ftar-handed marchantia, is a native of Britain, grow¬
ing on the banks of rivulets, on fliady moift rocks*-
tbe fides of wells, and fometimes bogs. The leaves
are about three inches long ; from half an inch to an
inch broad, lying flat on the ground, and adhering
clofely to it by numerous downy radicles, which grow
out of the middle and bafe of the leaf on the under
fide. Thefe leaves are fituated on their edges, their
upper furface of a dark, ftiining, green colour, reti¬
culated with numerous, minute, rhomboidal, or lo¬
zenge-like feales ; varioufly divided into obtufe lobes,
and in the middle by a blackiih ■ purple vein; their
under fide is of a paler green, and their fubftance co¬
riaceous, and nearly opaque. There are three varie¬
ties, from one of which is produced a yellow powder*
fhowing a mpft curious and wonderful mechanifm when
examined by the microfcope. The leaves have a ftrong
aromatic fmell, and acrid tafte ; and are recommended,
in a decoftion of fkimmed milk, as good in the jaun-*
dice and other diforders of the liver. 2: The conica,
or conic-mufhroom marchantia, with warted leave?,
grows on moift fliady banks by the fides of rivulets,
The leaves are broad, flat, about two inches long, di¬
chotomous,, obtufely lobed, and lie upon one another.
Their furface is of a pale-green glofly colour, curiouf-
ly teffelated with rhomboids! and hexagonal tubercles,
each having a white veficle or wart in the centre, with
a puncture on its head. The leaves have a peculiar '
ftrong fragrant fmell, and acrid aromatic tafte. They
are fuppofed to poffefa the fame attenuating quality
as the firft, but in a higher degree. They are alfo
recommended as an antifcorbutic, and for thinning the-
blood.
MARCHE, a province of France, bounded on the
north-
MAR [ 560 ] MAR
Ma-chena north by Berry, on the eaft by Auvergne, on the weft
(! by Angoumois, and on the fouth By Limoftn. It is
. (tlc‘anUS' about 55 miles in length, and 25 in breadth, and is
pretty fertile in corn and wine. •
MARCHENA, an handfome, ancient, and confi-
derable town of Spain, in Andalufia, with the title of
a duchy, and a fuburb as large as the town, feated in
the middle of a plain, particularly fertile in olives,
though very deftitute of water. W. Long. 5-. 20.
N. Lat. 37. 20.
MARCHERS, or Lords-Marchers, werethofe
noblemen that lived on the marches of Wales or Scot¬
land ; who, in times paft, according to Cambden, had
their laws, and potejlatem vita, &c. like petty kings,
which are abolifhed by the ftat. 27 H. 8. c. 26. and
1 Edw. 6. c. 10. In old records the lords marches of
Wales were ftyled Marchianes de Marchia IValiie. See
1 fcf 2 P. Cf M. c. 15.
MARCHES (marchia), from the German march,
i, e. limes, or from the French marque, viz. fignum,
(being the notorious diftinftion between two countries
or territories), are the limits between England and
Wales, or between England and Scotland, which laft
are divided into weft and middle marches, 4 Hen. 5.
c. 7. 22 Ed. 4. c. 8. 24 Hen. 8. c. 9. And there
was formerly a court called the court of the marches of
Wales, where pleas of debt or damages, not above
the value of 50 pounds, were “tried and determined ;
and if the council of the marches held plea for debts
above that fum, &c. a prohibition might be awarded.
Hill. ] 4. Car. i. Cro. Car. 3 8.
MARCHET, or Marchetta, a pecuniary fine,
anciently paid by the tenant to his lord, for the mar¬
riage of one of the tenant’s daughters. This cuftom
obtained, with fome difference, throughout all Eng¬
land and Wales, as alfo in Scotland; and it ftill con¬
tinues to obtain in fome places. According to the
cuftom of the manor of Dinover in Caermarthenftiire,
every tenant at the marriage of his daughter pays ten
fhillings to the lord ; which, in the Britilh language,
is called givabr-merched, i. e. maid's fee.
In Scotland, and the north parts of England, the
cuftom was, for the lord to lie the firft night with the
bride of his tenant: but this ufage was abrogated by
king Malcom III. at the inftance of his queen ; and,
inftead thereof, a mark was paid by the bridegroom
to the lord: whence it was called marcheta mulieris.
See BoRouGH-Engllfh.-
MARCIANA Silva (anc. geog.), a foreft fitu-
ated between the Rauraci and the Danube, before it
pomes to be navigable; a part of the Hercyrria. Now
.Schwartzwald, or Black Forejl, in the fouth-weft of
Suabia, near the rife of the Danube and Neckar.
MARC1ANUS, a native of Thrace, born of an
obfeure family. After he had for fome time ferved in
. the army as a common foldier, he was made private fe-
cretary to one of the officers of Theodofius. His win¬
ning addrefs and uncommon talents raifedhim to high¬
er ftations ; and on the death of Theodofius II. A. D.
450, he was invefted with the imperial purple in the
eaft. The fubjedts of the Roman empire had reafon
-to be fatisfied with their choice. Marcianus ftiowed
himfelf aftive and refolute; and when Attila, the
barbarous king of the Huns, afked of the empe-
N° 194.
ror the annual tribute, which the indolence and cow- Mardo-
ardice of his predecefibrs had regularly paid, the fuc- n‘te5,
ceffor of Theodofius firmly faid, that he kept his gold
for his friends, but that iron was the metal which he
had prepared for his enemies. In the midft of univer-
fal popularity Marcianus died, after a reign of fix-years,
in the 69th year of his age, as he was making warlike
preparations againft the barbarians that had invaded
Africa. His death was Ippg lamented ; and in¬
deed his m.erit was great, finCe his reign has been di-
ftinguiftied by the appellation of the golden age. Mar¬
cianus married Pulcheria the fifter of his predeceffor.
It is faid,.that in the years of his obfeurity he found
a man who had been murdered, and -that he had the
humanity to give him a private burial; for which cir-
cumftance he was accufed of the homicide, and imprifon-
ed. He was-condemned to lofe his life; and the fentence
would have been executed, had not the teal murderer
been difeovered, and convinced the world, of the inno¬
cence of Marcianus. Another emperor of the eaft,
A. D. 479, &c.
MARCIONITES, or Marcionists, Marcionifla,
a very ancient and popular fedi of heretics, who,
in the time of St Epiphanius, ,were fpread over Italy,
Egypt, Paleftine, Syria, Arabia, Perfia, and other
countries : they were thus denominated from their au¬
thor Marcion.. Marcion was of Pontus, the fon of
a bifhop, and- at firft made profeffion of the monaftical
life ; but he was excommunicated by his own father,
who would never admit him again into the communion
of the church, not even on his repentance. On this
he abandoned his own country, and fetired to Ron e,
where he began to broach his doftrines
He laid down two principles, the one good, tire
other evil: between thefe they imagined an interme¬
diate kind of deity of a mixed nature, who was the
creator of this inferior world, and the god and legif-
lator of the Jewifh nation: the other nations, who
worfhipped a variety of gods, were fuppofed to be un¬
der the empire of the evil principle. Thefe two con-
flicling powers exercife oppreffions upon rational and
immortal fouls ; and therefore the fupreme God, to de¬
liver them from bondage, fent to the Jews a being
more like unto himfelf, even his fon Jefus Chrift,
clothed with a certain fhadowy refemblance of a body:
this celeftial meffenger was attacked by the prince of
darknefs, and by the god of the Jews, but without
effeft. Thofe who follow the direftions of this ce¬
leftial conduftor, mortify the body by failings and
aufterities, and renounce the precepts of the god of the
Jews, and of the prince of darknefs, ihall after-death
afeend to the manfions of felicity and perfe&ion. The
rule of manners which Marcion preferibed to, his fol¬
lowers was exceifively auftere, containing an exprefs
prohibition of wedlock, wine, fleih, and all the ex¬
ternal comforts of life.
Marcion denied the real birth, incarnation, and paf-
fion of Jefus. Chrift, and held them to be all apparent
only. He denied the refurreftion of the body ; and
allowed none to be baptized but thofe who preferred
their continence ; but thefe, he granted, might be
baptiztd three times. In many things he followed the
fentiments of the heretic Cerdon, and rejedled the law
and the prophets. He pretended the gofpcl had been
3 corrupted
MAR L 561 1 M A P,
W&rd*es fomipted by falfe prophets, and allowed none of the
R evangelifts but St Lvike, whom alfo he altered in many
arg' places as well as the epiftles of St Paul, a great many
things in Which he threw out. In his own copy of
St Luke he threw out the twwfirft chapters entire.
MARCITES, MARCiraE, a feft of heretics in the
fecond centuiy, who alfo called themfelves the perfetli,
and made profeffion of doing every thing with a great
deal of liberty and without any fear. This doftrine
they borrowed from Simon Magus, who however was
not their chief; for they were called Marches from
one Marcus, who conferred the prieflhood, and the
adminiilration of the facramonts, on women.
MARCO Polo, Paolo, or Paulo. See Paulo.
MARCOMANNI, an ancient people of Germany,
who feem to have taken their name from their fitua-
tion on the limits or marches, to the eaft of the High¬
er Rhine, and the north of, the Danube. CJuverius
allots to them the duchy of Wurtemburg, a part of
the palatinate between the Rhine and the Necker, the
Brifgau, and a part of Suabia, lying between the
fprings of the Danube and the river Bregentz : they
afterwards removed to the Country of the Boii, whom
they expelled and forced to withdraw more to the eaft,
occupying what is now called Bohemia. (Strabo, Vel¬
leius. )
MARCOSIANS, or Colobarsians, an ancient
fe£I in the church, making a branch of the Valen-
TINTANS.
St Irenfeus Tpeaks at large of the leader of this fe<ft,
Marcus, who it feems was reputed a great magician.
The Marcofians had a great number of apocryphal
b'tfoks which they held for canonical, and of the fame
authority with ours. Out of thefe they picked feve-
ral idle fables touching the infancy of Jefus Chrift,
which they put off for true hiftorics. Many of thefe
fables are ftill in ufe and credit among the Greek
rtionks.
MAR'CULUS, among the Romans, a knocker
or inftrument of iron to knock at the doors with.
MARCUB (Aurelius Antoninus). See Antoni-
KUS.
MARDIKERS, or Topasses, a mixed breed of
Dutch, Portuguefe, Indians, and other nations, incor¬
porated with die Dutch at Batavia, in the Eaft In¬
dies.
MARE, the female of the horfe kind. See the ar¬
ticle E<yjus, and Horse.
Before a mare is covered, fhe ftiould be in the
houfe about fix weeks, during which time (he ftiould
be well fed with good hay and oats well lifted ;
and in order to render her conception the more cer¬
tain, near a •quart of blood may be taken from each
fide of her neck, about five or fix days before cover¬
ing. Another method to bring a mare in feafon and
make her retain, is to give her, for the fpace of eight
days before you bring her to the horfe, about two
quarts of hemp-feed in the morning, and as much at
night; and if (he refufes to eat it, to mingle it with a
little bran or oats, or elfe to let her fall for a while :
and if the ftallion alfo eat of it, it will greatly con¬
tribute to generation.
Mares go with foal 11 months, and as many days
as they are years old ; and therefore the propereft
Vol. X. Part II.
time for covering them is in the beginning of June, Mareotir,
that they may foal the May following, when there will ,v1drc
be plenty of grafs, which will afford the mares a great v ‘ *
abundance of milk for nourifliing their foals. Af¬
ter covering, let her, for three weeks or a month,
have the fame diet as before, and be kept cleah
in the liable, with her feet well pared and thin (hod:
If (he cannot readily bring forth, hold her noftrils fo as-
to ftop her taking wind ; and if that will not do, dif-
folve madder, to the quantity of a walnut, in a pint of
ale and give it her warm. In cafe (he cannot void \\tx
fecundine, or after-burden, boil two or three handfuls
of fennel in running water ; then put half a pint of
that liquor into as much fack, or, for want thereof,
into a pint of ale, with a fourth part of falad-oil,
mixed together, and pour it lukewarm into her no¬
ftrils, holding them clofe for fome time. Otherwife,
give her green wheat, or rye, the laft of which, is
belt.
If the mare has but little milk, boil as much as
you can get from her with the leaves of lavender
and fpike, and bathe the udder with it warm, till the
knobs and knots are diffolved. She flrould now drink
only white water, which is bran put into water ; give
her alfo fweet mafties: and a month after foaling, let
her have a maftr with fome brimftone or favin in it.
MAREOTIS, a lake in Egypt near Alexandria.
Its neighbourhood was famous’for wine ; though feme
make the Marntinm •virum grow in Epirus, or in
a certain part of Libya, called alfo Mareotis, near E-
gyp1*
MARETS (Jean de), a Parifian, one of the fineft
geniufes ofthe 17th century, became at laft avifionary
and a fanatic. He was a great favourite of cardinal
Richelieu, and poffcffed an employment of genius un- «
der him ; for he was called upon to relax and divert
him, after the fatigue of bufinefs, by facetious conver-
fation. He ufed, in order to triumph over the virtue
of women, when they objebled to him the intereft of
their falvation, to lead them into atheiftical principles.
He was a member of the French academy from its rirft
ereftion. He wrote feveral dramatic pieces, which
were well received. He attempted an epic poem; but
after fpending feveral years about it, dropped the de-
fign to write books of devotion. Helikewife wrote ro¬
mances; but not fuch virtuous ones as ufed to be written
at that time. He was a declared enemy of the Jan-
fenifts. His vifions are well deferibed by the Meffieurs
de Port Royal. He promifed the king of France, by
the explication of prophecies, the honour of ovei throw¬
ing the Mahometan empire. In his laft years he wrote
fomething againft Boileau’s Satires.
Marets (Samuel de), one of tfie moft celebrated
divines of the reformed church, was born in Picardy,
in 1599. In 1620, he was fettled in the church of
Laon; but, in 1624, accepted a call to that of Sedan
in 1642, he obtained a prdfefforfliip at Groningen ;
and, from that time to his death, exerted himfelf fo-
much in the fervice of that univerfity, that it was rec¬
koned one of the moft flouriflnng in the Netherlands.
His Syftem of Divinity was found to be fo methodi¬
cal, that it was made ufe of at other academies ; and
at the end of it may be found a chronological table of
all his works. Their number is prodigious; and their
4 B variety
M A R [ 562 ] MAR
Ma^oret. variety fliows the extent of his genius. He was more*
\ over engaged in many difputes and controverfies, and
died in 1673.
MARGARET (St), a celebrated virgin who, as
is fuppofed, received the crown of martyrdom at An¬
tioch in the year 275 : the manner of her death is
not known. The ancient martyrologifts make no men¬
tion of her name, and fhe did not become famous till
the 11 th century. There is no more foundation for
what is faid concerning her relics and girdles than
for the ftories which are told of her life. A feftival,
however, is Hill held in honour of her memory on the
20th of July : See Bail let’s Lives of the Saints for that
day. “ Her actions (fays this author) have been fo
falfified and altered, in the opinion even of Meta-
phraftus, that the Romilh church have not thought
proper to infert any of them into their breviary. The
Orientals pay reverence to her ~by the name o£ Saint
Pelagia or Saint Marina, and the weftern church by
that of Saint Geruma or. Saint Margaret.
Margaret, the daughter and heirefs of Florent
count of Holland, who is famous on account of a ftory
repeated by a hundred compilers even of the prefent
century. Having refufed charity to a woman whom
flie at the lame time accufed of adultery, lire was,, as
a puniflrment from God, brought to bed (A^D. 1276)
©f 365 children, partly boys and partly girls. The
hoys, it is added, were all named John, and the girls
Elizabeth. This ftory is reprefented in a large paint¬
ing in a village not far from the Hague ; and by the
fide of the painting- are feen two large bafons of brafs,.
on which it is. pretended the 365 children were pre-
fented to be baptifed. But if a pifture is a fufficient
authority for the truth of any thing, it is impoffible
to tell how many fables would be fully attefted. It
has been remarked^ that the moft ancient annals.are
altogether iilent concerning; this fact; and that it is
related only by modern writers, who befides do not
agree with one another concerning either the, date of
time, or the life of the countefs, or the number of
the children 5 and in ihort, that Naffau, who was at
that time biihop of Utrecht, was called John, and not
Gui, as the chronicles declare. Several learned men
have endeavoured to trace the caufe which co6ld have
given rife to a. relation fo extraordinary. M. Struik
fixed upon the epitaphs of the mother and fon^ which
appeared to him worthy of forae attention ; andj.. in.
conformity to the dates which they bear, he fuppofed
that the countefs was brought to bed on Good-Friday
1276, which was the 26th of March. Now, as the
year then began on the 25th of the fame month, there
were only two days of the. year elapfed when the coun¬
tefs was brought to bed, which eircumftance caufed it
to be faid that fhe had brought into the world as many chil¬
dren'as there were days in the year. In fact only two
children are mentioned in hiftovy, John and Eliza¬
beth. The fable thus explained is only a common
event, wherein there is nothing of the marvellous, but
in confequence of a double meaning in the exprefiion.
Later writers, who have not examined this circum-
ftance, have afcribed 365 children to the1 countefs.
(Journal des Savans, February, 1758, on the Gene¬
ral Hiftory of the United Provinces.)
Margaret (countefs of Richmond and Derby),
the learned and pious mother of Henry VII. was bom Margaret,
at Betihoe in Bedfordfhire, in 1441; and was the foie '—^
heirefs of John Beaufort duke of Somerfet, graridfon
to John of Gaunt. Her mother was the heirefs of
Lord Beauchamp of Powick. Whilft yet very young,
the great duke of Suffolk, minifter to Henry VI. or
rather to Queen Margaret, fought her in marriage to
his fon \ and ihe was at the fame time folicited by the
king for his half-brother Edmund earl of Richmond.
To the latter fne gave her hand. Henry VII. was the
foie fruit, of this marriage, his father dying when he
was but 15 weeks old. Her fecond hufband was Sir
Flenry Stafford, knight, fecond fon to the duke of
Buckingham ; by whom ftie had no iffue. Soon after
.his death, which happened in the year 1482, fhe
fought coofolation in a third hufband, Thomas Lord
Stanley, who, in the, firft year of her fon’s reign,
was created earl of Derby. He died in the year 1504,,
without iffue, being then high conftable of England;
She furvived her lord not quite five years, dying at
Weftminfter in June 1509, in the 69th year of her
age. She was buried in Henry VII.’s chapel; on
the fouth fide of which was eretfed to her memory
an - altar-tpmb of black marble, with her ftatue of.
brafs.
From her funeral fermon preached By her confeffor
bifhop Fifher, who, fays Ballard, knew the very fecrets .
of her foul, we learn, “ that fhe poffeffed almoft ail
things that were commendable in a woman,, either in-
mind or body.” She underftood the French language
perfe&ly, and had fome knowledge of the Latin. She-
was devout even to aufterity, in humility romantic,,
profufe in the encouragement of learning, and Angu¬
larly chafte; but this laft virtue became confpicuous
only towards the latter end of a third marriage. “ In >
her laft hufband’s days (fays Baker), fhe obtained a
licence of him to live chafte, whereupon fhe took upon,
her the vow of celibacy.” ‘ A boon (fays Mr Wal¬
pole), as feldom requefted, I believe, of a. third huf¬
band, as it probably would be eafily granted.’ Her
life, from the turbulence, of the times, and viciffitude
of her fon’s fortune, muff neceffarily have been fubje<5t
to infinite difquiet, which however fhe is faid to have
fupported with lingular fortitude.—She wrote, 1. The
mirroure of golde for the finful foule, tranflated from
a French, tranflation of a book called Speculum aureum
peccatorum. Emprynted at London, in Fletefftrete,
at the figne of St George, by Richard Pynfon, quarto,
with cuts-on vellum. 2. Tranffation of the fourth,
book of Dr.Gerfen’s treatife of the imitation and fol¬
lowing the bleffed life of our moft merciful Saviour
Chrift. Printed at the end of Dr Wm. Atkinfon’s:
Englifh tranllation of the three firft books, 1504. 3. A.
letter to the king; in Howard’s colle&ion. 4. By
her fon’s order and authority, Hie alio made the Orders
for great eftates of ladies and- noble women, for their
precedence, and wearing of barbes at funerals, over
the chin*and under the fame.
Margaret, the daughter of Woldemar III. king
of; Denmark, ftylej the Semiramis of the North : Ihe
fuceeeded her father in the throne of Denmark, her
hufband in.that of Norway, and the crown of Sweden
was given her as a recompence for delivering the
Swedes from the tyranny of Albert their king. Thus
poffeffed
MAR [ 563 ] MAR
Margarita poflefTed of the three kingdoms. The formed the grand
|| political defigft of a perpetual union, which ihe ac-
Margari* complifhedj /ro tempore only, by the famous treaty
^ t!l11' , flyled the union of Colmar,. She. died in 1412, aged 59.
Maroarf.t of Anjou, daughter of Rene D’Anjou,
king of Naples, and wife of Henry VI. king of Eng.
land; an ambitious, enterprifing, Courageous woman.
Intrepid in the field, the fignaJifed herfelf by heading
her troops in feveral battles againft the houfe of York;
and if ihe had not been the authorefs of her hufband’s
misfortunes, by putting to death the duke of Gloir-
cefter his uncle, her name would have been immorta-
lifed for the fortitude, activity, and policy with which
fhe fupported the rights of her hufband and fon, till
the fatal defeat at Tewklbury ; which put an end to
all her enterprifes, the king being taken prifoner, and
.prince Edward their only fon bafely murdered by Ri¬
chard duke of York. Margaret was ranfomed by her
father, and died in Anjou in 1482, See England,
n~ 201—226.
Margaret, (duchefs of Newcaftle.) See Caven¬
dish.
MARGARITA, or Pearl-island, an ifland of
-South America, the middle of which is feated in W.
JLong. 64. 2. N. Lat. 11. 30.^ It was difcovered by
-Columbus, and is about 35 leagues in compafs. The
foil is very fertile in maize and fruits, and abounds in
pafture and verdant groves; yet is totally deftitute of
freih water, which the inhabitants are obliged to bring
from the continent. When the Spaniards firft landed
here, they found the natives bufy in fiihing for oyfters,
Columbus ordered feme of the favages aboard his Ihip,
■who were fo far from being terrified, that they very
fioon becanft familiar with the Spaniards. The latter
at firfl: imagined that the oyfters ferved them for food ;
«i>ut on opening the {hells, they found they contained
Valuable pearls. Upon this difeovery they immedi¬
ately landed, and found the natives ready to part with
"their pearls for the mereft trifles. In procefs of time
the Spaniards built -a caftle, called Monpadre, and em¬
ployed prodigious numbers of Guinea and Angola ne¬
groes in the pearl-filhery; cruelly forcing them to tear
up the oyfters from the rocks to which they ftuck, du¬
ring which time many of them were deftroyed by the
(harks and other voracious fifties. In 1620, this
ifland was invaded by the Dutch, who demoliftied the
-caftle upon it: fince which time it has been in a man¬
ner abandoned by the Spaniards; and is now princi¬
pally inhabited by the natives, to whom fome particu¬
lar indulgences were granted by the court of Spain,
on account of their ready fubmiffion to Columbus.
MARGARITA, the Pearl, in natural hiftory.
See Pearl, and Mya.
MARGARITINI, are glaf* ornaments, made at
Venice of fmall glafs tubes of different colours, which
are blown at Murano, and which the women of the
lower clafs wear about their arms and necks. The
largeft fort are ufed for making rofaries. This work
is performed with great difpatch, the artifan taking a
whole handful of thofe tubes at once, and breaking
them off one after another with an iron tool. Thefe
ftiort cylinders are mixed with a kind of aflies, and put
over the fire in an'iron pan; and when the two ends
begin to melt, by ftirring them -about with an iron
wire, they are brought to a round figure ; but care Margin,
is taken not to leave them too long over the fire, left Mnhattar,
• the hole through which they are to be ftrung ftiould v
be entirely clofed by the melting of the glafs. There
are feveral ftreets at Francefco de Vigna entirely inha¬
bited by people whofe foie occupation is to make and
ftring thefe margaritini.
MARGATE, a fea-port town of Kent, on the
north fide of the ifle o"f Thanet, Hear the North-Fore¬
land. It is noted for (hipping vaft quantities of corn
(moft, if not all, the product of-that ifland) for Lon¬
don ; and has a falt-water bath at the poft-houfe,
which has performed great cores in nervous and para¬
lytic cafes, and numbnefs of the limbs. It lies in St
John’s pari(h, which is a member of the port of Do¬
ver, at the diftance of 14 miles, and 12 from Canter¬
bury, and 72 from London ; and in the fummer fea-
fon is frequented for fea-bathing, having become one
of the principal watering-places for the idle, the opu¬
lent, and the invalid, where they meet with every re-
quiiite accommodation ; and tha adjacent country &-
bounds with moft extenfive profpects and pleafant rides,
E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat, 51. 24.
MARHATTAS, Merhattahs, Marattas, or
Mahrattas ; a people of India, and by far the moft
conliderable of all the Hindoo powers. The Marhat-
tas boaft a very high antiquity ; they profefs the reli¬
gion of Brama; fpeak ia dialed! of the Sanfcrit lan¬
guage, in which they have introduced all the techni¬
cal terms of. Moghul adminiftration ; ufe a character
of their own in writing, though not very different
from fome of the other tribes around them ; and are
divided into four cafts or claffes of people, with the
various fubdivifions of profeflional diftinfction found
over the reft of Hindoftan, but with this remarkable
difference, that among the Marhattas every individual
may, as in (aft he occafionally does, follow the life of
a foldier.
As a nation inhabiting immemorially the country
properly denominated Marhat or Merhat, and com¬
prehending the greater part of the Paiftnva’s prefent
dominion in the Decan, they were completely fubj 11-
gated, and afterwards for many centuries deprefled,
firft by the Patans, then by the Moghul conquerors
of Delhi. 4kt length, towards the end of Alemgeer’s
reign, they united, rebelled, and under the famous
Senvajee or Seeva-jee, a leader of their own tribe, laid
the foundations of their prefent vaft empire, which
has rifen gradually on the ruins of the Mahomedan
power, as related under the article H-indostan, p. 531,
par. 6.
Seeva-jee v/as fucceeded by his fon Rajah Sahou,
who confiderably extended the Marhatta dominions.
When Rajah Sahou grew old and infirm, and the fa- ^htchei rt~
tigues of government began to prefs heavy upon him, Utiig to tbs
he appointed Biffonat Balajee, a Brahman born at Hindoos,-
Gokum, and leader of about 25,000 liorfe, to the of-vo1'jA „
fice of Paiftiwa or vicegerent. 2 0’
Rajah Sahou died without iffue, but left nephews
by his brother. The courage and wifdom of Balajee
had gained him, during the latter years of the old
Rajah, the affedtion and elleem of all the nation. But,
under an appearance of modefty and felf-denial, his
prevailing pafiion was ambition; and the fentiments
4 B 2 of
:
M A R
L 5% 1
MAR
i. of gratitude and loyalty were abforbed in the defire to withdraw; but as they either knew him not to be Marhatta*, j
J to command. He made ufe of the influence he had fincere, or thought they had proceeded too far to re- 
acquired under his benefaftor fo firmly to eftablifh his treat, they Rabbed Narr'ain with their poignardswhiHl ' J|
own power, that he not only retained the high office he clung to his uncle’s.knees.
of Paifhwa during his life, but tranfmitted it to his The office of Paiffiwa being now vacant, the chiefs
pofterity. The Marhattas, gradually forgetting a of the nation then at Poonah were affembled, and Ro-
prince they knew nothing of, became accuftomed to gobah being the only furvivor of the family of Biflb*
obey his vicegerent only : yet a certain refpeft for the nat Balajee, to whofe memory the Marhattas in thofe
royal race, or the dread of the confequence of vie*- parts are enthuliaftically attached, he was named to
lating the ftrong prejudice which the nation Hill re- fill it. Being naturally of a warlike temper, he re¬
tains in favour of the family of its founder, have fer- folved to undertake fome foreign expedition; for be-
ved perhaps to preferve it; and the defendants of fides gratifying his paffion for the field, he probably
Rajah Sahou’s nephews yet exill, but are kept in cap- hoped, by the fplendour of his exploits,-to draw off
tivity in the palace at Sattarah. The eldeft is ftyled the attention of the public from inquiring into the
Ram Rajah, or fbvereign ; his name is on the feal and late cataftrophe.
• coin of the Marhatta ftate ; but his perfon is unknown, A pretence for war was not difficult to be found,
except to thofe who immediately furround him. He He renewed the claim of his nation to the chout, and
refides in his fplendid prifon, encompaifed with the marched his army towards Hydrobad, the capital of
appendages of eafteru grandeur, but debarred of all the Nizam. The vigour of his raeafnres procured him
power, and kept totally ignorant of bufinefs. The an accommodation of his demand; and he was pro?-
feat of government was transferred from the ancient ceeding to enforce a fimilar one upon the Carnatic,
royal refidence of Sattarah to Poonah ; and the ufur- when he received intelligence which obliged him to re-
per, as well as his fucceflbrs, feem ftill to have a&ed turn haftily to Poonah.
under the fuppofed authority of the depofed prince, Although the Marhatta chiefs had acknowledged
Rogobah as Paiffiwa, yet they and the people in ge- f
neraJ were much diflatisfied with his conduct. The
murderers of Narrain Row had not.only efcaped pu-
nilhment, but, as was reported, had been rewarded. |j
The crime was unexampled* and the perpetrators were
beheld with uncommon horror and detellation. The
Paifhwa had hitherto fo fully pofleffed the love of the
by their affuming no other title or charadter than that
of Paifhwa or prime-minifter. From this change, the
empire of the Ram-Rajah has been diftinguifhed only
by the appellation of the Pai/hwafolp, or otherwife
the Government of Poonah, from the name of its pre¬
fect capital.
Biffonat Balajee was fucceeded as Paifhwa by his
eldedfon Balajee Row (called alfa Nana Saheh, or Nanah people, that, till then,, guards were confidered as u
Row), who left three fons, the eldeft of whom, Ba- neceflary about the perfon of a man whofe charafter
lajee Pundit, fometimes called Nanah Pundit, fucceed- rendered him inviolable. Every one therefore had
ed him. The two others were Rogobah or Ragonat free accefs to his palace, and he relied with confidence
Row, and Shamfheer Row. for his fafety upon the affe&ions of thofe wdio ap^
Balajee Pundit left two fons; Mahadava Row, who preached him.
was Paifhw*a twelve years;-and Narrain Row, who fuc- Thefe refledfions operated powerfully upon the
ceeded him. minds of the Marhattas ; but perhaps no violent com-
During the latter part of the life of Mahadava Row, fequences would have enfued, had it not been difeover-
,h?s uncle Rogobah was confined to the palace at Poo- ed, foon after the departure of Rogobah from Poo-
. nah,, for reafons with which we are not acquainted, nah, that the widow of Narrain Row, Ganga Baee,
Mahadava Row died without iflue ; and upon the ac- was pregnant. This determined their wavering refo-
ceffion of Narrain his brother, a youth of about 19 lutions. Frequent confultations were held among the
years of age, Rogobah in vain applied to be releafed principal men then in the capital; and it was finally
from his confinement. He is therefore fufpedfed of refolved to‘abjure the allegiance they had fworn to
having entered into a confpiracy with two officers in Rogobah,, and declare the child, yet unborn, to be
his nephew’s ferviee, Somair Jing and Yufuph Gardie, the legal fucceffor of the late Pailhwa.
in order to procure that by force which he could not A council of regency was immediately appointed
obtain by intreaty. The correfpondence between the to govern the country until the child fhould become of
confpirators was carried on with fo much fecrecy, that age , and it was agreed to referve their deliberations,
the court had not the leaft intimation «r fufpicion of in cafe it fhould prove a female or die, till the event
their defign, till every avenue leading to the palace
had been fecured, and the whole building furrounded
fey the troops under the command of thofe two offi-
It is faid, that on the firft alarm, Narrain Row,
ffiould render them neceflary. The jwho principally
conduced thefe meafures, and whofe names will on
that account be remembered, were Sackharam Babou
and Balajee Pundit, called alfo Nanah Pher Nevees
fufpe&ing his uncle, ran to his apartment, threw him- from his having been long the principal Secretary of
felf. at his feet, and implored his protection : “ You
are my uncle (faid he), fpare the blood of your own
family, and take poffeffion of a government which I
am willing to refign to you.”
Somair and Yufuph entered the room whilft the
young Pailhwa was in this fuppliant pofture. Rogo-
the Marhatta ftate.. Nine other Marhatta leaders ap¬
proved of thefe meafures, and fwore to maintain them.,
As the firft ftep towards tlie execution of their plan,
the widow of Narrain Row was conveyed to Poorend-
her, a fort of great ftrength, fituated on a high moun¬
tain, about 25 miles from Poonah. As foon as Ro-
bah, with apparent furprife and anger, ordered them gobah received intimation of this revolution, he march¬
ed
MAR [ 565 ] M A R
Msrhatta-. ed back towards the capital. But difcontent had al-
*-—v— ready infedted his troops ; fome of the chiefs retired
to their eltates, and others joined the ftandard of the
regents. He however rifktd a battle with an army of
the revolters commanded by Trimbec Row, in which
the latter was (lain ; but though he obtained a victo¬
ry, the ilrength of* the confederates daily increared,
while his own troops were diminilhed by continual de-
fertions. He therefore found it nece'lfary to retire to
Ugein, and to folicit the afiiltance of the Marhatta
chiefs Sindia and Holkar; but meeting with a refu-
fal, he went to Surat, and applied for fuccour to the
Englilh.
Rogobah’s fuccefs in this application was the caufe
' of two wars with the Marhatta ftate ; which, after
much waite of blood and treafure, we were obliged
to conclude by relinquiihing his claim, and acknow¬
ledging as legal Paifhwa the fon of Narrain Row, who
was born about feven months after the death of his
father. See India, n°.i2i and 152; alfo Hindostan,
m 21.
The Marhatta dominions, as already obferved, are
governed by a number of feparate chiefs, all of whom
acknowledge tlje Ram Rajah as their fovereign; and
all, except Moodajee Boonfalah, own the Paiihwa as
his vicegerent. The country immediately fubjedt to
the Paifhwa, including all the hereditary territories
that were left by the Rajah Sahou to tire Ram Rajah,
and thofe that have been acquired and added to them
fmce irt his name, extends along the coaft nearly from
Goa to Cambay; on the fouth it borders on the pof-
feffions of Tippoo Saib, eaitward on thofe of the
Nizam and of the Marhatta Rajah of Berar, and to¬
wards the north on thofe of the Marhatta chiefs Sin¬
dia and Holkar.
Moodajee Boonfalah, Rajah of. Berar, pofleffes, be.-
fides Berar, the greateft part of Orixa (fee. Hindo¬
stan, p. 532, par. 6. ). This prince being defcended
from the line of the Ram Rajah, eyes the povver of the
Paiihwa, by whom a branch of his family is kept in
ignominious confinement, with ill-will; has often re¬
in fed to fupport hismeafures; and, on fome occafions,
has even fecmed inclined to adl againll him-
Next to Moodajee, in point of importance, muft
be ranked Madajee Sindla, a bold and,afpinug chief,
who poflelles the greateit part of the extenfive fouba-
dary oy government of Malva, together with part of
the province, of Candeifh. The remainder is under
the dominion of Holkar. Both he and Sindia pre¬
tend to be defeended from the ancient kings of Malva.
Sindia refides chiefly at Ugein, near the city of Mun-
du, once the capital of thefe kings; . and Holkar at
Indoor, a town little more than 39 miles well of it.
The dominions of thefe, and of fome chiefs of lefs
confequence, extend as far as the river Jumna. .
The meafures purfued by the Marhattas for fome
years left little room to doubt that they afpired at tire
fovereignty of all Hindoilan, or at leaii at the expul-
fion of the Mahomedan princes : And in this lall de-
t An IVJlt- fign they appear- to have fucceededf, and to have
'vortical Sained a yreat accelfion of territory, through the arms
y'e’Lu'of tie oi Sindia* both by the capture of the cities of Agra and
Decan! Delhi, with their territorial dependencies, and the con-
fequent captivity of the unfortunate monarch who ruled
there as the laft imperial reprefentative of the great Maria
Moghul race of Timur. “ The whole of the dominion .. K
thus newly eflabliflied is of vail extent, llretching near ‘ *"
120a miles along the frontiers of Tippoo and the
Nizam in a north-eall direction, from Goa on the Ma¬
labar ccall to Balafore in Orifla adjoining to Bengal;
and from thence north-wellerly 1000 miles more,
touching the confines of the Britilh and allied Hates,
on the borders of the Ganges and Jumna, to the ter¬
ritory of the Sieks at Paniput, rendered famous in
1761 for the lall memorable defeat fullained by the
Marhattas in their ambitious contell for empire with
the united declining power of the Mahomedans. From
this place, in a foutherly courfe, with great encroach •
ment on the old eallern boundary of the Rajepoot
country of Ajmere, it runs about 26b. miles to the '
little Hindoo principality of Kotta, and thence fouth-
wellerly 540 miles further to the extreme point of
the foubah of Gujerat atDuarka, including the whole
of thatTertile province ; from whence, along the fea-
coalls of Cambay and Malabar to Goa, the diftance
may be reckoned 800 miles. Thus the overgrown
empire of the Marhattas may be faid to extend call
19 degrees of longitude, near the parallel of 22 de¬
grees north latitude, from, the mouths of the Indus
to thofe of the Ganges, and about 13 degrees of la¬
titude north, from the Killnah to Paniput; compre¬
hending at leall an area of 400,000 fquare geogra¬
phic miles,, being confiderably more than. a. third part
of Hindollan, including the Decan, and equal per¬
haps in.dimenfions to all the Britiih and allied Hates
in India, with .thofe of Golconda and Myforc, taken
together.”
MARIA, or Sancta Maria, an ifland of the In¬
dian.Ocean,.lying about five miles eafi from Madagaf-
car. It is about 27 miles long and five broad; well
watered,, and furrounded by rocks. The air is ex¬
tremely moifl, for it rains almofi every ddy. It is in¬
habited by 500 or 600 negroes, but feldom vifited by
fliips.
Maria (St}, a confiderable toyvn of South Ame- -
rica, in the audience, of Panama, built by the Spaniards
after-they had difeovered the gold mines near it,* and
foon after taken .by the Englifh. It is fcated at the
bottom of the Gulf of St Michael, at the mouth of a
river of the fame name; which is navigable, and the
largefi that falls into the gulf. The Spaniards come
here every year in. the dfy feafon, . which continues
three months, to gather the gold-dull' out of the fands
of the neighbouring fireams;.and carry away great
quantities. W. Long. 148. 30. N. Lat. 7. o.
Maria (St), a handfome and confiderable town
of Spain, in Andalufia, with a fmall cafile. It was ta¬
ken by the Englifli and Dutch in 1702, for.the arch¬
duke of Aufiria. It is feated on the Guadaleta, at
the mouth, of which is a tower and a clofe battery..
W. Long. 5. 33. N. Lat: 36. 35.
MARIAN islands.. See Ladrone IJlands.
MARIANA (John), a learned Spanifh hiHorian,
born at Talavera in the diocefe of Toledo. He entered
among the Jefuits in 1754, at 17 years of age; and be¬
came one of the mofi learned men of his time. Pie
was a great divine, a good humanifi, and profoundly
verfed in ecclefiallical as well as profane hiltory. He.
taught--
mar [ 566 ] MAR
Msnanus tauglit at Rome, in Sicily, at Paris, and in Spain ;
MarLa aiK^ a* in 1624. His principal works are,
Unte. I* -An excellent hiftory of Spain in 30 books; which
U--V—— he himfelf tranllated from the Latin into* Spanilh,
without fcrvikly following his own Latin edition,
2. Scholia, or fhort notes on the Bible. 3. A trea-
tife on the changes the fpeeie has undergone in Spain;
for which he was thrown into prifon by the duke of
Lerma, the Spanith minilter. 4. A famous treatife
■De rege et regis in/litutione, which made much noife,
and was condemned by the parliament of Paris to be-
burnt by the hands of the common hangman, for his
afierting in that work, that it is lawful to murder ty¬
rants. 5. A work on the faults of the government of
the fociety of Jefuits, which has been tranflated into
'Spanifli, Latin, Italian, French, &c.
MARIANUS scoTus, an Irifh monk, was related
to the Venerable Bede, and wrote a chronicle which
is elleemed. He died in the abb£y of Fuld in io36,
aged /8.
MARIBONE, or St Mary le Bone, or rather
Borne, from the neighbouring brook, a parifli of Mid-
■dlefex, on the north-weft fide of London. The manor
appears to have belonged anciently to the bifhop.of
London. The hoofes in this parifii are very numerous,
comprifingfeveral extenfive ftreetsandfquares, which are
every year increafing. The Paddington road from Ming-
ton paifes through thisjaarilh, which gives it communi¬
cation with the eaftern part of London without pafiing
thro’the ftreets. Here wrerc three conduits erefted about
the year 1238, for fupplying the city of London with
water; but anno 1703, when it was plentifully ferved
by the New-River, the citizens let them out at 7001.
a-year for 43 years. There were two for receiving its
water at the north-eaft corner of the bridge on the ri¬
ver Tyburn, and over them ftood the lord-mayor’s
banquettng-houfe, to which (the ufe of coaches being
not then known) his lordfhip and the aldermen ufed
to ride on horfeback, as their ladies did in waggons.
This banqueting-houfe, after being many years ne-
gledfted, was taken down in 1737, and the cifterns
arched over. This village, if it may be called by that
name, is joined by new buildings to London. The
old church, which was a mean edifice, was pulled
down, and a new one erefted in 1741. Befides which
it has a great number of chapels of every feft and per-
fuaiion, and an extenfive work-houfe for the poor.
MAR1DUNUM (anc. geog.), a town of the De-
metae in Britain. Now Caer Mardin, or Caermarthen,
the capital of Caermarthenihire.
MARIGALANTE, an ifiand of North America,
and one of the leaft of the Caribbees, lies in N. Lat.
16. 32. and W. Long. 61. 5. from London, at the di-
ftance of four leagues from Guadaloupe, to the fouth.
The foil, produce, and climate, are pretty much the
fame as the other Caribbees. Columbus difeovered it
on his fecond American voyage in 1483, and called it
by the name of his flip Maria Galanta, or Gallant
Mary. It is about fix leagues long, and between
three and four broad. Viewed at a diftance from on
board a ftfip, it appears like a floating ifiand, becaufe,
as it is for the moil part flat, the trees fcem to fwim;
but a nearer profpedl fhows it to be interfedled by
fome rifing grounds, which give a fine variety to the
lafidicape. The French fettled here in 1648 ; and it
was taken by the Englifh in 1-691, but the French Marine,
foon got pofteflion of it again. It was again taken by
the Britifh in 1759, but afterwards reftored at the' 'r~~i
peace 1763.—This ifland was thought, on its firft dif-
covery, to wrant water; but a charming running ftream
has in time been difeovered, no Jefs convenient than
refrefiling and wholefome, on the banks of which are
fome wealthy planters, and excellent plantations of fu-
gar.. A little village in a fmall bay is the capital of
the ifiand, and here the commandant refides. The
whole ifiand is very capable of improvement; the foil
being almoft equally good, and the land rifing no
where too high. The coaft affords many little bays,
and fafe anchorage and fhelter to fhips.
MARINE, a general name for the navy of a king¬
dom or ftate ; as alfo the whole economy of naval af¬
fairs ; or whatever refpedts the building, rigging, arm^
ing, equipping, navigating, and fighting fliips. It
- comprehends alfo the government of naval armaments,
and the ftate of all the perfons employed therein, whe¬
ther civil or military.
The hiftory of the marine affairs of any one ftate is
a very comprehenfive fubjeft, much more that of all
nations, Thofe who would be informed of the mari¬
time affairs of Great Britain, and the figure it has made
at fea in all ages, may find abundance of curious mat¬
ter in Selden’s Mare Claufum ; and from his time to
ours, we may trace a feries of fadts in Lediard’s and
Burchet’s Naval Hiftory, but above all in the Lives
of the Admirals, by the accurate and judicious Dr
Campbell.
MARINES, or Marine Forces, a body of foldiers
railed for the fea-fervice, and trai ned to fight either in
a naval engagement or in an adlion afhore.
The great fervice of this ufeful corps was manifefted
frequently in the courfe of the war before laft, particu¬
larly at the fiege of Belleifle, where theyacquireda great
charadter, although lately railed and hardly exercifed
in military difeipline. At fea they are incorporated
with the ihip’s crew, of which they make a part; and
many of them learn in a fhort time to be excellent fea-
men, to which their officers are ordered by the admi¬
ralty to encourage them, although no fea-officer k to
order them to go aloft againft their inclination. In a
fea-fight their imall-arms are of very great advantage
in fcouring the decks of the enemy ; and when they
have been long enough at fea to Hand firm when the
ft)ip rocks, they mull be infinitely preferable tofeamen
if the enemy attempts to board, by railing a battalion
with their fixed bayonets to oppofe him.
The foie direflion of the corps of marines is veiled
in the lords commiffioners of the admiralty ; and in
the admiralty is a dillinft apartment for this purpofe.
The fecretary to the admiralty is likewife fecretary to
the marines, for which he has a falary of L. 300 a-
year; and he has under him feveral clerks for the ma¬
nagement of this department.
The marine forces of Great Britain in the time of
peace are ftationed in three divifions ; one of which is
quartered at Chatham, one at Portfmouth, and another
at Plymouth. By a late regulation, they are ordered
to do duty at the feveral dock-yards-of thofe ports, to
prevent embezzlement of the king’s ftores, for which
a captain’s guard mounts every day ; which certainly
requires great vigilance, as fo many abufes of this kind
have
MAR - [ 567 ] MAR
Marine- have been committed, that many of the inhabitants,
difcipline ha ,*.: been long ufed to an infamous traffic of this
kind, expe£t thefe conveyances at certain periods as
arid"6' tlieir due, and of courfe refent this regulation in the
higheft degree as an infringement of their liberties as
Britilh fubjecls.
The marine corps are under the command of their
. own field-officers, who difcipline them, and regulate
their different duties.—His-late majefty in 1760 form¬
ed a new eftablifhrnent of marine officers, intitled, the
general, lieutenant-general, and three colonels of marines
(one for each divifion), to be taken from officers in
the royal navy. The two firft are always enjoyed by-
flag-officers, the laft by poll-captains only. This ella-
blilhment was formed to reward fuch officers who di-
ftinguilhed themfdves in the fervice of their country.
, MariNE-Difripline, is the training up foldiers for
fea-fervice, in fuch exercifes as the various pofitions of
the firelsck and body, and te&ching them, every ma-
nosuvre that can be performed on board fhips of war at
fea. See Exercise.
M/iRWE-Chair, a machine invented by Mr Irwin
for viewing the fatellites of Jupiter at fea, and of
courfe determining the longitude by their eclipfes. An
account of it is given in the Journal EJlranger for
March 1760. An account of its accuracy was pub-
lilhed the year following by M. de LTfle allronomer
in the imperial academy of Peterfburg:- but notwith-
ftanding the encomiums bellowed upon it by this gen¬
tleman, it hath never come into general ufe; andthere-
fore we may conclude, that it is much inferior to the
inventions of Mr Harrifon for the fame purpofe. See
Harrison and Longitude.
M/irinE-Surveyor, is the name of a machine con¬
trived by Mr H. de Saumarez for meafuring the way
of a fhip in the fea. This machine is in the form of
the letter Y, and is made of iron or any other metal.
At each end of the lines which conllitute the angle or
upper part of that letter, are two pallets, not much
unlike the figure of the log ; one of which falls in the
fame proportion as the other rifes. The falling or
pendant pallet meeting a reli (lance from the water, as
the (hip moves, has by that means a circular motion
under water, which is fafter or flower according as the
veffel moves. This motion is communicated to a dial
within the fhip, by means-of a rope fattened to the
tail of the Y, and carried to the dial. The motion
being thus communicated to the dial, which has a bell
in it, it flrikes exactly the number of geometrical
paces, miles, or leagues, which the fhip has run. Thus
the fhip’s diftance is attained ; and the forces of tides
and currents may alfo be difcovered by this inttru-
ment: which, however* has been very little ufed.
Marine-AcicI, a name given to one of the compo¬
nent parts of iea-falt. An account of various methods
of procuring this acid from common fait, of ' moft of
its chemical properties, and of feveral ufes it may be
put to in the arts, is given under the articles Che¬
mistry, Colour-Making, Bleaching, &c. M. Chap-
tal obierves, that the marine acid cannot be obtained
by diflilling fait with powdered flints. He made the
experiment by mixing ten pounds of hints with two
pounds of fea-falt, but obtained only a mafs of the
colour of litharge, and the fumes were not perceptibly
acid. Clay will decompofe this fait for once, but not
in the fmalleft degree if ufed a fecond time; which Ma
fliows that in all probability the decompofition is ow- ^
ing to a portion of vitriolic acid contained in the clay'. '
In France there is a very impure kind of foda named
Blanquette, which, according to M. Chaptal’s analyfh,
contains 21 pounds of fea-falt out of 25 ; and yet,
when treated with vitriolic acid, affords little 01; no
fpirit of fait, but abundance of volatile fpirit of ful-
phur. Our author afcribes this to the quantity of
charcoal contained in the blanquette, which unites
with the vitriolic acid and volatilizes it: and his con-
jeflures appeared to be right; becaufe, if the coal is
deftroyed by calcination, the blanquette yields ma¬
rine acid in proportion to the quantity of common fait
it contains.
Under the article Bleaching- we have taken no--
tice of the properties of the dephlogifficated acid of
fea-falt in whitening cloth : but though this has been
often attempted, it does not appear likely to come in¬
to practice ; nor does even the offer of a premium-
feem to encourage the bleachers of this country to
make any ferious endeav.our to introduce it. This we
can only account for in two ways : 1. From tire very
i noxious- and fuffocating fmellattending the operation,
by which the health, and even the life of thofe who
prepare this acid in an unlkilful manner, as well as of
the bleachers who make ufe of it, are greatly endanger¬
ed. 2. From the exceffive watte of vapoirr in the or¬
dinary mode of preparation, which renders the liquid
too dear for ordinary ufe-
To avoid thefe inconveniences, it has been recom¬
mended by chemifts to force the vapour violently into*
larger quantities of water, and by cortipreffing the
fumes to a great degree, to render the liquid ex¬
tremely ftrong, and then-dilute it when it is to be
ufed. By this means, however, the vapour forces out
at the joinings-of the diftilling veffel in fuch a manner
that no lute can keep if in ; at the fame time that the
liquor being impregnated with an over-proportion of
gas, lets go the fuperfluous quantity as foon as the
preffure is taken oft', thereby lofing its power, and
annoying with its noxious and indeed poifonous fmell
every' one who comes near it. The trouble attending
this preparation maybe eafily judged from the follow¬
ing defeription-of the procefs given by M. Chaptal.
“'To extradl this acid (fays he), I place a large glafs
alembic, of one fingle piece,, upon a fand-bath. To-
the alembic I adopt a fmall receiver; and‘ to the re¬
ceiver three or four fmall bottles nearly filled with di-
ftilled water, and arranged according to the method of
Mr Woulfc. I difpofe. the receiver and bottles in a
cittern, the places of jundtion being, luted with fat
lute, and fecured with rags foaked in the lute of lime
and'whites of eggs. Laftly, I furround the bottles
with pounded foe. When the apparatus^ is- thus dif-
pofed, I introduce into the alembic half a pound of
manganefe of Cevennes, and pour upon it, at feverai'
repetitions; three pounds of fuming muriatic acid. The
quantity of acid which I pour at .once is three ounces;,
and at each time of pouring, a eonffderable effervef-
cence is raifed. Ido not pour a new quantity until
nothing more comes over into the receivers. This
method of proceeding is indifpenfably neceffary when
the operator is defirous of making his proeefs with a
definite quantity of materials; for if too large a quan-
M A U r 568 ] MAR
- tity of arid be pouted on at once, it is impoffible to fumes. To attempt violently to force fleam of any Marine.1
reilrain the vapours ; and the effervefeence will throw- kind into water is always improper, and feldom an- ac‘'iv
a quantity of nianganefe into the receiver. The va- fwers any purpofe, unlefs when for chemical experi- ~ v"1"”
pours which are developed by the effufion of muriatic ments the liquors are wanted of extraordinary ftrength.
acid are of a greeniih-yellow colour, and they commu- Water naturally attradls a certain proportion of every
nicate this colour to the water when they combine kind of vapour; and when once this natural attra&ion
with it. When this vapour is concentrated by means is fatisfied, it is vain to attempt to force more into it.
of the ice, and the water is fatutated with it, it forms Is proportion to the quantity of furface expofed to
a feum on the furface, which is precipitated through the fleam, water will imbibe it in fhorter or longer
the liquid,-and refembles a congealed oil. It is ne- time ; and therefore a broad fhalknv veflel is always
ceflary to aflitl the aftion of the muriatic acid by means preferable to a round or narrow deep one where di-
of a moderate heat applied to the fand-bath. The flillations of this kind are to be performed,
fecure luting of the veffcls is alfo an effential circum- It muflalfobe obferved, that the vapour with which
fiance ; for the vapour which might efcape is fuflb- the water is to be impregnated, ought not to rufh out
eating, and would not fuffer the chemifl to infpeil his of the diflilling vefTel with too great hafle ; as in this
operation clofely. It iseafyto difeover the place where cafe a great quantity will unavoidably be loll, by rea-
it efcapes through the lutes byirunning a feather dip- fon of the water not having time to abforb it all. To
ped in volatile alkali over them ; the combination of avoid this, matters fhould be managed in fuch a man-
thefe vapours in flantly forms a white cloud, which ren- ner, that, without fenfibly interrupting the operation,
ders the place vifible where the vapour efcapes. the vapour may iflue from the diitilling veffel gra-
“ The fame oxygenated muriatic acid may be ob- dually, and without fudden explolions; by which
tained, by diflilling in a fimilar apparatus ten pounds means the water will imbibe as fall as the veffel diftils
of marine fait, three or four pounds of manganefe, and for a Certain time; and -in order to preferve all the
ten poitnds offulpburic (vitriolic) acid. vapour, there ought to be feveral receivers, one above
“ Mr Reboul has obferved, that the concrete flate the other, communicating by pipes, that the vapour
of this acid is a cryflallization of it, which takes place which does not condenfe in one may do fo in the
at three degrees of temperature below the freezing other.—The following apparatus may be ufed with
point of Reaumur. The forms which have been ob- fuccefs-:
ferved are thofe of a quadrangular prifm, truncated' J. For the diflilling-veffel. A large
very obliquely, and terminated by a lozenge. He bottle of common brown earthen-ware,
has likewife obfdrved hollow hexahedral pyramids on fuch >as is reprefented on the margin,
the furface of the liquor. is undoubtedly the cheapefl, and niofl
,To. make ufe of the oxygenated acid in the arts, eligible diflilling-veflel that can be
and in order to concentrate* greater-quantity in a gi- made ufe of ; as it is not liable to
.▼en volume of water, the vapour is made to pafs thro’ break, and may be ufed for a long
a folution of alkaline fait. A white ^precipitate is at time without being corroded. It may
firft formed in the liquid ; but a fhort time afterwards be placed in a fand-bath ; or in cafe it
the depofition diminifhes, and bubbles are difengaged is luted, it may he put on an open fire, which, how-
which are nothing -but the carbonic acid. In this ever, ought not to be railed to any great height,
cafe two falls are i med, the oxygenated muriate 2. The receivers ought to be large fquare cifterns
and the ordinary muriate. The mere impreffion of of wood, covered over on the infide with white wax,
light is fufficient to deCompofe the former, and to .con- on which the acid has no effect; and they may be pla-
vert it into common fait. This lixivium contains in- ced, for the greater convenience, one above the other,
deed the oxygenated acid in a ftronger proportion, with-cocks fo fituated, that the water of the upper
The execrable., fmell of the acid is much weakened, ciilerns may be difeharged into the lower ones as 00
It may be employed for various ufes with the fame calion requires. The lowermoft ciftern mull alfo be
fuccefs, and with great facility; but the effeft is very furnilhed with a cock, for running off the liquor into
far from correfponding with the quantity of oxygena- the veffels in which the cloth is to be fleeped.
ted acid which enters into this combination, becaufe 3-. The bottle muff be furnilhed with a glafs tube
the virtue of a great part is deftroyed by its union to convey the fteam from it into the receiver; but to
with the alkaline balis.-—The oxygenated muriatic a- prevent any of the acid from getting in amongll the
cid has an exceffively llrong.fmell. It a&s diredlly on liquor deiigned for bleaching, it will be neceffary to
the larynx, which it llimulates, excites coughing, and have a fmall calk interpofed betwixt it and the recei-
produces violent heada«hes.,, vers; which will alfo prevent the liquor from being
The apparatus recommended by Mr Berthbllet is on dirtied by any fudden fwell of the mixture in the
the fame plan with M. Chaptal’s, though the fcale is bottle.
much larger. Both are evidently troublefome ; and 4. It will be convenient, and which may be eafily
cannot by any means be introduced into ordinary prac- accomplilhed in moft bleaching-houfes, to have a fmall
tice, where the preparation, as well as the method of ftream of clear water running into it, higher than the
tiling the liquor, mull be left to workmen oFlittle un- level of the uppermoll refervoir ; by which means they
derllanding and lefs attention. For thefe it is necef- can all be filled to a fufficient depth with very little
fary to have an apparatus which may not readily be trouble. The apparatus then will be as reprefented on
broken, which requires little trouble or dexterity in the Plate CCL.XXX. where A is the bottle containing
ufing, and which may prepare great quantities at once, the mixture ; B the fand pot, furnace, door, and affi-
Tbe principal difficulty is the condenfation of the hole; C the glafs tube to convey the ileam into the
N ’ 195. 4 cafk
MAR [ 569 J MAR
Marine- cafic D, placed there on purpofe to catch any acid
Aclf}' . which may diftil, or fmall quantity of the mixture
’ which may boil over. E is another glafs-tube com¬
municating with the lowermoft refervoir cl, into which
it conveys the fleam to be abforbed by the water ly¬
ing in its bottom. The three cifterns communicate
on their upper parts by means of the pipes m and n,
by which the fleam which does not condenfe in the
lower refervoir is conveyed to the middle one e, and
that which does not condenfe in the middle one is
conveyed to the upper one f; in which a vent is final¬
ly given to it at g ; or if it is found that three refer-
voirs are not fufficient, there may be one or more pla¬
ced on the top of thefe, in a manner fimilar to what
we have already defcribed.
The operation is to be begun by putting into the
bottle A, a quantity of flrong fpirit of fait diluted
with at leafl four times its quantity of water, fuffici¬
ent to fill fomewhat more than one half of it. The
manganefe, reduced to as fine a powder as poffible, is
to be made up into fmall pellets or balls, with water,
and thrown in at the lateral neck of the bottle. A
few only are to be thrown in at once, and the mouth
inflantly flopped with a cork ; a brifk effervefcence
will immediately enfue, and a confiderable quantity
of vapours will come over without heat, palling thro*
the pipes C and E into the refervoir d; from thence
through m into the refervoir e, and from e into f; the
fmall quantity which flill remains uncondenfed palling
out at the vent g, which ought to be under a chimney,
or to be fitted with an upright pipe going through the
roof of the houfe.
A fire being applied, the vapour will begin to iflue
out through the pipes in greater quantities, but by
the time the liquor has begun to boil, the dephlogifti-
cated vapour will have entirely palled over. This
may be eafily known to be the cafe by the heat of the
glafs tubes. On this the cork is to be pulled out, and
tw’o or three more pellets of manganefe are to be thrown
in, and the mouth flopped up as quickly as poffible.
The vapour from thefe will be quickly diffipated, and
the operation mull be repeated until no more effer¬
vefcence arifes upon throwing in the manganefe.
When this is the cafe, a frefh quantity of fpirit of fait
diluted, but not fo much as the preceding, is to be
added, and this again treated with more manganefe as
before ; continuing the operation till the bottle be
fuppofed as full as is convenient for the operation.
Tha whole muft now be allowed to cool; and it would
be proper to have another furnace, fand pot, and bottle,
to join immediately to the refervoirs, that the opera¬
tion may not be interrupted.—The water in the low-
ermoll refervoir will always be mofl flrongly impreg¬
nated, and may be known to be of fufficient flrength
when a few threads of flax put into it are vifibly whit¬
ened in two or three minutes. It is then to be let off
into ihe .large refervoir for fleeping the cloth ; the wa¬
ter in the middle receiver, which is alfo partly im¬
pregnated with dephlogiflicated gas, muft be let down
into the lowermoft one by turning the cock of the
pipe i, which runs off the water to the bottom. In
like manner, the water in the upper ciftem f is let
down into the middle ciftern e, by turning the cock
belonging to the pipe h, while that in/ is to be re¬
placed by frefh water from the flream which runs into
Vox.. X. Part II.
the houfe.—The refiduum of the diftillation is a folu- Marine,
tipn of manganefe in common fpirit of fait, from which
the metal may be precipitated by cauftic volatile al¬
kali, and the liquid will afford fal ammoniac: the pre¬
cipitate, by being calcined again till it grows black,
may be ufed as frefh manganefe ; but confidering the
low price of this mineral, we can fcarce recommend
this procefs as worth the trouble. It is certain, how*
ever, that a great part of the marine-acid will remain
undecompofed, even after we have added as much man¬
ganefe as will excite any effervefcence. This may be
extemporaneoufly recovered by pouring into the di-
flilling veffel a fmall quantity of oil of vitriol. This
expels the marine acid from the manganefe with
which it is united, and renders it again capable of ail¬
ing upon more; but when the addition of a fmall
quantity of this acid has no effeil in producing the
proper gas, we may then be fure that the operation is
totally finifhed. The refiduum is now a combination
of manganefe with vitriolic acid, and may be decom-
pofed by volatile alkali, fo that it can ftill be of ufe
to the makers of fpirit of hart’s-horn and fal am¬
moniac.
Thus we fee, that by a very eafy procefs, with¬
out the fmalleft danger to the health of the work¬
man, an unlimited quantity of dephlogifticated fpirit
of fait may be prepared of a fufficient ftrength to an-
fwer every ufeful purpofe ; and it is evident from the
foregoing defcription of the procefs, that the moft is
made of the materials, fo that we can fcarce expedl a
cheaper method. The pra&ice of mixing together
the fait, oil of vitriol, and manganefe, all together in
the diftilling veffel, is by no means to be commended;
for thus the matter always runs into an hard lump,
which cannot be got out without breaking the veffel;
and the vapour is, befides, forced out with fuch rapi¬
dity, that great part of it is unavoidably loft.
The next and moft important confideration is the
method of ufing the liquor after it is diftilled. And
here, as the-volatility of the gas is the principal ob-
ftaele to the prefervation of its ftrength, it is indif-
penfibly neceffary to have it to run from a covered
fpout into a covered veffel where the cloth is placed.
It is likewife a matter of importance to have the cloth
fpread among the liquid in fuch a manner that the
power of the gas may be equally diffufed over its
whole furface ; for if it lies in folds upon one another,
it will undoubtedly be fpotted, let us do as we will.
To prevent this in the moft effe&ual manner, it is ne¬
ceffary to roll the cloth as is done by dyers to make
their colours flrike equally ; for this operation we
may account a kind of dyeing white; and the fame
precautions are undoubtedly neceffary to make this
colour equal as any other. It is probable, that veffels
and rollers might be fo conftrmfted, that a number of
pieces of cloth might be whitened all at once ; and
the operation of driving the rollers might be perform¬
ed by a machine driven by water.
With regard to the ufe of this liquid itfelf, it muft
be obferved, that though very cheap when made as
above diredled, yet w^ater itfelf is ftill cheaper; and
whatever can be done by mere water, ought to be pre-
vioufiy done to the cloth before it is immerfed in the
dephlogifticated liquor. With this view it ought to
iindergo a long continued but gentle fulling, a ftxearu
4 C
MAR L 570 I MAR
Marine- of warm water conftantly running upon it all the cauldron will he flightly alkaline, and may be ufed a« Marine
Add. whils. Thus an incredible quantity of filth will be a preparation for cloth, or for filling up the veffel con- Aci<1*
feparated ; and it will be matter of furprife to thofe taining the ftrorfg alkali as it evaporates. '■ /““
who have not made the experiment, to be told, that Before the cloth is returned into the dephlorrifti-
tfiey could not, in' 24 hours, waih a piece of cloth as cated liquor, it is abfolutely necefiary that the alkaline
it comes from the weaver fo clean in repeated quan- fait be entirely taken out of it,- which can only be fpee-
tities of water but that it would ftill render the lall
quantity dirty. Cloth, when treated in this manner
for a confiderable time, will be very nearly as well
whitened as that which has been boiled in alkali.
Boiling in water has not an effeft nearly equal to that
of gentle beating while the cloth is immerfed in water,
neither are violent ftrokes fo ufeful as thofe which
are gentle ; and it might undoubtedly be worth while
to contrive a machine for the purpofe of giving this
gentTe fulling, which, without injuring the texture of
the cloth, might be continued for a long time, and
would be advantageous either on the old or new plan
©f bleaching.
If this method of fulling fliould not. be adopted,
that of Jlreaming the cloth, or immerfing it for fome
time in a llream of running water, would be of very
confiderable ufe as a preparation ; but boiling with al¬
kaline fait feems more advantageoufly to be omitted
till after the cloth has undergone two or three opera¬
tions in the dephlogiffiicated liquor; becaufe this liquid,
even when veiy weak, will cleanfe confiderably, and
<xtra& a great quantity of fordes, which would load
the alkali and deitroy its force.
Having prepared the cloth in fome of the methods
above mentioned, it is to be put into the veffel de-
figned for whitening, put over the roller, and a quan¬
tity of the liquid let into it. As the cloth whitens,
the liquor gradually lofes its fmell, and foon becomes
incapable of giving any additional whitenefs. This
may be perceived by having a fmall door in the fide of
the veffel, which may be opened occafionally, and a bit
of the cloth pulled out through it and looked at.
When the firft quantity of liquid, therefore, appears
to have no more effeft, it muff be allowed to run off
into another veffel; but is not yet to be thrown away,
becaufe it is ftitl much more powerful than water,
and will have a confiderable effeft upon cloths which
have undergone the aqueous preparation.
After the firft quantity of liquid is run off, ano¬
ther muft be admitted from the lowermoft refervoir,
and is to he ufed in the fame manner with the former;
only it will now be fomewhat longer before its llrength
is exhaufted. When this is the cafe, a third quantity
is to be employed, and fo on .till we find that the ef-
fe<ft of the liquid is beginning todiminiih. The cloth
muft then be taken out, fulled, and thoroughly^ clean¬
ed of the acid hy water, before the next operation,
which is boiling with alkali. The lixivium ought to be
of confiderable ftrength, that the liquor may eafiiy be
evaporated, and part of the alkali recovered by a pro-
cefs related under the article Potashes; but as the
cloth will neceffarily retain a confiderable quantity of
thisflrong lixivium, it muft be wrung out by a pro¬
per inftrument for that purpofe, and the liquid which
falls from it faved and returned again into the kettle.
■The cloth, ftill retaining a quantity of alkali which
could not be wrung out, muft be thrown into a caul¬
dron of boiling water, and allowed to remain there
for a quarter of an hour; after which it is to be taken
out and wrung as, before. The water of the fecond
dily done by fulling, ftreaming, or at leaft lleeping in
repeated quantities of water. When all this is. done,
it will moft probably be of a darker colour than be¬
fore ; but this will go off in a few mifiutes, and the
cloth will become much whiter than ever. The re¬
mainder of the operation is only a repetition of the
proceffes already deferibed, and for which no other
dire&iotis are requifite than that both alkali and acid,
the latter efpecially, always loofen a quantity of fordes,
which, unlefs wafiied off, foon prevents their own ope-^
ration. As foon, therefore, as the cloth is taken
out of cither the alkaline or acid liquor, there is a ne-
ceffity for ufing every method confiftcnt with the fafe-
ty of its texture to clear it of this loofe matter,
which will allow the liquor into which it is next
plunged to have the greater effeft. It muft be re¬
membered, however, that the nearer the cloth ap¬
proaches to perfeft whitenefs, the lefs effe£t has either
of the liquids upon it; and therefore there is a necef-
fity either for increafing the ftrength of the dephlogi-
fticated acid, or allowing it a longer time ; but the
latter is by much the preferable method : and, after
all, it would be far from being improper to expofe
the cloth for a few days, to: the air, which will effec¬
tually prevent any change of colour afterwards, as
frequently happens to cloths bleached after this man¬
ner.
Could a ready method he fallen upon to bleach flax
hy itfelf, it would be greatly in favour of the linen
manufa&ure ; as the ftrength of the threads are vaftly
increafed by this method. The great difficulty in
this operation ; arifes from the filamentous, nature of
the flax ; by which, when put into any liquid, it be¬
comes matted together in fuch a manner as not to be
feparated afterwards by any means whatever fo as to
be fpun with the fame eafe as before. The fairer and
better dreffed the lint is, the greater is this difficulty;
and to obviate it, there feems to be no other poffible
method but that of ufing flax juft as it comes from the
mill, without any other dreffing. Thus, indeed, th<*
tow muft be bleached as well as the flax ; but when
we confider, that thus it may be fpun into much finer
and ftronger yarn than otherwife ‘could be done, we
cannot fuppofe this to be any difadvantage.
Another obftacle is the difficulty the liquid has
in getting into the heart of the flax; fo that the
outfide will be well whitened, when the infide’
is fcarce altered. For this no other remedy feems
adequate, befides the dividing it into many fmalt
parcels, tying them together in pairs, putting them
over rods as candle-makers do their candles, • and
thus fufpending them for a time in the liquid. They
muft be dipped in an hot folution of alkali in the fame
manner, afterwards for a. confiderable time in freffi wa¬
ter, to take out all the alkali after which, they are to
be again, put into the acid liquor, and treated exaftly
as dire&ed for the cloth. Thus, in two or three days,
the flax will attain a furprifing whitenefs. It is then
to be dreffed and treated exaftly as other flax, but
muft be dried without any kind of wringing or pref-
MAR
t 57t 1
MAR
> -fure.'—This method would appear to be tifeful, even
0 though the utmoft degree of whitenefs (hould not be
given, as the texture of the threads will be much lefs
injured by the fubfequent bleaching than if the flax
bad been fpun in its natural ftate.
Mr Chaptal obferves, that this acid may be applied
to the whitening of paper and old prints ; and by its
means (he fays) they obtain a whitenefs which they
tiever had before. Common ink difappears by its ac¬
tion, but it has no effeft upon printer's ink.—It
thicker* oils, and calcines metals to fuch a degree,
that the procefs may be much expedited by its means.
It diffolves metals without effervefcence, and precipi¬
tates mercury from its folutions, converting it into
corrofive fublimate.—It aifts, likewife, very vigoroufly
•upon metallic calces, forming with them falts more
readily than other acids.
M. Chaptal obferves, that the combination of the
■marine t id with vegetable alkali, named febrifuge fait
of Sylvius, is found, though in fmall quantities, in fea-
water, plafter, and the afhes of tobacco. “ The ■
called together. The two principal officers are the M-
pitaneos, who are chofen every half year; and next to
them is the commiflary, who judges in civil and cri¬
minal matters, and is joined in commiffion with the
capitaneos ; both he and the phyflcian mull be fo¬
reigners, and both have their falaries out of •the pub-*
lie flock. When arty perfon, after due fummens,
negledls to affift at the council according to their fta-
tute-book, he is to be fined in about a penny Englifli j
and when an ambaflador is to be fent to any foreign
ftate, he is to be allowed about i s. a-day.
MARINO (John Baptift), a celebrated Italian
poet, born at Naples in 1569. His father, who was an
able civilian, obliged him to ftudy: the law ; at which
being difgufted, he left his parents, and retired to the
houfe of the SieurManzi, who was a friend to all per-
fons of wit. He at length became fecretary to Mat¬
thew of Capua, great admiral of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and contrafted a friendlhip with Taffo. A Ihort
time after, he went to Rome, and entered into the fer-
vice of cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew to pope Cle-
iftence of this fait (fays he) in the allies of tobacco, ment VIII. who took him with him to Savoy. Ma«
might with juftice have furprifed me, as I had reafon rino was in great favour with the court of Turin ; but
tolEXpedi the muriate of foda, which is employed in afterwards created himfelf many enemies there, the
the operation called ‘watering. Was the foda me- moll furious of whom was the poet Gafpard Murtola,
tamorphofed into pot-alh by the vegetable fermen- who, attempting to Ihoot him with a piftol, wounded
tation i This may be determined by diretl expen- one of the duke of Savoy’s favourites. Marino being
-merits.” obliged to leave Turin, went to Paris at the defire of
MARINER, the fame with a failor or feamen. See queen Mary de Medicis, and publilhed there his poem
thefe articles. on Adonis. He afterwards went to Rome, where he
Method of preferring the health of Mariners. See was made prince of the academy of the humorifti {
Seamen. from thence to Naples, where he died while he was
Marinfr's Cvmpafs. See Compass. preparing to return home. He had a very lively ima-
St MARINO, a fmall town and republic of Italy, gination, but little judgment; and, giving way to the
fituated in E. Long. 13. 44. N. Lat. 44. 21. This points and conceits then in vogue, his authority, far
fmall republic confifts only of a mountain, and a few from corre(fling the falfe tafte of the Italians, ferved
hillocks, that lie fcattered about the bottom of it. The rather to keep it farther from reformation. His works,
number of the inhabitants is about 5000. The moun- which are numerous, have been often printed,
tain yields good wine, but they have no other than rain MARINUS, an engraver who flouriflied about the
or fnow water. The founder of the republic was a year 1630, and refided principally at Antwerp. His
Dalmatian, and a mafon, who upwards of 1300 years plates, Mr Strutt obferves, ate executed in a very fin-
ago turned hermit, and retired to this mountain. Here gular ftyle, with the graver only : The ftrokes are
his devotion and aufterity, and, in confequence of that, very fine and delicate, and crofled over each other in
his reputation for famftity, were fuch, that the prin- a lozenge-like form, which he filled up with thin,
ces of the country made him a prefent of the moun- long dots. His prints, though generally very neat,
tain; oil which many, out of veneration for the faint, want the ftyle of the mafter in the determination of
foon after took up their abode. Thus was the foun- the folds of the draperies and the outline of the hu-
dation laid of the town and republic, which ftill bears man figure ; the extremities of which are heavy, and
the name of the faint. The town Hands on the top of not marked with precilion. Fine impreffions from his
the mountain, and there is only one way by which it heft plates are, however, much fought after by collecflorsj
can be come at. In the whole territory are only three thofe efpecially after Rubens and Joardens are held
caftles, three convents, and five churches. The largeft in very high eilimation.
of the churches is dedicated to the faint, and contains MARIONIS* (anc. geog.) a town of Germany 1
his aftres and his ftatue. He is looked upon as the now Hamburg, a famous trading city on the Elbe,
greateft faint, next to the blefied Virgin ; and to fpeak in Lower Saxony, in the duchy of Holftein. Ana-
difrefpeiflfnJly of him is accounted blafphemy, and pu- ther lllarionis (Ptolemy), thought to be Wifmar, a
niflied as fuch. The republic is under the prote<ftion town of Lower Saxony, in the duchy of Meclenburg.
of the pope. All that are capable of bearing arms are MARIOTTE (Edme), an eminent phyfician and
exercifed, and ready, at a minute’s call. In the ordi- mathematician, was born in Burgundy, and was made
nary courfe of government, the adminiftratian is in the a member of the academy of fciences. He died in
hands of the council of 60, which, notwithftanding its 1684. His works, which are much efteemed, were
name, confifts only of 40 ; one half of'the members of printed at Leyden in 1717, 2 Vols 4to.
which are of the noble families, and the other of the MARJORAM, in botany. See Origanum.
plebeian: on extraordinary ■occafions, however, the MARITAGIUM, in the feudal cuftoms, marita-
arengo, in which every houfe lias its reprefentative, is gium .(as contradiftinguiftied from matrimonium), fignb
4 C 2 lies
MAR
Maritime fies the power which the lord or guardian in chivalry
difpofing of his infant ward in matrimony. For
i . ' while the infant was in ward, the guardian had the
power of tendering him or her a fuitable match with¬
out difparagement or inequality : which if the infants
refufed, they forfeited the«value of the marriage, va¬
lorem maritagii, to their guardian ; that is, fo much as
a jury would affefs, or any one would IonaJide give to
the guardian for fuch an alliance : and if the infants
married themfelves without the guardian’s confent,
they forfeited double the value, duplicem valorem mari-
tag'ii.
MARITIME, fomething relating to, or bounded
by, the fea. Thus a maritime province or country is
one bounded by the fea; and a maritime kingdom is
one that makes a confiderable figure, or that is very
powerful at fea. Hence, by maritime powers among
the European Hates, are underftood. great Britain and
Holland.
Maritime State, in Britifh polity, one of the three
general divifions of the laity : (See Laity). This
Hate is nearly conne&ed with the military ; though
much more agreeable to the principles of our free
conftitution. The royal navy of England hath ever
been its greateft defence and ornament; it is its an-
t 572 1
MAR
This prohibited all (hips of foreign nations from tra- Maritime '
ding with any Englifti plantations, without licence State,
from the council of ftate. In 1651, the prohibition v
was extended alfo to the mother-country : and no
goods were fuffered to be imported into England, or j
any of its dependencies, in any other than Engliih
bottoms; or in the fhips of that European nation of
which the merchandize imported was the genuine
growth or manufafture. At the Reftoration, the
former provifions were continued, by flat. 12 Car. II.
c. 18. with this very material improvement, that the
mailer and three-fourths of the mariners lhall alfo be
Englilh fubje&s.
Many laws have been made for the fupply of the
royal navy with feamen ; for their regulation when on
board; and to confer privileges and rewards pn them
during and after their fervice.
1. For their fupply. The principal, but the moll
odious, though often neceffary method for '.his pur-
pofe, is by imprelfing ; fee Impressing. But there
are other ways that tend to the increafe of feamen,
and manning the royal navy. Parilhes may bind out
poor boys apprentices to the mailers of merchantmen,
who lhall be protected from impreffing for the firH
three years ; and if they are impreffed afterwards, the
cient and natural llrength; the floating bulwark of mailers lhall be allowed their wages: great advantages
the illand; an army from which, however llrong and in point of wages are given to volunteer feamen, in
powerful, no danger can ever be apprehended to li- order to induce them to enter into his majelly’s fer-
berty: and accordingly it has been alfiduoully cultiva¬
ted from earliell ages. To fo much perfection was
our naval reputation arrived in the 12th century, that
and every foreign feaman, who, during a v
lhall ferve two years in any man of war, merchant¬
man, or privateer, is naturalized i/>fo faBo. About
the code of maritime laws, which are called the laws the middle of king William’s reign, a fcheme was
of Oleron, and are received by all nations in Europe
as the ground and fubltrudtion of all their marine
conllitutions, was confelfedly compiled by our king
Richard I. at the ille of Oleron on the coaft of France,
then part of the pofieffions of the crown of England.
And yet fo vaftly inferior were our anceftors in this
point to the prefent age, that even in the maritime reign
of queen Elifabeth, Sir Edward Coke thinks it mat-
fet on foot for a regifter of feamen to the number of
30,000, for a conftant and regular fupply of the king’s
fleet; with great privileges to the regiltered men; and,
on the other hand, heavy penalties in cafe of their
non-appearance when called for: but this regillry, be¬
ing judged to be rather a badge of llavery, was abo-
lilhed by Hat. 9 Ann. c. 2\.
2. The method of ordering feamen in the royal
ter of boaft, that the royal navy of England then con- fleet, and keeping up a regular difcipline there, is di-
lifted of three and thirty Ihips. The prefent condition
of our marine is in great meafure owing to the falu-
tary provifions oft the ftatutes called the navigation
aBs ; whereby the conftant increafe of Englilh Ihip-
ping and feamen was not only encouraged, but
redled by certain exprefs rules, articles, and orders,
firft enacted by the authority of parliament foon after
the Reftoration ; but fince new-modelled and altered,
after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, to remedy fome
defefts which were of fatal confequence in conducing
rendered unavoidably neceflary. By the ftatute 5 Ri- the preceding war. In thefe articles of the navy al-
chard II. c. 3. in order to augment the navy of Eng¬
land, then greatly diminilhed, it was ordained, that
none of the king’s liege people Ihould (hip any mer-
moft every poffible offence is - fet down, and the pu-
nilhment thereof annexed: in which refpedl the iea-
have much the advantage over their brethren in
ckandize out of or into the realm, but only in Ihips of the land-fervice ; whofe articles of war are not enacted
the king’s ligeance, on pain of forfeiture. In the
next year, by ftatute 6 Ric. II* c. 8. this wife provi-
fion was enervated, by only obliging the merchants to
give Englifli Ihips (if able and fufficient) the prefer¬
ence. But the moft beneficial ftatute for the trade
and commerce of thefe kingdoms is that navigation-
aft, the rudiments of which were firft framed in 1650,
by parliament, but framed from time to time at the
pleafure of the crown. Yet from whence this diftinc-
tion arofe, and why the executive power, which is li¬
mited fo properly with regard to the navy, Ihould be
fo extenfive with regard to the army, it is hard to
aflign a reafon ; unlefs it proceeded from the perpetual
eftabliftiment of the navy, which rendered a permanent
with a narrow partial view ; being intended to mortify law for their regulation expedient, and the temporary
our own fugar Hands, which were difaffefted to the duration of the army, which fubfifted only from year
   ” ' to year, and might therefore with lefs danger be fub-
jefted to difcretionary government. But, whatever
was apprehended at the firft formation of the mutiny^
aft, the regular renewal of our Handing force at the
entrance
parliament, and Hill held out for Charles II. by flop¬
ping. the gainful trade which they then carried on
with the Dutch, and at the fame time to clip the
wings of thofe our opulent and afpiring neighbours.
MAR [ 573 ] MAR
Marius, entrance of every year has made this diflinction idle, mies, he fought employment at home, and his reftlefs
'■‘"’■V—' For, if from experience paft, we may judge of future ambition began to raife feditions, and to oppofe the
events, the army is now laftingly ingrafted into the power of Sylla. This was the foundation of a
Britifh conftitution ; with this Angularly fortunate cir- civil war. Sylla refuted to deliver up the com-
cumftance, that any branch of the legiflature may an- mand of his forces, with which he was empowered
nually put an end to its legal exigence, by refufing to to profecute the Mithridatic war ; and he refolved to
fconcur in its continuance. oppofe in perfon the authors of a demand which he
3. With regard to the privileges conferred on fail- confidered as arbitrary and improper. He advanced
ors, they are pretty much the fame with thofe con- to Rome, and Marius was obliged to fave his life by
ferred on foldiers, with regard to relief, when maim- flight. The unfavourable winds prevented him from
ed, or wounded, or fuperannuated, either by county- feeking a fafer retreat in Africa, and he was left on
rates, or the royal hofpital at Greenwich; with re- the coaft of Campania, where the emiflaries of his
gard a!fo to the exercife of trades, and the power of enemy foon difcovered him in a marih, where he had
making nuncupative teftaments: and, farther, no fea- plunged himfelf in the mud, and left only his mouth
man aboard his majefty’s fliips can be arrefted for any above the fuiface for refpiration. He was violently
debt, unlefs the fame be fworn to amount to at leaft dragged to the neighbouring town of Minturnse; and
twenty pounds; though, by the annual mutiny-acts, the magiftrates, all devoted to the intereft of Sylla,
a foldier may be arretted for a debt which extends to patted fentence of immediate death on their magnani-
half that value, but not to a lefs amount. mous prifoner. A Gaul was commanded to cut off
MARIUS, the famous Roman general, and feven his head in the dungeon; but the ilern countenance of
times conful,who fullied his great military reputation by , Marius difarmed the courage of the executioner: and
lavage barbarities. He was born at Arpinum, of ob- when he heard the exclamation of Tune, homn, audes
fcure and illiterate parents. He forfook the meaner occidere Caium Marium, the dagger dropped from his
occupations of the country for the camp ; and figna- hand. Such an uncommon adventure moved the com-
lized himfelf under Scipio, at the Jiege of Numantia. paffion of the inhabitants of Minturnae. They releafed -
The Roman general faw the courage and intrepidity Marius from prifon ; and favoured his efcape to Afri-
of young Marius, and foretold the aera of his future ca, where he joined his fon Marius, who had been
greatnefs. By his feditions and intrigues at Rome, arming the princes of that country in his caufe. Ma-
while he exercifed the inferior offices of the ftate, he rius landed near the walls of iCarthage, and he recei-
reudered himfelf known ; and his marriage with Julia, ved no fmali confolation at thettight of the venerable
who was of the family of the C;efars, contributed in ruins of a once powerful city, which like himfelf had
fome manner to raife him to confequence. He patted been expofed to calamity, and felt the cruel viciffitude
into Africa as lieutenant to the conful Metellus againft1 of fortune. This place of his retreat was foon known ;
Jugurtha ; and after he had there ingratiated himfelf and the governor of Africa, to conciliate the favour of
with the foldiers, and raifed enemies to his friend and Sylla, compelled Marius to fly to a neighbouring ifland.
benefactor, he returned to Rome and canvaffed for He foon after learned that Cinna had embraced his
the confulfhip. The extravagant promifes he made to caufe at Rome, when the Roman fenate had llripped
the people, and his malevolent infmuations about the him of his confular dignity, and bellowed it upon one
conduCt of Metellus, proved fuccefsful. He was elec- of his enemies. This intelligence animated Marius; .
ted and appointed to finilh the war againft Jugurtha. he fet fail to affift his friend only at the head of 1000
He ffiowed himfelf capable in every degree to fucceed men. His army, however, was foon inereafed, and
to Metellus. Jurgurtha was defeated, and afterwards he entered Rome like a conqueror. His enemies were
betrayed into the hands of the Romans by the perfi- inhumanly facrificed to his fury ; Rome was filled
dy of Bocchus. No fooner was Jugurtha conquered, with bloodand he, who once had been called the fa-
than new honours and frelh trophies awaited Marius, ther of his country, marched through the ftreets of
The provinces of Rome were fuddenly invaded by an the. city, attended by a number of affaffins, who im-
army of 300,000 barbarians, and Marius was the on- mediately flaughtered all thofe' whofe falutations' were
ly man whofe aftivity and boldnefs could refill fo pow- not anfwered by their leader. Such were the fignals
erful an enemy. He was eleCled conful, and fent for bloodfned. When Marius and Cinna had fuffici-
againft the Teutones. The war was prolonged, and ently gratified their refentment, they made themfelves
Marius was a third and fourth time invefted with the confuls; but Marius, already worn out with old age
confulffiip. At laft two engagements were fought, and infirmities, died fixteen days after he had been
and not lefs than 200,000 of the barbarian forces of honoured with the confular dignity for the feventh
the Ambrones and Teutones were flain in the field of time, A. U. C. 666. Such was the end of Marius,
battle, and 90,000 made prifoners. The following who rendered himfelf confpicuous by his vi&ories and
year, A. U. C. 651, was alfo marked by a total over- by his cruelty. As he was brought up in poverty and
throw of the Cimbri, another horde of barbarians ; in among peafants, it will not appear wonderful that he
which 140,060 were flaughtered by the Romans, and always betrayed rufticky in his behaviour, and defpifed
60,000 taken prifoners. After fuch honourable vie- in others thofe polilhed manners and.that ftudied ad-
tories, . Marius with his colleague Catullus entered drefs which education had denied him. He hated the
Rome in triumph ; and for his eminent fervices he re- converfation of the learned only becaufe he was illite-
ceived the appellation of the third founder of Rome, rate ; and if he appeared an example of fobriety and
He was eleCled conful a fixth time ; and as his intre- temperance, he owed thefe advantages to the years of.
pidity had delivered his country from its foreign ene- obfeurity which he patted at Arpinum. His counte-
M A R T 574 J MAR
nance was ftern, his voice firm and imperious, an.1 his
!l difpofition untra&abic. He was in the 70th year of
, his age when he died ; and Rome feemed to rejoice at
' ^ the fall of a man whofe ambition had proved fo fatal
to many of her .citizens. His only qualifications were
thofe of a great general; and with thefe he rendered
himfelf the moft illuftrious and powerful of the Romans,
becaufe he was the only one whofe ferocity feemed ca¬
pable to oppofe the barbarians of the north.
C. Marius, the fon of the great Marius, was as
cruel as his father, and (hared his good and his adverfe
fortune. He made himfelf conful in the 25 th year of
his age, and murdered ail the fenators who oppofed
his ambitious views, - He was-defeated by Sylla, and
fled to Pneneite, where he killed himfelf.
Marius, (M. Aurelius), a native of Gaul; who,
from the mean employment of a blackfmith, became
one of the generals of Gallienus, and at laft caufed
himfelf to be faluted emperor. Three days after this
elevation, a man who had (hared his poverty without
partaking of his more profperous fortune, publicly af-
faffinated him, and he was killed by a fword which he
himfelf had made in the time of his obfeurity. Ma¬
rius has been often celebrated for his great itrength ;
and it is confidently reported, that he could Hop, with
one of his fingers only, the wheel of a chariot in its
moft rapid conrfe.
Marius (Maximus), a Latin writer, who publiih-
■ ed an account of the Roman emperors from Trajan to
Alexander, now loft. His compofitions were enter-
taining, and executed with great exa&nefs and fideli¬
ty. Some have accufed him of inattention, and com¬
plain that his writings abounded with many fabulous
and infignificant ftories.
MARIVAUX (Peter Carlet de), a French wri¬
ter in the dramatic way and in romance, was born of
a good family at Paris in 1688. A fine underftanding,
well improved by education, diftinguiflied him early.
His firft objefk was the theatre, where he met with
the higheft fuccefs in comic produdtions; and thefe,
with the merit of his other worits, procured him a place
Lin the French academy. The great charadferiftic of
. both his comedies and romance was, to convey an
ufeful moral under the veil of wit and fentiment:
“ My only objedt (fays he) is to make men more juft
and more humane and he was as amiable in hi* life
and converfation 'as he was in his writings. He died
at Paris in 176*3, aged 75. His works confift of,
1. Pkcts de Theatre, 4 vols i2mo. 2. Homere trawjli,
i2mo ; which is not fuppofed to have done much ho-
xnour to his tafte. 3. Le Spedoteur Frangois, 2 vols
12 mo. 4. Le Philofophe Indegent, l2mo. 5. Pie
de Marianne, 2 vols i2mo; one of the beft •romances
rin the French language. 6. Le Payfan Parvenu,
l2mo. 7. Pharfamon ; inferior to the former.
MARK (St.) was by birth a Jew, and defeended of
•the tribe of Levi. He was converted by fome of the
apoftles, probably by St Peter ; towhom he was a con-
ftant companion in all his travels, fupplying the place
of an amanuenfis and interpreter. He was by St Pe-
•ter fent into Egypt, fixing his chief refidence at A-
Jexandria, and the places thereabout: where he was
To fuccefsful in his miniftry, that he converted multi¬
tudes both of men and women. He afterwards remo¬
ved weftward, towards the parts of Libya, going
through the countries of Marmorica, Pentapolis, and "v—'*
others thereabouts ; where, notwithftanding the bar¬
barity arid idolatry of the inhabitants, he planted the
gofpel. Upon his return to Alexandria, he ordered
the affairs of that church, and there fuffered martyr¬
dom in the following manner. About Eafter, at the
time the folemnities of Serapis were celebrated, the
idolatrous people, being excited to vindicate the ho¬
nour of their deity, broke in upon St Mark, while he
was performing divine fervice, and, binding him with
cords, dragged him through the ftreets, and thruft
him into prifon, where in the night he had the com¬
fort of a divine vifion. Next day the enraged mul¬
titude ufed him in the fame manner, till, his fpirits
failing, he expired under their hands. Some add,
that they burnt his body, and that the Chriftians de¬
cently interred his bones and aihes near the place
where he ufed to preach. This happened in the year
of Chrift 68. Some writers affert, that the remains of
St Mark were afterwards, with great pomp, tranflated
from Aexandria to Venice. However, he is the tute¬
lar faint and patron of that republic, and has a very
rich and (lately church eredled to his memory. This a-
poflfe is author of one of the four gofpels inferibed
with his name. See the following article.
St Mark's Gofpel, a canonical book of the New
Teftament, being one of the four gofpels.
St Mark wrote his gofpel at Rome, where he ac¬
companied St Peter in the year of Chrift 44. Ter-
tullian and others pretend, that St Mark was no more
than an amanuenfis to St Peter, who diilated this go¬
fpel to him ; others affirm, that he wrote it after St
Peter’s death. Nor are the learned lefs divided as to
the language it was wrote in ; fome affirming that it
was compofed in Greek, others in Latin. Several
of the ancient heretics received only the gofpel of St
Mark : others, among the Catholics, rejected the 12
laft verfes of this gofpel. The gofpel of St Mark is
properly an abridgement of that of St Matthew.
St Mark the Evangelijl’s Day, a feftival of the Chri-
ftian church, obferved April 25.
Canons of St Mark, a congregation of regular ca¬
nons founded at Mantua, by Albert Spinola a prieft,
towards the end of the 12th century. Spinola made
a rule for them, which was approved, correfted, and
confirmed by feveral fucceeaing popes. About the
year 1450 they were reformed, and followed only the
rule of St Auguftine. This congregation having
flouriflied by the fpace of 400 years, declined by little
and little, and is now become extindl.
Knights of St Mark, an order of knighthood in
the republic of Venice, under the proteftion of St
Mark the evangelift. The arms of the order ore,
gules, a lion winged or; with this device, Pax tibi
March Evangelista. This order is never conferred
but on thofe who have done fignal fervice to the com¬
monwealth.
Mark, pr Marc, in commerce, denotes a weight ufed
in feveral dates of Europe, and for fevcral commodities,
efpeciaUy gold and filver. In France, the mark is di¬
vided into eight ounces, 64 drahms, 192 derniers or
penny-weights, 160 efterlines, 300 maills, 640 felins,
or 4608 gains. In Holland, the mark weight is ah
M A R [ 57 J I M A R
{# eailecT Troy ■ weight, and is equal to that of France, its name from its chalky foil, which
When gold' and filver are fold by the mark, it is di-
formerly call- MaflW- ’
vided into 25 carats.
j Mark is alfo ufed among us for a money of ac¬
count, and in fome other countries for a coin. See
MoNEr-Tabh.
The Englifh mark is two third's of a pound Sterling,
ei* 13 s. 4 d. and the Scotch mark is of equal value in
Scots money of account, viz. 13 f d.
MARKET, a public place in a city or town, in
which live-cattle, provihons, or other goods, are fet
to fale ; and alfo a privilege, either by grant or pre-
fcription,. by which a town is enabled to keep a
market.
Court cf the Clerk of the Market, is incident
tt> every fair and market in the kingdom, to punifh
mifdemeanors therein ; and a court of pie poudre is to
determine ad difputes relating to private or civil pro¬
perty. The objeft of this jurifdi&ion (fee ftat. 17.
Car. II. cap. 19. 22 Car. II. cap. S. 23 Car. II. cap.
12.) is principally the cognizance of weights and mea-
ed marie. It was a Roman ftation. In the year
1627, a parliament was held in the caftle here, which ^
made thofe laws called Marlborough Jlatutes. There are
ftill fome fmall remains of its walls and ditch. The
town, which is an ancient borough, by prefcription,
fends two members to parliament. It is governed by
a mayor, 2 juftices, 12 aldermen, 24 burgeffes, a
town-clerk, 2 bailiffs, 12 ferjeants at mace, &c. It
confifts chiefly of one broad ftreet, with piazzas all along
one fide of it, two parifh churches, and feveral com¬
modious inns, it being the grand thoroughfare from
London to Bath and Briflol. To the fouth are fome re-
lidts of a-priory, particularly the Gate-houfe ; and the
fcite of a Roman Caftrum, the foundations of which
have been difcovered there, with Roman coins. The
ditch, is dill in fome parts 20 feet wide ; and towards
the river, without the garden walls, one angle of the
Caftrum is very vifible with- the rampart and ditch
entire. The mount- at the weft end of the town,
which was the keep or main-guard of the caftle, is
fures, to try whether they be according, to the true converted into‘a pretty fpiral walk} at the top of
ftandard thereof or no : which ftandard was anciently
committed to the cuftody of the bifhop, who appoint¬
ed fome clerk under him to infpeft the abufe of them
more narrowly ; and hence this officer, though now
ufually a layman, is called the clerk of the market.—
I£ they be not according to the ftandard, then, be-
fide the punifhment of the party by fine, the weights
and meafures themfelves ought to be burnt. This is
the loweft court of criminal jurifdi&ion in the king¬
dom.
MARKHAM (Gervafe), an Englifh author, was
the fon of Robert Markham of Gotham, Efq; in Not-
tinghamfhire, and bore a captain’s commiffion .under
Charles L in the civil wars. He was efteemed both a
good foldier and a good fcholar. He was particularly
mailer of the French, Italian, and Spanifh. He wrote,
1. The tragedy of Herod and Antipater, which was
printed in 1622. 2. Many volumes upon hufbandry
arid horfemanfhip. 3. ; A piece on the art of fowling.
4.. The foldiers accidence and grammar.
MARKLAND (Jeremiah,), one. of the moft
learned fcholars and penetrating critics of the- age,
was born in 1692,. and received hiseducation in Chrifl’s
Hofpital. He became- firft publicly known by his E*
piflola Critica, addrefled to bifhop Hare. In this he
which is an o&agon fummer-houfe. This town has
often fttffered by fire, particularly in 1690, whereup¬
on the parliament palled an- aft to prevent its houfes
from being thatched. The markets here are Wednef-
days and Saturdays ; and it has five fairs. Here is a
charity-fchool, winch was erefted in 1712, for 44
children..
Marlborough (duke of). See Churchill.
MAEi.BORovGH-Fort, an Englifh faftory on the
weft coaft of the ifland of Sumatra in Alia ; feated
three miles weft of the town of Bencoolen. E. Long,
xoi. 12. S. Lat. 4. 21.
MARLE, a kind of calcareous eartHi, very much
ufed in agriculture as a.manure. See Agriculture,
nQ 216, 217. .
Marie is dug in marry places of Great Britain and
Ireland. In digging for it in Ireland, they meet with
horns and other curious foffils. The marie always lies
in the bottoms of low bogs, and is found by boring
with augres made for that purpofe. It ufually lies at
fire, feven, or nine feet depth. The obtaining it in
many places is attended with very confiderable expence
in draining off the water. ■ The manner of digging
it is this : .They .employ fix able-labourers and a fu-
pernumerary ; and thefe cut up a hole of 12 feet
gave many -proofs of extenfive erudition and critical fa- fqaare, which is fuppofed a pit that this number of
gacity. He. afterwards publifhed an edition of Statius, men can manage in one day. Two men dig, two
and fome plays of Euripides ; and affifted Dr-Taylor throw it up, and two throw it by, and the fupernu-
in his editions of Lyfias and Demofthenes, by the . merary man fupplies defefts on all occafions. For the
notes’which he communicated to him. He-.has alfo firft three feet they dig through a fuzzy earth, fit for
very happily elucidated fome paflages in the Ne%vTef-i making turf or fuel.. Under this lies a ftratum of
t;tment,v/hich may.be found in Mr Bowyer’s edition gravel, of about half a foot; under this often, for
of it; and was author of a very valuable volume of re- three feet more, there is a more kindly mofs, which
marks on the epiftles of Cicero to. Brutus,- and of air would make better fuel. This lower ftratum is always
excellent little treatife under, the title of fpuaflio . full of foffile wood, which is ufually fo feft that the.
Grammatica. He died in 1775, at ■ Milton, near fpade cuts as eafily through it as through the earth it
Dbrking in Surry,; and was a maiv not more valued lies in. Under this, for the thicknefs of about three
for his univerfal reading than beloved for the
cellency of his heart and primitive fimplicity of man-
^MARLBOROUGH, a town ofWiltfhire in Eng¬
land, fituated near the fource of the KenneP, at the
ioot of a chalky hill, .75 miles from London. . It has
inches, is found a feries of leaves, principally of the
oak. Thefe appear very fair to the eye, but fall to
pieces on being touched ; and this ftratum is fometirnr s
interrupted by vaft heaps of feed, which, feem to be
broom or furze feed. In fome places there appear
berries of different--kinds, and in others fevaal ipccie ;
MAR [ 575 ] MAR
^ Mar’e of tea-plants; all lying in the fame coiffufed manner
as the oak leaves. Under this vegetable ftratum there
lies one of blue day, half a foot thick, and uftially
full of fea-fhells. This blue clay is not fo tough as
common clay ; but is thrown carefully up, and ufed as
marie in fome places. Under this always appears the
true marie ; the llratum of -which is ufually from two
to four feet thick, and fometimes much more.—This
'marie looks like buried lime, and is full of thells,
which are ufually of a fmall fr/e, and of the periwinkle
kind ; but there are feveral other forts at times found
among them. Among this marie, and often at the
very bottom of it, are found great numbers of very
large horns of the deer kind, which are vulgarly call¬
ed e/i’s horns. Thefe, where they join .to the head,
are thick and round ; and at that joining there grows
out a branch, which is about a foot long, and feems
to have hung juft over the creature’s eyes: it grows ftill
round for about a foot above this; and then fpreads
out broad, and terminates in branches long and round,
terminating with a fmall bend. The labourers are
obliged to work in a hurry in all thefe pits, fo that they
feldom bring out the horns whole. There are alfo, at
times, found the leg-bones and other parts of the ike-
letons of the fame beafts; but this more rarely, only a
few together, and but in few places.
Dr Black is of opinion, that all kinds of marie de¬
rive their origin from the calcareous matter of fliells
and lithophyta.
Shell-marle, fays he, is compofed of the (hells of
acquatic animals, which are fometimes very entire,
and often decayed or mixed down with other earthy
fubftances. Examining this matter as occurring in dif¬
ferent places, it may be diftinguifhed into frelh water
marie, and the marie of fea-(hells. Of the firft we have
an example in the Meadow at Edinburgh. Wherever
the foil is turned up to the depth of fix inches, a quan¬
tity appears. It is compofed of the (hells of a fmall
fre(h-water fnail or welk. This animal, when alive, is
noteafily difcernible, the (hell being much of the fame
obfeure colour as the (tones covered with the water.
But we can obferve a great number of them in all
running brooks and other collections of frelh water;
and as u.e animal dies, the (hells are depoiited where
the water ftagnates in very great quantity. That com¬
pofed of fea-(hells, conftitutes greater collections that
are found in innumerable places now far removed from
the fea. That mod particularly deferibed by Reau¬
mur is a collection of this kind in a province of France,
and at Turin. That part of the country where it is
found is computed to contain 80 fquare miles of fur-
face ; and wherever they dig to a certain d«pth, they
find this collection of (hells : the country at prefent is
108 miles from the fea. They find the marie eight or
nine feet below the furface, and they dig it to the
depth of 20 feet. It is ftill deeper, but they find it
too expenfive to fearch for it. He fuppofes it to be
only 18 feet deep ; and even at this depth the quan¬
tity will appear enormous. It will amount to 140
millions of cubic fathoms of (hells that are moftly de¬
cayed and broken into fragments, and mixed with
ether marine productions, as millipores, madripores,
and other coralline bodies, which are all produc¬
tions of the fea.
N° 195.
MARLINE, in fea affairs, are.tarred white fkains. Marline
or long wreaths or lines of untwifted hemp, dipped in Mart|Ja(a(je :
pitch or tar, with which cables or other ropes are' arr"a 3 f
wi-apped round, to prevent their fretting or rubbing —jj
in the blocks or pullies through which they pafs.
The fame ferves in artillery upon ropes ufed for rig-
ging gins, ufually put up in fmall parcels called Jkalns.
MARLOE (Chriftopher), an Englilh dramatic au¬
thor, was a ftudent in the univerfity of Cambridge ;
but afterwards turning player, he trode the fame ftage
with.the inimitable -Shakefpeare. He was accounted
an excellent poet even by Ben Johnfon himfelf. He
wrote fix tragedies, one of which called Lujl's Dom'f
nion, or the Lafcivious Queen, has been altered by
Mrs Behn, and aCted under the title of Abdda-zar,
or the Moor's Revenge. Some time before his death,
he had made a confiderable progrefs in an excellent
poem entitled Hero and Leander ; which was after¬
wards finKhed by George Chapman, who is faid to
have fallen (hort of the fpirit and invention difeovered
by Marloe. Mr Anthony Wood reprefents him as a
free-thinker, in the word fenfe of the word ; and
gives the following account of his death. Falling
deeply in love with a low girl,, and having for his
rival a fellow in livery, Marloe, imagining that his
miftrefs granted him favours, was fired with jealoufy,
and rulhed upon him in order to (tab him with his
dagger ; but the footman avoided the ftroke, and,
feizing his wrift, dabbed him with his own weapon j
of which wound he died, in the year 1593.
MARLOW, a town of Buckinghamfture, in Eng¬
land, 31 miles from London, lies under the Chiltern
Hills, in a marly foil. It is a pretty large borough,
though not incorporated, with a bridge over the
Thames, not far from its conflux with Wycomb, and
has a handfome church and town-hall, with a charity-
fchool for 20 boys, who are taught and clothed. It
firft fent members to Parliament in the reign of Ed¬
ward II. Bone lace is its chief manufacture. The
Thames brings goods hither from the neighbouring
towns, efpecially great quantities of meal and malt
from High-Wycomb, and beech from feveral parts of
the county, which abounds with this wood more than
any in England. In the neighbourhood are frequent
horfe-races ; and here are feveral corn and paper mills,
particularly on the river Loddon, between this town
and High-Wycomb. There are, befides, the Temple-
mills, for making thimbles, and another for preffing
oil from rape and flax feeds. Its market is on Satur¬
days, and fair O&ober 29.
MARLY, a palace belonging to the king of France,
between Verfailles and St Germain ; feated in a val¬
ley, near a village and foreft of the fame name. It
is noted, for its fine gardens and water-works, there
being a curious machine on the river Seine^ which
not only fupplies them with water, but alfo thofe of
Verfailles. It is 1 o miles N. W. of Paris. E. Long.
2. 1 x. N. Lat. 48. 52.
MARMANDE, a town of France, in Guienne,
and ii^ Agennois. It cairies on a great trade in corn
and wine, and is feated on the river Garonne, in E.
Long. o. 15. N. Lat. 38. 39.
MARMALADE, a confession of plums, apricots,
quinces, &c. boiled up to a confidence with fugar. In
Sec*-
3
MAR r 577 1 MAR
Msrmnr Bcotlafid, it is made of Seville orange* and fugar mous convent of St Maro, upon tl>e borders of the Maraniifcfc
|j oniy. Orontes, before his fettlement among the Mardattes —v—'
Maronifes. MARMOR. See Marbl®. of mount Libanus. One thing is certain, from the
HARMORA, the name of four iflands of Afia, tellimony of Tyrius and other unexceptionable wit-
in the fea of the fame name. The largeft is about 30 neffes, as alfo from the moft authentic records, viz.
miles in circumference; and the foil of them all pro- that the Maromtes retained the opinions of the Mo-
duces corn, wine, and fruits. The fea of Marmora fiothelites until the 12th century, when, abandoning
is a large gulph, which communicates both with the and renouncing the do&rine of one will in Chrift,
Archipelago and the Black Sea by that of Conftah- they were readmitted in the year 1182 to the com-
tinople, being 120 miles in length and 50 in breadth ; munion of the Roman church. The moil learned of
and all ihips mull pafs through it that fail to Con- the modern Maronites have left no method unemploy-
llantinople from the Mediterranean. It was anciently ed to defend their church againft this accufation ; they
the Propontis. have laboured to prove, by a variety of teftimonies,
MARMORICA, a country of Africa anciently that their anceftors always perfevered in the Catholic
inhabited by the Libyans. It was bounded on the faith, in their attachment to the Roman pontiff, with-
eaft by Egypt, on the weft by Cyrenaica, on the out ever adopting the dp&rine of the Monophyfites,
fouthby Sahara, or the defart of Libya Interior,'and or Monothelites. But all their efforts are infufficient
on the north by the Mediterranean ; and was reckoned to prove the truth of thefe affertions to fuch as have
a part of Egypt. There is no diftindl hiliory of the any acquaintance with the hiftory of the church and
country. the records of ancient times ; for to all fuch the tefti-
MAROBUDUM (anc. geog.), the royal refidence monies they allege will appear abfolutely fidlitious and
of Marobuduus, king 6f the Marcomanni; and hence deftitute of authority.
the appellation. Now thought to be Prague, the ca- Fauftus Nairon, a Maronite fettled at Rome, has
pital of Bohemia. publiihed an apology for Maron and the reft of his
MAROLLES (Michel de), born in 1600, was nation. His tenet is, that they really took their name
the fon of Claudt de Marolles, whom French memoirs from the Maron, who lived about the year 400, and
make a military hero.- Michel, however, was of a of whom mention is made in Chryfoftom, Thdodoret,
different cotnpofition. He entered early into the ec- and the Menologium of ^the Greeks. He adds, that
clefiaftical ftate, and by the intereft of his father ob- the difciples of this Maron fpread themfelves through-
tained two abbeys. He was formed with an extreme out all Syria ; that they built feveral monafteries, and,
ardour for ftudy, which never abated all his life long : among others, one that bore the name of their leader ;
for, from 1619 when he publilhed a tranflation of Lu- that all the Syrians who were not tainted with herefy
-can, to 1681 the year of his death, he Was conftant. took refuge among them ; and that for this reafon the
ly employed in writing and printing. He attached heretics of thofe times called them Maronites. .
himfelf unfortunately to the tranflating of ancient La- Mofheim obferves, that the fubje&ion of the Ma¬
tin writers: but, being devoid of all clafiical tafte and ronites to the fpiritual jurifdifition of t-he Roman pon-
fpirit, they funk miferably under his hands, the poets tiff was agreed to with this exprefs condition, that
elpecially. He was certainly, however, a man of neither the popes nor their emiflaries fliould pretend
great learning, and difeovered all his life a love for the to change or aboliffi any thing that related to the an-
arts. He was one of the firft who paid any attention cient rites, moral precepts, or religious opinions, of
to prints ; and colle&ed about 100,000, which make this people : fo that in reality there is nothing to be
at this day one of the ornaments of the French king’s found among the Maronites that favours of popery, if
Cabinet. He compofed memoirs of his own life, which tve except their attachment to the Roman pontiff, who
were publiihed by the Abbe Goujet, 1755, in 3 vols. is obliged to pay very dear for their friendfhip For,
They contain, like fuch fort of things, fome intereft- as the Maronites live in the utmoft diftrefs of pover-
ing fails, but an infinity of minute and infipid no- ty, under the tyrannical "yoke of the Mahometans,
things. the bilhop of Rome is under the neeefiity of furnifh-
MA RONITES, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a feft of ing them with fuch fubfidies as may appeafe their op-
eaflern Chriftians, who follow the Syrian rite, and are preffors, procure a fubfiftence for their bifhop and
fubjeft to the pope ; their principal habitation being clergy* provide all things requifite for the fupport of
on mount Libanus. their churches, and the .uninterrupted exercife of pub-
Moftieim informs us, that the do&rine of the Mo- lie worihip, and contribute in general to leffen theif
nothelites, condemned and exploded by the council of mifery. It is certain that there are Maronities in Sy-
Conftantinople, found a place of refuge among the ria who ftill behold the church of Rome with the
Mardaites, a people who inhabited the mounts Liba- greateft averfion and abhorrence; nay, what is ftill
nus and Antilibanus, and who, about the conclufion more remarkable, great numbers of that nation refiding
cf the feventh ceptury, were called Moron-it -, after in Italy, even under the eye of the pontiff, oppofed
Maro their firft bilhop ; a name which they ftill retain, his aura ority during the lalt century, and threw th6
None (he fays) of the ancient writers give any certain court of Rome into great perplexity. One body of
j account of the firft perfon who inllrufted thefe moun- thefe non-conforming Maronites retired into the valley*
iaineers in the doilrine of the Monothelites : it is pro- of Piedmont, where they joined the Waldenfes ; ano-
bable, however, from feveral eircumftances, that it ther, above 600 in number, with a bilhop and feveral
was John Maro, whofe name they had adopted ; and ecclefiaftics at their head, fled into Corfica, and im-
that this ecclefiaftic received the name of Maro from plored the proteftion of the republic of Genoa againft
iiis having lived in the chara&er of a moidk in the fa- the violence of the iuquifitors.
Vol. X. Part II. 4 D
The
MAR F 578 1 MAR
Mar-oon The Maronites have a patriarch, who refides in the
II monaftery of Cannubin, on mount Libanus, and af-
Marpiirg. fumes the title of patriarch of Antioch, and the name
v—peter> ag j£ jjg feeme^ defirous of being confidered
as the fucceffor of that apoftle. He is ekdted by the
clergy and the people, according to the ancient cu-
ftom ; but, fince their reunion with the church of
Rome, he is obliged to have a bull of confirmation
from the pope. He keeps a perpetual celibacy, as
well as the reft of the bifhops his fuffragans: as to the
reft of the ecclefiaftics, they are allowed to marry
before ordination ; and yet the monaftic life is in great
efteem among them. Their monks are of the order
of St Antony, and live in the moft obfeure places in
the mountains, far from the commerce of the world.
As to their faith, they agree in the main with the
reft of the eaftern church. Their priefts do not fay
mafs fingly ; but all fay it together, Handing round
the altar. They communicate in unleavened bread ;
and the laity have hitherto partaken in both kinds,
though the praftice of communicating in one has of
late been getting footing, having been introduced by
little and little. In Lent they eat nothing, unlefs it
be two or three hours before fun-rifing : their other
fallings are very numerous.
To MAROON, to put one or more failors afhore
upon a defolate Hand, under pretence of their having
committed fome great crime. This deteftable expe¬
dient has been repeatedly pradlifed by fome inhuman
commanders of merchant-ihips, particularly in the
Weft Indies.
MAROT (Clement), the beft French poet of his
time, was born at Cahors in 1495 ; and was the fon
of John Marot, valet de chambre to Francis I. and
poet to queen Anne of Brittany. He enjoyed his
father’s place of valet de chambre to Francis I. and
was page to Margaret of France wife to the duke
of Alen^on. In 1521 he followed that prince into
Italy, and was wounded and taken prifoner at the
battle of Pavia; but at his return to Paris was ac=
cufed of herefy, and thrown into prifon, from whence
he was delivered by the proteftion of king Francis I.
He at length retired to the queen of Navarre, then
to the duchefs of Ferrara, and in 1^6 returned to
Paris: but declaring openly for the Calvinilts, he was
obliged to fly to Geneva; which he at length left,
and retiring to Piedmont, died at Turin in 1544,
aged 50. His verfes are agreeably filled with natural
beauties. La Fontaine acknowledged himfelf his -dif-
ciple, and contributed greatly to reftore to vogue
the works of this ancient poet. Marot, befides his
other works, ha» tranllated part of the Pfalms into
verfe, which was continued by Beza, and are Hill
fung in the Proteftant churches abroad.—flAV/iiW
Marot, his fon, was alfo the author of fome verfes;
_ but they are not comparable to thofe of John, and
much -lefs to thofe of Clement Marot.—The works
of the three Marots were collefied and printed toge¬
ther at the Hague in 1731, in 3 vols 410, and in
6 vols 12 mo.
MARPURG, a ftrong and confiderable town of
Germany, in the Upper Rhine, and in the landgra-
vate of Hefle-Caffel, with an univerfity, a caftle, a
palace, a handfome fquare, and a magnificent town-
houfe. It is feated on the river Lohn, in a pleafant
country, 15 miles fouth of Waldeck, and 47 fouth- Marquarcf '
weft of Caffel. E. Long. 8. 53. N. Lat. 50. 42. II \
Marpurg, a handfome town of Germany, in Lower MarquefasV
Styria, feated on the river Drave, 25 miles fouth-weft '
of Gratz, and 60 north-eaft of Laubach. E. Long.
16. 10. N. Lat. 46. 42.
MARQUARD (Freher), an eminent German ci¬
vilian, born at Auglburg in 1565. He ftudied at
B®urges, under the learned Cujas ; and acquired great
Ikill in polite literature, and in the laws. At his re¬
turn to Germany, he became counfellor to the eleftor
Palatine, and profeffor of law at Heidelberg ; and was
afterwards fent by the eleftor Frederic IV. as his mi-
nifter, into Poland, to Mentz, and feveral other courts;
He died at Heidelberg in 1614. He wrote many
works which are efteemed; the principal of which
are, 1. De re monetaria veterum Romanorum, et ho-
dierni apud Germanos imperii. 2. Rerum Bohemicarum
feriptores. 3. Rerum Germanicarum feriptores. 4. Cor¬
pus hijloria Francis, See.
MARQUE, or Letters of Marque, in military af¬
fairs, are letters of reprifal, granting the fubjefts of
one prince or ftate liberty to make reprifals on thofe of
another.—They are fo called from the German mar eke,
“ limit, frontieras being jus concejfum in alterius
principle marckas feu limites tranfeundi, Jibique jus fa-
ciendi; as being a right of palling the limits or fron¬
tiers of another prince, and doing one’s felf juftice.
Letters of marque among us are extraordinary com-
miffions granted by authority for reparation to mer¬
chants taken and defpoiled by ftrangers at fea ; and re¬
prifals is only the retaking, or taking of one thing for
another*. The form in thefe cales is,'the fufferer- see p^.
muft firft apply to the lord privy-feal, and he (hall rogative,
make out letters of requeft under the privy-feal; and
if, after fuch requeft of fatisfaftion made, the party
required do. not, within convenient time, make due fa-
tisfadlion or reftitution to the party grieved, the lord
chancellor, lhall make.him out letters of marque under
the great feal; and by virtue of thefe he may attack
and feize the property of the-aggreffor nation, without
hazard of being condemned-as a robber or pirate.
MARQUESAS islands, the name of certain. \
Hands in the South Sea, lying between 8 and to
degrees of fouth latitude, and between 139 and 140
degrees of weft longitude. They are five'in number,,
viz. La Magdalena, St Pedro, La Dominica, Santa.
Chriftina, and Hood Illand. All the natives of thefe
Hands may be fuppofed to be of the fame tribe. Thofe.
fpots that are fit for culture are very populous ; but as-
every illand is very mountainous, and has many inac-
ceffible and barren rocks, it is to be doubted whether
the whole population of this group amounts to 50,000
perfons. The Spaniards, who firft vifited here, found;
the manners of this people gentle and inoffenfive ; but
thefe qualities did not prevent thofe who landed
from wantonly butchering feveral of the natives at
Magdalena.
The inhabitants of thefe Hands colle&ively, fays
Captain Cook, are, without exception, the fineft race,
of people in the South Sea. For fymmetry of lb ape,
and regular features, they perhaps furpafs all other na¬
tions. Not a fingle deformed or ill-proportioned' per-
fon was feen on the illand; all were ftrong, tall, well-
limbed, and remarkably a drive. The men are about
MAR C 579 1 MAR.
Marque^, five feet ten or fix inches high ; their teeth are not fo
* * good, nor are their eyes fo full and lively, as thofe of
many other nations: their hair is of many colours, but
none red ; fome have it long, but the moil general eu-
ilom is to wear it ihort, except a bunch on each fide
the crown, which they tie in a knot: their countenan¬
ces are pleafing, open, and full of vivacity : they are of
a tawny complexion, which is rendered almoft black
by punftures over the whole body. They were entirely
naked, except a fmall piece of cloth round their waiit
and loins. The pun&ures were difpofed with the ut-
moft regularity, fo that the marks on each leg, arm,
and cheek, were exaftly fimilar. The women, in
two days time, began to appear in confiderable num¬
bers, and the failors found them not lefs kind than
thofe of the other iflands which they had vifited : they
were inferior to the men in ftature, but well propor¬
tioned ; their general colour was brown ; no punc¬
tures were obferved upon them ; they wore a fingle
piece of cloth made of the mulberry bark, which co¬
vered them from the fiioulders to the knees.
The principal head-drefs ufed in the iflands, and what
appear to be their chief ornament, is a fort of broad fillet,
curioufly made of the fibres of the hulks of cocoa-nuts;
in the front is fixed a mother-of-pearl fliell, wrought
round to the fize of a tea-faucer ; before that another
fmaller, of very fine tortoife-lhell, perforated into cu¬
rious figures ; alfo before, and in the centre of that, is
another round piece of mother-of-pearl, about the fize
of half a crown ; and before this another piece of per¬
forated tortoife-lhell, the fize of a Ihilling. Befides
this decoration in front, fome have it alfo on each
fide, but in fmall pieces; and all have fixed to them
the tail-feathers of cocks, or tropic-birds, which when
the fillet is tied on Hand upright, fo that the whole
together makes a very fprightly ornament. They
wear round the neck a kind of ruff or necklace made
of light wood, the outward and upper fides covered
with fmall peafe, which are fixed on with gum; they
alfo wear fome bunches of human hair faftencd to a
firing, and tied round the legs and arms.a But all the
above ornaments are feldom feen on the fame perfon.
All thefe ornaments, except the lall, they freely part¬
ed with for a trifling copfideration; but the human
hair they valued very highly, though thefe bunches
were the ufual refidence of many vermin. It is pro¬
bable, that thefe were worn in remembrance of their
deceafed relations, and therefore were looked upon
with fome veneration ; or they may be the fpoils of
their enemies, worn as the honourable teftimonies of
vidory. However, a large nail, or fomething which
flruck their eyes, commonly got the better of their
fcruples. The king, or chief of the ifland, came to
vifit Captain Cook; he was the only one feen com¬
pletely dreffed in this manner. Their ordinary orna¬
ments are necklaces, and amulets made of fliells, &c.
All of them had their ears pierced, though none were
feen with ear-rings. The king had not much refpea
paid him by his attendants: he prefented Captain Cook
with fome fruit and hogs; and acquainted him that his •
name was Honoo, and that he was he-ka-ai, which title
feems to correfpond with the aree of Otaheitee, and
artkee of the Friendly Hies. Their dwellings are in
the valleys, and on the fides pf the hills near their plan¬
tations. They are built in the fame manner as thofe
at Otaheitee, which will be particularly defcribed Marquefa*.
when we fpeak of that ifland; but they are much v~“—
meaner, and are only covered with the leaves of the
bread-fruit tree : in general, they are built on a fquare
or oblong pavement of ftone, raifed fome height above
the level of the ground ; they likewife have fuch pave¬
ment near their houfes, on *vhich th^y fit to eat and
amufe themfelves. Along the uppermoft edge of the
mountain a row of flakes or pallifadoes, clofely con-
nedled together, were feen like a fortification, in which,
by the help of glades, appeared fomething like huts,
which feemed to bear a great refemblance to the hip-
pas of New-Zealand, which will be defcribed in fpeak-
ing of that country. Their canoes refemble thofe of O-
taheitee, but not fo large ; their heads had common¬
ly fome flat upright piece, on which the human face
was coarfely carved; and their fails were made of
mats, triangular in fliape, and very broad at the top:
the paddles which they ufed were of heavy hard wood;
fhort, but (harp-pointed, and with a knob at the upper
end ; they were from 10 to 20 feet long, and about
15 inches broad.
Their weapons were all made of the club-wood, or
cafuarina ; and were either plain fpears about 8 or ro
feet long, or clubs which commonly had a knob at
one end. They have alfo flings with which they throw
ftones with great velocity, and to a great diftance, but
not with a good aim.
The language of thefe people is much nearer to
that of Otaheitee than any other dialedl in the
South-Sea, except that they could not pronounce the
letter r.
The only quadrupeds feen here were hogs, except
rats; here were fowls, and feveral fmall birds in the
woods, whofe notes were very melodious. The chief
difference between the inhabitants of the Marquefas
and thofe of the Society Iflands feems to confift in
their different degrees of cleanlinefs: the former do
not bathe two or three times a-day, nor wafli their
hands and face before and afte'- every meal, as the
latter do ; and they are befidts very flovenly in the
manner of preparing their meals. Their diet is chiefly
vegetable; though they have hogs and fowls, and catch
abundance of fifli at certain times. Their drink is pure
water, cocoa-nuts being fcarce here.
It was not long befoie the propenfity of the natives
was difcovered to be rather to receive than give ; for
when they had taken a nail as the price of a bread¬
fruit, the article fo purchafed could not be obtained
from them. To remove this diflipnell difpofition,
captain Cook ordered a mulket to be fired over
their heads, which terrified them into fair-dealing.
Soon after the natives had gathered courage enough
to venture, on board the (hip, one of them unfortu¬
nately dole an iron ftanchion from the gang-way,
with which he fprang into the fea, and, notwithftand-
ing its weight, fwam with it to his canoe, and was*
making to the (hore with all fpeed. A mulket was
fired over his head to frighten him back, but to no
effedl, he dill continued to ma e off with his booty ;
the whiffling of another ball over his head was as in-
effedlual: an officer, lefs patient of fuch an injury than
reafon and humanity (hould have taught him to be; le¬
velled a mulket at the poor fellow, and (hot him thro*
the head. Captain Cook had given orders to* fire over
4 D 2 the
MAR r 5§o J MAR
Ms-quefas, the canoe, but not to kill any one ; he was in a boat,
Marquetry. an(^ came Up with the canoe fpon after. There were
y ” two men in her: one fat bailing out the blood and wa¬
ter in a kind of hyfteric laugh; the other, a youth
of about 14 or 15 ,years of age, who afterwards pro¬
ved to be the fon of the deceafed, fixed his eyes on
the dead body with a ferious and dejected countenance.
This a& of feverity, however, did not eftrange the
iflanders to the fhip, and a traffic was carried on to the
fatisfa&ion of both parties; bread-fruit, bananas, plan¬
tains, and fome hogs, were given in exchange for fmall
nails, knives, and pieces of Amiterdam cloth ; red fea¬
thers of the Amiterdam-Ifland were greatly efteemed
here. Captain Cook, accompanied with the gentle¬
men of the ihip, in their walks about the country, light¬
ed on the houfe which had been the habitation of the
man who had been ihot; there they found his fon,
who fled at their approach : they enquired for his fe¬
male relations, and were told that they remained at
the top of the mountain, to weep and mourn for the
dead. Notwithftanding they were then among the re¬
lations of a man who had been killed by them, not the
leait tokens of animofity or revenge were (difcernible
among the natives.
The weather being extremely hot, the inhabitants
made ufe of large fans to cool themfelves, of which
great numbers were purchafed > thefe fans were
formed of a kind of tough bark, or grafs, very
firmly and curioufly plaited, and frequently whitened
with fhell-lime. Some had large feathered leaves of
a kind of palm, which anfwered the purpofe of an
umbrella.
The natives at length became fo familiar as to
mount the fides of the fhip in great numbers. They
frequently danced upon ,deck for the diverfion of
the failors : their dances very much refembled thofe
of Otaheitee ; their mufic too was very much the
fame. ,
A failor having been inattentive to his duty, recei¬
ved feveral blows from Captain Cook; on feeing which,
the natives exclaimed, tape-a ■iei-te tina, “ he beats
his brother.” From other inftances that had occurred,
it was clear that they knew the difference between the
commander and his people, but at the fame time they
conceived them all brethren ; and, fays Mr Forfter,
“ to me the moll natural inference is, that they only
applied an idea to us in this cafe, which really exiiled
with regard to themfelves ; they probably look on
themfelves as one family, of which the eldell born is
the chief or king.”
MARQUETRY, in-laid work ; a curious kind
of work, compofed of pieces of hard fine wood of dif¬
ferent colours, faflened, in thin flices, on a ground,
and fometimes enriched with other matters, as tortoife-
Ihell, ivory, tin, and brafs.
There is another kind of marquetry made, inftead of
wood, of glaffes of various colours; and a third,
where nothing but precious Hones and the richeft
marbles are ufed : but thefe are more properly called
moftiic-worl. See Mosaic.
The art of inlaying is very ancient; and is fuppofed
to have paffed from the eail to the weft, as one of the
fpoils brought by the Romans from Alia. Indeed it
was then but a fimple thing; nor did it arrive at any
tolerable perfection till the 15th century among the Marqwtiy, _
Italians: it feems, however, to have arrived at its ^
height in the 17th century among the French.
Till John of Verona, a cotemporary with Raphael,
the finelt works of this kind were only black and
white, which are what we now call Morefco’t ; but !
that religious, whd had a genius for painting, ftained
his woods with dyes or boiled oils, which penetrated
them. But he went no farther than the reprefenting
buildings and perfpedlives, which require no great va¬
riety of colours. Thofe who fucceeded him, not only
improved on the.invention of dyeing the woods, by a
fecret which they found of burning them without com
fuming, which ferved exceedingly well for the Iha-
dows; but had alfo the advantage of a number of fine
new woods of naturally bright colours, by the difeo-
very of America, With thefe afliftances the art is
now capable of imitating any thing; whence- fome
call it the art of painting in wood.
The ground whereon the pieces are to be ranged
and glued, is ordinarily of oak or fir well dried ; and
to prevent warping, is compofed of feveral pieces glu¬
ed together. The wood to be ufed, being reduced into
leaves, of the thicknefs of a line, is either ftained with
fome colour, or made black for fhadow ; which fome
effedt by putting it in land extremely heated over the
fire, others by Iteeping it in lime-water and fublimate,
and others in oil of fulphur. —Thus coloured, the con¬
tours of the piece are formed according to the parts of
the defign they are to reprefent.
The laft is the moft difficult part of marquetry, and
that wherein moft patience and attention are .required-
The two chief inftruments ufed herein are the' faw and
the vice ; the one, to hold the matters to be formed ;
the other, to take off from the extremes, according to
occafion. The vice is of wood, having one of its
chaps fixed; the other moveable, £hd is opened and
Unit by the foot, by means of a cord faftened to a
treadle. Its ftrudlure is very ingenious, yet fimple
eiiough.
The leaves to be formed (for there are frequently
three or four of the fame kind formed together) are
put within the chaps of the vice, after being glued on
the outermoft part of the defign whofe profile they are
to follow: then the workman preffing the treadle, and
thus holding fall the piece, with his faw runs over all
the outlines of the defign.—-By thus joining and form¬
ing three or four pieces together, they not only gain
time, but the matter is Ukewife the better enabled to
fuftain the efforts of the faw ; which’, how delicate
foever it may be, and how lightly foever the work¬
man may conduct it, without fuch a precaution would
be apt to raife fplinters, to the ruin of the beauty of
the work.
When the work is to confift of one fingle kind of
wood, or of tortoife-fliell, on a copper or tin ground,
or vice verfa, they only form two leaves on one ano¬
ther, i. e. a leaf of metal, and a leaf of wood or ftiell t
this they call Jawing in counter-parts ; for by filling the
vacuities of one of the leaves by the pieces coming out
of the other, the metal may ferve as a ground to the
wood, and the wood to the metal.
All the pieces thus formed with the faw, and marked
to know them again, and the lhadbw given in the man¬
ner
MAR [ 581 ] MAR
Marquis ner already mentioned ; they vaneer or faflen each in
xits place on the common ground ; uling for that pur-
pofe the bell Englifn glue.
The whole is put in a prefs to dry, planed over, and
polifired with the Ikin of the fea-dog, wax, and firave-
grafs, as in fimple vaneering ; with this difference, how¬
ever, that in marquetry the fine branches, and feveral
of the more delicate parts of the figures, are touched
Up and fini (hed with a graver.
It is the cabinet-makers, joiners, and toy-men
among us who work in marquetry ; it is the enamel-
lers and ftone-cutters who deal in mofaic-work: the
inftrumeuts nfed in the former are raoftly the fame
with thofe ufed by the eboniits.
MARQUIS, a title of honour, next in dignity to
that of duke. His office is to guard the frontiers and
limits,of the kingdom, which were called the marches,
from the Teutonic word marche, a “ limit as, in par¬
ticular, were the marches of Wales and Scotland, while
they continued hoftile to England. -The perfons who
had command there, were called lords marchers, or
marquejfes; whofe authority was abolifired by fiatute
27 Hen. VIII. c, 27. though the title had long be¬
fore been made a mere defign of honour, Robert Vere
earl of Oxford being created marquis of Dublin by
Richard II. in the eighth year of'his reign. A mar¬
quis is created by patent; his mantle is double ermine,
three doublings and a half; his title is mojl hqnourable ;
and his coronet has pearls and ftrawberry-leaves inter¬
mixed round, of equal height.
MARR, that part of Aberdeenfhire fituated be¬
tween the rivers Dee and Don.
MARRACCI (Lewis), a very learned Italian,
was born at Lucca in Tufcany in 1612. After ha¬
ving finiflred his juvenile ftudies, he entered into tire
congregation of regular clerks of the mother of God,
and dirtinguifiiecWrimfelf early by his learning and me¬
rit. He taught rhetoric feven years, and paffed thro’
feveral offices of his order. He applied himfelf prin¬
cipally to the ftudy of languages, and attained of him¬
felf the knowledge of the Greek, the Hebrew, the Sy¬
riac, the Chaldee, the Arabic ; which laft he taught
fome time at Rome, by the order of pope Alexan¬
der VII. Pope Innocent XI. chofe him for his con-
feffor, and placed great confidence in him. He would
have advanced him to ecclefiaftical' dignities, if MaV-
racci had not oppofed him.—Marracci died at Rome
in 1700, aged 87.—He was the author of feveral
pieces in Italian ; but the grand work, which has made
hint defervedly famous rill over Europe, is his edition
of the Alkoran, in the original Arabic, with a Latin
verfion, notes, and confutation of his own. It was
beautifully printed in 2 vols folio at Padua in 1698.
The Latin verfion of the Alkoran, by Marracci, with
notes and obfervations from him and others, and a fy-
nopfis of the Mahometan religion, by way of intro-
dudtion, was publifhed by Heineccius at Leipfic,
172', in 8vo. Marracci had alfo a hand in the “ Bi-
blia facra Arabica, facrae congregation is de propaganda
fide juffu edita, ad ufum ecclefiarum orientalium,”
Rome 1671, in 3 vols folio.
MARRIAGE, a contract,' both civil and religious,
between a man and a woman, by which they engage
to live together in mutual love and friendfiiip for the
ends of procreation, &c. See Moral Philofophy.
Marriage is part of the law of nations, and is in Mari-iag*.
ufe among all people. The Romanifts 'account it a v'"—^
facrament.—The woman, with all her moveable
goods, immediately upon marriage, paffes wholly in
pqtejfatem viri, “ into the power and difpofal of the
hufband.”
The firft inhabitants of Greece lived together with¬
out marriage. Cecrops, king of Athens, is faid tc
have been the firil author of this honourable inllitu.
tion among that people. After the commonwealths
of Greece were fettled, marriage was very much «nr
couraged by their laws, and the abfiaining from it was
difcountenauced and in many places punifiied. The
Lacedemonians were very remarkable for'their fever
rity towards thofe who deferred marriage bieyond a lir
mited time, as well as to thofe who wholly abfiaineA
from it. The Athenians had an exprefs law, that all
commanders, orators, and perfons intrufted with any
public affair, filould be married inen. Polygamy was
not commonly tolerated in Greece. The time of mar¬
riage was not the fame in all places. The Spartans were
not permitted to many till they arrived at their full
ftrength ; the reafon affigned for which cuftom by Ly.
curgus was, that the Spartan children might be Itrong
and vigorous: and the Athenian laws are faid to have
once ordered, that men fhould not marry till 3 ^ years
of age. The feafon of the year which they preferred
for this purpofe was the winter, and particularly the
month of January, called Gamelion. The Greeks
thought it fcandalous to contrail marriage within cer¬
tain degrees of confanguinity ; whilft moll of the bar*
barons nations allowed inceftuous mixtures.
Moft of the Grecian Hates, efpecially fueh as made
any figure, required their citizens ftiould match with
none but citizens, and the children were not allowed
to marry without the confent of their parents. The
ufual ceremonies in promifing fidelity was killing each,
other, or giving their right hands, which was a gene*
ral form of ratifying all agreements. Be'fore the mar¬
riage could be folemnized, the gods were to be con-
fulted, and their affiftance implored by prayers and fa*
crifices, which were ofi'ered to ibmc of the deities that
fuperintended thefe affairs, by the parents or neareft
relations of the perfons to be married. . When the
victim was opened, the gall was taken out and thrown
behind the altar, as being the feat of anger and ma¬
lice, and therefore the averfion of all the deities who-
had the care of love, as well as thole who be¬
came their votaries. For the particularities relating
to the bride and bridegroom, fee Bride and Bride-
croom.
The Romans, as well as the Greeks, difallowed of
polygamy. A Roman might not marry any woman who
was not a Roman. Among the Romans, the kalendsj
nones, and ides of every month were deemed unlucky
for the celebration of marriage, as was alfo the feaft
of the parentalia, and the whole month of May. The
moll happy feafon in every refpeft was that which
followed the ides of June.
The Roman laws {peak of fecond marriages in very
hard and odious terms1: Matre jam fieotndis nuptiis fu-
nejlata, L. iii. C. de fee. nuptiis. By the fix laws it. was
enadled, that the effedfcs of the hulband or wife de.
ceafed Ihould pafs over to the children, if the furvi-
vor Ihould marry a fecond time. By the law Hac
iiiLldi
MAR [ 582 ] MAR
Marriage. tdiBali (Cod. defec. nupt.),the furvivor, upon marrying
^ v  a fecond time, could not give the perfon he married a
portion miore than equal to that of each of the children.
In the pirmitive church the refpeft to chaftity was car¬
ried fo high, that a fecond marriage was accounted no
other than a lawful whoredom, ora fpecies of bigamy;
and there are fome ancient canons which forbid the
ecclefiaftics from being prefent at fecond marriages.
Marriage, by the Mofaic law, was fubjecl to fe-
veral reftri&ions : thus by Levit. chap, xviii. ver. 16.
a man was forbid to marry his brother’s widow unlefs
he died without iffue ; in which cafe it became en¬
joined as a duty. So it was forbid to marry his wife’s
filler, while Ihe was living, ver. 18.; which jyas not
forbidden before the law, as appears from the inftance
of Jacob.
The ancient Roman law is filent on this head ; and
Papinian is the firft who mentions it, ©n occafion of
the marriage of Caracalla. The lawyers who came
after him llretched the bonds of affinity fo far, that
they placed adoption on the fame foot with nature.
Affinity, according to the modern canonifts, ren¬
ders marriage unlawful to the fourth generation, in-
clufive ; but this is to be underftood of diredl affinity,
and not of that which is fecondary or collateral, y//-
Jinls met affinisy non ejl affinis mens. It is farther to be
obferved, that this impediment of marriage does not
only follow an affinity contra&ed by lawful matrimony,
but alfo that contrafted by a criminal commerce; with
tliis difference, that this laft does extend beyond the
fecond generation ; whereas the other, as has been ob¬
ferved, reaches to the fourth.
In Germany they have a kind of marriage called
tnorganalicy wherein a man of quality contracting with
a woman of inferior rank, he gives her the left hand
in lieu of the right; and ftipulates in the contract that
the wife lhall continue in her former rank or condi¬
tion ; and that the children born of them lhall be of
the fame, 'fo that they become ballards as to matters
©f inheritance, though they are legitimate in ef-
feft. They cannot bear the name or arms of the
family. None but princes and great lords of Ger¬
many are allowed this kind of marriage. The uni-
verfities of Leipfic and Jena have declared againft the
validity of fuch contracts; maintaining that they can¬
not prejudice the children, efpecially when the empe¬
ror’s confent intervenes in the marriage.
The Turks have three kinds of marriages, and three
forts of wives; legitimate, •wives in kebin, and Jlaves.
They marry the firll, hire the fecond, and buy the third.
Among all the favage nations, whether in Afia, A-
frica, or America, the wife is commonly bought by
the hufband from her father or thofe other relations
who have an authority over her; and the _o iclufion
of a bargain for this purpofe, together with the pay¬
ment of the price, has therefore become the ufual form
or folemnity in the celebration of their marriages.
The Hebrews alfo purchafed their wives by paying
down a competent dowry for them ; and Ariliotle
makes it one argument to prove that the ancient Gre¬
cians were an uncivilized people, becaufe they ufed to
buy their wives ; and in proportion as they laid afide
their barbarous manners they left olf this praClice.
The Englilh law conliders marriage in no other
light than as a civil contrail; the holinefs of thematri- Marriage,
monial Hate being left entirely to the ecclefiallical law, to —v—^
which it pertains, to punifh or annul inceftuous or other
unfcriptural marriages. The law allows marriage to
be good and valid, where the parties at the time of
making it were willing and able to contrail, and ac¬
tually did contrail, in the proper forms and folemni-
ties required by law. The difabilities for contrailing
are of two forts : fil'd; fuch as are canonical, and there¬
fore fufficient by the ecclefiaftical laws to void the
marriage in the fpiritual court; fuch as pre-contrail,
confanguinity, or relation by blood; and affinity, or
relation by marriage, and fome particular corporal in¬
firmities. But thefe difabilities in our law do not
make the marriage ipfo fatlo void, but voidable only by
fentence of feparation; and marriages are efteemed
valid to all civil purpofes, unlefs fuch feparation is ac¬
tually made during the life of the parties. Thus when
a man had married his firft wife’s fifter, and after her
death the biffiop’s court was proceeding to annul the
marriage and baftardife the iffue, the court of king’s
bench granted a prohibition quoad hoc ; but permitted
them to proceed to punifh the hufband for inceft.
By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 38. it is declared, that all
perfons may lawfully marry but fuch as are prohibited
by God’s law, &c. And that nothing (God’s law
excepted) {hall impeach any marriage but within the
Levitical degrees: thefe are enumerated in the 18th
chapter of Leviticus, and are illuftrated by Lord Coke
in this manner: a man may not marry his mother,
father’s fifter, mother’s fifter, fifter, daughter, daugh¬
ter of his fon or daughter, father’s wife, uncle’s wife,
father’s wife’s daughter, brother’s wife, wife’s fifter,
fon’s wife or wife’s daughter, and daughter of his
wife’s fon or daughter. And a woman may not marry
her father, father’s brother, mother’s brother, brother,
fon, fon of her hufband’s fon or daughter, mother’s
hufband, aunt’s hufband,^ fifter’s hufband, hufband’s
brother, and fon of her hufband’s fon or daughter.
By the civil law firft coufins are allowed to marry; but
by the canon law both firft and fecond coufins are
prohibited. Therefore when it is vulgarly faid that
firft coufins may marry but fecond coufins cannot, this
probably arofe by confounding thefe two laws; for
firft coufins may marry by the civil law, and fecond
coufins cannot by the canon law. But by the fore-
faid flat. 32 Hen. VIII. c. 38. it is clear, that both
firft and fecond coufins may marry. By the fame fta-
tute all impediments arifing from pre-contrafts to
other perfons were abolifhed, and declared of none
effeA unlefs they had been confummated with bodily
knowledge; in which cafe the canon law holds fuch
contrail to be a marriage de faQo. But this branch
of the ftatute was repealed by 2 & 3 Ed. VI. c. 23.
How far the ail of 26 Geo II. c. 33. (which pro¬
hibits all fuits in ecclefiaftical courts to compel a mar¬
riage in confequence of any contrail) may collaterally
extend to revive this claufe of Henry VIII.’s ftatute,
and abolilh the impediment of pre-contrail, judge
Blackflone leaves to be confidered by the canonifta.
We fhall here obferve, that on a promife of marriage,
if it be mutual on both fides, damages may be reco¬
vered in cafe either party refufes to marry; and tho’
no time for the marriage is agreed on, if the plaintiff
avers
MAR [ 583 ] MAR
Marriage, avers that he offered to marry the defendant who re-
w-—•/-— fufcd it, an action is maintainable for the damages;
but no aftion fliall be brought upon any agreement
except it is in writing, and figned by the party to be
charged. The canonical hours for celebrating mar¬
riage are from 8 to 12 in the forenoon.
The other fort of difabihties are thofe which are
created, or at leaft enforced, by the municipal laws.
Thefe civil difabilities make the contra£1 void ab initio*
by rendering the parties incapable of forming any con-
trach at all. The firft legal difabrlity is a prior mar¬
riage, or having another hufband or wife living ; in
which cafe, befxdes the penalties confequent upon it as
a felony, the fecond marriage is to all intents and pur-
pofes void. See Bigamy and Polygamy.
The next legal difability is want of age : therefore
if a boy under 14, or a girl under 12 years of age,
marrries, when either of them comes to the age of con.
fent, they may difagree. and declare the marriage void,
without any divorce or fentence in the fpiritual court.
However, in our law itis.fo far a marriage, that if at
the age of confent they agree to continue together,
they need not be married again. Another incapaci.ty-
arifes from want of confent of parents or guar¬
dians. By feveral ftatutes, viz. 6 & 7 W. HI.
c. 6. 7. 8. W. dll. c. 35. 10 Ann. c. 19. penal¬
ties of xool. are laid on every clergyman who mar¬
ries a couple either without publication of banns,
which may give notice to parents or guardians, or with¬
out a licence, to obtain which the con fent of parents or
guardians muft be fworn to. And by 4 & 5 Ph. &
M. c. 8. whofoever marries any woman child under
the age of 16, years, without cenfent of parents or
guardians, fhall be fubje&.to fine or five years im-
prifonment; and her efiate during her hufband’s
life lhall be enjoyed by the next heir. Thus alfo in
France the fons cannot marry without confent of pa¬
rents till 30 years of age, nor the daughters till 25 ;
and in Holland the fons are.; at their own difpofal at
2 ^ and the daughters at 20. And by the marriage
aft, viz. 26 Geo. II. c. 33. it is- enafted, that all
marriages celebrated by licence (for banns luppofe no¬
tice), where either of the parties is under 21, not be¬
ing a widow or widower, without the confent of the
father, or if He be not living of the 'mother or guar¬
dians, Ih'all be abfolutely'void.' However, provifion
is made where the mother or guardian is non compos,
beyond fea, or unreafonably froward, to difpenfe with
fuch conf&it at the difcretion of the lord chancellor;
but no provifion is made in cate the father Ihbuld la¬
bour under any mental onother incapacity; A fourth
incapacity is want of reafon. It is provided by
15 Geo. II. c. 30. that the marriage of lunatics and
fons under phrenfies (if found lunatics under a
commifiion or committed to the care of truilees by
any aft of parliament) before they are. declared*of
found mind by the lord chancellor, or the majority
of fuch truftees, lhall be totally void1. Lallly, the par¬
ries muft not only be willing and able to contraft, but
muft aftually contraft tliemfelves in due form of law,
to make it a good‘civil marriage. Any contraft made
per verla depr<efenti, or in words of the preterit- tente,
and in cafe of cohabitation per verba de futuro alfo be¬
tween perfons able to contraft, was before the late
aft deemed a. valid marriage to many purpofes, and
4-
the parties might be compelled in the fpiritual courts Marriage?
to celebrate it in facie ecclefae. But theie verbal con-
trafts are now of no force to compel a futuretnarriage.
Nor is any marriage at prefent valid that is not cele¬
brated in fome parifh church, or public chapel, unlefa
by difpenfation from the arcbbilhop of Canterbury.
It muft alfo be preceded by publication of banns or
by licence from the fpiritual judge. A marriage in
purfuance of banns muft be folemmzed in one of the
churches or chapels where the banns were publilhed-
No parfon, vicar, &c. fliall be obliged to publilh banns
of matrimony, unlefs the perfons to be married lhall,'
teven days before the time required for the firft pub¬
lication, deliver to him a notiee in writing of their
true names, and of the houte or houtes of their re-
fpeftive abode within fuch parilh, &c. and of the time
that they have dwelt in fuch houte or houtes. And the
faid banns lhall be publilhed upon three Sundays prece¬
ding the. folemnization of marriage during the time of
public tervice :. in cate the parents or guardians, or
either of the parties who (hall be under the age of 21
years, Ihall openly and publicly declare, or caute to
be declared in the church or chapel where the banns
lhall be-fo publilhed, at the time of fuch publication,
their diftent to fuch marriage, fuch publication of
banns lhall be void And when the parties dwell i»-:
divers parilhes, the curate of the one parilh lhall not
folemnize matrimony betwixt them without a certifi¬
cate of the banns being tbriee alked from the curate
of the other parifli. A marriage in purfuanee of a
licence (except a fpecial licence)-malt be folemnized -
in fuch church or chapel where the licence is granted;
and no licence, of marriage lhall be granted'by any
archbilhop, bilhop, &c. to folemnize any marriage in
any other church, &c. than in the parilh church, &c.
within, which the ufual place of abode " of one of the
parties lliall have been for four weeks immediately be¬
fore the granting fuch licence. By the fame llatut-i
all marriages lhall be folemnized in the pretence of two
credible witneltes at the leaft, befides the minifter, who
lhall-fign their atteftation thereof; and immediately
after the celebration of every marriage, an entry there¬
of Hi all be made in the parilh-regifter, exprefiing that
the faid marriage was celebrated by*banns or-licence ;
and if both or either of the parties be under age, with
content of the parents or guardians> as the cate lhall
be, figHcd4 by-the miniller, and alfb by the parties -
married, and attefted by the two vvitnefles prefent. It
is held to be alfo eftential to a marriage,- that it be
performed by a perfon in orders ; though the inter¬
vention of a prieft to telemnize this contraft is merely
juris poftti-vi, and'not juris nnturalis ant divini ; it being
faid that Pope Innocent III. was the firft who or¬
dained the celebration, of marriage in .the church, be-
foie which', it was totally a civil contraft; And in
the times-of the grand rebellion, all marriages were per¬
formed by the juilicesof the peace; and thete marriages
were declared valid without any freftifolemnizarion, by
rz Car. II. c. 33. But as the law now hands, we may
upon the whole colleft-, that no marriage by the tem¬
poral law is ipfo facto void, that is celebrated by a per-
fon in orders-; in. a parillochurch, a public chapel,-or
eltewhere, by a fpeci.al difpenfation in . puffuing of
banns or a licence ; between fingle perfpns; content*
ing; of found mind ; and of the age of 21 years ;. or
MAR [ 584 ] MAR
M-nTis^e, of tli? nge of 14 in males and !2 Jrt females, with cence, or aid and abet fuch forgery; to utter the fame Marriage.
c"‘‘—v 'll ■' eonfent of parents or guardians, or without it, in cafe as true, knowing it to be counterfeit; or to deftroy or w‘"'v '1 1,1
of widowhood. And no marriage , is Voidable by the procure the deftruftion of any regifter in order to va-
eeclefiaflical law after the death of either of the par- cate any marriage, or fubjeft any perfon to the penal,
ties ; nor during their lives, unlefs for the canonical ties of this aft 5 all thefe offences, knowingly and wil-
impediments of precontraft, if that indeed ftill exifts; fully committed, fubjeft the party to the guilt of fe.
of confanguinity 5 and of affinity or corporal imbecil- lony without benefit of clergy. But this aft doth not
lity fubfifting previous to the marriage. extend to the marriages of the royal family ; nor to
By 26 Geo. II. c. 33. the fubftance of which has Scotland; nor to any marriages among the people
been already recited, if any perfon ffiall folemnize ma- called quaLers, or among perfons profeffing the Jewiffi
trimony in any other place than a church, &c. where religion, where both the parties are quakers or Jews
banns have been ufually publilhed, unlefs by Fpecial li- tefpeftively; nor to any marriages beyond the feas.
cence, or without publication of banns, unlefs licence In Scotland, the parties living together as man and
of marriage be firft obtained from fome perfon having/ wife, or declaring themfelves fo before witneffes,
authority to grant the fame, every finch perfon know- makes a valid though informal marriage. See Law,
ingly fo offending ffiall be guilty of felony, and tranf- Part III. nu 160.
ported for 14 years; the profecution to be within For the proportions which marriages bear to births,
three years. By the fame ftatute, to make a falfe en- and births to burials, in feveral parts of Europe,
try into a marriage-regifter; to alter it when made ; Mr Derham gives us the following table,
to forge or counterfeit fuch entry, or a marriage li-
Marriages to Births to Bu-
Births, as rials, i
Names of Places.
England in general
. London- - - . .
Hantfhire, from 1569 to 1658
Tiverton in Devonlhire from 1656 to 1664
. Cranbrook in Kent, ^-om 1560 to 1649
Aynho, in Northamptonlhire, for 1 r8 years
Upminiler.in Effex, for ioo years _ _ >
Eranckfort on the Maine, in 1695
Old, Middle, and Lower March, in 1698
Dominions of the Eleftor of Brandenburg, in 1698
Breflaw in Silefia, from 1687 to 91 -
Paris, in 1670, 1671, 1672 - -
I to 4.63
1 to 4
1 to 4
.1 to 3.7
1 to 3.9
1 to 6
1 to 4.6
1 to 3.7
1 to 3.7
1 to 3.7
1 to 4.7
1.12 to I
I.to I.I
1.2 to I
1.26 to I
1.6 to 1
1.6 to 1
1.8 to 1
1.2 to 1
1.9 to 1
1.5 to I
1.6 to 1
1.6 to 1
The following Table, fimilar to the preceding, is formed from the obfervations collefted and referred to by
Dr Price.
M-^eS t0 Births to Burials, as
.births, as
Names of Places.
Cyckt^Jla London, annual medium from 1716 to 1736
by Dr Rees.  7 from 1759 to 1768 -
Northampton, ditto, from 1741 to 1770 r
Norwich, ditto, from 1740 to 1769 . - -
Shrewfbury, ditto, from 1762 to 1768 .
Manchefter and Salford, exclufive of diffenters.
Ditto, from 1759 to 1759 - -
Ditto, ditto, including diffenters, from 1768 to 1772
Gainlborough in Lincolnlhire, ditto, from 1752 to 1771
Madeira, ditto, from 1759 to 1766
Bofton in New England, from 1731 to 1752
Chriftiana in Norway, in 1761 - - -
Paris, mean of fome of the laft years
Vienna, annual medium from 1757 to 1769
Amfterdam, ditto, for fome of the laft years
Copenhagen, ditto - - - • -
Berlin, ditto, for five years, ending at 1759
Brefiaw, ditto; from 1633 to 1734
 , ditto, from 1717 to 1725
Home, ditto, from 1759 to 1761 - _ -
Vaud in Switzerland, ditto, for 10 years before 1766
For an account of the numbers of male and female
ftill-bofn children and chryfoms, and of boys and girls
No 195.
I to 3.7
1 to 4.68
I to 4.3
I to I 9, &c.
X to 3.04, &c.
i to 3.9, &c.
18,000 to 26,529, or I to 1.4, &c.
15,710 to 22,956, or 1 to r.4, &c,
155 to 191, or 1 to 1.2, &c.
1057 to 1206, or 1 to l.i, &c.
301 to 329, or 1 to 1.69, See.
756 to 743,-
98 to 958, I
I to 3.9
14, &c. to I.
126 to 105, or 1.2 to 1.
2201 to 1293, or 1.7 to 1.
538 to 608, or 1 to 1.13, See.
11,024 to 6929, or 1.5 to 1.
9,ico to 10,400, or 1 to 1.01, &c.
5800 to 6600, or 1 to 1.1, &c.
4600 to 8000, or 1 to 1.1, &c.
270010 3300, or 1 to 1.2, &c.
3855 to 5054, or 1 to 1.3, See.
1089 to 1256, or 1 to 1 15, See.
1252 to 1507, or 1 to 1.2, &c.
5167 to 7153, or 1 to 1.3, &c.
3155 to 2504, or 1.2, &e. to 1.
under ten, of married men. and married women, and of
widows and*widowers, who died for a courfe of years
MAR [ 585 ] MAR
V Msrriagtc. at Vienna, Breflaw, Drefden, Leipfic, Ratiftion, and
' 'r iT*fome other towns in Germany, fee Phil. Tranf. Abr.
Vol. VII. Part IV. p. 46, &c.
The reader may find many curious calculations and
remarks relating to this fubjeft in Dr Price’s excellent
J work, intitled, Obfervations on Reverfionary Pay-
5 Dr Rees, ments. From the preceding table it appears, that
marriages, one with another, do each produce about
four births, both in England and other parts of Eu¬
rope. Dr Price obferves, that the births at Paris, as
may be feen in the table, are above four times the
weddings; and therefore it may feem, that in the moft
healthy country fituations, every wedding produces
above four children ; and though this be the cafe in
Paris, for reafons which he has given, he has obferved
nothing like it in any other great town. He adds,
that from comparing the births and weddings in coun¬
tries and towns where regiilers of them have been kept,
it appears, that in the former, marriages one with an¬
other feldom produce lefs than four children each ;
generally between four and five, and Ibmetimes above
five; but in towns feldom above four, generally be¬
tween three and four, and fometimes under three. It
is neceffary to be obferved here, that though the pro¬
portion of annual births to weddings has been confi-
dered as giving the true number of children derived
from each marriage, taking all marriages one with an¬
other ; yet this is only true, when, for many years, the
births and burials have kept nearly equal. Where
there is an excefs of the births occafioning an increafe,
the proportion of annual births to weddings muft be
lefs than the proportion of children derived from each
marriage; and the contrary muft take place where
there is a decreafe : and by Mr King’s computation,
about one in an hundred and four perfons marry ; the
number of people in England being eftimated at five
millions and a half, whereof about forty-one thoufand
annually marry.
In the diftrift of Vaud in Switzerland, the married
are very nearly a third part of the inhabitants.
Major Graunt and Mr King difagree in the pro¬
portions between males and females, the latter making
10 males to 13 females in London; in other cities and
towns, and in the villages and hamlets, 100 males to
99 females: but Major Graunt, both from the Lon¬
don and country bills, computes, that there are in
England 14 males to 13 females; whence he juftly
infers, that the Chriftian religion, prohibiting poly¬
gamy, is more agreeable to the law of nature than Ma-
hometanifm and others that allow it.
This proportion of males to females Mr Derham
thinks pretty juft, being agreeable to what he had
obferved himfelf. In the hundred years, for inftance,
of his own parilh-regifter of Upminfter, though the
burials of males and females were nearly equal, being
633 males and 623 females in all that time ; yet
there were baptized 709 males and but 675 females;
which is 13 females to 13.7 males.
From a regifter kept at Northampton for 28 years,
from 1741 to 1770, it appears, that the proportion of
males to females that were born in that period is 2361
to 2288, or nearly 13.4 to 13. However, though
more males are bom than females, Dr Price has fuffi-
ciently fliown, that there is a confiderable difference
between the probabilities of life among males and fe-
Vol.X. Partll.
males in favour of the latter; fo that males are more Marriage,
fliortlived than females ; and as the greater mortality
of males takes place among children, as well as among
males at all ages, the faft cannot be accounted for
merely by their being more fubjedt to untimely deaths
by various accidents, and by their being addicted to
the exceffes and irregularities which ftiorten life. Mr
Kerffeboom informs us, that, during the courfe of 125
years in Holland, females have in all accidents of age
lived about three or four years longer than the fame
number of males. In feveral towns of Germany, &c.
it appears, that of 7270 married perfons who had died,
the proportion of married men who died to the mar¬
ried women was 3 to 2 ; and in Breflaw for eight
years, as 5 to 3. In all Pomerania, during nine
years, from 1748 to 1756, this proportion was nearly
15 to 11. Among the minifters and profeffors in
Scotland, 20 married men die to 12 married women,
at a medium of 27 years, or in the proportion of 5 to
3 ; fo that there is the chance of 3 to 2, and in fome
circumftances even a greater chance, that the woman
lhall be the furvivor of a marriage, and not a man ;
and this difference cannot be accounted for merely by
the difference of age between men and their wives,
without admitting the greater mortality of males. In^.
the diftrift of Vaud in Switzerland, it appears, that
half the females do not die till the age of 46 and up¬
wards, though half the males die under 36. It is
likewife an indifputable fa<ft, that in the beginning of
life, the rate of mortality among males is much greater
than among females.
From a table formed by Dr Price, from a regifter
kept for 20 years at Gainiborough, it appears, that of
thofe who live to 80, the major part, in the propor¬
tion of 49 to 32, are females. Mr Deparcieux at
Paris, and Mr Wargentin in Sweden, have farther ob¬
ferved, that not only women live longer than men, but
that married women live longer than Angle women. From
fome regifters examined by Mr Muret in Switzerland,
it appears, that of equal numbers of Angle and married
women between 15 and 25, more of the former died
than of the latter, in the proportion of 2 to 1.
With refpeft to the difference between the mortality
of males and females, it is found to be much lefs in
country parilhes and villages than in towns; and
hence it is inferred, that human life in males is more
brittl* than in females, only in confequence of adven¬
titious caufes, or of fome particular debility, that
takes place in poliflied and luxurious focieties, and
efpecially in great towns.
From the inequality above ftated between the male*
and females that are born, it is reafonable to infer,
that one man ought to have but one wife; and yet
that every woman without polygamy may have' a huf-
band: this furplufage of males above females being
fpent in the fupplies of war, the feas, &c. from which
the women are exempt.
Perhaps, fays Dr Price, it might have been obferved
with more reafon, that this provifion had in view that
particular weaknefs or delicacy in the conftitution*of
males, which makes them more fubje<ft to mortality;
and which confequently renders it neceffary that more
of them fhould be produced, in order to preferve in
the world a due proportion between the two fexes.
That this is a work of Providence, and not of
4 E chance,
MAR
[ 586 ]
MAR
Marriage chance, is well made out by the rery laws of chance
by Dr Arbuthnot; who fuppofes Thomas to lay a-
gainft John, that for 82 years running more males (hall
be born than females; and giving all allowances in the
computation to Thomas’s iide, he makes the odds J
found that a 19th part of all the marriages among any Marriage.
body of men, whofe numbf rs do not vary, are diffolved  v—
every year by the deaths of either the hulband or wife,
it would appear, that 19 was at the time they were con-
trailed, the expectation of thefe marriages. Dr Price
gainft Thomas, that it does not fo happen, to be near obferves, that the annual average of weddings among
five millions of millions of millions of millions to one;
but for ages of ages, according to the world’s age, to
be near an infinite number to one.
According to Mr Kerfleboom’s obfervations, there
are about 32$ children born from 100 marriages.
Mr Kerfieboom, from his obfervations, eftimates
the duration of marriages, one with another, as in the
following Table.
Thofe whofe ages, taken together, make
40, live together between 24 and 25 years.
50
60
70
80
90
100
23
»9
>7
M
23
21
20
18
13
Phil. Tranf. N° 468. fe&. iii. p. 319.
Dr Price has fiiown, that on De Moivre’s hypothe-
the minifters and profeifors in Scotland for the laft 27
years has been 31 ; and the average of married per-
fons for 17 years ending in 1767, had been 667. This
number, divided by 31, gives 21', the expe&ation of
marriage among them; which, he fays, is above 2J-
years more than the expe&ation of marriage would
be, by Dr Halley’s table, on the fuppofition, that
all firft, fecond, and third marriages, may be juftly
confidered as commencing one with another fo early
as the age of 30; and he has proved, that the expec¬
tation of two equal joint lives is to the expeftation of
a fingle life of the fame age as 2 to 3 : confequently,
the expectation of a fingle life at 30, among the mi¬
nifters in Scotland, cannot be lefs than 32.25. If
we fuppofe the mean ages of all who marry annually
to be 33 and 25, . the expectation of every marriage
would be 19 years ; or one with another they would
be all extinct in 19 years: the marriages which con-
fis, or that the probabilities of life decreafe uniformly -tinue beyond this term, though fewer in number, en-
(fee Complement of Life), the duration of furvivorlhip joying among them juft as much more duration as
is equal to the duration of marriage, when the ages are thofe that fall Ihort of it enjoy lefs. But it appears
equal; or, in other words, that the expeftation of two from the obfervations and tables of Mr Muret, that, in
joint lives, the ages being equal, is the fame with the the diftrift of Vaud (dividing half the number of mar-
expe&ation of furvivorfhip ; and, confequently, the ried perfons, wiz. 38,328, by the annual medium of
number of furvivors, or (which is the fame, fuppofing no weddings, viz, 808), the expectation of marriage is
fecond marriages) of widows and widowers, alive to- only 234- years: fo much higher are the probabilities
gether, which will arife from any given fet of fuch of life in the country than in towns, or than they
marriages conftantly kept up, will be equal to the ought to be, according to De Moivre’s hypothefis.
whole number of marriages; or half of them (the Marriage in law, fignifies not on-
number of widows in particular) equal to half the ly the lawful joining of man and wife, but alfo the
number of marriages. Thus, the expectation of two right of beftowing a ward or a widow in marriage, a a
joint lives, both 40, is the third of 46 years, or their well as the land given in marriage,
complement, i. e. 15 years and 4 months ; and this is Dlfolution of Marriage.. See Divorce.
alfo the expectation of the furvivor. That is, fuppo- Forcible Marriage. See Forcible Marriage.
fing a fet of marriages between perfons all 40, they Frank Marriage. See Frank.
will one with another laft juft; this time, and the fur- ya8itation of Marriage, in law, is one of the firft
vivors will laft the fame time. In adding together and principal matrimonial caufes, when one of the
the years which any great number of fuch marriages,,, parties boafts or gives out, that he or the is married to
and their furvivorftiips, have lafted, the fums would the other, whereby a common reputation of their ma¬
te found to be equal. It is obferved farther, that if trimony may enfue. On this ground the party injured
the number expreffing the 'expectation of fingle or may libel the other in the fpiritual court; and unlefs
joint lives, multiplied by the number of fingle or joint the defendant undertakes and makes out a proof of
lives whofe expeftation it is, be added annually to a the aftual marriage, he or (he is enjoined perpetual fi-
fociety or town, the fum gives the whole number living lence on that head ; which is the only remedy the ec-
together, to which fuch an annual addition WvXild in clefiaftical courts can give for this injury.
time grow: thus, fince 19, or the third of 57, is the
expedtation of two joint lives whofe common age is
29, or common complement 57, 20 marriages every
year between perfons of this age would in 57 years
grow to 20 times 19, or 380 marriages always exifting
together. The number of furvivors alfo arifing from
Marriage Settlement, is a legal aeft, previous to mar¬
riage, whereby a jointure is fecured to the wife after
the death of the hufband. Thefe fettlements feem to
have been in ufe among the ancient Germans, and
their kindred nation the Gauls. Of the former Ta¬
citus gives us this account: Dotem non uxor marito,.
thefe marriages, and always living together, would in fed uxori maritus ajfert : interfunt parentes et propinqui, et
twice 57 years increafe to the fame number. More¬
over, the particular proportion that becomes extindi
every year, out of the whole number conftantly exift-
ing together of fingle or joint lives, muft, wherever
this number undergoes no variation, be exactly the
fame with (the expectation of thofe lives at the time
cwhen their exiftence commenced. Thus, if it were
munera probant (De Mor. Germ. c. 18.) And Casfar,
De Bell. Gallic, lib. vi. c. 18. has given us the terms
of a marriage fettlement among the Gauls, as nicely
calculated as any modern jointure : Virl, quantas pe¬
cuniae ab uxoribus dolls nomine acceperunt, tantas ex Jills
bonis, cejlimatione faSa, cum dotibus communicant. Hujus
omnis ptcunle conjunQim ratio habctur, frudujque fervatur-.
5 liter
%
MAR [ 587 ] MAR
i Marriage Uler eorum vita fuperavit, ad eum part utrlufque cum
I II fruclibus fuperiurum temporum pervenit. The dauphin’s
bluin'1* comi^entator fuppofes that this Gaulifh cuftom was
», . ■ t ‘ ■ the ground of the new regulations made by Juftinian,
Nov. 97. with regard to the provifion for widows among
the Romans; but furely there is as much reafon to
fuppofe, fays Judge Blackftone, that it gave the hint
for our ftatutable jointures. Comment, vol. ii. p. 138.
See an excellent marriage fettlement by Blackftone
in the appendix to the fecond volume of his Commen¬
taries.
Duty of Marriage, is a term ufed in fome ancient
cuftoms, fignifying an obligation on women to marry.
To underftand this, it muft be obferved, that old
maids and widows about fixty, who held fees in body,
or were charged with any perfonal or military fervices,
were anciently obliged to marry, to render thofe fer¬
vices to the lord by their hufbands, or to indemnify
the lord for what they could not do in perfon. And
this was called duty or fervice of marriage.
Policy of encouraging Marriage. Dr Halley ob-
ferves, that the growth and increafe of mankind is
not fo much ftinted by any thing in the nature of the
fpecies, as it is from the cautious difficulty moft people
make to adventure ©n the ftate of marriage, from the
profpedf of the trouble and charge of providing for a
family ; nor are the poorer fort of people herein to be
blamed, who, befides themfelves and families, are
obliged to work for the proprietors of the lands that
feed them ; and of fuch does the greater part of man¬
kind confift. Were, it not for the backwardnefs to
marriage, there might be four times as many births as
we find; for by computation from the table given
under the article Mortality, there are 15,000 per-
fons above 16 and under 45, of which at leaft 7000
are women capable of bearing children ; yet there are
only 1238, or little more than a fixth part of thefe,
that breed yeaily : whereas, were they all married,
it is highly probable that four of fix fliould bring forth
a child every year, the political confequences of which
are evident. Therefore, as the ftrength and glory of
a kingdom or ftate confifts in the multitude of fub-
jefts, celibacy above all things ought to be difcou-
raged, as by extraordinary taxing or military fervice :
and, on the contrary, thofe who have numerous fami¬
lies fhould be allowed certain privileges and immuni¬
ties, like the jus trium Uberorum among the Romans ;
and efpecially, by effeftually providing for the fubfift-
ence of the poor.
MARROW, in anatomy', a foft oleaginous fub-
ftance contained in the cavitf of the bones. See An a¬
tomy, n° 5.
MARRUBIUM, white horehound : A genus of
the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the 42d order, Verticillala. The calyx is falver-
ffiaped, rigid, and ten-ftriated; the upper lip of the corol¬
la bifid, linear, and ftraight. There are nine f^ecies, the
moft remarkable of which is the vulgare, a native of Bri¬
tain, growing naturally in wafte places, and by way-fides
near towns and villages, but not common. It has a
ftrong and fomewhat mulky fmell, and bitter taile.
It is reputed attenuant and refolvent; an infufion of
the leaves in water, fweetened with honey, is recom¬
mended in afthmatical and phthifical complaints, and Mar*,
moft other difeafes of the breaft and lungs. Marfan,
MARS, in aftronomy, one of the five planets, and
of the three fuperior ones; its place being between
the earth and Jupiter. See Astronomy, n° 40.
Mars, in Pagan worfltip, the god of war. He
was, according to fome, the fon of Jupiter and Juno ;
while others fay that he was the fon of Juno alone, who,
being difpleafed at Jupiter’s having produced Minerva
from his brain, without female aid, in revenge con¬
ceived without the affiftance of the other fex, by touch¬
ing a flower ftiown to her by Flora in the plains of
Olenus, and became the mother of this formidable
deity. The amours of Mars and Venus, and the
manner in which Vulcan caught and expofed them
to the laughter of the other gods, have been de-
fcribed by feveral of the ancient poets. He is repre-
fented as having feveral wives and miftrefles, and a
confiderable number of children. He was held in the
higheft veneration by the Romans, both from his be¬
ing the father of Romulus their founder, and from
their inclination to conqu ? : and had magnificent
temples eredled to him at Rome.
Mars is ufually reprefented in a chariot, drawn by
furious horfes. He is completely armed ; and ex¬
tends his fpear with the one hand, and grafps a
fword, imbrued in blood, with the other. He has a
fierce and favage afpe£t. Difcord is reprefented pre¬
ceding his car ; and Clamour, Fear, and Terror, ap¬
pear in his train. The vidtims facrificed to him were
the wolf, the horfe, the wood-pecker, the vulture, and
the cock. *
Mars, amongchemifts, denotesiVo/i; that metalbeing
fuppofed to be under the influence of the planet Mars.
MARSAIS (Cefar Chefneau du), was born at
Marfeilles 1676. He attached himfelf at an early pe¬
riod of life to the order of the. congregation of the
oratory; but the fituation was too narrow for his ge¬
nius, and he foon left it. At Paris he married, be¬
came advocate, and entered on this new profeffion
with great fuccefs and approbation. Difappointed,
however, in his expe&ations of making a fpeedy for¬
tune, he abandoned the law alfo. About this time
the peevifh humour of his wife occafioned a fepara-
tion. We next find him as governor to the fon of
the prefident de Maifons ; and when the premature
death of the father deprived him of the fruits of his
induftry, he engaged with the famous Law in the fame
capacity. After the fall of this extraordinary pro¬
jector, he completed the education of the Marquis de
Beaufremont’s children, and reared pupils worthy of
his genius and induftry. Although he was accuied
of a tendency.to Deifm, and though there was goad
reafon for the accufation ; yet he never infufed into
the minds of his fcholars any principle inconiift-
ent with found morality, or with the Chriftian re¬
ligion. When he left M. de Beaufremont’s family,
he took a boarding houfe, in which, j after a method
of his own, he educated a certain number of young
men. Unexpected circumftances obliged him to aban¬
don this ufeful undertaking He was even conftrain-
ed to give fome occafional leffons for the bare neceffa-
ries of life. Without fortune, without hope, and al-
moft without refource, he was reduced to extreme in-
4 E 3 digence.
Marfais.
MAR [ -588 ] MAR
digence. In this fituation he was found by the au¬
thors of the Encyclopedic, and made a partner in con¬
ducting that great work. Among many other excel¬
lent pieces, the article Grammar breathes the fpirit of
found philofophy. His principles are clear and folid.
He difc'overs an extreme knowledge of the, fubjeft,
great accuracy in the rules, and great propriety in the
application. M. le Comte de Lauraguais was fo much
affeCted with the diftreffes, and fo much convinced of
the merit of Du Marfan, that he procured him a
penfion of one thoufand livres. Du Marfais died at
Paris on the nth June 1756, in his eightieth year,
after having received the facrament. The compliment
which he paid to the prieft on this occafxon has been
confidered by fome as rather equivocal. But there is
no neceflity to deprive religion of this triumph, or phi¬
lofophy of that honour which conviction and penitence
mult confer on it. “ The faith of a great genius
(fays Bayle, who is intitled to credit on this fubjeCt)
Is not totally extinguilhed : It is like a fpark under
the alhes. Reflection and the profpeCt of danger call
forth its exertions. Thtre are certain fituations in
which philofophers are as full of anxiety and remorfe
as other men.” Whatever were the laft fentiments of
Du Marfais, it cannot be denied that in the vigour of
health he furnilhed feveral examples of irreligion, and
to thefe have been added many abfurd ftories. The
fuperiority of Du Marfais’s talents confifted in exaCt-
nefs and perfpicuity. His ignorance of the world,
and of the cuftoms of mankind, together with the
greateft latitude in expreffing whatever he thought,
gave him that frank and unguarded fimplicity which
is often the chief ingredient of genuine humour. Fon-
tenelle ufed to fay of him, “ that he was the moft lively
fimpleton, and as a man of wit the moft Ample, he ever
knew.” He was the Fontaine of philofophers. In
confequence of this character, he was a nice judge of
what was natural in every production, and a great ene¬
my to all kind of affeCtation. His principal works
are, I. Expofttion de la doflrine de I’Eglife Gallicane par
rapportaux pretenfions da la Cour de Rome, 12 mo. This
accurate work was begun at the defire of the prefident
de Maifons, and did not appear till after the death of
the author. 2. Expoftion d'une methode raifoneepour ap-
prendre la langue Latine, i2mo, 1722, rare. This me¬
thod appears conformable to the natural unfolding of
the powers of the mind, and on that account renders
the acquifition of the language lefs difficult; but it was
liable to two great objections to vulgar and unenlight¬
ened underftandings, namely, its novelty, and the cen-
fure which it conveyed againft the former method.
3. Trade des tropes, 1730, 8vo ; again printed in 1771,
12mo. This work is intended to explain the different
fignifications of the fame word. 'It is a mafter-piece of
logic, of accuracy, of perfpicuity, and precifion. The
obfervations and the rules are illuftrated by ftriking ex¬
amples calculated to fhdw both the ufe and the abufe of
the rhetorical figures. It is wonderful at the fame time
thatthisexcellent book had very little fale,and isfcarcely
known. A gentleman who wanted to compliment the
author on this extraordinary performance, told him that
he had heard a great deal of his Hijloire des Tropes,
and begged to know in what particular part of the
world the nation flourifhed. 4. Les veritable Principes
de la- Grammaire raifonee pour apprendre la langue Latine,
1729, 410. There was only the preface of this work
publifhed, in which he introduced the greateft part of
his methode raifonnee. 5. Labiege de la fable du Perejou-
vend, arranged after the manner of the original plan,
1731, i2mo. 6. Une reponfe manufcrite a la Critique de
l hijloire des oracles par le Pere Baltus. There are only
imperfect fragments of thefe papers to be found.—
7. Logique,ou ref eft ions fur les operations del'efprit. This
is a fhort tract, which neverthelefs contains every thing
neceffary to be known on the art of reafoning. It
was reprinted at Paris, in two parts, together with
the articles which he had furnifhed for the Encyclopedic,
1762. We lhall altogether omit feveral other per¬
formances, calculated to diffeminate the principles of
Deifm or profanity 4 which, though they are publifh¬
ed in his name, may be fpurious, and at any rate de-
ferve not to be drawn from that oblivion into which
they have fallen.
MARSAL, a town of France, in Lorrain, re¬
markable for its falt-works ; feated in a marfh on the
river Selle, of difficult accefs, which, together with the
fortifications, render it an important place. E. Long.
6. 43. N. Lat. 48. 46.
MARSALA, an ancient and ftrong town of Sicily,
in the valley of Mazara. It is well peopled, and
built on the ruins of the ancient Lilybceum. E. Long.
12. 37. N. Lat. 37. 52.
M A RS AN, or Mo u n t-Ma r s a n , a town of France,
in Gafcony, and capital of a fmall territory of the
fame name, fertile in wine; feated on the river Mi-
dufe, in W. Long. o. 39. N. Lat. 44. o.
MARSAQUIVER, or Marsalquiver, a ftrong
and ancient town of Africa, on the coaft of Barbary,
and in the province of Beni-Arax, in the kingdom of
Tremefen, with one of the beft harbours in Africa. It
was taken by the Spaniards in 1732. It is feated'on a
rock near a bay of the fea, in W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat.
35-4°-
MARSEILLES, a ftrong fea-port, and the richeft
town of Provence, in France. Here is a good har¬
bour, where the French galleys are ftationed; for it
will not admit large men of war. The entrance of
the harbour, which is extremely narrow and furround-
ed by lofty mountains, prote&s and fhelters vef-
fels during the moft violent ftorms. The port itfelf
forms a delightful walk even in the middle of winter,
as it is open to the fouthern fun, and crowded with
vaft numbers of people not only of all the European
nations, but of Turks, Greeks, and natives of the
coaft of Barbary. The whole fcene is one of the moft
agreeable that can be imagined, if the chains of the
galley flaves heard among the' hum of bufinefs did
not tinfture it with the hateful idea of flavery. The
galleys themfelves, ufelefs and neglected, rot peaceably
in their refpeftive ftations ; and it is faid that no others
will ever be conftruftcd to fupply their place, as they
have long ceafed to be of any utility to the ftate, and
are fcarcely even navigable in fevere weather. Mar-
feilles pretends to the moft remote antiquity ; a colony
of Phocians, in ages unknown, having given it birth.
It is divided into the Old Town and the New; which
are feparated by a ftreet, bordered with trees on each
fide. The Old Town is one of the moft ill built of
any in Europe. The New, has fprung-up fince the
commencement of the 18th century, and has all
Marfal
Marfeilles.
pr
MAR [ 589 1 MAR
IMarfli that regularity, elegance, and convenience, which dif- tain-general. At firft they were but two In number ;
Ma-Lal t'nSu^ the prefent times. It is faid to contain and their allowance was but 500 livres per annum in
100,000 inhabitants, and is one of the moft trading time of war, and nothing in time of peace : but in the
towns in France. Without the walls is the caftle of reign of Francis I. a third was added ; Henry II.
Notrc-Dame, which is very well fortified. It is a created a fourth. Since it has been various ; Louis
bifliop’s fee, and there is a French academy; it having
been noted at all times for men of learning. In 1660,
Louis XIV. built the citadel and fort St John to
keep the inhabitants in awe, becaufe they pretended
to be free. The Jefuits had a very fine obfervatory
here ; and in the arfenal, built not long ago, there
are arms for 40,000 men. In the Houfe of Difcipline
they weave gold, filver, and filk brocades. The drugs
are brought thither from all parts of the world. It is
feated on the north fhore of the Mediterranean, in E.
Long. 4. 27. N. Lat. 43. 18. The furrounding
country is rocky and barren, but covered for feveral
miles on all fides with villas and fummer houfes, which
commerce has eredled.
MARSH (Narciflus), an exemplary Iriih prelate,
born at Hannington in Wiltfhire in 1638. He was
made principal of St Alban’s hall, Oxford, in 1673,
but removed to the provoilfhip of Dublin college in
1678. He was promoted to the bilhopric of Leighlin
and Ferns in 1682, tranflated to the archbifhopric of
Cafhel in 1690, to Dublin in 1694, and to Armagh
in 1703. While he held the fee of Dublin, he built
a noble library for the ufe of the public, filled it with
choice books, and fettled a provifion for two libra¬
rians. He repaired, at his own expence, feveral de¬
cayed churches, befides buying in and reftoring many
impropriations, and prefenting a great number of
oriental MSS. to the Bodleian library. He was a
very learned and accomplilhed man; was well verfed
in facred and profane literature, in mathematics,
natural philofophy, the learned languages, efpecially
the oriental, and in both the theory and pracliee
of mufic- He publiihed, I. Injlitutiones logic#.—
2. ManuduBio ad logic am, written by Philip de
Trieu; to which he added the Greek text of Ari-
llotle, and fome tables and fchemes. -3. An introduc¬
tory eflay on the do&rine of founds, &c. He died in
I7!3-
MARSH, fignifies a piece of ground flowed with
water, yet fo that the grafs and other vegetables
rife above the furface of the water, and, by their
decaying, give rife to putrid eflluvia,.which are. very
pernicious to the human body.
MARSHAL, or Mareschal, [tnarefcallus'), pri¬
marily denotes an officer who has the care or the com¬
mand of horfes.—Nicod derives the word from pole-
marchus, “ mailer of the camp Matthew Paris-from
Mortis fenefcallus. In' the old Gaulifh language, march
fignified “ horfewhencemarechalmight fignify “him
who commanded the cavalry.” Other derivations have
been given by different authors ; and the name itfelf has
been applied to officers of very different employments^
Marshal of France, the higheft dignity of prefer¬
ment in the French armies. The dignity of marlhal
came to be for life, though at its firft inftitution it
was otherwife. They were then only the king’s firft
ecuyers under the conftable ; but in. time they became
the conftable’s lieutenants in the command of the
army, the conftable himfelf being then become cap-
XIV. increafed it to 20. Their office at firft was,
to marlhal the army under the conftable, and to com¬
mand in his abfence. They did then what the mar-
Jhals de camp do now; to which laft they have given
their title, and the leaft confiderable part of their
authority.
Earl Marshal of Scotland. His office was to com¬
mand the cavalry, whereas the Constable command¬
ed the whole army* They feem, however, to have
had a fort of joint command, as of old all orders were
addreffed “to our conftable and marifchal.” The office
of earl marifchal has never been out of the noble fa¬
mily of Keith. It was referved at the union ; and
when the heritable jurifdi&ions were bought, it was
in the crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of Geo.
Keith, earl marifchal, in 1715.
Earl Marshal of England is the eighth great of¬
ficer of ftate. This office, until it was made heredi¬
tary, always paffed by grant from the king, and
never was held by tenure or ferjeanty (by any fubjeft)
as the offices of lord high fteward and lord high con¬
ftable were fometimes held. The title is perfonal,
the office honorary and officiary. They were for¬
merly ftyled lord marfhal only, until king Richard II.
June 20. 1397, granted letters-patent to Thomas
Mowbray, earl of Nottingham, and to the heirs male
of his body lawfully begotten, by the name and ftyle
of earl marjhal; and further, gave them power to bear
in their hand a gold truncheon, enamelled with black
at each end ; having at the upper end of it the king’s
arms engraven thereon,, and at the lower end his own
arms.
King James I. was pleafed, by letters-patent, dated
Auguft 29th 1622, to conftitute Thomas Howard,
earl of Arundel and Surrey, earl marfhal for life ; and
the next year, the fame king granted (with the ad¬
vice of the privy-council)'letters-patent, wherein it was
declared, that during the vacancy of the office of lord
high conftable of England, the earl marlhal had the
like jurifdi&ion in the court of chivalry, as both con¬
ftable and marlhal jointly ever exercifed See Chi¬
valry (Court of)
On the 19th of O&ob'er 1672, king Charles II.
was pleafed to grant to Henry lord Howard, and the
heirs-male. of his body lawfully begotten, the office
and dignity of earl marlhal of England, with power
to execute the fame by deputy or deputies, in as full
and ample a manner as the fame was heretofore exe¬
cuted by Henry Howard, lord Maltravers, late earl
of Arundel, Surrey, and Norfolk, grandfather to the
faift Henry lord . Howard ; or by Thomas Howard
late. duke , of Norfolk, grandfather to the faid Thomas
Howard, late earl of Arundel, Surrey, and Norfolk.;
or by Thomas Howard duke of Norfolk, grandfather
of the faid Thomas Howard duke of Norfolk ; or by
John Mowbray duke of . Norfolk,., or any other earl
marlhal of England; with a penfion of L. 20 each
year, payable out of the Hanaper office in chancery ,;
and on default of the iffue-male of the faid Henry lord
Howard,' -
MAR
C 59° 1
MAR
MarThal Howard, with limitation to the heire-malelawfully begot- might not be drawn into other courts, and thereby Marflialfe$J
I 4.^-. l .. „r a.1. _ /*   tt   j  i  i.r. _• r r i i i i • <■
Marthalfea.ten t^ie t^ie Thomas Howard, earl of the king lofe their fervice. It was formerly held in, ||
j Arundel,&c.; and, on the default of fuch iflue,todefcend
in like manner to the' heirs-male of Thomas late earl
of Suffolk; and, on default of his Hue-male, to the
heirs-male of lord William Howard, late of Naworth
though not a part of, the aula re.gh ; and, when that Marihfieid.
was fubdivided, remained a diitindt jurifdietion : hold¬
ing plea of all trefpaffes committed within the verge
of the court, where only one of the parties is in the
jn the county of Cumberland, youngeft fon to Henry king’s domeftic fervice (in which cafe the in quell
Howard late duke of Norfolk ; and, on default of his fhall be taken by a jury of the country); and of all
iffue-male, to Charles Howard earl of Nottingham,
•and the heirs-male of his body lawfully begotten.
Field-Marshal, an office of high rank in the Eu¬
ropean armies. It is now, however, difufed in the
Britilh army ; Lord Tyrawley was the laft, appointed
in 1763.
Knight Marshal, or Marshal of the King’s Houfe,
"an Englilh officer, whofe bufinefs, according to Fleta,
is to execute the commands and decrees of the lord
fteward, and to have the cullody of prifoners commit¬
ted by the court of verge. Under him are fix mar-
ffial’s men, who are properly the king’s bailiffs, and
arreft in the verge of the court, when a warrant is
Backed by the Board of green-cloth. The court where
caufes of this kind, between man and man, are tried,
is called the Marjhalfea, and is under the knight mar-
fhal. See Marshalsea-.
This is alfo the name of the prifon in Southwark;
the reafon of which may probably be, that the
debts, contrafts, and covenants, where both of the
contradling parties belong to the royal houfehold ;
and then the inqueft lhall be compofed of men of the
houfehold only. By the llatute of 13 Ric. II. ft. 1.
c. 3. (in affirmance of the common law)7 the verge of
the court in this refpedt extends for 12 miles round
the king’s place of retidence. And, as this tribunal
was never fubjeft to the jurifdiftion of the chief jufti-
ciary, no writ of error lay from it (though a court of
record) to the king’s-bench, but only to parliament,
till the ftatutes of 5 Edw. III. c. 2. and 10 Edw. III.
ft. 2. c. 3. which allowed fuch writ of error before the
king in his place. But this court being ambulatory,
and obliged to follow the king in all his progreffes,
fo that by the removal of the houfehold aftions were
frequently difeontinued, and doubts having arifen as
to the extent of its jurifdidtion, king Charles I. in the
fixth year of his reign, by his letters-patent, eredted a
new court of record, called the curia palatii, or palace-
ffial of the king’s houfe was wont to fit there in judge- court, to be held before the fteward of the houfehold
inent, or keep his prifon.
Marshal of the King’s Bench, an officer who has
cuftody of the'prifon called the King’s Bench in South¬
wark—He gives attendance upon the court, and
takes into his cuftody all prifoners committed by the
court; he is fineable for his abfence, and non-attend-
and knight-marffial, and the fteward of the court, or
his deputy ; with jurifdiction to hold plea of all man¬
ner of perfonal actions whatfoever, which fhall arife
between any parties within x 2 miles of his majefty’s
palace at Whitehall. The court is now held once a
week, together with the ancient court of marfhalfea,
ance incurs a forfeiture of his office. The power of in the borough of Southwark : and a writ of error
annmnt-inar tlip mm-fliiil nf ues from thence to the court of king’s-bench. But
if the caufe is of any confiderable confequence, it is
. appointing the marlhal of the king’s bench is in the
crown.
In Fleta, mention is alfo made of a marfhal of the
ufually removed on its firft commencement, together
exchequer, to whom the court commits the cuftody of with the cuftody of the defendant, either into the
the king’s debtors, &c.
Marshal (Thomas), a very learned Englilh divine
in the 17th century, was educated at Oxford. This
city being garrifoned upon the breaking out of the
civil wars, he bore arms for the king. Afterward he
king's-bench or common-pleas by a writ of habeas
corpus cum caufa: and the inferior bulinefs of the
court hath of late years been much reduced, by the
new courts of confciehce ere&ed in the environs of
London ; in confideratipn of which the four counfel
had feveral fucceffive preferments in the' church ; and belonging to thefe courts had falaries granted them
died at Lincoln-college, of which he wfts reftor. By.
his will he left all his books and MSS. to the univer-
fity of Oxford, and money to Lincoln-college for the
maintenance of three fcholars. He was a noted critic,
efpecially in the Gothic and Engliffi-Saxon tongues;
and eminent for his piety and other valuable qualities.
He wrote, t . Obfervationes in Evangeliorum verfiones
per antiquos duos, Goth.fcilicet & ylnglo-Sax. &c. 2. Notes
on the church-catechifm, &c.
MARSHALLING a Coat, in heraldry, is the
difpofal of feveral coats of arms belonging to diHindi
families in one and the fame efcutcheon or fhield, toge-
for their lives by the flat. 23. Geo. II. c. dy.
MARSHAM (Sir John), a very learned Englilh
writer in the 17th century. He ftudied the law in
the Middle-Temple, and was fworn one of the fix
clerks in the court of chancery in 1638. In the be¬
ginning of the civil wars he followed the king to' Ox¬
ford ; for which he was fequeftered of his place by the
parliament at Weftminfter, and plundered. After
the declining of the king’s affairs, he returned to
London ; compounded, among other royalilts, for his
real eftate ; and betook himfelf wholly to his ftudies
and a retired life, the fruits of which were fome ex-
ther with their ornaments, parts, and apurtenances. cellent works. He wrote Diatriba Chronologica ; Chro-
See Heraldry, chap. vi. p. 466.
MARSHALSEA (the Court of), and the Palace-
court at Weftminfter, though two diftindl courts, are
Frequently confounded together. The former was
nicus Canon, JEgyptiacus, Ebraicus, Gracus, &c. He
died in 1687.
MARSHFIELD, a town of Glocefterlhire, 7
miles from BaTh, 12 from Chipping-Sodbury,
originally holden before the fteward and marlhal of from Briftol, 35 from Glocefter, and 104 from Lon-
the king’s houfe, and was inftituted to adminifter
juftice between the king’s domeftic fervants, that they
don, on the road to Briftol, and on the very borders
of Wilts. It is a confiderable clothing-town, drives
MAR r 591 I MAR
Marfhland a good trade in malt, and is famous for cakes. It
II _ confifts chiefly of one ftreet of old buildings near a
Marfigli. mjje jong . an(j js g0verned ty a bailiff. It has a large
— church, with a well-endowed alms-houfe and a chapel
to it for eight poor people, and a charity-fchool; and
it has a weekly market and two fairs.
MARSHLAND, a marfhy peninfula in the coun¬
ty of Norfolk, oppofite to King’s-Lynn, almoft fur-
rounded with the Oufe and other navigable rivers, and
an arm of the fea. It feems formerly to have been re¬
covered out of the ocean, from whofe inundations it
could never be altogether defended ; and imSir Henry
Spelman’s time it fuffered two general ones, viz. one
from the falt-water, the other from the frefhes ; by
the laft of which the inhabitants fuffered 42,000!.
damage. It contains about 30,000 acres, which turn
to more profit by grazing than ploughing. It is about
10 miles in the widefl place, and has no lefs than 111
brick bridges. The commonage of it belongs to feven
villages that furround it. The air is fo unhealthy, that
an ague is commonly called the Matjhland-bailijf.
MARSHMALLOW, in botany. See Althaea.
MARSI, a nation of Germany, who afterwatds
came to fettle in Italy, where they occupied the terri¬
tory in the environs of the Fucine Lake. They at
firfl proved very inimical to the Romans, but in pro-
cefs of time they became its firmeft fupporters. They
were allowed by the Romans to be the moft intrepid
foldiers of their legions when in friendfhip, and the
moft formidable of their enemies when at variance ;
and it was a common faying, that Rome could nei¬
ther triumpli over the Marfi nor without them.
They are particularly celebrated for the civil war in
which they were engaged, and which from them has
received the name of the Marftan •war. The large
contributions they made to fupport the intereft of
Rome, and the number of men which they continu¬
ally fupplied -to the republic, rendered them bold and
afpiring ; and they claimed, with the reft of the Ita¬
lian ftates, a {hare of the honour and privileges which
were enjoyed by the citizens of Rome. This petition,
though fupported by the intereft, the eloquence, and
the integrity of the tribune Drufus, was received with
contempt by the Roman fenate ; upon which, in the
662d year of Rome, the Marfi put themfelves at the
head of the focial war, one of the moft obftinate and
dangerous oppofitions ever made to the progrefs of
the Roman power. They obtained feveral viftories r
but they were at laft defeated : though the war was
not terminated but by' a grant of thofe privileges for
which they contended.
MARSICO nuovo, a fmall, rich, and handfome
town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the
Hither Principato, with a bilhop’s fee. It is feated
at the foot of the Apennines, near the river Agri, in,
E. Long, 15. 49. N. Lat. *0.42.
MARSIGLI (Lewis Ferdinand, count), an Ita¬
lian famous for letters as well as arms, was defcended
from an ancient and noble family, and born at Bo¬
logna in 1658. He acquired a great knowledge in
the art of war and fortification ; ferved under the em¬
peror Leopold II. againft the Turks, by whom he
was taken prifoner in 1683 but redeemed, after a
gear’s captivity- In the. Spanifh fucceffion war, Mar¬
figli, then advanced to the rank of marfhal, being in
the fortrefs of Brifac, which furrendered to the duke
of Burgundy in 1703, when the place was deemed
capable of holding out much longer, was ftripped of all
his commiflions, and had his fword broke over him; and
the count d’Arco who commanded was beheaded. Mar¬
figli now fought for confolation in the fciences ; as,
amidft all the hurry and fatigue of war, he had made
all the advantages the moft philofophic man could do,
who had travelled purely in queft of knowledge. He'
had a rich collection of every thing proper to the ad¬
vancement of natural knowledge, inftruments aftro-
nomical and chemical, plans of fortifications, models of
machines, &c. all which he prefented to the fenate of
Bologna by an authentic aft in 1712, forming at the
fame time out of them what he called the injlitute of
the arts and fciences at Bologna. He alfo founded a
printing-houfe, and furnifhed it with the belt types
for Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic, which he
prefertted in 1728 to the Dominicans at Bologna, on-
condition of their printing all the writings of the in¬
jlitute at prime coil: this was called the printing-houfe.
of St 'Thomas Aquinas. His writings on philofophical
fubjefts are numerous and valuable, in Latin, Italian,
and French : he died in 1730.
MARSTON (John), an Englifh dramatic writer,
who lived in the time of James I. Wood fays he was-
a ftudent in Corpus Chrifti college, Oxford; but we
neither know his ^family nor the time of his birth.
He contributed eight plays to the ftage, which were
all a fled at Black-friars with applaufe ; and one of
them, called the Dutch Courtezan, was once revived
fince the Reftoration, under the title' of the Revenge,
or a Match in Newgate. There is no account when
he died; but we find his works were publifhed after:
his death by Shakefpeare, and may thence reafonably
conclude that it happened about the year 1614. He
was a chafte and pure writer; avoiding all that ob-
fcenity, ribaldry, and fcurrility, which too many
of the play-wrights of that time, and indeed much
more fo in fome periods fince, have made the bails
of their wit, to the great difgrace and fcandal of the
ftage.
MARSYAS (fab. hill.), a celebrated mufician of
Celasnae in Phrygia, fon of Olympus, or of Hyagnis,.
or CEagrus. He was fo fkilful in playing on the
flute, that he is generally deemed the inventor of it.
According to the opinion of fome,. he found it when
Minerva had thrown it afide on account of the diftor-
tion of her face when fhe played upon it. Marfyas
was enamoured of Cybele, and he travelled with her-
as far as Nyfa, where he had the imprudence to chal¬
lenge Apollo to a trial of hrs fkill as a mufician. The
god accepted the challenge, and it was mutually agreed
that he who was defeated ihould be flead alive by the
conqueror. The Mufes, or (according to Diodorus)
the inhabitants of Nyfa, were appointed umpires..
Each exerted his utmoft fkill, and the vidlory with-
much difficulty was adjudged to Apollo. The god
upon this tied his antagonift to a tree, and. flead him
alive: (See Apollo.) The death of Marfyas was:
univerfa.Uy lamented; the Fauns, Satyrs, and Dryads,
wept at his fate ; and from their abundant tears arofe-
a river of Phrygia, well known by the name of Mar-
MarAon,
Marfyas.
MAR [ 592 1 MAR
’Mart fyas. The unfortunate Marfyas is often reprefented
Martha °n monuments> as tied with his hands behind his back
■ ', to a tree, while Apollo Hands before him with his lyre
in his hands. In independent cities, among the an¬
cients, the ftatue of Marfyas was generally ere&ed in
the forum, to reprefent the intimacy which fubfifted
between Bacchus and Marfyas as the emblems of li¬
berty. At Celtenas, the Ikin of Marfyas was fhown to
travellers for fome time. It was fufpended in the
public place, in the form of a bladder or a foot ball.
The fources of the Marfyas were near thofe of the
Maeander, and thofe two rivers had their confluence a
little below the town of Oelaenae.
MART, a great fair held every year for buying
and felling goods. Public marts, or places of buying
and felling, fuch as markets and fairs, with the tolls
thereunto belonging, can only be fet up by virtue of
the king’s grant, or by long and immemorial ufage
and prefcription, which prefuppofes fuch a grant. The
limitation of thefe public reforts, to fuch time and
place as may be moft convenient for the neighbour¬
hood, forms a part of economics, or domeflic polity ;
which, confidering the kingdom as a large family, and
the king as the mafter of it, he has clearly a right to
difpofe and order as he pleafes.
MARTABAN, a province of Afia, in the kingdom
of Pegu, lying in the gulph of Bengal. It is a coun¬
try that produces rice and all kinds of fruits proper
to the climate. It has mines of feyeral forts of me¬
tals, and carries on a great trade. The chief town,
which is of the fame name, is rich, handforae, and very
populous, with a good harbour. E. Long. 97. 50.
N. Lat. 15. 35.
MARTEAU, the name given by French naturalifts
to a peculiar fpecies of oyfters, called alfo malleam by
others. It is one of the moft curious fliells in the
world. Its figure is that of a hammer, with a very
long head, or rather of a pick-ax. It has a body of
moderate thicknefs, and two long arms. It is of a
brownifti colour, with a beautiful tinge of a violet-
blue. Notwithftanding the ftrange fhape of thefe
ihells, they clofe very exactly.
MARTHA (St), a province of South America,
•on the coaft of Terra Firma, bounded on the north by
the North Sea, on the eaft by Rio de la Hache, on
the fouth by New-Granada, and on the weft by
Carthagena. It is 300 miles in length and 200 in
breadth, is a mountainous country, and the land very
high. Here begins the famous ridge of mountains
called the Cordilleras des los Andes, which run from
north to fouth the whole length of the continent of
South America. It is extremely hot on the fea-coaft ;
but cold in the internal parts, on account of the moun¬
tains. It abounds with the fruits proper to the cli¬
mate ; and there are mines of gold and precious ftones,
as alfo falt-works. The Spaniards pofiefs but one part
of this province, in which they have built Martha the
capital. The air about the town is wholefome; and is
feated near the fea, having a harbour furrounded with
high mountains. It waa formerly very confiderable
when the galleons were fent thither, but is now come
almoft to nothing. W. Long. 74. 11. N. Lat.
11. 20.
Martha (St), or Sierra Neveda, a very high
fountain in New Spain. Some fay it is 100 miles in
19;. 1
circumference at the bottom, and five miles in height. Martha
The top is always covered with fnow in the hotteft it
weather; and the French affirm, that they can per- [Mar,ia];,.i
ceive it from the ifland of St Domingo, which is 370 ’ J
miles diftant. W. Long. 74. 35. N. Lat. 8. o.
Martha's Vineyard, an ifland of North America
near the coaft of New-England, 80 miles fouth of
Bofton. The inhabitants apply themfelves chiefly to
their fiflreries, in which they have great fuccefs. W.
Long. 70. 35. N. Lat. 41. o.
MARTIAL, is fometimes ufed to exprefs prepa¬
rations of iron, or fuch as are impregnated therewith;
as the martial regulus of antimony, &c.
MARTiAi-Court. See Counr-Martial.
Martial Lew, is the law of war that depends
upon the juft but arbitrary will and pleafure of the
king, or his lieutenant: for though the king doth not
make any laws but by common confent in parliament,
yet, in time of war, by reafon of the neceffity of it
to guard againft dangers that often arife, he ufeth ab-
folute power, fo that his word is a law. Smith de Re¬
pub. Ang. lib. 2. c. 4.
But the martial law (according to Chief Juftice
Hale), is in reality not a law, but fomething indul¬
ged rather than allowed as a law; and it relates only to
members of the army, being never intended to be ex¬
ecuted on others, who ought to be ordered and go¬
verned by the laws to which they are fubjeft, though it
be a time of war. And the exercife of martial law,
whereby any perfon might lofe his life, or member, or
liberty, may not be permitted in time of peace, when
the king’s courts are open for all perfons to receive ju¬
ftice.
MARTIALI5 (Marcus Valerius), a famous La¬
tin poet, born at Bilbilis, now called Bubiera, in the
kingdom of Arragon in Spain, was of the order of
knights. He went to Rome at the age of 21, and ftaid
there 3 5 years, under the reign of Galba and the fuc-
ceeding emperors, till that of Trajan ; and having ac¬
quired the efteem of Titus and Domitian, he was
created tribune. At length, finding that he was ne-
glefted by Trajan, he returned to his own country
Bilbilis, where he married a wife, and had the hap-
pinefs to live with her feveral years. He admires and
commends her much, telling her that (he alone was
fufficient to fupply the want of every thing he enjoyed
at Rome. “ Romam tu mihi fola facis,” fays he, in
the 2ift epigram of the 12th book. She appears like-
wife to have been a lady of a very large fortune ; for,
in the 31ft epigram of the fame book, he extols the
magnificence of the houfe and gardens he had received
from her, and fays that (he had made him a little kind
of monarch.”
Munera funt domino : pojl feptima lujlra reverfo.
Has Marcella domos, parvaque regna dedit.
There are ftill extant 14 books of his epigrams, filled
with points, a play upon words, and obfeenities.
The ftyle is affe&ed. However, fome of his epigrams
are excellent; many of them are of the middling kind;
but the greateft part of them are bad : fo that Mar¬
tial never fpoke a greater truth, than when he faid of
his own works,
Sunt bcna.Junt quedam mediocra, funt mala phira.
1 here is alfo attributed to him a book on the fpec-
tacles of the amphitheatre; but the moft learned cri¬
tics
MAR t J93 1 M A R
Lartigues, tics t'niftk that this laft work was not written by fyfar- ufurper commanded his fervants to give him a cup,
Manir. ’j Jie editions of Martial are, that in U/um that he might again receive it from him; but this ex-
Wj,'v 1 Defy hint, 410, Paris, 1617, and that cum Noth Van- traordinary prelate gave it to the prieft. who accom-
orum. panied him on his journey. This holy boldnefs, far
MARTIGUES, a fea-port town of Prance, in Pro- trom difpleafing them, gained him the favour of the,
vence, with the title of a principality ; feated near a emperor and of. his coart. Martin, who was an ene-
lake 1 2 milei long and five broad, which is navigable my to herefy, but a friend to mankind, employed his
throughout, and from whence they get excellent fait, influence with this prince to prefene the Prifcilli-
E. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 43.. 38. anifts, who were profeeuted by Ithace and by Idace,
MARLIN’ fSt.), wasborn at Sabaria in PannOnia, bilhops of Spain. The biftiop. of Tours would hold
(at prefent in Lower Hungary), in the begin- no communion with men whofe principles of religion
ning of the fourth century. His father waa a mili* inclined them to fhed the blood of mankind ; and
tary tribune ; and he himfelt was obliged to cany arms, he obtained the life of thole whofe death they had fo-
although peace and folitude were much more agree- licited. On his return to Tours, he prepared himfelf
able to his inclination. He was remarkable for every for the reward of his labours in another world. He
Virtue, in a profefiion which is generally cohfidered to died at Candes the 8th of November 397, but accord-
give a fanftion to vice. He divided his coat with a ing to others on the nth of November 400. Kii
naked v/retch whom be met at the gate of Amiens; name is given to a particular opinion concerning the
and it is reported, that Jefus Chrift appeared to him myftery of the holy Trinity. St Martin is the firft
cm the night following, clothed in this half of his of the faints confeifors to whom the Latin church of*
coat. Martin Was then a catechumen ; but he foon fered public prayers. His life is written in elegant
afterwards received baptifm, and renounced the mili- Latin by Fortunatus, and Swlpitius Severus one of
tary profeffion for the eccleftaftical. After pafling many his difciples. Paul of Perigueux and Fortunatus of
years in folitude, St Hilary biihop of Poidtiers gave Poiftierj have given us Sulpicius’s life of Martin in
him the power to call out devils. On his return to verfe ; but they have debafed the admirable profe of
Pannonia, he perfuaded his mother to embrace Chrifti- the author by a wretched poetical imitation. Nico-
anity ; and with great zeal and aftivity oppofed the las Gervais wrote alfo the life of St Martin, full of
Arians, who governed the church in Illyria. When many curious and - entertaining fails, publiflied at
he was publicly whipt for giving teftimony to the di- Tours in 1699, 'n 4to* The tradition at Amiens is,
vinity of Chriil, he bore the punifhment with the con- that Sf Martin performed the ail of charity which
ftancy and patience of the firft martyrs. This illu- rendered him fo famous, near an ancient gate of the
ftrious champion for Chriilianity, when he heard that city, of which the ruins are ftill vifible. The follow-
St Hilary was returned from banifliment, went and ing Latin ver-fes, which do more honour to the
fettled in the neighbourhood of Poicliers. In this faint than to the poet, are inferibed on one of the
Retirement, a great number of monks placed themfelves ftones :
tinder his direftion. His virtues became every day Hie quondam vcjlem Martinus demidiavit;
-more fplendid and remarkable, till he was drawn from Vt faceremus idem, nobis exemplificavit.
his folitude, and with the general approbation, of the Martin (Benjamin), one of the moll eminent ar*
clergy and people defied biihop of Tours in the tills and mathematicians of the age, was born in 1704.
year 374. To the zeal and charity of a biihop, he After publilhing a variety of ingenious treatifes, and
joined the humility and poverty of an anchorite, particularly a Scientific Magazine under his own
That he might detach himfelf more from the world, name, and carrying on for many years a very exten-
lie built the celebrated monaftery of Marmoutier, five trade as an optician and globe-maker in Fleet-
which Hill remains, and which is believed to be the llreet, the growing infirmities of age compelled him
oldell abbey in France. It is fituated near the city to withdraw from the a&ive part of bufinefs. Trull-
>of Tours, betwixt the Loire and a lleep rock. In ing too fatally to what he thought the integrity of
this fituation, together with 80 monks, St Martin dif- others, he unfortunately, though with a capital more
played the moll exemplary fanclity and mortification, than fufficient to pay all his debts, became a bank-
nor were there any monks better difeiplined than thofe rupt. The unhappy old man, in a moment of defpe-
of Marmoutier. After he had converted his diocefe ration from this uncxpefled llroke, attempted to de-
to the Chrillian faith, he became the apollle of all llroy himfelf; and the wound, though not immediately
Gaul. Hediffufedthe doflrines of Chriilianity among mortal, haftened his death, which happened February
the heathens, ddlroyed their temples, and (accord- 9th 1782, in his 7''th year. He had a valuable col-
ing to the writers of his life) confirmed the truth lection of foflils and curiofities of almoll every fpecies;
by an infinite number of miracles. The emperor Va- which, -after his death, were almoll given away by
Itntinian, at that time in Gaul, received him with -public au£lion. His principal publications, as far as
vvery mark of refpecl and honour. The tyrant Maxi- they have occurred to recolledlion, are, The Philofo-
tnus, who had revolted againft the emperor Gra- phic Grammar ; being a view of the preferit Hate of
tian, and feized on Spain, England, and Gaul, recei- experimental phyfiology, or natural philofophy, 1735,
ved him in'a'manner na lefs diftiHguilhetl. 1 he holy 8vo. A new, complete, and univerfal Syllem or
biihop a’ftemled him at Trieves'in the year 3815, *0 fo- -Body of Decimal Arithmetic, 17 3 53 8 vo. The young
Tcit . fome favours. MaXinViis- made him fit at his Students Memorial Book, or Patent Library, 173 Rvo.
'table with the moll illullrious perfons of his court, Defcription and Ufe of both the Globes, the Armillary
•Rnd placed him nt hrs right hand, -In drinking, the Sphere and Orrery, Trigonometry', l736,-2vols 8v©.
Von. X. Part II. 4F Memoirs.
MAR r 594 J MAR
Martin Memoirs of the Academy of Paris, 1740, 5 vols.
II . Syftem of the Newtonian Philofophy, 1759, 3 vols.
, artmico. J4ew Elements of Optics, 1759. Mathematical In-
' ftitutions, viz. Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, and
Fluxions, 1759. Natural Hiitory of England, with
a Map of each County, 1759, 2 vols. Philology, and
Philofophical Geography, 1759. Mathematical In-
llitutions, 1764, 2 vols. Lives of Philofophers, their
Inventions, &c. 1764. Introdu&ion to the Newto¬
nian Philofophy, 1765. Inftitutions of Aftronomical
Calculations, 2 parts, 1765. Defcription and Ufe
of the Air-pump, 1766. Defcription of the Torricel¬
lian Barometer, 1766. Appendix to the Defcription
and Ufe of the Globes, J 766. Philofophia Britan-
nica, 1778, 3 vols. Gentleman and Lady’s Philofo¬
phy, 3 vols. Mifcellaneous Correfpondence, 4 vols.
Syftem of Philology. Philofophical Geography. Ma¬
gazine complete, 14 vols. Principles of Pump-work.
Theory of the Hydrometer. Do&rine of Loga¬
rithms.
Martin (St.), a fmall but ftrong totvn of France,
in the ifle of Rhee, with a harbour and a ftrong cita¬
del, fortified after the man.ner of Vauban. The ifland
lies near the coaft of Poitou. W. Long. 1. o. N* Lat.
45. 40.
Cape Mamin, a promontory of Valencia in Spain,
near a town called Denia, and feparates the gulph of
Valencia from that of Alicant.
Martin (St.), an ifland of America, and one of
the Caribbees, lying on the gulph of Mexico, to the
north-weft of St Bartholomew, and to the fouth-weft
of Anguilla. It is 42 miles in circumference; has nei¬
ther harbour nor river, but feveral falt-pits. After va¬
rious revolutions, it is at length in' pofTeffion of the
French and Dutch, who poflefs it conjointly. VV.
Long. 62. 35. N. Lat. 18. 15.
Martin, in zoology. See Hirundo and Mu-
stela.
Free Mamin, in zoology, is a name given in this
country to a cow-calf caft at the fame time with a
bull-calf, which is a kind of hermaphrodite that is
never known to breed nor to difcover the leaft incli¬
nation for the bull, nor does the bull ever take the
leaft notice of it. See Hermaphrodite.
MARTINGALE, in the manege, a thong of
leather, faftened to one end of the girths under a horfe’s
belly, and at the other end to the mufs-roll, to keep
him from rearing.
MARTINICO, the chief of the French Caribbee
iflands, the middle of which is fituated in W. Long,
rix. o. N. Lat. 14. 30.
This ifland was firft fettled by M. Defnambuc a
Frenchman, in the year 163 5, with only 100 men from
St Chriftopher’s, Fie chofe rather to have it peopled
from thence than from Europe ; as he forefaw, that
men, tired with the fatigue of fuch . long voyage,
would jmoftly perifti foon after their arri <al, either from
the climate, or from the hardfhips i cident to moft
emigrations. They completed their firft fettlement
without any difficulty. The natives, intimidated by
their, fire-arms, or feduced by promifes, gave up the
weftern and fouthern parts of the ifland to the new
comers. In a ftiort time, however, perceiving the
number ofthcfe enterprifmg ftrangers daily increafing.
they refolved to extirpate them, and therefore called Martinki-
in the favages of the neighbouring iflands to affift  v-—^
them. They fell jointly upon a little fort that had
been haftily erefted ; but were repulfed, with the lofs of
700 or 800 of their belt warriors, who were left dead
upon the fpot.
After this check, the favages for along timedifap-
peared entirely ; but at laft they returned, bringing
with them prefents to the French, and making ex-
cufes for what had happened. They were received in
a friendly manner, and the reconciliation fealed with
pots of brandy. This peaceable ftate of affairs, how¬
ever, was of no long continuance ; the French took
fuch undue advantages of their fuperiority over the fa¬
vages, that they foon rekindled in the others that ha¬
tred which had never been entirely fubdued. The fa¬
vages, whofe manner of life requires a vaft extent of
land, finding themfelves daily more and more ftrait-
ened, had recourfe to ftratagem, in order to deftroy
their enemies. They feparated intd fmall bands, and
way-laid the French as they came fingly out into the
woods to hunt, and, waiting till the fportfman had dif-
charged his piece, rufhed upon and killed him before
he could charge it again. Twenty men had been
thus affaffinated before any reafon could be given for
their fudden difappearance : but as foon as the matter
was known, the French took a fevere and fatal re.
venge ; the favages were purfued and maffacred, with
their wives and children, and the few that efcaped
were driven out of Martinico, to which they never re¬
turned.
The French being thus left foie mafters of the
ifland, lived quietly on thofe fpots which beft fuited
their inclinations. At this time they were divided
into two claffes. The firft confifted of thofe who had
paid their paffage to the ifland, and thefe were called
inhabitants; and to thefe the government diftributed
lands, which became their own, upon paying a year¬
ly tribute. Thefe inhabitants had under their com¬
mand a multitude of diforderly people brought over
from Europe at their expence, whom they called en¬
gages, or bondfmen. This engagement was a kind of
flavery for the term of three years; on the expiration
of which they were at liberty, and became the equals
of thofe whom they had ferved. They all confined
themfelves at firft to the culture of tobacco and cotton;
to which was foon added that of arnotto and indigo.
The culture of fugar alfo was begun about the year
1650. Ten years after, one Benjamin D’Acofta, a
Jew, planted fome cocoa trees; but his example was
not followed till 1684, when chocolate was more com¬
monly ufed in France. Cocoa then became the prin¬
cipal fupport of the colonifts, who had not a fufficient
fund to undertake fugar-plantations; but by the in¬
clemency of the feafon in 1718, all the cocoa-trces
were deftroyed at once.—Coffee was then propofed as
a proper objeft of Culture.' The French miniftry had
received, as a prefent from the Dutch, two of thefe
trees, which were carefully preferved in the king’s
botanical garden. Two young ftioots were taken from
thefe, put on board a fhip for Martinico, and entrufted
to the care of one Mr Defclieux. The ftiip happened
to be ftraitened for want of frefh water; and the trees
would have perifticd, had not the gentleman ihared
witk
MAR [ 595 1 MAR
Martinlco. with them that quantity of water which was allowed
for his own drinking. The culture of coffee was then
begun, and attended with the greateft and moil rapid
fuccefs. About the end of lail century, however, the
colony had made but fmall advances. In 1700, it had
only 6597 white inhabitants. The favages, mulattoes,
and free negroes, men, women, and children, amounted
to no more than 507. The number of flaves was but
14,566. All thefe together made a population of
21,645 perfons. The whole of the cattle amounted to
3668 horfes or mules, and 9217 head of horned cattle.
The ifland produced a great quantity of cocoa, tobac¬
co, and cotton ; had nine indigo houfes, and 18 j fmall
fugar-plantations.
After the peace of Utrecht, Martinico began to
emerge from that feeble Hate in which it had fo long
continued. The ifland then became the mart for all
the windward French fettlements. In the ports of it
the neighbouring iflands fold their produce, and bought
the commodities of the mother-country ; and, in ihort,
Martinico became famous all over Europe. In 1736,
there were on the ifland 447 fugar works ; 11,953,232
coffee trees, 193,870 of cocoa; 2,068,480 plants of
cotton, 39,400 of tobacco, 6750 of arnotto. The
fupplies for proviiion confifted of 4,806,142 banana
trees; 34,483,000 trenches of caflava; and 247 plots
of potatoes and yams. The number of blacks amount¬
ed to 72,000 men, women, and children. Their
labour had improved the plantations as far as was con-
fiftent with the confumption then made in Europe of
American produ&ions; and the annual exports from
the ifland amounted to about 700,000!.
The conne&ions of Martinico with the other iflands
entitled her to the profits of commiffion, and the
charges of tranfport; as flie alone was in the pofleffion
of carriages. This profit might be rated at the tenth
of the produce ; and the fum total muff have amount¬
ed to near 765,0001. This Handing debt was feldom
called in, and left for the improvement of their plan¬
tations. It was increafed by advances in money,
flaves, and other neceffary articles ; fo that Marti¬
nico became daily more and more a creditor to the
other iflands, and thus kept them in conffant depen¬
dence ; while they all enriched themfelves by her af-
fiftance.
The conneftions of this ifland with Cape Breton,
Canada, and Louifiana, procured a market for the or¬
dinary fugars, the inferior coffee, the molafies, and
• rum, which would not fell in France. In exchange
the inhabitants received falt-fifh, dried vegetables,
deals, and fome flour. In the clandeftine trade on the
coafts of Spanifh America, confifting wholly of goods
marmfadtured by the nation, fhe commonly made a
profit of 90 per cent, on the value of about 175,000!.
fent yearly to the caraccas, or neighbouring colonies.
So many profperous engagements brought immenfe
fums into Martinico. Upwards of 787,000!. were
conftantly circulated in that ifland with great rapidi¬
ty ; and this is perhaps the only country in the world,
where the fpecie has been fo confiderable as to make
it a matter of indifference to them whether they dealt
in gold, filver, or commodities. This extenfive trade
brought into the ports of Martinico annually 200 fhips
from France; 14 or 15 fitted out. by the mother-
country for the coaft of Guinea, 60 from Canada, 1 o
or 12 from the iflands of Margaretta and Trinidad ; Marrimca.
befides the Englifh and Dutch fhips that came to carry 'T""-'
on a fmuggling trade. The private navigation from
the ifland to the northern colonics, to the Spanifh con¬
tinent, and to the windward iflands, employed I20vef-
fels from 20 to 30 tons burden.
The war of 1744 put a flop to this pofperity. Not
that the fault was in Martinico itfelf; its navy, con¬
ftantly exercifed, and accuftomed to frequent engage-*
ments, which the carrying on a contraband trade re¬
quired, was prepared for aftion. In lefs than fi r
months, 40 privateers, fitted out at St Peter’s, fpread
themfelves about the latitude of the Caribbee iflands.
They fignalifed themfelves in a manner worthy of the
ancient freebooters; returning conftantly in triumph,
and laden with an immenfe booty. Yet, in the midft
of thefe fucceffes, an entire ftop was put to the navi¬
gation of the colony, both to the Spanifu coaft and
to Canada, and they were cohftantly difturbed even
on their own coafts. The few fhips that came from
France, in order to compenfate the hazards they were
expofed to by the lofs of their commodities, fold t}jem
at a very advanced price, and bought them at a very
low one. By this means the produce decreafed in va¬
lue, the lands were ill cultivated, the works neglected,
and the flaves perifhing for want.
When every thing thus feemed tending to decay,
the peace at laft reftored the freedom of trade, and with
it the hopes of recovering the ancient profperity of the
ifland. The event, however, did not anfwer the pains
that were taken to attain it. Two years had not elap-
fed after the ceffation of hoftilities, 'when the colony
loft the contraband trade fhe carried on with the Ame¬
rican Spaniards. This was owing to the fubftitution
of regifter-fhips to the fleets; and thus were the at¬
tempts of the fmugglers confined within very narrow
bounds. In the new fyftem, the number of fhips was
undetermined, and the time of their arrival uncertain :
which occafioned a'variation in the price of commo¬
dities unknown before ; and from that time the
fmuggler, who only engaged in this trade from the cer¬
tainty of a fixed and conftant profit, would no longer
purfue it, when it did not fecure him an equivalent
to the rifles he ran. But this lofs was not fo fenfibly
felt by the colony, as the hardfhips brought upon
them by the mother-country. An unfkilful admini-
ftration clogged the reciprocal and necefl'ary connec¬
tion between the Iflands and North-Arfterica with fa
many formalities, that in 175 ? Martinico fent but four
veflels to Canada. The direction of the colonies, now
committed to the care of ignorant and avaricious
clerks, foon loft its importance, funk into contempt,
and was proftituted to venality. The debts which
had been Contrafted, during a feries of calamities, had
not yet been paid off, when the war broke out afreftr.
After a feries of misfortunes and defeats, the ifland fell
into the hands of the Britifh. It was reftored, howr-
ever, in July 1763, 16 months after it had been con¬
quered ; but deprived of all the neceffary means of pro¬
fperity, that had made it of fo much importance. For
fome years pail, the contraband trade carried on to
the Spanifh coafts was almoft entirely loft. The cef>
fion of Canada had precluded all hopes of opening
again a communication, which had only been inter¬
rupted by temporary miftakes. The produftions of
MAR [ 596 ] M A R
Martinua.the Grenades, St Vincent, and Dominica, which
w—y—were now become Bntiih dominion's, could no longer
be brought into their harbours ; and a new regulation
of the mother-country, which forbad her having any
intercourfe with Gaudalupe, left her no hopes from
that quarter.
The colony, thus deprived of every thing as it were,
and deftitute, neverthelefs contained, at the laid fur-
vey, which was taken on the firftof January 1770, in
the compafs of 28 parhhes, 12,450 white people of
all ages and of both fexes; 1814'free blacks or mu-
latoes; 70,553 Haves, and 443 fugitive negroes. The
number of births in 2766, was in the proportion of
one in 30 among the white people, and of one in 25
among the blacks. From this obfervation, if it were
conftant, it (hould feem that the climate of America
is much more favourable to the propagation of the A-
fricanS than of the Europeans; fince the former mul¬
tiply ftill more in the labours and hardfhips of flavery,
than the latter in the midfl of plenty and freedom.
The confequence muft be, that in procefs of time the
increafe of blacks in America will furpaf- that of the
white men ; and, perhaps, at laft avenge this race of
vict ims on the delcendents of the oppreifors.
The cattle of the colony confdts of 8283 horfes or
mules ; 12,376 head of horned cattle ; 975 hogs; and
13,544 fheep or goats.
Their provijions are, 47,930,596 trenches of cafla-
-va; 3,509,048 banana-trees; and 406 fquares and a
half of yams and potatoes.
Their plantations contain 11,444 fquares land,
planted with fugar ; 6,638,957 coffee-trees ; 874,043
cocoa-trees; 1,764,807 cotton-plants; 59,966 trees
of cafiia, and 61 of arnotto.
The meadows or favannahs take up 10,072 fquares
■ofland; there are 14,966 in wood, and 8448 uncul¬
tivated or forfaken.
The plantations which produce coffee, cotton, co¬
coa, and other things of lefs importance, are 1515 in
number. There are but 286 for fugar. They employ
446 water-mills, 42 wind-mills, and 184 turned by
oxen. Before the hurricane of the 13 th of Auguil
1766, there were 302 fmall habitations and 15 fugar-
works more.
In 1769, France imported From Martinico, upon
202 trading veffels, 177,116 quintals of fine fugar,
and 12,579 quintals of raw fugar; 68,518 quintals
♦f coffee; 11,731 quintals of cocoa; 6048 quintals
•of cotton ; 2518 quintals of caffia; 783 calks of rum ;
307 hoglheads of moiaffes ; 450 pounds of indigo;
2447 pounds of preferved fruits; 47 pounds of cho¬
colate ; 282 pounds of rafped tobacco ; 494 pounds
of rope-yarn ; 334 chells of liqueurs ; 234 hoglheads
of moiaffes, See. 451 quintals of wood for dyeing ;
and 12,408 hides in the hair. Ail thefe productions
together have been bought in the colony itfelf, for
536,6311. 9 s. 10d. It is true, that the colony has
received from the mother-country to the amount of
588,4121. 16 s. 6 d. ef merchandife ; but part of
this has been fent away to the Spanilh coafts, and
another pe t has been conveyed to the Englilh fettle-
ments.
The illand is 16 leagues'in length and 45 in cir¬
cumference, leaving out the capes, fome of which ex-
Jtend two or three leagues into the fea. It is very un¬
even, and interfered in all parts by a number of hil- MmiaiV*.
locks; which are moitly of a conical form. Three  v—
mountains rife above thefe fmaller eminences. The
higheft bears the indelible marks of a volcano. The
woods with which it is covered continually attract
the clouds, which occaiions noxious damps, and con¬
tributes to make it horrid and inacceffible ; while the
two others are in moll parts cultivated. From thej'e
mountains ilfue the many fprings that water the illand.
Thefe waters, which flow in gentle ftreams, are chan¬
ged into torrents on the flighted ftorm. Their qualities
are derived from the foil over which they flow. In
fome places they are excellent, in others fo bad, that
the inhabitants are obliged to drink the water they
have colledled during the rainy feafon.
Of all the French fettlements in the Weft Indies,
Martinico is the moll happily fituated with regard to
the winds which prevail in thole leas. Its harbours
poffefs the ineitimable advantage of affording a certain
ffielter from the hurricanes which annoy thefe latitudes.
The harbour of Fort Royal is one of the bell in all
the windward iffands ; and fo-celebrated fur its fafety,
that, when it was open to the Dutch, their diipmalb rs
had orders from the republic to take dicker there in
June, July, and Augud, the three months in which the
hurricanes are mod frequent. The lands of the La.
mentin, which are but a league didant, are the riche:;
and mod fertile in the whole ifland. The numerous
dreams which water this fruitful country, convey load¬
ed canoes to a confiderable didance from the fea. Thu
protedlion of the fortifications fecured the peaceable
enjoyment of fo many advantages; which, however,
were balanced by a iwaiftpy and unwholefome foil.
This capital of Martinico was alfo the rendezvous of the
men of war; which branch of the navy has always op-
preffed the merchantmen. On this account. Fort
Royal was an improper place to become the centre of
trade, and was therefore removed to St Peter's. Thi$-
little town, notwithdanding the fires that have four
times reduced it to aflies, diil contains 1700 boufes.
It is fituated on the wedern coall of the idand, on 4
bay, or inlet, which is aimed circular. One part of it
is built on the drand along the fea fide, which is called
the anclwrage ; and is the place dedined for fhips anj
ware-houfes. The other part of the town dands upon
a low hill: it is called the Fort from a fmall Fortifica¬
tion tkat was built there in 1665, t0 check the fedi-
tions of the inhabitants againd the tyranny of mono¬
poly ; hut it now ferves to protedl the road from fo¬
reign enemies Thefe two parts of the town are fepa-
rated by a rivulet.
The anchorage is at the back of a pretty high and
deep hill. Shut up as it were by this hill, which in¬
tercepts the eaderly winds, the moll conftant and moil
falubrious in thefe parts ; expofed, without any re-
frefhing breezes, to the fcorching beams of the fun, re¬
flect'd from the hill, from the fea, and the black fand
on the beach; this place is extremely hot, and always,
unwholefome. Befides, there is no harbour; and the
{hips which cannot winter fafely upon this coafl are
obliged to take ftielter at Fort-Royal. But thefe dif¬
ad vantages are sompenfated by the cotiveniency of the
road of St Peter’s, for loading and unloading of goods;,
and by its lituation, which is fuch that fnips can free-
dy go in and out at all times, and with all winds.
MARTLETS,
MAR [ 597 ] MAR
fcfcrtlet* MARTLETS, in heraldry, little birds reprefented
II without feetand ufed as a difference or mark of di-
ftinftion for yoamger brothers, to put them in mind
that they are tt> truft to the wings of virtue and merit,
in order to raifc themfelves, and not to their feet, they
having little land to fet their foot on. i>ee Heraldry,
Plate CCXXVII. fig. i. A.
MARTYNIA, in botany : A genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants ; and in-the natural method ranking under the
j cth ordert. The, calyx is quiiiquefid, the
corolla ringent, the capfule ligneous, covered with a
hark, with a hooked beak, trilocular, and bivalved.—
There are two fpeeies.; both of them tender, herba¬
ceous, howery plants of South America; one o£
them an annual, the other a perennial, riftng with eve£t
flalks, from a foot to two feet high, garniilied with
oblong fimple leaves, and terminated by fhort fpikes
of large monopetalous, bell-fhaped flowers, of blue and
purple colours. They flower in July and Aviguit, and
are very ornamental, but require always to be kept in
the hotteft part of the ffove.
MARTYR, is one who lays down his life, or fuf-
Ters 'death, for the fake of Iris religion. The word is
Greek, and properly fignihes “ a witnefs.” It
is applied, by way of eminence, to thole who fuffer in
-vyitnef? of the truth of the gofpel.
The Chriffian church has abounded in martyrs, and
hiftory is filled with furprifmg-accounts of their lingu¬
lar conftancy and fortitude under the cruelleft. torments
human nature was capable of fuffering,. The primitive
Chriftians were accufed by their enemies of paying a
fort of divine wprfiiip to the martyrs. Of this we have
an inftance in the an.fwer of the church of Smyrna to
the fuggwhon of the Jews, who, at the martyrdom of
Polycarp, deixred the heathen judge not to fuffer the
Chriflians to carry off his body, left they fhould leave
their crucified mailer, and worlhip him in his Head.
To which they aofwered, “ We can neither forfake
Ohrift, nor worlhip any other : for we worlhip him as
the Son of God ; but love the martyrs as the djfciples
and followers of the Lord, for the great affedlion they
have Ihown to their King and Mailer.” A like an*
fwer -was given at the martyrdom of. Fru6luofiis in
Spain. For when the judge aiked Eulogius, ,his dea¬
con, Whether he would not worlhip Frutluofus ? as,
thinking, that, tho’ he refufed to worlhip the heathen
idols, he might yet be iaclined to worfhip a Chriftian
martyr; Eulogiusreplied, “ Ido nofworlhip Fruc-
-tUofus, but him whom Fruftuofus worThips.” The
primitive Chriftians believed, that the martyrs enjoyed
very finguiar -privileges; that upon the-ir -death they
were immediately admitted to the beatific-vifion, while
other fouls waited fbr the completion of their happi-
nefs till the day of-judgment; and that God would
grant chiefly to theft prayers the hallening of his king¬
dom, and fhort cuing the times of perfecution.
The churches-built over the graves of the martyrs,,
and called by their names, in order to preferve the me¬
mory of their fufferings, were dift inguifhed by the title
martyrium cinfeflio, or memorici. .
The feftivals of the martyrs are of very ancient date
-in the Chriftian church, and may be carried back at
till the time of Poly carp, who fuffered -martyrdom
about the year of Chrift 168. On thefe days the Chrft Martyr,-
ftians met at the graves of the martyrs, and offered Mar‘yt»--
prayers and thankfgivings to God for the examples °^y' ,
they had afforded them : they celebrated the eucha-
rift, and gave alms to the poor ; which, together with
a panegyrical oration or fermon, and reading the adls
of the martyrs, were the fpintual exercifes of thefe an-
niverfaries.
Of the fayings, fufferings, and deaths of the mar¬
tyrs, though preferved with great care, for the above
purpofe, and to ferve as models t® future ages, we
have hut very little left, the greateft part of them ha¬
ving been deftroyed during that dreadful perfecution
which Dioclefian carried on for ten years with frelh
fury againft the Chriftians; for a moll diligent fearch
was then made after all their books and papers; and
all of them that were found were committed to the
flames. Eufebius, indeed, compofed a martyrology, but
it never reached down to us; and thofe fince compiled
are extremely fufpe£ted. From the eighth century
downwards, feveral Greek and Latin writers endea¬
voured to make up the lofs, by compiling, with vail
labour, accounts of the lives and aftions of the ancient
martyrs, but which confift of little elfe than a feries of
fables: Nor are thofe records that pafs under the name
of Martyrology worthy of fuperior credit, fince they
bear the moft evident marks both of ignorance and
falfehood.
Martyr (Peter),, a famous divine, born at Flo¬
rence in 1500. He ftudied philofophy and the tongues
at Padua and Banonia, was a regular Auguftine in-
the monaftery of Filcoli, and was counted one of the
heft preachers in Italy. Zuinglius and Bucer’s wri-
tings gave him a good opinion of the Proteftants, and
his converfation with Valdes confirmed it. He preach¬
ed that do&rine at Rome in private ; but, being im¬
peached, fled to Naples, and thence to Lucca, where .
he brought over to the Proteftant intereft Emanuel
Tremellius, Celfus; Martinengas, Paul Laficius, and
Jeremiah Zanchy. He was fent for to England by
king Edward VI. and made profeffor of divinity at Ox¬
ford in 1549. In Queen Mary’s reign he returned to
Strafbnrg, and was prefent at the conference of Poiffy.
His fentiments were not the fame with Calvin’s about
Chrift’s prefence in the eucharift. . He wrote a great
number of works, and died in 1562;
MARTYROLOGY, a catalogue or lift of martyrs,
including the hiftbry of theft lives and fufferings for
the fake of religion. The term comes from
“ witnefs,” and dico, or **>-<•> colligo.
The martyrologies draw theft materials from the
kalendai-s of particular churches,- in which the feveral
feltivals dedicated to them are marked; and which
feem to be derived from the practice of the ancient
Romans, who inferted the names of heroes and great
men in their fafti or public regiftars.
The martyrologies are very numerous, and contain
many ridiculous and even contradictory narratives;
which is eafily accounted for, if we coafider how many-
forged and fpurious accounts of the lives of faints and
martyrs appeared in the fir ft ages of the ■church,.which
the legendary writers afterwards adopted without ex¬
amining into the truth of them. However, fome good
critics, of late years, have gone a great way towards
•ckariag;
MAR [ 598 ] MAR
Martyrs- clearing the lives of the faints and martyrs from the
iCiarvcl' mon^rous heap of fiftion they laboured under. See
;— * the article Legend.
The martyrology of Eufebius-of Casfarea was the
moft celebrated in the ancient church. It was tranflated
into Latin by St-'Jerom ; but the learned agree that
it is not now extant. That attributed to Beda, in the
eighth century, is of very doubtful authority; the
names of feveral faints being there found who did not
live till after the time .of Beda. The ninth century
was very fertile in martyrologies; then appeared that
of Floras, fubdeacon of the church at Lyons ; who,
however, only filled up the chafms in Beda. This
was publifhed about the year 83b, and was followed by
that of Waldenburtus, monk of the diocefe of Treves,
written in verfe about the year 848, and this by that
of Ufuard, a French monk, and written by the com¬
mand of Charles the Bald in 875-, which lail is the
martyrology now ordinarily ufed in the Romifh church.
That of Rabanus Maurus is an improvement on Beda
and Florus, written about the year 845 ; that of Not-
ter, monk of St Gal, was written about the year 894.
The martyrology of Ado, monk of Ferrieres, in the
diocefe of Treves, afterwards archbilhop of Vienne, is
a defeendant of the Roman, if we may fo call it ; for
13 u Sollier gives its genealogy thus: The martyrology
of St Jerom is the great Roman martyrology; from
this was made the little Roman one printed by Rof-
weyd ; of this little Roman mattyrology was formed
that of Beda, augmented by Florus. Ado compiled
his in the year 858. The martyrology of Nevelon,
monk of Corbie, written about the year 1089, is little
more than an abridgment of that of Ado; father Kir-
cher alfo makes mention of a Coptic martyrology
preferved by the Maronites at Rome.
We have alfo feveral proteftant martyrologies, con¬
taining the fufferings of the reformed under the papifts,
viz. an Englifh martyrology, by J. Fox ; with others
by Clark, Bray, &c.
Martyrology is alfo ufed, in the Romifh church,
for a toll or regifter kept in the vettry of each church,
containing the names of all the faints and martyrs, both
of the univerfal church and of the particular Ones of
that city or monaftery.
Martyrology is alfo applied to the painted or
written catalogues in the Romifii churches, containing
the foundations, obits, prayers, and maffes, to be faid
each day.
MARVELL (Andrew), an ingenious writer in the
17th century, was bred at Cambridge. Fie travelled
thro’ the moft polite parts of Europe, and was fecretary
to the embaffy at Conftantinople. His firft appearance
in public bufmefs at home was as afliftant to Mr John
Milton Latin fecretary to the prote&or. A little be¬
fore the reftoration, he was chofen by his native town,
Kingfton upon Hull, to fit in that parliament, which
began at Weftminfter April 25th 1660 ; and is recor¬
ded as the laft member of parliament who received the
wages or allowance anciently paid to reprefentatives
by their conftituents. He feldom fpoke in parliament,
but he had great influence without doors upon the
members of both houfes ; and prince Rupert had al¬
ways the greateft regard for his advice. He made
himfelf very obnoxious to the government by his ac¬
tions and writings ; notwithflanding which, king
Charles II. took great delight in his converfation, and Marvell,
tried all means to win him over to his fide, but in vain, Mary. ^
nothing being ever able to fhake his refolution. There
were many inftances of his firmnefs in refilling the of¬
fers of the court ; but he was proof againft all temp¬
tations. The king having one night entertained him,
fent the lord-treafurer Danby the next morning to
find out his lodgings ; which were then up two pair
of flairs in one of the little courts in the Strand. He
was bufy writing, when the treafurer opened the door
abruptly upon him. Surprifed at the fight of fo un¬
expected a vifitor, Mr Marvell told his Lordfhip,
“ That he believed he had miftaken his way.” Lord
Danby replied, “ Not, now I have found Mr Mar¬
vell f’ telling him he came from his Majefty, to know
what he could do to ferve him. Coming to a ferious
explanation, he told the lord-treafurer, that he knew
the nature ©f courts full well; that whoever is diftin-
guifhed by a prince’s favour, is certainly expeCted to
vote in his intereft. The Lord Danby told him, that
his Majefty had only a juft fenfe of his merits, in re¬
gard to which he only defired to know if there was
any place at court he could be pleafed with. Thefe
offers, though urged with the greateft earneftnefs, had
no effeCl upon him. He told the Lord-treafurer, that
he could not accept of them with honour ; for he muff
be either ungrateful to the king in voting againft him,
or falfe to his country in giving into the meafures of
the court. The only favour therefore he had to re-
queft of his Majefty was, that he would efteem him as
dutiful a fubjeCl as any he had, and more in his pro¬
per intereft by refufing his offers than if he had em¬
braced them. The Lord Danby finding no argu¬
ments could prevail, told him, that the king had or¬
dered a thoufand pounds for him, which he hoped he
would receive till he could think what farther to afk
of his Majefty. The laft offer was rejefted with the
fame ftedfaftnefs of mind as the firft ; though, as foon‘
as the Lord-treafurer was gone, he was forced to lend
to a friend to borrow a guinea. He died not without
ftrong fufpicions of his being poifoned, in 1678. 111
the , ?rth year of his age. In 1688, the town of King¬
fton upon FIull contributed a fum of money to ereil a
monument over him in the church of St Giles in the
Fields, where he was interred, and an epitaph compo-
fed by an able hand ; but the miniftry of that church
forbid both the infeription and monument to be pla¬
ced there. He wrote many ingenious pieces ; as. The
Rehearfal tranfprofed; A Ihort hiftorical Effay con¬
cerning General Councils, Creeds, and Impofitions in
matters of religion, &c ; alfo Poems and Letters.
Marvel vf Peru, in botany. See Mirabilis.
MARY, the mother of our Saviour Jefus Chrift,
and a. virgin at the time that ftie conceived him;
daughter of Joachim and of Anna, of the tribe of
Judah, and married to Jofeph of the fame tribe. The
feripture tells us nothing of her parents, not fo much
as their names, unlefs Heli mentioned by St Luke in.
23. be the fame with Joachim. All that is faid
concerning the birth of Mary and of her parents is
only to be found in folne apocryphal writings; which,
however, are very ancient.
Mary was of the royal race of David, as was allb
her hulband; * A virgin, efpoufed to a man whofe
name was Jofepb, of the houfe of David,’ fays our
franllatioa
I'W.. CCJ.XXX
MAR [ 5^9 J MAR
Mary, trahflatlon of St Luke i. 27. which tranflation Mr
—v Whitby thinks might be better rendered thus: ‘ A
virgin of the houfe of David, efpoufed to a man vvhofe
name was Jofeph, and the virgin’s name was Mary
becaufe this agrees better with the words of the an¬
gel, ‘ The Lord (hall give him the throne of his fa¬
ther David,’ ver. 32. For fince the angel had plainly
told the virgin, that (he (hould have this fon without the
knowledge of any man, it was not Jofeph’s but Mary’s
being of the houfe of David, that made David his father.
Mary was akin to the race of Aaron, fince Eliza¬
beth the wife of Zachai;ias was her coufin (ver. 36).
Mary very early made a vow of chaftity, and enga¬
ged herfelf to perpetual virginity. The Proto-evan-
gelium of St James tells us, that (he was confecrated
to the Lord, and offered in the temple from her ear-
lieft youth; and that the priefts gave her Jofeph for
a fpoufe, who was an holy and venerable old man,
whom providence appointed for this purpofe by a mi¬
racle, the rod which he commonly carried having
grown green and flourifhed as Aaron’s did formerly.
He efpoufed Mary, not to live with her in the ordinary
life of marriage, and to have children by her, but
only that he might be the guardian of her virginity.
Though thefe circumftances are not to be relied on as
certain, yet Mary’s refolution of continency, even in
a married date, cannot be called in queftion, fince
her virginity is attefted by the gofpel, and that her¬
felf fpeaking to the angel, who declared to her that
fhe (hould become the mother of a fon, told him that
« (he knew not a man,’ (ver. 34.), or that (he lived
in continency with her hufband: for which reafon,
when Jofeph perceived her pregnancy, he was extreme¬
ly furprifed at it, knowing the mutual refolution they
had agreed to of living in continence though in a (late
of marriage.
When Mary was ready to lie in, an edift was pub-
lilhed by Casfar Auguftus, which decreed, that all
the fubjefts of the empire (hould go to their own ci¬
ties, there to have their names regiftered according
to their families. Thus Jofeph and Mary, who were
both of the lineage of David, betook themfelves to
the city of Bethlehem, from whence was the original
of their family. But while they w?re in this place,
the time being fulfilled in which Mary was to be de¬
livered, (he brought forth her firft-born fon. She
wrapped him in fwaddling-clothes, and laid him in
the manger of the (table or cavern whither they had
retired : for they could find no place in the public inn,
becaufe of the great concourfe of people that were
then at Bethlehem on the fame occafion; or they were
forced to withdraw into the (table of the inn, not be¬
ing able to get a more convenient lodging- becaufe of
the multitude of people then at Bethlehem.
At the fame time the angels made it known to
the (hepherds who were in the fields near Bethlehem,
and who came in the night to fee Mary and Jofeph
and the child lying in the manger, and to pay him
their tribute of adoration. Mary took notice of all thefe
things, and laid them up in her heart, (Luke ii. 19.
Matth. ii. 8, 9, iq, ir, &c.). A few days after, the
magi or wife men came from the eaft, and brought to
Jefus the myfterious prefents of gold, frankincenfe,
and myrrh; after which being warned by an angel
that appeared to them in a dream, they returned
into their own country by a way different from that
by which they came. But the time of Mary’s pur'- Mary,
fication being come, that is 40 days after the birth v~~
of Jefus, Maty went to Jerufalem (Luke ii. 21.), there
to prefent her fon in the temple, and there to offer the
facrifice appointed by the law for the purification of
women after childbirth. There was then at Jerufa¬
lem an old man named Shneon, who was full of the
Holy Gholt, and who had received a fecret affurance
that he (hould not die before he had feen Chrift the
Lord. He came then into the temple by the influence
of the fpirit of God, and taking the little Jefus with¬
in his arms, he bleffed the Lord : and afterwards ad-
dreffing himfelf to Mary, he told her, ‘ That tin's
child (hould be for the rifing and falling of many ia
Ifrael, and for a fign which fhould be fpoken againft ;
even fo far as that her own foul (hould be pierced as
with a fword, that the fecret thoughts in the hearts
of many might be difeovered.’ Afterwards when Jo¬
feph and Mary were preparing to return to their own
country of Nazareth (Matth. ii. 13, 14.), Jofeph was
warned in a dream to retire into Egypt with Mary
and the child, becaufe Herod had a defign to deftroy
Jefus. Jofeph obeys the admonition, and they con¬
tinued in Egypt till after the death of Herod ; upon
which he and Mary returned to Nazareth, not daring
to go to Bethlehem becaufe it was in the jurifdidtion-
of Archdaus the fon and fucceflbrof Herod the great.
Here the holy family took up their refidence, and re¬
mained till Jefus began his public miniftry. We read"
of Mary being prefent at the marriage of Cana in Ga¬
lilee, with her fon Jefus and his difciples (John ii,
l, 2, &c.) On which occafion Jefus having turned
water into wine, being the firit public miracle that he
performed, he went from thence to Capernaum with
his mother and his brethren, or his parents and dif¬
ciples : and this feems to be the place where the holy
virgin afterwards chiefly refided. However, St Epi-
phanius thinks that fhe followed him every where du¬
ring the whole time of his preaching; though we do
not find the evangeliits make any mention of her
among the holy women that followed him and mi-
niftered to his necefiities. The virgin. Mary was at
Jerufalem at the lafl paflbver that our Saviour cele¬
brated there; fhe faw all that was tranfafted againft
him, followed him to Calvary, and ftood at the foot
of his crofs with a conftancy worthy of the mother of-~
God. There Jefus feeing his mother and his beloved
difciple near her, he faid to his mother, “ Woman,
behold thy fonand to the difciple, “ Behold thy
mother.” And from that hour the difciple took her
home to his own houfe. It is not, to be doubted, but
that our. Saviour appeared to his mother immediately
after his refiirredtion ; and that die was the firft, or at
leaft one of the firft, to whom he vouchfafed this great
confolation.. She was with the apoftles at his afeen-
fion, and continued with them at Jerufalem, expecting -
the corning of the Holy Ghbft (Ads i. 14.). After
this, fhe dwelt in the houfe of St John the Evangelift,'
who took care of her as of his own mother. It is
thought that he took her along with him to Ephefus,
wdiere fhe died, in an extreme old age- There is a
letter of the cecumenical council of' Ephefus, import¬
ing, that in the fifth century it was believed fhe was
buried there. Yet this opinion was not fo univerfal,
but that there are authors of the fame age who think
(lie died and was buried at Jerufaletn.
3 Maa*’
■ST A n T Cca ] MAR
^*n-- ’ MaV<V (Magdalen), who lias been generally don- after her acquaintance with our Savlotir It Was edifying
founded with Mary the filler of Martha and Lazarus, and exemplary. I conceive of her (continues our au-
hut very improperly. Was probably that fmrter men- thor) as a woman of a fine underfta-nding, and knowrt
-tionedby St Luke, chap. vii. 36, 37, See. whofe name virtue and diferetion, with a dignity of behaviour be1
he does hot tell us. There are fome circumitances coming her age, her wifdom, and her high ftation I
fufficient to convince us, that fire is the fame whom by all which, fhe was a credit to him whom Ihe fol*
Ire calls Mary Magdalen in chap. via. 2. and from lowed as her mailer and benefactor. She Ihowed our
whom he fays Jefus drove out feven devils. Jefus Lord great refpefl in his life, at his death, and after
having healed the widow’s fon of Nain, entered into it; and fhe was one of thofe to whom he firll Ihowed
the city, and there was invited to eat by a pharifee himfelf after his refurredli0n.,,
named Simon. While he was at table, a woman of a Mary Magdalen followed Chrill in the lall journey
fcandalouslife came into the houfe, having an alaballer that he made from Galilee to Jerufalem-, and was at
box full of perfumed oil; and Handing upright be- the foot of the crpfs with the holy virgin (John xix.-
'hind Jefus, and at his feet, for he was lying at table 25. Mark xv. 47.). After which Ihe returned to Je*
On a couch after the manner of the ancients, ihe pour- rufalem to buy and prepare the perfumes, that ihe
ed her perfume on his feet, kilfed them, watered them might embalm him after the fabbath was over which'
with her tears, and wiped them with her hair. The. was then about to begin. All the fabbath-day file re-
Pharifee obferving this, faid within himfelf, If this mained in the city; and the next day early in the
man were a prophet, he would know who this woman morning Ihe went to the fepulchre, along with Mary
is that touche^ him, that fhe is one of a wicked life, the mother of James and Salome (Mark xvi. 1, zs
Then Jefus, .who knew tire bottom of his heart, illu- Luke xxiv. X, 2.). On the way, they inquired of
flrated her cafe by a parable ; and concluded with an- one another, who Ihould take away the flbne front
fwe ring the woman, that her fins were forgiven her. the mouth of the fepulchre, and were fenfible of i
In the following chapter, St Luke tells us, that Je- great earthquake. This was the token of our Sa-
••{us, in company with his apoltles, preached the go- viour’s refutredtion. Being come to his tomb, they
’ fpel from city to city ; and that there were feveral wo- faw two angels, who informed them that Jefus was
men whom he had delivered from evil {pints,(and had rifen. Upon this Mary Magdalen runs immediately
cured of their infirmities, among whom was Mary to Jerufalem, and acquaints the apoflles with this good
called Magdalen, but of whom went feven devils, news, returning herfelf to the fepulchre. Peter and
This, it mull be owned, is no pofitive proof that the John came alfo, and were witnefles that the body wai
finner mentioned before was Mary Magdalen ; how- no longer there. They returned : but Mary flayed,
*<Wer, it is all we have in fupport of this opinion: And Hooping forward to examine the infide of the
^n opinion which has been ably controverted by tomb, fire there faw two angels fitting; one at the
others. Mary Magdalen had her furnamt, it is thought, head and the other at the foot of the tomb ; and im*
from the town of - agdalia in Galilee. Lightfoot be- mediately afterwards, upon turning about, fhe beheld
lieves that this Mary is the fafue with Mary the fifler the Lord himfelf. She would have call herfelf at
of Lazarus. Magdalen is mentioned by fhe evange- his feet to kifs them. But Jefus faid to her, “ Touch
lifls among the women that followed our Saviour, to me not, for I am not yet afeended to my Father.” As
minifter to him according to the cuflom of( the Jew's, if he had faid, “ You fhall have leifUre to fee me here-
St Luke viii. 2. and St Mark xvi. 9. obferve, that after; go now to my brethren, my apoflles, and tell
this woman had been delivered by Jefus Chriil from them, I am going to afeend to my God and to their
feven devils. This fome underlland in the literal fenfe; God, to my Father and to their Father.” Thus
but. others take it figuratively, for the crimes and had Mary the happinefs of firfl feeing our Saviour af-
wickednefs ofherpafl life (fuppofing her to be the finner ter his refurre&ion. (See Math, xxviii. 5, &c. Mark
firfl above mentioned), from which Chrifl had refeued xvi. 6, &c. John xx. x 1, 17.)
her. Others maintain, that fhe had always lived in She returned then to Jerufalem, and told the apoflle#
virginity; and confequently they make her a different that fhe had feen the Lord, that fhe had fpoken to
perfon from the finner mentioned by St Luke: and by him, and told them what he had faid to her. But
the feven devils of which fhe was pofTeffed, they un- At firfl they did not believe her, till her report was
derfland no other than a real pofieffion, which is not confirmed by many other teflimonies.— This is what
incohfillent w'ith a holy life. This indeed is the moll the gofpel informs us .concerning Mary Magdalen,
probable opinion, and that which has been bell fup- different from ary the filler of Martha, though Ihe
ported. In particular, the author of a “ Letter to has been often called by this name. For as to the
Jonas Hanway” on the fubjeA of Magdaleif Iloufe, pretended Hiilory of Mary Magdalen, which is fa’d
publilhed in 1718, has fhown by a Variety of learned to have been written in Hebrew by Marcella fervant
remarks, and quotations both from the feriptures and bf Martha ; this cart only relate to Mary filler of Mar-
from the bell commentators, that Mary Magdalen tha, and befides is a mere piece of impolture.
was not the finner fpoken of by Luke, but on the Mary, queen and tyrant of England, was eldelt
contrary that fhe “ was a wo'man of dp:in£lion, and daughter of Henry VIII. by his firfl wife Catharine
very eafy in her worldly circiuiiflances. For a while, of Spain, and born at Greenwich in February 15 .'7.
fbe had laboured under fome. bodily indifpofitipn, Her mother was very careful of her education, and
which our Lord miraculoufly healed, and for which provided her with tutors to teach her what was fit-
benefit fhe was ever after very thankful. So far as ting. Her firll prefieptor was the famous Linacre,
we know, her conduct was always regular and free who drew up for her ufe The Rudiments of Gram-
from cehfure; and we may reafonably believe, that mar, qnd afterward^ Zk emnukitajlrtUlura Latini fer-
N; 195. 4
MAR [
Mry- mom's librifex. Linacer dying when Hie was but fix
years old, Ludovicus Vives, a very learned man of
_ Valenza in Spain, was her next tutor; and he com-
pofed for her De ratione Jludii puerilis. Under the di¬
rection of thefe excellent men, (he became fo great a
miftrefs of Latin, that Erafmus commends her for her
epiltles in that language. Towards the end of her
father’s reign, at the earned felicitation of Queen Ca¬
tharine Parr, fhe undertook to tranflate Erafmus’s
Paraphrafe on the gofpel of St John ; but being call
into ficknefs, as Udall relates, partly by overmuch
ftudy in this work, after file had made fome progrefs
therein, Ihe left the reft to be done by Dr Mallet her
chaplain. This tranflation is printed in the firft vo¬
lume of Erafmus’s Paraphrafe upon the New Tefta-
ment, London, 1548, folio ; and before it is a Pre¬
face, written by Udall, the famous mafter of Eton
fchool, and addrelfed to the queen dowager (a) 
Had fhe been educated in Spain, however, and an in-
quifitor had been her preceptor, fhe could not have
imbibed more ftrongly the bloody principles of Ro-
mifii perfecution; and to the eternal difgrace of the
Englifh prelacy, though the reformation had taken
root in both univerfities, fhe found Englifh bifhops
ready to carry her cruel defigns to fubvert it, into ef-
feCfual execution. King Edward her brother dying
the 6th of July 1553, file was proclaimed queen the
fame month, and crowned in OCtober by Stephen.
Gardiner bifhop of Winchefter. Upon her accef-
fion to the throne, fhe declared, in her fpeech to the
council, that fhe would not perfecute her Prole'1.ant
fubjedts: but in the following month, fhe prohibited
preaching without a fpecial licence; and before the
expiration of three months, the Proteftant bifhops
were excluded the houfe of lords, and all the flatutes
Vol. X. Part II.
6ot ] MAR
of Edward VI. refpe&ing the Proteftant religion were Mary.
repealed. In July 1 ^54, fhe was married to Philip  
prince of Spain, eldeft fon of the emperor Charles V.;
and now began that perfecution againlt the Prote-
ftants for which her reign is fo juftly infamous. Some
have fuppofed, that the queen was herfelf of a compaf-
fionate and humane difpofition; and that moft of thofe
barbarities were tranfafted by her bifhops without
her knowledge or privity. Without her knowledge
and privity they could not be : it would be a better
defence of her to lay, that a ftrict adherence to a falic
religion, and a confcientious obfervance of its perni¬
cious and cruel dictates, over-ruled and got the better
of that goodnefs of temper which was natural to her.
But neither can this plea be reafonably admitted by
any one, who confiders her unkind and inhuman
treatment of her filler the Lady* Elizabeth ; her'ad¬
mitting a council for the taking up and burning of
her father’s body ; her moft ungrateful and perfidious
breach of promife with the Suffolk men ; her unge¬
nerous and barbarous treatment of judge Hales, who
had ftrenuoufly defended her right of fuccefiion to the
crown ; and of Archbifhop Cranmer, who in reality
had faved her life. Shall we excule all this by faying,
Tantum rdigio potuit fuadere malorum ? Her obligations
to Cranmer deferve to be more particularly fet forth.
Burnet fays, “ that her firm adherence to her mother’s
caufe and intereft, and her backwardnefs in fubmitting
to the king her father, were thought crimes of fuch
a nature by his majefty, that he came to a refolution
to put her openly to death ; and that when all others
were unwilling to run any rifle in faving her, Cran¬
mer alone ventured upon it. In his gentle way lie
told the king, “ that fire was young and indifereet, and
therefore it was no wonder if flie obflinately adhered
(a) As this preface contains many refleClions which may yery much edify the females of this age, we
fhall for their fakes here tranferibe a part of it. Mr Udall takes occafion in it to obferve to her majefty,,
“ The great number of noble women at that time in England, not only given to the ftudy of human fciences
and ftrange tongues, but alfo fo thoroughly expert in the Holy Scriptures, that they were able to compare
with the beft; writers, as well in enditiug and penning of godly and fruitful treatifes, to the inftruCtion and
edifying of realms in the knowledge of God, as alio in tranflafing good books out of Latin or Greek into
Englifh, for the ufe and commodity of fuch as are rude and ignorant of the faid tongues. It was now (he
faid) no news in England to fee young damfels in noble houfes, and in the courts of princes, inftead of cards
and other inflruments of idle trifling, to have continually in their hands either pfalms, homilies, and other de¬
vout meditations, or elfe Paul’s epiftles, or fome book of holy feripture matters, and as familiarly both to read,
or reafon thereof in Greek, Latin, French, or Italian, as in Englifh. It was now a common thing to fee
young virgins fo trained in the Andy of good letters, that they willingly fet all other vain paftimes at nought
for learning’s fake. It was now no news a£ all to fee queens and ladies of mofl: high eftate and progeny, in¬
ftead of-courtly dalliance, to embrace virtuous exercifes of reading and writing, and with moft earned ftudy,
both early and late, to apply themfelves to the acquiring of knowledge, as well in all other liberal arts and
difeiplines, as alfo mofl; especially of God and his holy word. And in this behalf (fays he), like as to your
highnefs, as well for compofing and fetting forth many godly pfalms, and divers other contemplative medita¬
tions, as alfo for caufing thefe paraphrafes to be tranflated into our vulgar tongue, England can never be able
to render thanks fufficient; fo may it never be able, as her deferts require, enough to praife and magnify the
moll noble, the moft virtuous, the moft witty, and the moft ftudious lady Mary’s grace, for taking fuch pain
and travail in tranflating this Paraphrafe of Erafmus upon the gofpel of St John.—What could be a more
plain declaration of her mofl: conftant purpofe to promote God’s word, and the free grace of his gofpel ?” &c.
Mr Udall was miftaken ; fhe never meant any fuch thing : for foon after her acceffion to the throne, a pro¬
clamation was iffued for calling in and fuppreffing this very book, and all others that had the leaft tendency
towards furthering the reformation. And Mr Walpole is of opinion, that the ficknefs which came upon her
while fhe was tranflating St John, was all affe&ed; “ for (fays he) fhe would not fo eafily have been call into
fkknefs, had fhe been employed on the Legends of St Terefa or St Catharine of Sienna.”
MAR r 602 1 INI A R
"Miry, (0 tfiat which her mother and all about her had
been jnfufing into her for many years ; but that
it would appear ftrange, if he (hould for this caufe
fo far forget the father, as to proceed to extremi¬
ties with his own child; that ff ihe were feparated
from her mother and her people, in a little time there
might be ground gained on her; but that to take
away her life, would raife horror through all Europe
againft him by which means he preferved her.
.—Along with Archbiihop Cranmer, who had thus
fared her life, the bifliops Ridley and Latimer were al-
fo condemned for herefy at Oxford, and afterwards
burnt. In 15 56, the perfecution became general; and
Proteftanta of all ranks and ages, and of both fexes, fell
viftims to papal fury. It is obfervable, likewife, that
the fame perfidious violation of promifes and treaties
prevailed in the queen’s council, with refpeft to public
affairs. By the treaty of marriage concluded between
the queen and Philip, it was exprefsly ftipulated that
' England fhould not be engaged in any wars with
France on account of Spain; yet in 1557, Philip,
who had brought immenfe fums of money into Eng¬
land, procured an offenfive and defenfive alliance
againft France, from the Englifh adminiftration, and
8coo of the queen’s choiceft troops were fent over to
the afliftance of the Spaniards in the Low'Countries :
the lofs of Calais to the French was the firft fruit of
this war ; and fome affert, that upon this Angle occa-
fion the queen fhowed a ftrong attachment to her na¬
tive country, lamenting this ftroke fo deeply, that it
occafioned her death ; but it is better authenticated,
that fhe was carried off by an epidemic fever, which
raged fo violently that it did not leave a fufficient num¬
ber of men in health to get in the harveft. She had
long, however, been a prey, if not to remorfe, yet to
difappomtment and chagrin, ariiing from various crofs
accidents, fuch as want of children, and the abfence
and unkindnefs of Philip confequent thereupon. Her
death happened Nov. 7. 1558, in the 43d year of her
age, after a reign of five years, four months, and ele¬
ven days. There are fome things of her writing ftill
extant. Strype has preferved three prayers or medi¬
tations of hers : the firft, “ Againft the affaults of
vice ;” the fecond, “ A meditation touching adverfi-
tv ;” the third, “ A prayer to be read at the hour of
death.” In Fox’s “ Afts and monuments” are print¬
ed eight of her letters to king Edward and the lords .
of the council, on her nonconformity, and on the im-
prifonment of her chaplain Dr Mallet. In the Syl-
loge epijlolarum are feveral more of her letters, extreme¬
ly curious: one of her delicacy in never having writ¬
ten but to three men ; one of affe&ion for her After ;
one after the death of Anne Boleyn ; and one very
remarkable of Cromwell to her. In “ Haynes’sjState
Papers,” are two in Spanifti, to the emperor Char. V.
—There is alfo a French letter, printed by Stripe
from the Cotton library, in anfwer to a haughty
mandate from Philip, when he had a mind to marry
the lady Elizabeth to the duke of Savoy, againft the
queen’s and princefs’s inclination : it is written in a
moft abjeft manner, and a wretched ftyle.
Mart of Medicts-, wife of Henry IV. king of France,
was declared foie regent of the kingdom in x6io,.du¬
ring the confternation which the affaffination of that
beloved king had occafioned. By her ambitious in¬
trigues, the it&tion loft all its influence abroad, and Maty,
was torn to pieces at home by contending factions. v~—
After feveral viciffitudes of fortune, fhe was aban¬
doned by her fon Louis XIII. whofe reign had been
conftantly difturbed by the civil commotions fhe had
occafioned ; and died in indigence at Bruffels, in 1642,
aged 68. She built the fuperb palace of Luxembourg
at Paris, and embellifhed that city with aquedudts and
other ornaments.
Mary queen of Scotland, daughter of James V.
was born in the royal palace of Linlithgow on the 8th
of December 1542. Her mother was Mary, the
eldeft daughter of Claude duke of Guife, and widow
of Louis duke of Longueville. Pier father dying a
few days after her birth, fhe fcarcely exifted before fhe
was hailed queen.
The government of a queen was unknown in Scot¬
land ; and the government of an infant queen could
not command much refpedl from martial and turbu¬
lent nobles, who exercifed a kind of fovereignty over
their own vaffals; who looked upon the moft warlike
of their monarchs in hardly any other. light than as
the chief of the ariftocracy ; and who, upon the
flighteft difgufts, were ever ready to fly into rebellion,
and to carry their arms to the foot of the throne.—
James had not even provided againft the diforders of
a minority, by committing to proper-perfons the cafe
of his daughter’s education, and the adminiftration of
affairs in her name. The former of thefe obje&s,
however, was not neglefted, though the regency of
the kingdom was Cntrufted to very feeble hands. At
fix years of age Mary was conveyed to France, where
fhe received her education in the court of Henry II.
The opening powers of her mind, and her natural dif-
pofitions, afforded early hopes of capacity and merit.
After being taught to work with her needle and in
tapeftry, fhe was inftrudted in the Latin tongue ; and
fhe is faid to have underftood it with an accuracy,
which is in this age very uncommon in perfons of.her
fex and elevated rank, but which was not then fur—
prifing, when it was the fafhion among great ladies to
ftudy the ancient languages. In the French, the Ita¬
lian, and the Spanifh tongues, her proficiency was ftill
greater, and fhe fpoke them with equal cafe and pro--
pidety. She walked, danced, and rode with enchant¬
ing gracefulnefs; and fhe was qualified by nature, as
well as by art, to attain to diftinftion in painting,poetry,.
and mufic. To accomplifh the woman was not, how¬
ever, the foie obje<ft of her education. Either fhe was-
taught, or fhe very early difeovered, the neceffity of
acquiring fuch branches of knowledge as might enable
her to difeharge with dignity and prudence the duties
of a fovereign ; and much of her time was devoted to
the ftudy of hiftory, in which fhe delighted to the
end of her life.
Whilft Mary refided in the court of Henry II.
her perfonal charms made a deep impreflion on the
mind of the Dauphin. It was in vain that the con-
ftable Montmorency oppofed their marriage with all;
his influence. The importance of her kingdom to:
France, and the power of her uncles the princes of.
Lorraine, were more than fufficient to counteraft his-
intrigues; and the Dauphin obtained the moft beauti¬
ful princefs in Chriftendom.
Though this alliance placed the queen of Scotland,
1 in
MAR [ 603 1 MAR
Mary, in the moft confpicuous point of view, in the politeft in the church of Rome, and was ftrongly attached
   court of Europe, anddrew to her thofe attentions which to that fuperftition : Yet flie had either moderation
are in the higheil degree pleating to a female mind in enough in her fpirit, or difcretion enough in her un-
the gaiety of youth ; it may yet be confidered as ha- derftanding, not to attempt any innovation in the
ving accidentally laid the foundation of the greateft part prevailing faith of proteftantifm. She allowed her
of her future misfortunes. Elizabeth, who now fway- fubjefts the full and free exercife of their new religion,
ed the fceptre of England, had been declared illegiti- and only challenged the fame indulgence for her own.
mate by an aft ef parliament: and though the Eng- She contrived to attach to her, whether from his heart
lilh Proteftants paid no regard to a declaration which or only in appearance, her natural brother, the prior
was compelled by the tyrannic violence-of Henry VIII. of St Andrew’s; a man of ftrong and vigorous parts,
and which he himfelf had indeed rendered null by call- who, though he had taken the ufual oath of obedience
ing his daughter to the throne after her brother and to the Pope, had thrown off his fpiritual allegiance,
elder filter ; yet the papifts both at home and abroad and placed himfelf at the head of the reformers. By
had objeftions to the legitimacy of Elizabeth’s birth, his means Ihe cruflied an early and formidable rebel-
founded on principles which with them had greater lion j and in reward for his fervices conferred upon him
weight than the afts of any human legidature. Mary a large eftate, and created him Earl of Murray. For
was unqueftionably the next heir in regular fuccellion two or three years her reign was profperous, and her
to the Englilh throne, if Elizabeth Ihould die without adminiftration applauded by all her fubjefts, except
legitimate iffue ; and upon her marriage to the Dau- the Protellant preachers ; and had Ihe either remained
phin, Ihe was induced by the perfuafion of her uncles, unmarried, or bellowed her affeftions upon a more
by the authority of the French king, and no doubt worthy objeft, it is probable that her name would have
partly by her own ambition, to affume the title and defeended to pollerity among thofe of the moft fortu-
arms of queen of England and Ireland. Thefe, in- nate and the moft deferving of Scottilh monarchs.
deed, Ihe forebore as foon as Ihe became her own But a queen, young, beautiful, and accomplithed,
miftrefs; but the having at all alfumed them was an an ancient and hereditary kingdom, and the expec-
offence which Elizabeth could never forgive, and which tation of a mightier inheritance, were objefts to excite
rankling in her bofom made her many years afterwards the love and ambition of the moft illuftrious perfon-
purfue the unhappy queen of Scots to the block. ages. Mary, however, who kept her eye tteadily
Henry II. dying foon after the marriage of the fixed on the Englilh fuccelfion, rejefted every offer of
Dauphin and Mary, they mounted the throne of a foreign alliance; and, fwayed at firft by prudential
France. In that elevated llation, the queen did not motives, and afterwards by love the moft exceffive,
fail to diftinguilh herfelf. The weaknefs of her hulband Ihe gave her hand to Henry Stuart, lord Darnley, the
ferved to exhibit her accomplilhments to the greateft fon of the earl of Lenox. This nobleman was, af-
advantage ; and in a court where gallantry to the fex, ter herfelf, the neareft heir to the crown of England;
and the moft profound refpeft for the perfon of the he was like wife the firft in fucceffion after the earl of
fovereign, were infeparable from the manners of a gen- Arran to the crown of Scotland ; and it is known
tleman, Ihe learned the firft leffons of royalty. But that James V. had intended to introduce into his
this feene of fuccefsful grandeur and unmixed feli- kingdom the Salique law, and to fettle the crown up-
city was of Ihort duration. Her hulband Francis on Lenox in preference to his own daughter. Thefe
died unexpeftedly, after a Ihort reign of fixteen confiderations made Mary felicitous for an interview
nionths. Regret for his death, her own humiliation, with Darnley; and at that interview love Hole into
the difgrace of her uncles the princes of Lorraine, her heart, and effaced every favourable thought of all
which inftantly followed, and the coldnefs of Catha- her other fuitors. Nature had indeed been lavilh to
rine of Medicis the queen mother, who governed him of her kindnefs. He was tall of ftature; his
her fon Charles IX. plunged Mary into inexpreflible countenance and lhapes were beautiful and regular ;
furrow. She was invited to return to her own king- and, amidll the malks and dancing with which his ar-
dom, and (he tried to reconcile herfelf to her fate. rival was celebrated, he Ihone with uncommon luftre.
She was how to pafs from a fituation of elegance But the bounty of nature extended not to his mind,
and fplendour to the very reign of incivility and tur- His underftanding was narrow ; his ambition exceffxve ;
bulence, where moft of her accomplilhments would be his obltinacy inflexible ; and under the guidance of no
utterly loft. Among the Scots of that period, ele- fixed principle, he was inconftant and capricious. He
gance of tafte was little known. The generality of knew neither how to enjoy his profperity nor how to
them were funk in ignorance and barbarifm ; and what enfure it.
they termed religion, diftated to all a petulant rudenefs On the 29th of July 1565, this ill-fated pair were
of fpeech and conduft, to which the queen of France married ; and though the queen gave her hulband
was wholly unaccuftomed. During her minority and every pofiible evidence of the moft extravaganflove ;
abfence, the Proteftant religion had gained a kind of e- though Ihe infringed the principles of the conftitution
ftablilhment in Scotland; obtained, indeed, by violence, to confer upon him the title of king ; and though Ihe
and therefore liable to be overturned by an aft of the was willing to lhare with him all the offices, honours,
fevereign and the three eftates in parliament. The and dignities of royalty—he was not fatisfied with his
queen, too, was unhappily of a different opinion from lot, but foon began to clamour for more power. He
the great body of her fubjefts, upon that one topic, had not been married feven months, when he entered
which among them aftuated almoft every heart, and into a confpiracy to deprive Mary of the government,
direfted almoft every tongue. She had been educated and to feat himfelf on her throne. With this view he
1 4 G 2 headed
Mary.
MAR r 604 1 MAR
headed a band of fa&ious nobles, who entered her
chamber at night; and though (he was then far advan¬
ced in her pregnancy, murdered her fecretary in her
prefence, whilll one of the ruffians held a cocked pi-
ilol to her bread. Such an outrage, together with his
infidelity and frequent amours, could not fail to allie-
nate the affe&ions of a high fpirited woman, and to
open her eyes to thofe defeats in his character which
the ardors of love had hitherto prevented her from
feeing. She fighed and wept over the precipitation
of her marriage : but though it was no longer poffible
to love him, fhe ftill treated him with attention and
refpeft, and laboured to fafhion him to the humour of
her people.
This was labour in vain. His prepoflerous vanity
and afpiring pride roufed the refentment and the
fcorn of the nobles : his follies and want of dignity
made him little with the people. He deferted the con-
fpirators with whom he had been leagued in the aflaffi-
nation of the fecretary; and he had the extreme im¬
prudence to threaten publicly the earl of Murray,
who, from his talents and his followers, poffefTed the
greateft power of any man in the kingdom. The
confequence was, that a combination was formed for
the king’s deftru&ion ; and, on the 10th day of Febru¬
ary 1567, the houfe in which he then reflded was early
in the morning blown up with gun-powder, and his
dead and naked body, without any marks of violence,
was found in an adjoining field.
Such a daring and atrocious murder filled every
mind with horror and aftonifhment. The queen, who
had been in fome meafure reconciled to her hufband,
was overwhelmed with grief, and took every method
in her power to difcover the regicides; but for fome
days nothing appeared which could lead to the difco-
very. Papers indeed were polled on the moft confpi-
cuous places in Edinburgh, accufing the earl of Both-
well of the crime; and rumours were induftrioufly
circulated that his horrid enterprife was encouraged
by the queen. Confcious, it is to be prefumed, of her
own innocence, Mary was the lefs difpofed to believe
the guilt of Bothwell, who was accufed as having only
ailed as her inftrument; but when be was charged
with the murder by the earl of Lenox, fhe inflantly
ordered him on his trial. Through the management
of the earl of Morton and others, who were afterwards
difcovered to have been partners ip his guilt, Bothwell
was acquitted of all fhare and knowledge of the king’s
murder; and what is abfolutely aftonifhing, and fhows
the total want of honour at that time in Scotland, this
flagitious man procured, by means of the fame treach¬
erous friends, a paper figned by the majority of the
nobles, recommending him as a fit hufband for the
queen!
Armed with this inftrument of mifchief, which he
weakly thought fufficient to defend him from danger,
Bothwell foon afterwards feized the perfon of his fove-
reign, and carried her a prifoner to his caftle at Dun¬
bar. It has indeed been alleged by the enemies of
the queen, that no force was employed on the occa-
fion ; that (lie was feized with her own confent; and
that fhe was even privy to the fubfcribing of the
bond by the nobles. But it has been well obferved
by one of her ableft vindicators ( a ), that “ her previous
knowledge of the bond, and her acquiefcence in the
feizure of her perfon, are two fa<fts in apparent oppo-
fition to each other. Had the queen a&ed in concert
with Bothwell in obtaining the bond from the nobles,
nothing remained but, under the fan&ion of their un¬
animous addrefs, to have proceeded directly to the
marriage. Inftead of which, can we fuppofe her fo
weak as to reject that addrefs, and rather choofe that
Bothwell fhould attempt to feize and carry her off by
violence ?—an attempt which many accidents might
fruftrate, and which at all events could not fail to ren¬
der him or both of them odious to the whole nation.
Common fenfe, then, as well as candour, muft induce
us to believe, that the fcheme of feizfng the queen
was folely the contrivance of Bothwell and his affo-
ciates, and that it was really by force that fhe was carried
to Dunbar.” . Being there kept a clofe prifoner for
12 days; having, as there is reafon to believe, aftually
fuffered the indignity of a rape ; perceiving no ap¬
pearance of a refcue; and being fhown the infamous
bond of the nobles; Mary promifed to receive her ra-
vifher for a hufband, as in her opinion the only refuge
for her injured honour. Without condemning with
afperity this compliance of the queen, it is impoffible
not to recolleft the more dignified conduft which
_ Richardfon attributes in fimilar circumfiances to his
Clariffa; and every man who feels for the fufferings,
and refpe&s the memory of Mary, muft regret that
fhe had not fortitude to refift every attempt to force
upon her as a hufband the profligate and audacious
villain who had offered her fuch an infult as no vir¬
tuous woman ought ever to forgive. This, however,
is only to regret that fhe was not more than human ;
that file who poffeffed fo many perfections, fhould have
had them blended with one defeat. “ In the irre¬
trievable fituation of her affairs, let the moft fevere of
her fex fay what courfe was left for her to follow ?
Her firfl and moft urgent concern was to regain her
liberty. That probably fhe attained by promifing to
be direfted by the advice of her council, where Both-
weli had nothing to fear.” The marriage, thus inauf-
picioufly contracted, was folemnized on the 15th of
May 1567 ; and it was the fignal for revolt to Mor¬
ton, Lethington, and many of the other nobles, by
whofe wicked and relentlefs policy it had been chiefly
brought about, and who had bound themfelves to^
employ their fwords againft all perfons who fhould
prefume to difturb fo defirable an event.
As Bothwell was juftly and univerfally detefted,
and as the rebels pretended that it was only againft.
him and not againft their fovereign that they had
taken up arms, troops flocked to them from every
quarter. The progrefs and iffue of this rebellion will
be feen in our hiftory of Scotland : fuffice it to fay
here, that upon the faith of promifes the moft folemn,
not only of perfonal fafety to herfelf, but of receiving
Mary.
(a) Ty tier’s DiJJcrtaiion on the Marriage of Queen Mary with the Earl of Both well; Tran factions of the So
ciety of Antiquaries of Scotland, Vol. I.
MAR r 605 ] MAR
Mary. as tnuch honour, fervice, and obedience, as ever in any
'' former period was paid by the nobility to the princes
her predeceffors, the unhappy queen delivered herfelf
into the hands of her rebels, and perfuaded her huf-
band to fly from the danger Which in her apprehenfion
threatened his life. Thefe promifes were inftantly
violated. The faithlefs nobles, after infulting their
fovereigtt in the cruelleft manner, hurried her as a pri-
fbner to a caftle within a lake, where (he was com¬
mitted to the care of that very woman who was the
mother of her baftard brother ; who, with the natural
infolence of a whore's meannefs, fays Mr Whitaker,
afferted the legitimacy of her own child and the ille¬
gitimacy of Mary; and who a&ually carried the na¬
tural vulgarity of a whore’s impudence fo far, as to
{trip her of all her royal ornaments, and to drefs her
like a mere child of fortune in a coarfe brown caffoc.
In this dillrefs the queen’s fortitude and prefence of
mind did not forfake her: She contrived to make her
efcape fiom her prifon, and foon found herfelf at the
head of 6000 combatants. This army, however, was
defeated ; and, in oppofition to the advice and in¬
treaties of all her friends, fhe haftily formed the re-
refolution of taking refuge in England. The archbi-
fhop of St Andrew’s in particular accompanied her to
the border ; and when (he was about to quit her own
kingdom, he laid hold of her horfe’s bridle, and on
his knees conjured her to return : but Mary proceed¬
ed, with the utmoft reliance on the friendihip of Eli¬
zabeth, which had been offered to her when fhe was
a prifoner, and of the fincerity of which fhe harboured
not a doubt.
That princefs, however, who had not yet forgotten
her affumption of the title and arms of queen of Eng¬
land, was now taught to dread her talents and to be
envious of her charms. She therefore, under various
pretences, and in violation not only of public faith, but
even of the common rights of hofpitality, kept her a
elofe prifoner for 19 years ; encouraged her rebellious
fv.bjefts to accufe her publicly of the murder of her
hufband ; allowed her no opportunity of vindicating
her honour; and even employed venal fcribblers to
blafl her fame. Under this unparalleled load of com¬
plicated diftrefs, Mary preferved the magnanimity of a
queen, and pra&ifed with fincerity the duties of a
Chriflian. Her fufferings, her dignified affability, and
her geptlenefs of difpofition, gained her great popu¬
larity in England, efpecially among the Roman catho¬
lics ; and as fhe made many attempts to procure her
liberty, and carried on a conftant correfpondence
with foreign powers, Elizabeth became at laft fo
much afraid of her intrigues, that fhe determined to
cut her off, at whatever hazard. With this view fhe
prevailed upon her fervile parliament to pafs an aft
which might make Mary anfwerable for the crimes
of all who fhould call themfelves her partizans; and
upon that flagitious flatute fhe was tried as a traitor
Concerned in the confpiracy of Babington: (fee Scot¬
land). Though the trial was condufted in a manner
which would have been illegal even if fhe had been a
fubjeft of England, and though no certain proof ap¬
peared of her conneftion with the confpirators, fhe
was, to the amazement of Europe, condemned to fuf-
fer death.
The fair heroine received her fentence with great
compofure ; faying to thofe by whom it was announ- Mary.
ced, “ The news you bring cannot but be moft wel-  v—
come, fmee they announce the termination of my mi-
feries. Nor do I account that foul to be deferving of
the felicities of immortality which can {brink under
the fufferings of the body, or fcruple the flroke that
fets it free.” On the evening before her execution,
for which, on the fucceeding morn, fhe prepared herfetf
with religious folemnity and perfeft refignation, fhe
ordered all her fervants to appear before her, and drank
to them. She even condefcended to beg their pardon
for her omiffions or neglefts; and fhe recommended it
to them to love charity, to avoid the unhappy paflions
of hatred and malice, and to preferve themfelves fled-
faff in the faith of Chrift. She then diflributed a-
mong them her money, her jewels, and her clothes*
according to their rank or merit. She wrote her will
with her own hand, conftituting the duke of Guife
her principal executor; and to the king and queen of
Franoa fhe recommended her fon, provided he fhould
prove worthy of their efteem.—In the caftle of Fo-
theringay fhe was beheaded on the 8th of February
1587, in the 45th year of her age ; and her body, af¬
ter being embalmed and committed to a leaden coffin,
was buried with royal pomp and fplendor in the ca¬
thedral of Peterborough. Twenty years afterwards
her bones were by order of her fon and only child King
James I. removed to Weftminfter, and depofited in their
proper place among the kings of England.
The general charafter of Mary, which in the regular
order of biography fhould now be laid before the rea¬
der, has furnifhed matter of controverfy for 200 years.
She is univerfally allowed to have had confiderable ta¬
lents, and a mind highly cultivated. By one party
fhe is painted with more virtues and with fewer defefts
than almoft any other woman of the age in which fhe
lived. By another fhe is reprefented as guilty of the
grofleft crimes which a woman can commit—adultery
and the murder of her hufband. By all it is confefled,
that, previous to her conneftion with the earl of Both-
well, her life as a Chriftian was exemplary, and her
adminiftration as a queen equitable and mild; and it
has never been denied that fhe bore her tedious fuffer-
ings with fuch refignation and fortitude as are feldom
found united with confcious guilt. Thefe are ftrong
prefumptions of her innocence. The moral charafters
of men change by degrees; and it feems hardly con-
fiftent with the known principles of human nature, that
any perfon fhould at once plunge deliberately from the
fummit of virtue to the depths of vice; or, when funk
fb low, fhould by one effort recover his original ftate
of elevation. But in this controverfy prefumptions
muft go for nothing. The pofitive evidences which
Were brought againft the queen of Scots are fo con-
clufive, that if they be" genuine fhe muft have been
guilty; and if they be fpurious, there can be no doubt
of her innocence. They confifted of a box with let¬
ters, contrafts, and fonnets, faid to be written by her¬
felf and fent to the earl of Bothwell. In addition to
thefe, the fuppofed confeffions of the criminals who
had fuffered for the king’s murder were originally
urged as proofs of her guilt: but thofe confeffions are
now admitted by all parties to be either wholly forged,
or fo grofsly interpolated that no ftrefs whatever can
be laid upon them ; and during Mary’s life it was af¬
firmed
MAR r 606 1 MAR
Mary, firmed by her friends, and not fufficiently contradi&ed
1 v by her enemies, that the perfons who had accufed
Bothwell, and were doubtlefs his accomplices, inftead
of criminating the queen, had openly protefted her in¬
nocence in theirViying moments.
Stuart's Hi- This box then; with its contents, was the evidence
Jtory of Scot upon which her accufers had the chief and indeed the
land. onjy rel{ance . ancl it is upon this evidence, whatever
it be, that the guilt or innocence of the Scottilh prin-
cefs mull finally be determined., It is uniformly af¬
firmed upon the part of the earl of Murray and his
fa&ion, that the cafleet with the letters and the fonnets
had been left by Bothwell in the cafile of Edinburgh ;
that this nobleman, before he fled from Scotland, fent
a meflenger to recover them; and that they were found
in the poflellion of this perfon. The 20th day of June
1567 is fixed as the date of this remarkable difcovery.
The governor of the caftle at that time was Sir James
Balfour. George Dalgleiih, a fervant of Bothwell’s,
is named as his meflenger upon this erand. He was
feized, it is faid, by the domeftics of the earl of Mor¬
ton ; and it was the earl of Morton himfelf who made
the aftual production of the caflcet and its contents.
This ftory is unfupported by vouchers, contains im¬
probabilities, and cannot be reconciled with hiltory
and events. There remains not any authentic or un-
fufpicious evidence that the queen had difhonoured the
bed of Lord Darnley; and there is the molt fatisfac-
*. tory evidence f, that though Bothwell was entrufted
tcr's Vindi- with the defence of the borders on account of his tried
-cation. courage and loyalty, he was privately difliked by Mary
for his uncommon zeal in the caufe of Proteftantifm.
At the very time when the queen is faid to have had
the moll violent love for that nobleman, and with him
to have been carrying on the moll criminal intercourfe
againfl: her hulband, we know both from Randolph
and from Knox, that Bothwell refufed to gratify her by
the fmalleft compliance with the ceremonies of her reli¬
gion, though many of the other Proteftant peers fcrupled
not to accompany her to the celebration of the mafs.
That the villain who could deliberately commit mur¬
der, Ihould be fo fcrupuloufly confcientious with re-
fpeft to modes of faith and worfliip, as to Hand for¬
ward with a peculiar Itrain of bravery to oppofe, in a
favourite meafure, the queen, who was then admitting
him to her bed, and actually forming plans for railing
him to her throne, is furely, to fay the leatt of it, ex¬
tremely improbable.
But let us fuppofe this non-compliance on the part
of Bothwell to have been a meafure concerted between
the queen and him to conceal more effeftually from
the eyes of the public the criminal intercourfe in
which they were engaged ; is it not very furprifing,
that of fuch politicians, the one Ihould have 'written
thofe letters, and the other have left them in the power
of their enemies P The earl of Bethwell was expofed
to more than fufpicions of a concern in the murder
of the king. Thefe papers contained manifeft proofs
of his guilt. It evidently was not his intereft to pre-
ferve them: or admitting, that till his marriage was
folemnized with the queen he might look upon them
as his bell fecurity for the realifing of his ambitious
hopes, yet, after that event, when all his former
friends had deferted him, he muft have felt the ftrong-
eft inducements to deftroy fuch a criminal correfpon-
dence 5 and Mary muft have been ardently animated M&ry.
with the fame wilh. The caftle of Edinburgh, where T—«
the box is faid to have been lodged, was at this time
entirely at their command; and Sir James Balfour,
their deputy, was the creature of Bothwell. If his
enemies, who were now in arms againft him, fhould
poflefs themfclves of this box and its contents, his
deftru&ion was inevitable. From his marriage till
the 5th day of June, it was in his power to have de-
ftroyed the fatal papers ; and if they had exifted, it
is not to be imagined that he would have neglefted a
ftep fo expedient, not only for his own fecurity and
reputation, but alfo for thofe of the queen. During
all this time, however, he made no eft'ort to recover
his box and letters: he had lodged them in the caftle
of Edinburgh ; and there he chofe to leave them in
the cuftody of a man in whom he could not have one
particle of affiance. This was exceffively foolifti; but
his fubfequent conduft was ftill more fo. Upon the
6th day of June, it is evident that he had reafon to
fufpedt the fidelity of Sir James Balfour, fince he
avoided to take refuge in the caftle of Edinburgh and
fled to Dunbar. He returned, however, with an ar¬
my in order to fight the rebels. The balance of em¬
pire might then feem to hang fufpended between him¬
felf and his enemies; and in that ftate of things, a
man of fuch commodious principles as Balfour appears
to have been, might be inclined to do his old friend
and patron a fecret fervice, both to efface his former
perfidy and to create himfelf a new intereft with him
in cafe he fhould be victorious over the rebels. Yet
in thefe critical moments Bothwell neglefted to make
any application to him for the cafket and the letters i
On the 15th of June, all his towering imaginations
were at once dafhed to the ground. He had come
to Carberry-hill, followed by an army and accompa¬
nied by a queen ; but he fled from it attended only
by a Angle fervant, and was glad to flicker himfelf in
the caftle of Dunbar from the vengeance due to his
crimes. Yet in this extremity of diftrefs he is repre-
fented as trying a bold experiment, which he had not
courage to try when he was fortified with the autho¬
rity of his fovereign, and when he was facing the re¬
bels in the field. In the very hour when almoft every
friend had deferted him, he expefted a return of friend-
fhip from a man who had deferted him at, firft only
becaufe he fufpecled him to be in danger. At this period
he fent his fervant George Dalgleifh to wait upon
Balfour, the afting governor of the caftle of Edin¬
burgh, with a requifition for the box of letters, and
to bring back the important charge, through ten thou-
fand dangers, to Dunbar. Though this man was one
of his agents in the murder of the king, and might
therefore have been fafely entrufted with any fecret,
he did not order him, as common fenfe requires he
ftiould have done, to deftroy the letters as foon as he
fhould get them into hispofleffion. No ! he fent him
ta fetch them from the caftle, as if there was no dan¬
ger in going thither, no doubt of receiving them
there, and no difficulty in carrying them back, f To f Whita-
a traveller in an eafy chair, all roads are fmooth, and ter's Hindi-
all days are fine. Accordingly this fame Dalgleifli,^'"**
though the well-known fervant of Bothwell, makes
good his entrance at the gates of the city, though
thefe were guarded by 450 harquebufiers all hoftilc to
his
MAR L 607 ] MAR
Mary, hfs matter, finds his way to the cattle, and delivers
-"vhis meffage. But what is more aftonifiiing than all,
he actually receives the box of letters from Sir James
Balfour. This indeed, fays Mr Whitaker, is “ o’er-
doing Termagant; it out-herods Herod.” Balfour
was? the duftile Have of felfiihnefs. He had with in¬
finite perfidioiifnefs turned againft his friend, his pa¬
tron, and his queen, only becanfe he faw them oppo-
fed by a party which he thought would prove too ftrong
for them ; but now when they were - both plunged
into the lowett ftate of diftrefs, and branded with the
appellation of regicides, his felfilhnefs was fuddenly
changed into generofity, his meannefs gave place to
exalted fentiments, and, at the peril of his own life,
he performed an heroical aft of kindnefs ! “ In fuch
circumftances (ailcs a contemporary writer), is it to
be thought, either that the earl would fend to the
faid Sir James, or that the faid Sir James would fend
any thing to the earl ? Is it likely ? Is it credible ?”
No matter : Bothwell is made to fend for his papers
at a time when his difficulties and his defpair render
it improbable that he could think of them, and when
it was abfolutely impojjible that he could recover them.
His meflenger accordingly is intercepted with the
calket; and the adverfaries of the queen, upon the
20th day of June, became poITeffed of vouchers with
which they might operate her deftruftion. Thefe in-
confillencies are glaring, and of a force not eafily to
be controuled ; and the ftory is open to other objec¬
tions, which arej if poffible, greater, and altogether
infurmountable.
By comparing different proclamations of the -rebels
with the feveral difpatches of Throgmorton, who was
then Elizabeth’s refident in Scotland, Mr Whitaker
has made it appear in the higheit degree probable, that
Dalgleifh was not feized till the 17th of July ; that he
was then, in -confequence of an order iffued by the
court of feffion, apprehended, together with Powrie,,
another of BothwelPs fervants, in that nobleman’s
lodgings in the palace of Holyroodhoufe; and that
therefore he could not be the bearer of the letters in¬
tercepted by the earl of Morton on the 20th of June.
What adds greatly to this probability is the account
which the rebels themfelves give of his examination.
A few days after he was taken, he was examined,, fay
they, judicially, in a council where the earls of Mor¬
ton and Athol are marked as prefent.- It was natu¬
ral upon this occafion to make inquiries' about the
calket and the papers. No queftions, however, were
put to him on that fubjeft. He was not confronted
with Sir James Balfour, from whom he had received
the cafket; nor with the domeftics of the earl of Mor¬
ton, by wdiom it - was faid that he had been appre¬
hended. He was kept in prifon many months after
this examination ; and during a period when the rebels
were infinitely preffed to apologize for their violence
againtt the queen, there were opportunities without
number of bringing him to a confeffion. Thefe op¬
portunities, however, were avoided ; and there exitts
not the flightett evidence that the caiket and the pa¬
pers had ever been in his pofieffion. Is it then to be '
fuppofed, that if the calket and the papers had really
been difcovered with him, the eftablifhment of a faft
fo important would have been neglefted by the adver¬
faries of the qqeen ? No 1 they would have eilablilhed
it by the moft complete evidence ; which they were _Mary.
fo far from attempting to do, that the earlieft account
which they give of their pretended feizure of the let¬
ters is dated fifteen months ^fter the event itfelf, and
nearly nine months after the death of Dalgleiffi. To
have blazoned their difcovery at the time they pre¬
tend it was made, might have been attended with very
difagreeable confequences ; for Dalglei Pn, who at his
execution afferted the iftnocence of the queen, and
aftually charged the earls of Murray and Morton as
the contrivers of the murder, might have found proof
that the calket could not poffibly have been intercept¬
ed in his cuftody.
The 20th of June 1567 is fixed as the aera of the
difcovery of the letters. If this difcovery had been
real, the triumph of the enemies of the queen would
have been infinite. They would not have delayed one
moment to proclaim their joy, and to reveal to her
indignant fubjefts the fulnefs and the infamy of her
guilt. They preferred, however, a long and a pro¬
found filence. It was not till the 4th of December
1567 that the papers received their firft mark of no¬
tice or dittinftion; nor till the j6th of September
1568, that the earl of Morton was faid to have inter¬
cepted them with Dalgleilh. From the 20th day of
June to the 4th day of December, many tranfaftions
and events of the higheft importance had taken place ;
and the moft powerful motives that have influence
with men had called upon them to publilh their dil-
covery. They yet made no produftion of the papers,
and ventured not to appeal to them. In the procla¬
mation which they iffued for apprehending Bothwell,
they inveigh againft his guilt,, and exp refs an anxious
defire to punilh the regicides'*, yet though this deed
was pofterior to the 20th of June, there is no affer-
tion in it to the dilhonour of the queen ; and it con--
tains no mention of the box and the letters. An am-
baffador arrived in this intervalftrom France, to in¬
quire into the rebellion and the imprifonment of the
queen ; yet they apologized not for their conduft by
communicating to him tire contents of the calket.
To Throgmorton, who had inttruftions to aft with
Mary as- well as with her adverfaries, they denied the
liberty of waiting upon her at Lochleven, where Are
was detained a dole prifoner ; and they were earneft
to imprefs him with the idea that her love of Both¬
well was incurable. He preffed them on the fubjeft
of their behaviour to her. At different times they
attempted formally to vindicate themfelves ; and they
were uniformly vehement1 on the topic of- the love
which Are bore to that nobleman. Yet they abftained
from producing the letters to him. ‘‘They even fpoke
of her to him with refipeB and reverence;” which fure-
ly they could not poffibly have done had they been
then in poffeffion of the letters. They were felicitous •
to divide the faftion of the nobles who adhered to'
the queen ; and there could not have been a meafure
fo effeftual for this end as the produftion of the calket
and its contents: yet they called no convention of
her friends, to furprife and difunite them with this fa¬
tal difeoveryi They flattered the Proteftant cler¬
gy, attended affemblies of the church, inftilled into-
them a belief of the queen’s being guilty of murder
and adultery, and incited Mr Knox to “ inveigh a-
gainft her vehemently in hisferraons, to- perfuade ex--
trraifeiss -
MAR [ 608 ] MAR
Miry, trcmities towards her, and (as Throgmorton conti-
' niies) to threaten the great plague of God againft the
whole country and nation if (he fhould be fpared from
her condign panijhmentbut they ventured not to ex¬
cite the fury of thefe ghoitly fathers by exhibiting to
them the box and the letters. They compelled the
queen to fubfcribe a refignation of her crown; and
they had the ftrongeft reafon to be felicitous to juftify
this daring tranfaction. The box and the letters
would have ferved as a complete vindication of them :
yet they negledted to take any notice of thefe impor¬
tant vouchers; and were contented with reding on
the wild and frivolous pretence that the queen, from
ficknefs and fatigue, was difgufted with the care of
her kingdom.
To the irrefragable proof of the forgery of the
letters arifing from their having been fo long conceal¬
ed, it has been replied, that the rebels could not pro¬
duce them fooner with any regard to their own fafe-
^ftriathn ty. “t-A- coniiderable number of their fellow-fub-
*4 edit, by f°me of the moft powerful noblemen
in the kingdom, was combined againft them. This
combination they could not hope to break or to van-
quifti without aid either from France or England. In
the former kingdom, Mary’s uncles, the duke of
Guife and the. cardinal of Lorrain, were at that pe¬
riod all-powerful, and the king himfelf was devotedly
attached to her. The loading the queen, therefore,
with the imputation of being acceffory to the murder
of her hulband, would be deemed fuch an inexpiable
crime by the court of France, as muft cut oft' every
hope of countenance or aid from that quarter. From
England, with which the principal confederates had
been long and intimately connefted, they had many reafons
to expect more effectual fupport; but, to their aftonifti-
ment, Elizabeth condemned their proceedings with
afperity. Her high notions of royal authority, and
of the fubmiflion due by fubjefts, induced her on this
occafipn to exert herfelf in behalf of Mary, not only
with fmcerity but with zeal: ftie negociated, fhe fo-
licited, fhe threatened. From all thefe circumftances,
the confederates had every reafon to apprehend that
Mary would foon obtain her liberty, and by fome ac¬
commodation be reftored to the whole, or at leaft to a
confiderable portion, of her authority as fovereign ;
and therefore they were afraid of the confequences of
accufing her publicly of crimes fo atrocious as adul¬
tery and murder.”
This apology for the rebels confifts of affertions for
,v which there is no evidence, and of arguments which are.
wholly untenable. There is no evidence that Elizabeth
exerted herfelf in behalf of Mary with fincerity and with
zeal. If fhe had, fire would have done more than threaten.
An Englifh army of 3000 men, aided by the Scottifh
■ combination which continued faithful to the queen,
would have overturned the rebel government in the
fpace of a month. It is inconceivable that the rebels were
prevented by any aprehenfion of the queen’s reftoration
from accufing her of the crimes of murder and adul¬
tery ; for we learn from a difpatch of Throgmorton’s
dated the 19th of July 1567, that “ men of good re¬
gard did then boldly and overtly by their fpeech, ut¬
ter great rigour and extremity againft their fovereign ;
faying, it lhall not be in the power of any within this
realm, neither to keep her from condign pu-
N° 196.
nifhment for her notorious crimes.” From another Mary.
difpatch of the fame ambaffador’s, dated five days after ' 4-—'
the former, we learn, that through him they actually
did accufe her to Elizabeth of “ incontinency, as well
with the earl of Bothwell as with others, and likewife
ofthe^urderof her hulband, of which, they faitl, they
had as apparent proof againft her as might be ; as well
by the teftimony of her own hand-writing, which they
had recovered, as alfo by fuflicient witneffes.” This te¬
ftimony, however, -was not produced till more than
four months afterwards; a certain proof, that though
it was now in the hands of the manufafturers, it was
not yet ready for infpedtion.
But let us take the fads of this ableft antagonift of
Mary as he has ftated them, and confider the argu¬
ment which they are made to fupport. It is apparent,
from the laft quoted difpatch of Throgmorton f, that f WbUaktr, j
it could not l.cunknown, either to the court of France
or the court of England, that the rebels were at all
events determined to crown the prince, and either to
put the queen to death or to keep her a clofe prifon-
er for life. Thefe defperate enterprifes, however,
could not, it feems, be carried into effedt without the
countenance and aid of Elizabeth or Charles: but E-
lizabeth’s notions of regal authority, and of the fub¬
miflion due by fubjedts, were high; and the French
king was devotedly attached to the dethroned queen.
If this was fo, common fenfe fays, that the bufinefs of
the confederates, fince they expetled aid from thefe
princes, was to charge Mary at once with the murder
and adultery, and fupport the charge with the moil-
convincing evidence which they had to produce. No !
fays this apologift of theirs, Charles IX. would have
confidered fuch conduct as a crime inexpiable, though
he might reafonably be expedted to give them his coun¬
tenance in putting to death, or keeping in perpetual
prifon, for a comparatively venial offence, the queen
to whom he was devotedly attached ! This is ftratr>e
reafoning; but it feeems not to have occurred to the
rebels themfelves. The letters made their fir ft appear¬
ance in a fecret council afiembled by the earl of Mur¬
ray on the 4th of December 1567; and the reafoa
there afligned by the confederates for their unwiliing-
nefs to produce them was, “ That luif they beare un¬
to hir perfon, wha fometime was theire fovereine, and
for the reverrance of his majeftie, whais moder fhe is,
as alfua thay mony gude and excellent gifts and ver-
tues quherewith God fometimes indowit hir.” And
they proceed to fay, that they would not have produ¬
ced them at all, “ gif otherwife the linceritie of their
intentions and proceedings from the beginninge myht
beknown toforrein nacions and the inhabitants of this iie
(of whome mony yet remains in fufpence in judgment)
fatisfiet and refolvit of the richtnefnefs of their quar¬
rel, and the fecuritie" of them and theire pofteritie be
ony other mtsane might be providit and eftablifhed.”
Bo far were they from dreaming that the production
of the letters would injure their caufe in the court of
France, that we fee they frankly acknowledged that
the fincerity and rectitude of their proceedings could
not otherwife be manifelled t) foreign nations. In this
inftance they think and talk like reafonable men ; but
they do not long preferve the fame confiftency.
In this a£k of council the rebels difeover the great-
eft anxiety for their pardon and fecurity ; And “ the
5 matter
Mary.
MAR { 6c
ffi'attte'r being lafgelie and with gude dtliberaclon
reflbnit at great length, and upon fundry dales; at
laft all the faid lords, barrones, and others above ex-
premlt, ean find no other way or moyen how to find
or make the faid fecuritie but be oppynynge and re¬
veling of the truth and grundof the haill matter fre thele-
ginninge, plainlie and uprightlie, &e. Therefore the
lords of fecrete council, &e. defires it to be found and
declarit be the ertates and haill body of the parlia¬
ment, that the caufe and occafion of the tacking of the
queen’s perfon Upon the 15th daie of Junii laft by paft,
and holding and detaininge of the fame within the
hous and place of Lochlevin continewallie fenfyne,
prefentlie, and in all iymes comyng; and generally all
other things inventit, fpokin, writtin, or donne be
them, or onny of them, fen the tent daie of February
laft by paft unto the daie and date heirof, towiching
the faied queen hir perfon : that caus, and all things
depending theiron, or that onie wife maie apperteine
theireto, &c. was in the faied queen’s awin default, in
as far as be divers hir privie letters written
AND SUBSCRIVIT WITH HIR AWIN HAND, and fent
by her to James Erll Bothwell, &c.—and be her un-
godlie and difhonourable proceedinge in a privait mar¬
riage, foddanlie and unprovifitly, it is moft certain,
that (he was previe, art and part, and of the a final
devife and deid of the for-mencionit murther of the
kinge, her lawchfull hufband, our fovereine lorde’s
father, committit be the faid James Erll Bothwell,
&c.”
Had the letters been really genuine, into the ab-
furdity of this declaration no man of common fenfe
could pofiibly have fallen. Truth is always confident
with itfelf; but in a feries of forgeries contradictions
are fcarcely avoidable. The confederates rofe in re¬
bellion againft the queen on the 1 oth of June ; they
faced her in rebellion at Carberrie-hill on the 15 th;
they fent her away into prifon on the 16th : yet they
afterwards juftified all that they had done fince the
tenth of February by letters, which, they faid, they
had not till the twentieth of June ! “ This (fays Mr
Whitaker), if we confider it as folly, is one of the moft
ftriking and eminent afls of folly that the world has
ever beheld. But it ought to be confidered in a light
much more diftionourable to the rebels; and as knavery,
it is one of the rankeft that has ever been attempted to be
impofed upon the fons of men.” On the 4th of De¬
cember, it muft be remembered that they had not fixed
any day for the difeovery of the letters. The ftory of
the feizure of Dalgleiih with the calket was not thought
of till near a year afterwards ; and when it was invent¬
ed, they had certainly forgotten the date of their adl
of council. In that a<ft, therefore, they were free to
rove at large ; but they roved very incaUtioufly. By
grounding upon the letters, proceedings prior to the
1 oth of June, they plainly declare the difeovery of
thefe fatal papers to have been antecedent to the twentieth.
By grounding upon them their fecret meffages for fe-
dition, their private conventions for rebellion, and
sl every thing inventit, fpokin, written, or done be
them, or anny of them, refpefting the queen, Both¬
well, or Darnley, fen the tent daie of February laft by
paft,” they even intimate the difeovery to have been
previous to the murder of the king ; and yet by their
own accounts fome of the letters were then a&mlly un*
Vol.X. Part II.
:g ] MAR
written. ‘Tliis is aftonifliing ; and fhows the extreme Mary,
difficulty of carrying to any length a confiftent ferics ~v—H
of falfehoods. Even Murray, Morton, and Lething-
ton, could not do it. They knocked down one nine-
pin in endeavouring to fet up another ; and they final¬
ly threw down all, by making them mutually and fuc-
cefiively to ftrike one another.
We have not yet done with this a£t of council. It
was with a view to the approaching convention of the
eftates that it had been formed and managed. It was
a preparation for the parliament in which the confpira-
tors had fecured the fulleft fway, and where they pro-
pofed to effe&uate their pardon and fecurity, and to
eftablifti the letters as decifive vouchers againft the
queen. Accordingly, upon the 1 <;th day of December
1567, the three eftates were affembled. The confpb
rators invited no candid or regular inveftigation. The
friends of the nation and of the queen were overawed.
Every thing proceeded in conformity to the a<ft of
council. The confpirators, by a parliamentary decree,
received a full approbation of all the feverities which
they had exercifed againft the queen. A pardon by
anticipation was even accorded to them for any future
cruelty they might be induced to inflitt upon her.—*
The letters were mentioned as the caufe of this Angu¬
lar law; and this new appeal to them may be termed
the fecoud mark of their diftin&ion. But, amidft the
plenitude of their power, the confpirators called not
the eftates to a free and honeft examination of them.
This, indeed, had the letters been genuine, would
have annihilated for ever all the confequence of the
queen. Upon this meafure, however, they ventured
not. The letters were merely produced in parliament,
and an aft founded on them ; but the queen was not
brought from her confinement to defend h ’rfelf, nor
was any advocate permitted to fpeak for her. We
learn from a paper of unqueftionable authenticityf, that
“ findrie nobilmen that was her Grace’s favouraris then
prefent, buir with all (the rebel proceedings in this
parliament), maift principellie for fafety of hir Grace’s
lyfe, quhilk, or thair coming- to parliament, was con-
cludit and fubferyvit be ane greit part of hir takeris,
to be taken fra hir in meift crewel manner, as is no-
tourlie known.” By the power of this magic, the
friends of Mary were bound fall. They durft not
venture to queftion publicly the authenticity of the
letters, from their dread of expofing the queen to the
dagger of the affafiin. The parliament, therefore,
fuftained thefe forgeries as vouchers of her guilt,
without ferutiny or debate of any kind. The confpi¬
rators, who were themfelves the criminals, were her
accufers and her judges, and palled a law exaftly irt
the terms in which the aft of fecret council had be¬
fore drawn it up.
It was necefiary to deferibe the letters both in the
aft of council and in the ordination of parliament;
and thefe deeds having fortunately defeended to pofte-
rity, it is apparent, from a comparifon of them, that
between the 4th and the 1 jth days of December, the
letters muft have undergone very elfehtial alterations
under the management of the confpirators. In the
aft of council the letters are deferibed exprefsly as
“ written and fubferfoit with the queene’sawin hand;”
but in the aft of parliament they are faid to be only
“ written helilie with hir awin hand,” and there is no
4H intimation.
MAR [6
2<Tary. intimation that they 'xeve fubfcribeJ by her. Whence
u“—''v arifes this difference ? From a blunder in the clerk pen¬
ning the a£l of council, fays one : From a habit con¬
tracted by the fame clerk, which made him mechanical-
ly add fnbfcribed to ’written, fay* another: From the
^arelefsnefs of the writer who tranferibed the. copy of
the aft of council which has defeended to us, fays a
third, Thefe fubterfuges have been expofed in all
their weaknefs by Mcffrs Tytler and Whitaker; but
in this abftraft it is fufficient to obferve, that they are
mere fuppofitions, fupported by no evidence ; and that
the copy of the aft of council which we have was
given to the minifters of Elizabeth by the leaders of the
faftion, who were neither blundering clerks, nor under
the habit of mechanically adding fubferibed to ’written.
Under one form, therefore, the letters were certainly
exhibited before the council, and under another form
they were produced in parliament; but had they been'
■genuine, they would have appeared uniformly with the
fame face. The clerk of the council was Alexander
Hay, a notary public accuftomed to draw up writings
and to attefl them ; and what puts his accuracy with
refpeft to the letters beyond all poffibility of doubt,
his defeription of them is authenticated in the fulleil
manner by the fignatures of Murray, Morton, and a
long train of others who formed the fecret council.
The letters, therefore, were aftually prefented to the
fecret council with the cuftomary appendage of fub-
feription to them. But when thefe artificers of fraud
came to refleft more clofely on the approach of parlia¬
ment, and to prepare their letters for the infpeftion
of the friends of Mary, they began to (brink at the
thoughts of what they had done. To fubftantiate
the charge by letters under her own hand, they had
naturally annexed her own fubfeription, a letter unfub-
Jcribed being a folecifm in evidence. But mod unfor¬
tunately for the caufe of complete forgery, Mary was
flill in pofiefiion of her own feal, and he who fabri¬
cated the letters was not an engraver. For this rea-
Ibn, “ the allegit writings in form of mifiive letters
or epiftles,” fays the bifhop of Rofs, in an addrefs to
Elizabeth, “ are not fill it nor Jignetil.” They were
neither attefted by her fubfeription at the bottom, nor
fecured by her fea! on the outfide. In the fecret council,
where all were equally embarked in rebellion, thefe o-
miffions were of no importance. But that letters, con¬
taining intimations of adultery and of murder, (hould
be fent by the queen to the earl of Bothwell, with her
Jubfcrip,:.on to them, and yet without any guard of a
Jeal upon them, fo far exceeds all the bounds of cre¬
dibility, that they could not expeft it to gain the be¬
lief of parliament. They> were (truck, with the ab-
furdity of their plan, and dreaded a deteftioti. They
were under the necelfity of altering it; but they could
not fupply the defeft of the feal. They, therefore,
wrote over the letters anew, and with-held the fubferip¬
tion..
Thefe letters were now as complete as the confpira-
tors wil'hed them j yet in this date, while they were
xmfubferibed and unfealed, they wanted other forma¬
lities which are ufual in difpatches. They were with¬
out direftions, and they had no dates. They muft,
therefore, have been fent by the queen to Bothwell as
inpen and loo/e papers; yet they contained evidence againft
10 1 MAR
herfelf, and againft him, of the moft horrid wicked- Mwy.
nefs; and Nicholas Hubert, the perfon who is faid to  »—
have carried moft of them, was of the lowed condi¬
tion, and, as Dr Robertfon characterizes him, “ a
foolilh talkative fellow.” He would, therefore, furely
read thofe papers, which are polluted from end to end
with open and uncovered adultery, and as furely re¬
port their contents to others. Thefe are moft incredible
circumitances, on the fuppofition that the letters arc
authentic, unlefs the queen was, what none of her ene¬
mies ever reprefented her, an abfolute idiot.
The letters in their compofition bear no refembhnee
to the other writings of the queen. They have a'
vulgarity, an indelicacy, and a coarfenefs of exprelfion
and manner, that by no means apply to her. They
breathe nothing of the paffion of love befides the im-
pulfes of the fenfual appetite ; and they reprefent a
queen highly accomplifhed in love with one of her
fubjefts, as afting with all the fneaking humility of a
cottager to a peer f. A few inftances will (how this, t
The devilfinder ns,” (lie is made to exclaim, “ and
God knit us togidder for ever for the maift faithful
coupill that ever he unitit; this is my feitb ; I ’will die
in it.” “ I am,” (he fays in another place, “ varrey
glad to wryte unto zow quhen the red are (leipand;
fen I cannot fleip as they do, and as I wold defyre,
that is, in your armes, my dear lufe.” “ Seeing to
obey zow, my dear lufe, 1 fpare nostther honor, confcienct,
hafarde, nor greatnes quhatfumever ; tak it, I pray zeu,
in gudepart, as from the maift faithful luifer that ever
ze had, or ever fall have.” “ Be not hir (his wife),
qtihais fenzeit teires fold not be fa mikle preifit nor
eilemit as the trew and faithful trevellis quhilk I fui-
tine for to merite her place ” “ God give zou, my only
lufe, the hap and profperitie quhilk your humble and
faithful lufe defyres unto zou, who hopis to be fihortly
another thing to you for the re ward of my irkfome tra
velles.” “ When I will put you out of dout, and cleir
myfelfe, refufe it not, my dear lufe ; and foffer me to
make zou fome prufe be my obedience, my faithfulnes,
conftancie, and voluntary fubjeSwn, quhilk i tak for
the plefandefi gude that I might refleif, gif ze will eccept
it.” “ Such (fays Mr Whitaker) was the coarfc
kirtle, and the homely neciatie, in which thefe wretch¬
ed reprefenters of Mary dreffed themfelves up, for the
exhibition of a queen dignified, refined, and elegant;—
a queen whom, according to their own account,
‘ God had indowit with mony gude and excellent
gifts and virtues !’*
The evidence which points to the forgery of the
letters is profufe and inftruftive. In its feparate parts,
it is. powerful and fatisfaftory When taken to-} StuaH.
gether, and in the union of its parts, it is invincible.
But, amidft all its cogency and ftrength, there is a
circumftance moft peculiarly in. its favour* and of
which it required no aid or a(fi(lance. By this pecu¬
liarity, it is cafed. completely in (leel, and armed at
every point. The letters have come down to us in
the French, the Scpttifli, and the Latin languages.
Now the confpirators affirmed, that they were written
by the queen in the French language. But by a cri¬
tical examination of them in thefe different languages,
Mr Goodall demonllrated, that the pretended French
originals are a tranffation from the Latin of Buchanan*
■X which
MAR [ 6it 1 MAR
'Miry. wTiich is vtfelf a veVfion from tlie Scotdi. This is tended that Buchanan did not underhand tli-i French; Mi-y
'~~v  indeed acknowledged by Dr Robertfon, the ableft and for he paft molt of his life in that country, and taught
tnofl perfevering of all Mary’s enemies, who pretends, a fchool there. He was, indeed, a daring zealot of
that, fo far as he knows, it never was denied. Deter- rebellion ; but, with all his audacity, he rtujft have felt
mined, however, to fupport the authenticity of the let- the talk in which he was engaged a very ungracious
teis at all events, the fame elegant and ingenious wri- one. When he fat down to defame* in the eyes of all
PJf.rtau.n. ter fUpp0feB that the French originals are now loft, Europe, a queen to whom he owed not only allegl-
but that two or three fentences of each of thofe ori- ance but alfo perfonal gratitude, it is not conceivable
gtnals were retamed) and prefixed to the Scottish tranf- that he could have traniiated from a Scotch tranjlation-,
lation ; and that the French editor obferving this, had he known any thing of a French original; and if
foolifhly concluded that the letters had been written the rebel commilfioners, who were faid to produce
pai-tly in French and partly in Scottifti. In fupport them, knew nothing of fuch originals, certainly no
of this fingular hypothefis, he proceeds to affirm, that body elfe ever did : if they exifted not with Buchanan,
“ if we carefully confider thofe few French fentences of they exifted no where.
■each letter which ftill remain, and apply to them that Dr Rpbertfon, however, has another argument
fpecies of criticifm by which Mr Goodall examined againft Mr Goodall, which he thinks conclufive. Of
the whole, a clear proof will arife, that there was a the eight letters “ the five remaining (he fays) never
French copy, not tranfiated from the Latin, but which appeared in Latin ; nor is there any proof of their ever
was itfelt the original from which both the Latin and being tranfiated into that language. Four of them,
Scottiih have been tranfiated.” He accordingly ap- however, are publifned in French. This entirely over-
plies this fpecies of criticifm, points out a few varia- turns our author’s hypothefis concerning the heceffity
tions of meaning between what he calls the remaining of a tranfiation into Latin.”—A.n authentic fadt will
-fentences of the original French and the prefent La- indeed overturn any hypothefis; but, moft unluckily
tin ; and thinks, that ifi the former he has difeovered for this argument, the Do&or .advances the hypothe-
a fpirit and elegance which neither the Latin nor the fis, and the fadt refts with Mr Goodall. It is indeed
•Scottifti have retained. His critical obfervations have true that Buchanan publifhed only the three firft letters
been examined by Mr Whitaker; who makes it appa- in Latin at the end of his Detection ; but it does not
rent as the noon-day fun, that the Dodlor has occa- therefore follow, that the other five were never tranf-
fionally miftaken the fenfe of the Latin, the French, lated into that language. Indeed Mr Whitaker has
and even the Scotch ; and that he has forgotten to point made it as apparent as any thing can be, that the
out either the elegance or the fpirit of any particular whole eight were turned into Latin for the ufe of
claufes in his pretended originals. The fame mafterly the French tranflator, who, by his own account, un¬
vindicator of Mary then turns his antagonift’s artil- derftood not the Scotch. He has made it in thfc
L17 againft himfelf; and demonftrates, that fuch vari- higheft degree probable, that this tranflator was one
ations as he has thought fufficient to prove the exift- Camu%, a French refugee; and he has demonftrated,
ence of a farmer French copy, are not confined to the that the tranflation was made in London under the
firft fentence of each of the three firft letters, but are " eye of Buchanan himfelf. We do not quote his ar-
extended to other fentences, and diffufed over all the guments, becaufe they confift of a great number of
letters. Hence he obferves, that this mode of pro- obfervations which cannot be abridged; and becaufe
ving will demonftrate the prefent French, and every fen- the tranflator himfelf confefles every thing which is,
tence in it, to be that very original, which it primarily of importance to the caufe maintained by Mr Goodall.
pretended to be, which Mr Goodall has fo powerfully “ Au refte (he tells usl epiftras mifas fur la fin,”
proved it not to be, and which even the Dodtor him- which were all but the eighth, “ avaient efte eferites par
ielf dares not affert it is. Our limits will not admit la Royne, partie en Francois, partie en Efcoffois; et
of our tranferibing the obfervations of thefe two illu- depuis traduidles • entierement en Latin: maifc
ftrious critics; nor is it ncceffary that we fliould n’ayant cognoiflance de la langue Efcoffoife, j’ay
tranferibe them. By acknowledging that “ Bucha- mieux aime exprimer tout ce, que j’ay trouve en
nan made his tranflation, not from the French but Latin, qiie,” &c. “ This confeffion (fays Mr
from the Scottifti copy (of which he juftly obferves, aker) takes a comprehenfive fweep. It makes all
that, were it neceflary, ieveral critical proofs might the feven letters at leaft, and the whole of each, to have
be brought),” Dr Robertfon, in effedt, gives up his been tranflated into Latin, and from thence to have
caufe. Had there been any other French letters than been rendered into French. It ftarts no piddling ob-
TytUr't the prefent -f, what occafion had Buchanan for the jedtions about fentences or half-fentences, at the head
inquiry. Scotch, when he himfelf muft have had pofleffion of or at the tail of any. It embraces all within its wide-
the originals ? It is evident from Mr Anderfon’s ac- fpread arms. And it proves the fancied exiftence of
count, that thofe letters were tranflated by Buchanan a French copy at the time to be all a*fairy vifion $
at London during the time of the conferences. He the creation of minds that have fubjedted their judge-
was one of the affiftants appointed to the rebel com- ments to their imaginations ; the invited dreams of
miffioners, and entrutled with the whole condudt of felf-delufion.”
the procefs againft the queen. By him, with Leth- The letters, fo weak on every fide, and fo incapable
ington, Macgill, and Wood, the original letters were of fuftaining any ferutiny, give the marks of fufpi-
exhibited, and their contents explained to the Englifh cion and guilt in all the ftages of their progrefs. Even
commiffioners ; and we know from the authentic hi- with the parliamentary fandtion affoi-ded to them by
Itory of thofe papers, that they were neither loft nor the three eftates, which the earl of Murray aflembled
rnillaid for many years-afterwards. It cannot be pre- upon the 15th day of December 1567, he felt the
4 H a delicacy
MAR [6
Mary delicacy and the danger of employing them openly to
U."-!(-■■»' the purpofes for which they were invented. For while
he was fcheming with Elizabeth his accufation of the
queen of Scots, he took the precaution to fubmit pri¬
vately the letters to that princefs by the agency of
his Secretary Mr Wood. The objeft of this fecret
tranfaftion, which took place early in the month of
June 1568, was moft flagitious, and preffes not only
againft the integrity of Murray, but alfo againll that
of the Englifh queen. Before he would advance with
his charge, he folicited from her an affurance that the
judges to be appointed in the trial of Mary would
hold the letters to be true and probative.
By the encouragement of Elizabeth, the earl of Mur-
11 Stuart, ray was prevailed upon to prefer his accufation [j. He
was foon to depart for England upon this bufmefs. A
privy-councilwasheldbyhimatEdinburgh. Hetookup
in it with formality the letters of the queen from the
earl of Morton, and gave a receipt for them to that
nobleman. That receipt is remarkable and intereft-
ing. It is dated upon the 16th day of September
1568, and contains the firft mention that appears in
hiftory of the difcovery of the letters as in the aftual
jpoffeffion of Dalgleifh' upon the 20th of June 1567.
This, as we have already noticed, is a very fufpicious
cfrcumftance ; but it is not the only fufpicious circum-
ftance which is recorded in the receipt. In the aft of
fecret-council, and in the ordination of parliament,
in December 1567, when the earl of Murray and his
aflbciates were infinitely anxious to eftablifh the cri¬
minality of the queen, the only vouchers of her guilt
to which they appealed were the letters; and at that
time, doubtlefs, they had prepared no other papers to
which they could allude. But in Murray’s receipt in
September 1568, there is mention of other vouchers
beiide the letters. He acknowledges, that he alfo
received from the earl of Morton contrafts or obliga¬
tions, and fonnets or love-verfes. Thefe remarkable
papers, though faid to have been found upon the 20th
of June 1567, appeared not till September 1568 ; and
this difficulty is yet to be folved by thofe who con¬
ceive them to be genuine. The general arguments
which affeft the authenticity of the letters apply to
them in full force ; only it mull be obferved, that as
the original letters were undoubtedly in Scotch, the
original fonnets were as certainly written in French.
This has been completely proved by Dr Robertfon,
and is fully admitted by Mr Whitaker, who has made
it in the higheft degree probable thatLethington forged
the letters and Buchanan the fonnets. Be this as it
may, the fonnets have every external and internal evi¬
dence of forgery in common with the letters, and they
have fome marks of this kind peculiar to themfelves.
In particluar, they make the love of Mary Hill more
grovelling than the letters made it; and with a degree
of meannefs, of which the foul of Lethington was
probably incapable, the author of the fonnets has
made the queen confider it as “ na lytill honor to be
maiftres of her fubjeft’s gudis !” In this the dignified
princefs is. totally loft in “ the maid Marien” of her
pretended imitators; and Buchanan, who in his com¬
merce with the fex was a mere fenfualift, forgot on
this occafion that he was perfonating a lady and a
queen
T.hsre is,, however, in thefe funnels, one paffage of
12 T MAR
Angular importance, which we muft not pafs wholly
unnoticed. The queen is made to fay,
Pour luy aujfi j'ay jette mainte larme.
Premier qu’ilfujl de ce corps pojfejfeur,
Duguel aolrs il n’avoit pas le caur.
Puts me donna un autre dur alar me,
Shiand il verfa de fon fang mainte dragme.
For him alfo I powrit out mony teiris,
Firft quhen he made himfelf pofleflburof this body'.
Of the quhilk then he had not the hart.
Efter ho did give me ane uther hard charge,
Quhen he bled of his blude greit quantitie, &c.,
If thefe fonnets could be fuppofed to be genuine,
this paffage would overthrow at once all the letters
and both the contrafts which were produced; and
would prove, with the force of demonftration, that the
feizure of Mary by Bothwell was not with her own
confent; that he aftually committed a rape upon her ;
that ffie had for him no love ; and that Ihe married him
merely as a refuge to her injured honoutc. The fonnets,
however, are undoubtedly fpurious; but, confidered
in this light, the verfes before us prove with equal
force the full conviftion in the minds of the rebels of
what in an unguarded moment they aftually confeffed
to Throgmorton, and was manifeft to all the world :
viz. that “ the queen their fovereign was led captive,
and by fear, force, and (as by many conjeftures
may be well fufpefted) other extraordinary and
more unlawful means compelled to become bed¬
fellow to another wife’s hufband.” They prove like-
wife, that after the rape, finding Mary highly indig¬
nant at the brutality done her, Bothwell aftually ftab-
bed himfelf; not, we may believe,with any intention to
take away his own life, but merely that by ffiedding
many a “ drachm” of blood he might mollify the
heart of the queen.
But we mean not to purfue the hiftory of the fon¬
nets any farther. Though they were undoubtedly in¬
vented in aid of the letters, to prove that fundamental
principle of the confpirators,—that the love of Mary
to Bothwell was inordinate; yet they are fo incom¬
patible with hiftory, and with one another, that they
demonftrate the fpurioufnefs of themfelves, and of the
evidence which they were intended to corroborate.
By thus endeavouring to give an air of nature and pro¬
bability to their monftrous fiftions, the rebels at once
betrayed the fabrication of the whole. They have
themfelves fupplied us with a long and particular jour¬
nal, to ffiow the true dates of fafts; and by that jour¬
nal have their letters and their fonnets been demonftra-
ted to be fpurious. “ The makers of thefe papers (fays
Mr Whitaker) have broken through all the barriers
of their own hijlory. The/ have ftarted afide from the
orbit of their own chronology. They have taken a
flight beyond the bounds of their own creation, and
have there placed themfelves confpicuous in the pa¬
radise OF FOOLS.” .
This mafs of forgery was clandeftinely fhown to
Elifabeth’s commiffioners during the conferences at
York : (See Scotland.) It was ihown again to the
fame commiffioners and others during the conferences
at Weftminfter. But neither Mary nor her commif¬
fioners could ever procure a fight of a Angle letter or
a Angle fonnet. By the biffiop gf Rofs and the Lord .
Hertiea
MAR [ 613 ] MAR
Hemes ihe repeatedly demanded to fee the papers the comraiffioners thexnfelves, recorded to their fhame
' faid to be written by her; but that requeft, in itfelf fo in their own journal, and tranfmitted by their own
reafonable, Elizabeth, with an audacity of injuftice of hands to pofterity with everlafting infamy on their
which the hiftory of mankind can hardly furnilh a pa- heads.”
rallel, thought fit to refufe. Mary then inftrudted When Tytler’s Inquiry into the Evidence produced by
her commilfioners to demand copies of the letters and the Earls of Murray and Morton againjl Mary Queen of
fonnets; and offered even from thefe to demonftrate in Scots was firft published, it was reviewed in the Gen-
the prefence of the Englifh queen and parliament, and tleman's Magazine by the late Dr Johnfon. The re-
the ambaffadors of foreign princes, that the pretended view, which confifts of a brief analyfis of the work,
originals were palpable forgeries. Even this demand with refledtions interfperfed on the force of the evi-
was denied her ; and there is undoubted evidence ftill dence, concludes thus :—“ That the letters were for-
exifting, that neither (he nor her commiffioners had ged is now made fo probable, that perhaps they will
fo much as a copy of thefe criminal papers till after never more be cited as teftimonies.” Subfequent ex-
thofe important conferences had for feme time been at perience has fhown, that the great critic’s knowledge
an end. This laft demand perplexed Elizabeth ; the of human nature had not deferted him when he guard-
conferences were fuddenly broken up ; Murray was dif- ed his prediction with the word perhaps, few authors
miffed with his box to Scotland; and the letters were poffefs the magnanimity of Fenelon ; and it is not to
feen no more!
But the letters, we are told, were at Weftminfter
compared. with letters of the queen’s, and found to
be in the fame Roman hand. They were indeed com¬
be expedled that he who has once maintained the let¬
ters to be genuine, fhould by reafoning or criticifm be
compelled to relinquifh them : but we are perfuaded,
that, after the prefent generation of writers ihall be ex.
pared with other writings ; but with what writings ? tinft, thefe letters and fonnets will never be cited as evi-
This queftion let Elizabeth’s commiffioners themfelves dence, except of the profligacy of thofe by whom they
anfwer. They collated them, they fay “with others were fabricated. Having faid this, we leave the general
her letters, which were (hewed yefternight, and avow¬
ed by them (the rebel commiffionersJ to be written
by the faid queen.” This was fuch a collation as
§ Whitahr muff have pronounced them to be idiots $, if we had
not known them to be otherwife ; and fuch as mull
.pronounce them to be knaves, as we know them to
have been men of fenfe. Like perfons totally incom¬
petent to the management of. bulinefs, but in truth
a&ing miniiterially in the work of profligacy, they com¬
pared the letters produced, not with letters furnilh-
ed by Mary’s commiffioners, not with letters furnilhed
charadler of Mary to the refledtion of the reader (a).
She wrote, 1. Poems on various occafions, in the
Latin, French, and Scotch languages. One of her
poems is printed among thofe of A. Blackwood; an¬
other in Brantome’s Dames illujlres, written on the
death of her firft hulband Francis. 2. Confolation of
her long imprifonment, and royal advice to her fen.
3. A copy of verfes, in French, fentwith a diamond¬
ring to queen Elizabeth. There is a tranflation of
thefe verfes among the Latin poems of Sir Thomas
Chaloner. 4. Genuine Letters of Mary queen of
even by indifferent perfons, but with letters‘//v/m!/- Scots, to James earl of Bothwell; tranflated from the
ed by the producers themfelves.—“ This (fays Mr Whit- French, by E. Simmonds, 1726. There are, befides.
aker) is fuch an inftance of impofition upon Mary
and the world, as can fcarcely be paralleled in the an¬
nals of knavery. Many inftances of impofition, in¬
deed, occur in the wretched hiftory of our race; but
we can hardly find one, in which the impofition was
many other of her epiftles to queen Elizabeth, fecretary
Cecil, Mildmaye, &c. which are preferved in the Cot¬
tonian, Alhmolean, and other libraries.
Mary II. queen of England, eldeft daughter of
James II. by his firft wife, was born at St James’s
fo grofs, fo formal, fo important, and fo clear. It in 1662. She was bred up a Proteftant, and mar-
-—  —r- 1 r" 1— —ried to William Henry of Naffau, then prince of
Orange, afterward king of England, in the 16th
year of her age. She ftaid in .Holland with her huf-
band till February 12. 1689, when Ihe came over, and '
was folemnly proclaimed queen of England, &c. She
was an equal lharer with her hulband in all' the
rights belonging to the crown; but the adminiftra-
tion and execution thereof was lodged folely in the
king. She was a princefs endowed with the high-
eft -
was very grofs, becaufe it has not a Hired of artifice
to cover its ugly nakednefs. It was very formal, be¬
caufe it was done by men feme of whom were of the
firft character in their country; and all were bound by
honour, and tied down by oaths, to aft uprightly
in the bufinefs. It was very important, becaufe no
lefs than the reputation of a queen,, and the continu¬
ance of an ufurpation, depended upon it. And it is
very clear,. becaufe we have the faft related to us by
(a) This article Hands in need of an apology; but whether for its length'or its Ihortnefs, our readers may
perhaps differ in opinion. If it be confidered as a piece of common biography, and compared with the
limits which we have prefcribed to our other articles of the.fame kind, it has fvveUed to an extent beyond all
proportion. But as a piece of common biography it ought not to be confidered: it is intimately connefted .
with the hiftory of Scotland at a very intereiling period ; and it has been juftly obferved, by one of the ableft
writers of the age, that ** the faft under difpute in the. life of Mary, is a fundamental and effential one ; and
that, according to the opinion which the hiftorian adopts with regard to it, he muft vary and difpofe the
whole of his fubfequent narration.” Viewed in this light, our abftraft of the evidence which has been ur¬
ged on both fides of this controverfy will by many be deemed too Ihort. To fuch as wilh for complete fatis-
faftion, we can only recommend the unbiaffed ftudy of the writings of Buchanan, I.eflie bilhep of Ro&j Gocdalf^.
Baberfon, Hume, Tytler, Sir David Dalrymple, Stuart, and Whitaker.
M A R [ 614 1 M A R
Mary eft perfections both of body and mind : fhe loved hi- weftern and 8 bn the eaflem (hare of Chefapeak bay, Marylantf.
VMardand ^■or^’ as being proper to give her ufeful ihftruftiotis ; St Mary’s, Somerfet, Calvert, Montgomery, WtUh- -—
rt ^ ] and was alfo a good judge as well as a lover of poe- ington, Queen Ann’s, Caroline, Kent, Charles, Tal-
try. She ftudied more than could be imagined, bot, Dorchefter, Baltimore, Ann Arundel, Worcefter
and would have read more than die did if the fre- Harford, Ccecil, Frederick, and Prince George’s,
quent returns of ill-humours in her eyes had not for- Each of the counties fends four reprefeptatives to the
ced her to fpare them. She gave her minutes of lei- houfe of delegates ; befides which the cityof'Anna-
fure to architefture and gardening; and Fince it em- polls and town of Baltimore fend each two, making
ployed many hands, (he ^faid (he hoped it would be in the whole 76 members. The climate is generally-
forgiven her. She was the mod gracious of fovereigns mild and agreeable, fuited to agricultural produftions
• to her fubjedts, and the mod obliging of wives to her and a great variety of fruit-trees. In the interior
hu(band, as well as the mod excellent of midreffes to hilly country the inhabitants are healthy ; but in the
■ her fervants : fhe ordered good books to be laid in the flat country, in the neighbourhood of the mailhes
places of attendance, that perfons might not be idle and llagnant waters, they are, as in the other foutherh
while they were in their turns of fervice. She was ex- dates, fubjeft to intermittents. Chefapeak bay di-
-ceeding zealous for a reformation of manners; chari- vides this date into the eadern and wedern divifions.
"table in the highed degree, without the lead odenta- It affords feveral goodfiflieries; and, in a commercial
tion. This excellent queen died on the 28th of De- view, is of immenfe advantage to the date. It re-
cember 169 at Kenfington, of the fmall-pox, in the ceives a number of the larged rivers in fhe United
33d year of her age. In her the arts lod a protec- States. From the eadern (bore in Maryland, among
trefs, the unfortunate a mother, and the world a pat- other fmaller ones, it receives Pokomoke, Choptaak,
tern of eveiy virtue. As to her perfon, (he was tall, Cheder, and Elk rivers; from the north the rapid
of a majedic graceful mien, her countenance ferene, Sufquehannah ; and from the wed Patapfco, Severn,
her complexion ruddy, and her features beautiful. Patuxent, and Patomack, half of which is in Marv-
Mart Magdalen's Day, a fedival of the Romifn land and half in Virginia. Except the Sufquehannah
church, obferved on the 22d of July. and Patomak, thefe arefmallrivers. Ead of the bine
Marx-Gfrahpis-Houfe, a name given to Dunmore- ridge of mountains, whick dretches acrofs the wedern
head, in the parilh of Dunqueen, county of Kerry, part of this date, the land, like that in all the fouth-
and province of Munder, in Ireland. It is the mod ern dates, is generally level and free of dones. Wheat
vvedern point of all Europe, and called by the Irilh and tobacco are the daple commodities of Maryland.
Hy Vorney Geerone. It is a point as much celebrated In the interior country* on the uplands, confiderable
by them as John-of-Groat’s-houfe by the Scots, which quantities of hemp and flax are raifed.
is the utmod extremity of North Britain. The number of inhabitants in this date, including
MARYBOROUGH, a borough, market, and pod the negroes, is 254,050 ; which is 18 for every fquare
town, and the afikes town to the Queen’s county, in mile. The inhabitants, except in the populous towns,
the province of Leinder, in Ireland, fo called in ho- live on their plantations, often feveral miles didant
nour of Mary queen of England, who reduced this from each other. To an inhabitant of the middle,
part of the country to (hire-ground by aft of parlia- and efpecially of the eadern dates, which are thickly
ment 6th and 7th Philip and Mary. It is governed populated, they appear to live very retired and unfo-
by a burgo-mader and bailiffs, and has a barrack for nial lives. The effefts of this comparative folitude are
' a troop of horfe. It returns two members to parlia- vifible in the countenances as well as in the manners
ment, and has five fairs. It is didant from Dublin and drefs of the country people ; there being among
.40 miles. N. Lat. 53. o. W. Long. 7. 20. them very little of that cheerful fprightlinefs of look.
MARYBURGH. See Fert-JVLLUAM. and aftion which is the invariable and genuine off-
MARYGOLD. See Calx HA. fpring of focial intercourfe ; nor do they pay that at-
Corn Marx gold. See Chrysanthemum. tention to drefs which is common, and which decency
French Marxgold. See Taygetes. and propriety have rendered neceffary, among people
MARYLAND, one of the Thirteen United States who are liable to receive company almoll every day. As
of America. It received that name in honour of Hen- the negroes perform all the manual labour, their maders
rffetta Maria, the confort of king Charles I. who made are left to faunter away life in (loth, and too often ip
a grant of this country, with very extraordinary pow- ignorance. Thefe obfervations, however, mud in jhdice
ers, to Lord Baltimore. It lies between 38 and 40 be limited to the people in the country, and to thofi:
degrees north latitude, and in longitude from 74 to particularly whole poverty or parfimony prevents their
78 degrees wed from London. It is bounded on the fpending a part of their time in populous towns, or
north by Pennfylvania; on the ead by. the Delaware other wife mingling with the world,
date ; on the fouth-ead and fouth by the Atlantic The chief towns in this date are Anapolis and Bal-
■Ocean, and a line drawn from the ocean over the penin- timore.—Anapolis, the capital, and the wealthied.
Tula (dividing it from Accomack county in Virginia) town of its flze in America, is fituated jud at
to the mouth of Patomack river, thence up the Pato- <the mouth of Severn river, 30 miles fouth of Bal-
mack to its fird fountain, thence by a due north line timore. The houfes are generally large and elegant;
till it interfeftsthe fouthern boundary of Penhfylvania, ard the-dadt-houfe is the nobled building of the kind
in lat. 390 43' 18" ; fo that it has Virginia on the in America.—-Sa/mwcn; has had the mod rapid growth
ifouth, fouth-wed, and wed. It contains about 14,000 of any town on the continent, and is the fourth in
fquare miles, of which about one-fixth is water. It fize and the fifth in trade in the United States. It
as divided into 18 counties, 10 of which are on the lies in lat. 39. 21. on the north fide of Patapfco river,
■arouaf
WAR- r 6
‘Maryland, around what is called the Bafon. The fituation of
■u™ y—■ the town is low. The houfes were numbered in 1787,
and found to be 1955 ; about 1200 of which were
in the town and the reft at Fell’s point. The num¬
ber of ftores was 152 ; and of churches 9, which be¬
long to German Calvinifts and Lutherans, Epifcopa-
lians,, Preibyterians, Roman Catholics, Baptifts, Me-
thodifts, Quakers, Nicolites* or New Quakers. The
number of inhabitants is between 10,000 and 11,000.
There are many very refpeftable families in Baltimore,
who live genteelly, are hofpitable to ftrangers, and
maintain a friendly and improving intercourfe with
each other; but the. bulk.of the inhabitants,, recently
coliefted from almoft all quarters of the world, bent
qn the purfuit of wealth, varying in their habits, their,
manners, and their religions, if they have any, are
unfocial, unimproved, and inhofpitable. The trade
of- Maryland is principally carried on from Baltimore,
with the other ftates, with the Weft Indies, and with
fome parts of Europe. To thefe places they fend an¬
nually about 30,000 kogjheads of tobacco, befides
large quantities of wheat, .flour, pig iron, lumber, and.
corn—beans, pork, and flax-feed, in fmaller quanti¬
ties ; and receive in return, clothing for themfelves
and negroes, and other dry goods,, wines, fpirits, fu-
gars, and other Weft India commodities. The ba-
lance is generally in their favour.
The Roman Catholics, who were the firft fettlers
in Maryland, are the. moft numerous religious feft.
Befides-thefe, there are Proteftant Epifcopalians, Eng-
lifti, Scots, and Irifh Preftyterians, German Calvi¬
nifts, German Lutherans, Friends, Baptifts, Metho-
<lifts, and Nicolites, or New Quakers. The. colleges
in this ftate have all.been founded fince.the year 1782,.
and are yet in their infancy. The names of the fe-
•veral feminaries are, Wafhington College at Chefter-
town, inftituted.in 1782; St John’s College,at Ana-
pplis, founded in 1784 ; Cakefbury College at Abing¬
don, inftituted by the Methodifts in 1785 ; and a
-college founded by the, Roman Catholics at George¬
town. There are a few other literary inftitutions, of
inferior note, in different parts of the ftate, and pro-,
vifion is made for free fchools in moft of the counties :
though fome are entirely neglefted, and very.few car¬
ried on with any fucctfs ; fo that a great proportion,
©f the lower clafs of people are ignorant, and there
are not a few who cannot write their names. But.
the revolution, among, other happy effefts, has rouzed
the fpirit of education, which is faft fpreading its fa--,
lutary influences over this and the other fouthern ftates.
The legiflature of this ftate is compofed of two di-
ftinCt branches, afenate and. honfe of delegates; and
flyled The General Jljfemlly of .Maryland. . The fenate
confifts of 15 members, chofen every five years. Nine,
«f thefe muft be refidents on -the weftern fhore and
fix on the eaftern; they muft be more than 25 years,
of age, mull have refided in the ftate more than three
years next preceding the eleftion, and have real and
perfonal property above the value of L. iqoo. The
houfe of delegates is compofed -of, four members for
each county, chofen annually on tile firft Monday in
Gftober. The city of Anapolis and town of Balti-
■more fend each two delegates. The qualifications of
zt delegate are, full age, one year’s -refidence in the
15 J MAS
county where he is chofen, and real or perfonal pro- Maryland
perty above the value of L.500. The qualifications *1
of a freeman are, full age, a freehold ellate of 50 a!l* ,
acres of land, and aftual refidence in the county where
he offers to vote; property to the value of 1/ 30 in
any part of the ftate, and a year’s refidence in the
county where he offers to vote.
On-the fecond Monday in November annually a go¬
vernor is appointed by the joint ballot of both houfes.
The governor cannot continue in office longer than
three years fuccefiively, nor be eleifted: until the expi¬
ration of four years after he has been out of office.
The qualifications for the chief magiftracy are, 25
years of age,, five years- refidenee in the ftate next
preceding the ele&ion, and real, and perfonal eftate
above the value of L.5000, L. 1000 of which muft:
be freehold eftate. This conftitution was eftablifhed
by a convention of delegates at Anapolis, Auguft 14.
1776.
Maryland was granted,, as has been already noticed,
by King Charles I. to Cecilius Calvert, baron of Bal¬
timore in Ireland, June 20. '632. The government
of the province was by charter veiled in the proprie¬
tary ; but it appears that he either never exercifed
thefe powers alone,, or but. for a fhort time. The
honourable Leonard Calvert, Efq; Lord Baltimore’s
brother, was the firft governor or lieutenant-general.
In 1638, a law was paffed, conftituting the firft regular
houfe of affembly, .which was to confift of fuch repre-
fentatives, called burgejjis, as -fhould be defied purfuant
to writs iffued by. the governor. Thefe burgeffes pof-
feffed all the powers of the perfons electing them; but.
by any other freemen, who did not aflent to the elec¬
tion, might take their feats-in petfop. Twelve bur¬
geffes or freemen, with the lieutenant-general and fe
cretary, conftituted the 'affembly or legiflature. This,
affembly fat at St Mary’s, one of the fouthern coun¬
ties, which was the. firft fettled part of Maryland. In
i68t), the government: was taken out of the hands of
Lord Baltimore by the grand convention of England.
Mr Copley was appointed governor by commiffion
from William and Mary in 1692, when the Proteftant
religion was eftabliflied by law. In 1716, the govern¬
ment of this province was-reftpred to the proprietary,
and continued in his hands till the late revolution ;
when, being an abfentee, his property in the lands was
confifcated, and the government affumed by the free¬
men of the.province, who formed the conftitution now
exifting. At. the clofe of the war, Henry Hatford,
Efq;, the natural‘fon and heir of Lord Baltimore, peti ¬
tioned the legiflature of Maryland for his eftate ; but
his petition was. not granted. Mr Harford eftimated
his lofs of quit-rents, valued at 20 years purehafe, and
including arrears, at L.259,488, 5s.—dollars at 7s. 6d.
and the value of his, manors and referved lands at
L. 327,441 of the fame money.
MARYPORT, a fea-port town of Cumberland, fi-
tuated at the mouth of the Elne. It has a good har¬
bour ; and has 70 or 80 fail of fhipping from 30 to -
250 tons burden, principally emplo-yed in the coal-
trade ; fonie-of them fail up the Baltic for timber,
flax, iron, See. They have a furnace for caft-iron and
a glafs-houfe. A chapel was ere died here in 1760,
-MAS (Lewis duj, natural fan to Jean Louis de
McntcaJo--.
MAS r 1 MAS
_ Mas, Mrtntcalm Seigneur de Candiac, and a widow of rank
.. a'3JLiero'tif Rouergue, was born at Nimes in 1676. His firft
v~** attention was befto,wed on jurifprudence ; but after¬
wards he was altogether occupied with mathematics,
philofophy, and the ftudy of the languages. Father
Mallebranche cultivated his acquaintance and.efteemed
his virtues. His firft appearance was ferere, his ge¬
neral temper tranquil; yet he had a lively and fertile
imagination. His mind uras aftive, full of refources,
mid methodical. We are indebted to his induftry for
the Typographical Bureau. This invention is the
more ingenious, as it prefents the tedious parts of edu¬
cation, namely, reading, writing, and the elements of
languages, to the youthful mind as a delightful enter¬
tainment, and many people in France both in the ca¬
pital and in the provinces have adopted it with fuc-
cefs. After he had conceived the idea of this inven¬
tion, he made the firft trial of it on the young Candiac,
who was remarkable for his underftanding in his ear-
lieft years. Du Mas conduced his pupil to Paris and
the principal cities in France, where he was tiniver-
folly admired. This prodigy was carried oft' in the
year 1726 before he was feven years of age, and his
lofs had nearly deprived Du Mas of his reafon. A
dangerous illnefs was the confequence of his vexation;
and he would have died of want, if a gentleman had
not taken him from his garret and entertained him in
his own houfe. Du Mas afterwards retired with Ma¬
dame de Vaujour within two leagues of Paris, and died
in the year 1774, aged 68. He was a philofopher
both in genius and charafter. His works are, 1. L’Art
de tranfpofer toutes fortes de Muftques fans etre oblige de
connoitre, ni le temps% ni le mode, publifhed at Paris in
4to, 1711. This work is extremely curious, but of
r.o advantage to the ftudy of mufic. 2. A volume in
quarto, printed at Paris 1733, in four parts, intitled,
Bibliotheque des enfans. In this treatifefhe has placed,
in a clear point of view, the fyftem and economy of
his Typographical Bureau. This invention, like every
thing new, was cenfured by fome and admired by
ethers. The author himfelf defended it with much
fuccefs in the journals and in feveral occafional pam¬
phlets. This colleftion, however, is become exceed¬
ingly fcarce. The Typographical Bureau was brought
to perfeftion by M. Reybert a citizen of Avignon,
who enriched it with many articles containing ufeful
and agreeable information in geography, hiftory, fable,
&C. &C. 3. Memoires de VEcoffe fous le regne de Marie
Stuart, by Crawford, and tranilated from the Englifti.
This tranflation was found in manufcript in the library
-of the late marquis d’Aubais, with whom du Mas had
lived in the moft intimate habits of friendfhip.
Mas Planta, a plant which Upon the fame root pro¬
duces male flowers only. See Masculvs Flos.
MAS AFUERO, an ifland of the South-Sea, ly¬
ing in S. Lat. 33. 45. W. Long. 80. 46. It is very
high and mountainous, and at a diftance feems to co:t-
fift of one hill er rock. It is of a triangular form,
and feven or eight leagues in circumference. There is
fuch plenty of fiih, that a boat with a few hooks and
lines may very foon catch as many as will ferve 100
people. Here are coal-fifh, cavilliers, cod, hallibut,
and cray-fifti. Captain Carteret’s crew caught a king-
Sflier that weighed 87 pounds, and was five feet and
Nu 196. 3
ati half long. The fliarks Were here fo ravenous, that, Maftoths!
in taking foundings, one of them fwallowed the lead, II
by which they hauled him above water; but he re* acaion^
gained his libefty by difgotging his prey. Seals are
fo numerous here, that Captain Carteret fays, if many
thoufands were killed in a night, they Would not be
miffed next morning. Thefe animals yield excellent
ttain-oil; and their hearts and plucks are very good
food, having a tafte fomething like thofe of a hog;
their fldns are covered with a very fine fur. There are
many birds here, and, fome very large hawks. Of
the pintado bird ohe ftiip caught 700 in one night.
Commodore Byron landed here with difficulty in r 763,
in order to take in wood and water, of both which he
found plenty. He found alfo great numbers of goats,
whofe fleffi tafted as well as venifon in England.
MASBOTHiEI, or Mesboth/ei, the name of a
feft, or rather of two fe&s; for Eufebius, or rather
Hegefippus whom he cites, makes mention of two
different fefts of Mafbothseans. The firft was one of
the feven fects that arofe out of Judaifm, and proved
very troublefome to the church; the other was one of
the feven Jewiih fe&s before the coming of Jefus
Chrift.
The word is derived from the Hebrew r,‘'sv,fchabat,
“ to reft orrepofe,” andiignifies idle eafy indolent people.
Eufebius fpeaks of them as if they had been fo called
from one Maibotheus their chief: but it is much more
probable that their name is Hebrew, or at leaft Chal-
daic, fignifying the fame thing with a Sabbatarian in
our language; that is, ohe who makes profeffion of
keeping Sabbath.
Valefius will not allow the two fe&s to be confound*
ed together: the laft being a fe£l of Jews before, or
at leaft contemporary with Chrift ; and the former a
fetft of hetetics defeended from them. Rufinus di*
ftinguilhes them in their names: the Jewifli feft he
calls Maftnithasi; and the heretics Mafbuthseani. The
Maftmthceans were a branch of the Simonians.
MASCARDI (Auguftin), a diftinguifhed perfon
in the republic of letters, was born at Sarzane, a city
of the ftate of Genoa, in 1591. He fpent the early
part of his life among the Jefuits, and afterwards be¬
came chamberlain to PopC Urban VIII. He was na¬
turally fo eloquent, that this fame pope, merely to ex-
ercife his talent, founded a profefforfhip of rhetoric for*
him in the college de la Sapienza 1628, and fettled
upon him for life a penfion of 500 crowns. Mafcardi
filled the chair with great reputation 5 but his love of
letters made him neglett what is of more confequence
than even letters, the management of his affairs: for
he was always poor, and always in debt. He wrote
a great many things in verfe and profe; and among
the reft, a treatife intitled Dell' arte hif orica. In his
‘‘ Hiftory of the Confpiracy of the Comtede Fiefque,”
he has very frequently attacked the religion of Hubert
Folietta ; and in his other books he ufed fome writers
in the fame way, which occafioned him to be attacked
in his turn.. The objedions which were made to him,
together with his anfwers, were added to the fecond
edition of the hiftory juft mentioned. He died at
Sarzane, 1640, in his 49th year.
MASCARON (Julius), bifhop of Agen, and a
moft eminent French preacher, was born at Marfeilles
MAS
f 617 I
MAS
Mifelef, tn 1634.. He inherited of hi« father, who was the Masculine, is more ordinarily ufed in M*fculine
Mafcaline celebrated advocate of the parliament of Aix, to fignify the firft and worthieft of the genders of
'' ' that uncommon talent of eloquence which diftinguiihed ftouns. See Gender. / ' 1
him. He was admitted a member of the congrega- The mafculine gender is that which belongs to the
tion of the oratory very youhg ; and from his 22d male kind, or fomething analogous to it.
year taught rhetoric at Mans. Soon after this he com- Moft fubftances are ranged under the heads of
menced preacher, and preached with great fuccefs iri mafculine or feminine.—This, in feme cafes, is done
St Peter’s church at Saumur. The bifhop of Mans,
willing to engage fo able a preacher in his church,
made him prebendaiy of it. He was much admired
at Paris, when he preached the advent at the oratory.
He preached after this live or fix years at court, and
was promoted to the bilhopric of Tulle in 1671. He
was afterwards tranfiated to the bilhopric of Ageri.
He was called in 1694 to pfeach the Lent fermon at
with a £how of reafon; but in others is merely arbir
trary, and for that reafon is found to vary according}
to the .languages and even according to the words in¬
troduced frotn one language into another.—Thus th<*
names of trees are generally feminine in Latin arid
mafculine in the French.
Farther, the genders of the fame word are fcmetimdl
varied in the fame language. Thus afous, according}
court. The year following, he opened the aflembly to Prifcian, was anciently mafculine, but is
of the clergy, and returned to his diocefe ; where he
died of a dropfy in his cEeft, Dec. 16. 1703. There
is nothing printed of this great mart excepting A Col-
le&ion of Funeral Orations made upon the queen-n
come feminine. And navire, “ a Ihip,” in French, wa»
anciently feminine, but is now mafculine.
Masculine Rhyme, in the French poetry, is that
made with a word which has a ftrong, open, and ae¬
ther, the dauphinefs, the duke of Beaufort, the chan- cented pronunciation ; as all words have, excepting
cellor Seguier, marefchalTurenne? and at the head-of thofe which have an e feminine in their laft fyllable.
this colleftion there is a Ihort life of him.
MASCLEF (Francis), was at firft a curate in the
diocefe of Amiens, the place of his birth, and after¬
wards theologian and confidant to the virtuous De
For inftance, amour and jour, mart and fort, are maf¬
culine rhymes; and pere and mere, gloire and memoirc,
are feminine. Hence alfo verfes ending with a maf¬
culine rhyme, are called mafculine verfes, and thofe end*
Brou bifiiop of that diocefe. He was appointed to the ing with a feminine rhyme, yim/wine w/yi'r. It ii
charge of a feminary of learning under that prelate.
He deferved this employment both from his piety and
a rule eftabliflied among the French poets never to ufri
the above two mafculine or two feminine verfes fuc-
profound learning. The oriental languages were as cefiively, except in the loofer kind of poetry. Marot
familiar to him as his native tongue. He purfued his was the firft who introduced this mixture of mafculinC
tefearches into the idioms of the eaft with the fpirit and feminine verfes, and Ronfard was the firft who
pradftifed it with fuccefs. The mafculine verfes
fhould always have a fyllable lefs than the feminine
Masculine Signs. Aftrologersdivide the figns into
and the ingenuity of a philofopher. He was made
Canon of Amiens a little before the death of De Brou,
which happened in 1706. His opinions on the Jan-
fenift controverfy were fo offenfive to Sabbatier, the „ „ 0
fuccefibr of that worthy prelate, that he was removed mafeuline and feminine j by reafon of their qualities.
from the care of the feminary and from almoft every
other public office which he held. The regard of the
•dead comforted Mafclef under the oppreffion of the
living. He devoted himfelf to ftudy with fo much
which are either aririve, and hot or cold, accounted
mafculine ; or paffive, dry and moift, which are fe¬
minine. - On this principle they call the Sun, Jupiter,
Saturn, and Mars, mafculine; and the Moon and Venus
ardour, that he contracted a difeafe of which he died feminine. Mercury, they fuppofe, partakes of the two.
the 14th Nov. 1728, aged 66 years. His principal Among the figns, Aries, Libra, Gemini, Leo, Sagit-
works are, 1. A Hebrew Grammar in Latin, after his tarius, Aquarius, are mafculine: Cancer, Capricor-
us, Taurus, Virgo, Scorpio, and Pifces, are femi-
ine.
MASCULUS flos, in botany. See Flos.
MASH, a drink given to a horfe, made of half £
Hew method, printed at Paris 1716, in i 2rno. This
grammar was again printed in two volumes in 12mo
in the year 1730, under the direction ofM. dela Blet-
ferie at that time prieft of the oratory and the friend
of Mafclef. All the objections which Father Guarin peck of ground malt put into a pail, into which as
stiade in his Hebrew grammar to Mafclef’s method of much fealding hot water is poured as will wet it very
reading Hebrew without the ufe of points are attended
to in this edition. There is nothing more neceflary,
according to this plan, than to take the vowel which
is next the confonant in the order of the alphabet.
This method was approved of by feme learned 1
well: when that is done, ftir it about, till, by tafting,
you find it as fweet as honey ; and when it has Hood
till it is lukewarm, it is to be given to the horfe.
This liquor is only ufed after a purge, to make it work
the better ; or after hard labour, or inftead of drink iri
but rejefted by a great many more. 2. Les Conferences the time of any great' ficknefs.
Eccleftajliques du diocefe d'Amiens, in 12mo. 3. Le Ca- MASK. See Masque.
techifme d'Amiens, in 4to. 4. Une Philofophic et une MAS1NISSA, a king of a fmall part of Africa,
Theologic, in MS. Thefe would have been publifiied who at firft affifted the Carthaginians in their wars a*
bad they not difeovered a partiab'ty to the principles gainft Rome; but afterwards joined the Romans, and
of Janfenifm. The author was an auftere man, equally became the firmeft ally they ever had. See Numi-
relpeCtable for his manners and his knowledge. di a.
MASCULINE, fomething belonging to the male, MASON, a perfon employed under the direCtiofl
Or the ftronger of the two fexes. See Male. of an architeCI, in the railing of a ftone-building.
Vol. X. Part II. 41 Thd
MAS [ 61
Mafomy, Xlie chief bufinefs of a mafon is to make the mor-
v— ( ar ; raife the walls ‘from the foundation to the top,
with the neceflary retreats and perpendiculars ; to form
the vaults, and employ the ftones as delivered to him.
When the ftones are large, the bufmefs of hewing or.
cutting them belongs to the ftone-cutters, though thefe
are frequently confounded with mafons: the ornaments
of fculpture are performed by carvers in ftones or
fculptors. The tools or implements principally ufed
by them are the fquare, level, plumb-line, bevel, com-,
pafs, hammer, chiffel, mallet, faw, trowel. See. See
Square, &c.
Befides the common inftruments ufed in the hand,
they have likewife machines for railing of great bur¬
dens, and the conducing of large ftones; the principal
of which are the lever, pulley, wheel, crane, &c. See
Lever, &c.
Free and Accepted Masons, a very ancient fociety or
body of. men: fo called, either from fome extraordi¬
nary knowledge of mafonry or building, which they
• are fuppofed to be mafters of, or becaufe the firft
founders of the fociety were perfons of that profeflion.
Thefe are now very eonfiderablc, both for number and
chara&er; being found in every country in Europe,
and confifting principally of perfons of merit and con-
fideration. As to antiquity, they lay claim to a Hand¬
ing of fome thoufand years. What the end of their
inftitution is, feems ftill in fome meafure a fecret; and
they are faid to be admitted into the fraternity by be¬
ing put in-poffefiion of a great number of fecrets, call¬
ed the mafon's word, which have been religioufly kept
from age to age, being never divulged. ’ See Free-MA-
SONRY.
MASONRY, in general, a branch of architefture,
confifting in the art of hewing or fquaring ftones, and
cutting them level or perpendicular, for the ufes of
building: but, in a n;ore limited fenfe, mafonry is
the art of affembling and joining ftones together with
mortar.
Hence arife as many different kind's of mafonry as
there are different forms and manners for laying or
joining ftones. Vitruvius mentions feveral kinds of
mafonry ufed among the ancients: three of hewed
ftone, vid. that in form of a net, that in binding, and
that called the Greek mafonry ; and three of unhewed
ftones, viz. that of an equal courfe, that of an unequal
courfe, and that filled up in the middle; and the le-
venth was a compolition of all the reft.
Net-mafonry, called by Vitruvius reticulatum, from
its refemblance to the mefhes of a net, confifts of
Plate ftones fquared in their courfies, and fo difpofed as that
CCLXXX their joints go obliquely; and their diagonals are the
one perpendicular and the other level. This is the moft
agreeable mafonry to the eye, but it is very apt to
crack. See n° i.
Bound-mafonry, that in which the ftones were pla¬
ced one over another, like tiles; the joints of their
beds being level, and the mounters perpendiculars, fo
that the joint that mounts and feparates two ftones
always falls direftly over the middle of the ftone be¬
low. This is lefs beautiful than the net-work ; but
it is more folid and durable. See n° 2.
Greek mafonry,, according toVitruvius, is that where
after we have laid two ftones, each of which makes a
courfe, another is laid at the end, which makes two
3 1 M A S-
courfes, and the. fame order is obferved throughout
the building ; this may be called double-binding, in re¬
gard the binding is not only of ftones of the fame
courfe with one another, but likewife of one courfe
with another courfe. See n°3.
Mafonry- by equal courfes, called by the ancients ifo-
domum, differs in nothing from the bound mafonry,
but only in this, that its ftpues are not hewn. See
n? 4*
Mifonry.
Mafonry by unequal courfes, called pfeudifodomum,
is alfo made oft unhewed ftones, and laid in bound
work; but then they are not of the fame thicknefs,
nor is there any equality obferved excepting in the
feveral courfes, the courfes themfelves being unequal
to each other. Seen0 5.
Mafonry filled up in the middle, is likewife made of
unhewed ftones, and by courfes; but the ftones are
only fet in order as to the courfes: (fee n°9). A,
the courfes; B, the parts filled up; C, a coat of
plafter.
Compound mafonry is of Vitruvius’s propofing, fo
called as being formed of all the reft. In this the
courfes are of hewed ftone; and the middle being left
void, is filled up with' mortar and pebbles thrown in
together: after this the ftones of one courfe are bound
to thofe of another courfe with iron-cramps faftened
with melted lead : (Seen07). E, the ftones cramps
ed; F, the cramps ; G, the middle part filled up.—
N°8. reprefents another fort of compound mafonry,
the middle of which is ftone, and the edges boards.
All the kinds of mafonry now in ufe may be re¬
duced to thefe five, viz. bound mafonry; that of
brick-work, where the bodies and projeftures of the
ftones inclofe fquare fpaces or .pannels, &c. fet with
bricks; that de moilon, or fmall work, where the
courfes are equal, well fquared, and their edges or
beds rufticated ; that where the courfes are unequal
and that filled up in the middle with little ftones and
mortar.
Free-Mason nr, denotes the fyftem of myfteries and
fecrets peculiar to the fociety of free and accepted
mafons.
The origin of this focicty is very ancient; but we
have no authentic account of the time when it was.
firft inftituted,. or even what was the reafon of fuch
an affociation of people under the title of Mafons, more
than of any other mechanical profeffion.—-In Dr Hen¬
ry’s hiftory we find the origin of the Free Mafon So¬
ciety in Britain attributed to the difficulty found in
former times, of procuring a fufficient number of
workmen to build the multitude of churches, mona-
fteries, and other religious edifices which the fuper-
ftition of thofe ages prompted the people to raife.
Hence the mafons were greatly favoured by the popes,,
and many indulgences were granted in order to aug¬
ment their numbers. In times like thofe we fpeak.
of, it may well be fuppofed that fuch encourage¬
ment from the fupreme paftors of the church mull
have been produftive of the moft beneficial effe£ls to-
the fraternity ; and hence the increafe of the fociety
may naturally be deduced. The Doftor quotes, in
confirmation of this, the words of an author who was
well acquainted with their hiftory and constitution.
« The Italians (fays he), with fome Greek refugees*
and with them French, Germans,.and Flemings, join-
MAS [6
Mafonry. into a fraternity of arcliitefts, procuring papal bulls
for their encouragement and their particular privi¬
leges ;• they ftyled thcfnfelves Free-mafuns> and ranged
from bne natibn to another, as they found churches
to be built: their government Was regular'; arid Where
they fixed near ttu% building in hand, they made a
camp of huts. A furveyor governed in chief j every
tenth man was called a warden, and overlooked each
nine. The gentlemen in 'the neighbourhood, either
out of charity or coihmutation of penance, gave the
materials and carriages. Thofe who have leen the
accounts in records of the charge of the fabrics of fome
t>f our cathedrals near 400 years old, cannot but have
a great efteefn for their economy, and admire hoW
foon they erected fuch lofty ftruftures.”
By other accounts, however, the antiquity of tna-
fonry is carried up much higher, even as early as the
building of Solomon’s temple. In Britain the in¬
troduction of mafonry has been fixed at the year 674,
when glafs-making was firft introduced ; and it ap¬
pears indeed, that from this time many buildings in
the Gothic ftyle were ereCted by men in companies,
who are faid to have called themfelves free, becaufe
they were at liberty to work in any part of the king¬
dom. Others have derived the inftitution of free ma-
fons from a combination among the people of that
profeffion not to work without an advance of Wages,
when they were fummoned from feveral counties, by
writs of Edward III. direfted to the flveriffs, to af-
fift in rebuilding and enlarging the ealtle, together
with the church and chapel of St George at Windfor.
At this tirne, it is faid, the mafons agreed on
Certain tokens by which they might know and af-
fift each other againft being impreffed, and not to
Work unlefs free and on their own terms.
In a treatife on Mafonry publifixed in 1792 by Wil¬
liam Prefton, matter of the Lodge of Antiquity, the
origin of mafonry is traced from the creation. “ E-
ver fince fymmetry began, and harmony difplayed her
charms (fays he), our order has had a being.” Its
introduction into England he likewife fuppofes to have
been prior to the Roman iovafion. There are, ac¬
cording to him, the remains yet exifting, of fome ftu-
pendous works executed by the Britons much earlier
than the time of the Romans; and even thefe dif*
play no fmall {hare of ingenuity of invention : fo that
we can have no doubt of the exiftence of mafonry
in Britain even during thefe early periods. The
Druids are likewife faid to have had among them many
Cuftoms fimilar to thofe of the mafons, and to have
derived their government from Pythagoras ; but the
refemblance betwixt their ufages and thofe of the free-
mafon focieties now exifting cannot be accurately
traced even by the mafons themfelves.
Mafonry is faid to have been encouraged by Caefar,
and many of the Roman generals who were appointed
governors of Britain : but though we know, that at
this period the fraternity were employed in ere&ing
many magnificent fabrics, nothing is recorded con¬
cerning their lodges and conventions; and we have
but a very imperfeC! account of the cuftoms which pre¬
vailed in their aflemblies.
Fora long time the progrefs of mafonry in Bri¬
tain was obftruCted by the frequent wars which took
place ; and it did not revive till the time of Caraufius,
19 ] MAS
by whom it was patron [fed. This general, who hoped Mafonry.
to be the founder of a Britifh empire, encouraged- * v 4
learning and learned men ; collefting alfo the heft ar¬
tificers from many different countries, particularly ma¬
fons, whom he held in great veneration, and appoint¬
ing Albanus his fteward the principal fuperintendant
of their aflemblies. Lodges, or conventions of the
fraternity, began now to be introduced, and the bu-
finefs of mafonry to be regularly carried on. The
mafons, through the influence of Albanus, obtained a
charter from Caraufius to hold a general council, at
which Albanus himfelf fat prefident, and aflifted at
the reception of many new members. This Albanus
Was the celebrated St Alban, the firft who fuffered
martyrdom in Britain for the Chriftian faith. Mr
Prefton quotes "an old MS. deftroyed with many
others, faid to have been in the pofleffion of Nicholas
Stone, a curious fculptor under Inigo Jones; from
which we learn that St Alban was a great friend to
mafons, and gave them two {hillings per week be-
fides threepence for their chear; while, before that
time, they had no more than one penny per day and
their meat. He likewife obtained “ a charter from the
king and his council for them to hold a general coun¬
cil, which was named an affembly." The fame cir-
cumftances are mentioned in a MS. written in the
time of James II. only this increafes the weekly falary
of the mafons to 3 s. 6d. and 3d. per day for the bear¬
ers of burthens.
The progrefs of mafonry was greatly obftrufted by
the departure of the Romans from Britain Kand in a
ftiort time fell into abfolute negleft. This was oc-
cafioned firft by the furious irruptions of the Scots
and Pifts, which left no time for the cultivation of
the arts; and afterwards by the ignorance of the
Saxons, whom the ill-advifed Britons called in as al¬
lies, but who foon became their mafters. After the
introduftion of Chriftianity, however, the barbarity
of thefe conquerors began to wear off, the arts received
fome encouragement, and mafonry particularly began
to flourifti. Lodges were now formed ; but thefe
being under the diredlion of foreigners, were feldom
convened, and never attained to any degree of confi-
deration or importance. In this fituation it continued
till the year 557, when St Auftin, with 40 more
monks, among whom the fciences had been preferved,
came into England. By thefe the principles of Chri¬
ftianity were propagated with fuch zeal, that all the
kings of the heptarchy were converted ; after which
mafonry was taken under the patronage of St Auftin,
and the Gothic ftyle of building was introduced into
England by the numerous foreigners who reforted at
this time to the kingdom. Auftin himfelf appeared
at the head of the fraternity in founding the old ca¬
thedral of Canterbury in 600 ; that of Rochefter in
602; St Paul’s in London in 604; St Peter’s in Weft-
minfter in 605, as well as many others. The num¬
ber of mafons in England was thus greatly increafed,
as well as by his other buildings of caftles, &c.
throughout the kingdom.
In 640 a few expert brethren arrived from France,
and formed themfelves into a lodge under the direftion
of Bennet abbot of Wirral; whom Kenred king of
Mercia foon after appointed infpeftor of the lodges,
tmd general fuperintendant of the mafons. During
4 I 2 the
MAS
l 620 1
MAS
Wonry. the whole time of the heptarchy, however, mafonry were now collefted by St Dunftan, who employed
-1 was jn a jow jtate, but began to revive in 856 under them in works of the fame kind : but as no permanent ——y '"■»*
the patronage of St Swithin, whom Ethelwolf employ- encouragement was given them, their lodges foon de¬
ed to repair fome religious houfes; and from that time dined, and mafonry remained in a low Hate for up-
the art gradually improved till the year 87z, when it wards of 50 years. It revived, however, in 1041,
found a zealous prote&or in Alfred the Great. This under Edward the Confeffor, who fuperinteoded the
prince was a moft eminent patron of all kinds of arts execution of feveral great works. By the alfiftance of
and manufadures ; and, with regard to mafonry in JLeofrick earl of Coventry, he rebuilt Weltminfter
particular, he appropriated a feventh part of his re- Abbey, the earl being appointed fuperintendant of the
yenue for maintaining a number of workmen, whom he mafons ; and by this archited many other magnificent
conftantly employed in rebuilding the cities, caftles, ftrudures were likewife ereded. After the Conqueft,
&c. ruined by the Danes. During the reign of his in 1066, Gundulph bifiiop of Rochefter and Roger
fucceffor Edward, the mafons continued to hold their de Montgomery earl of Shrewlbury, both of them
lodges under the fandion of Ethred, hufband to the excellent architeds, became joint patrons of the ma¬
king’s After, and Ethelward his brother, to whom fans; and under their aufpices the Tower, of London
the care of the fraternity was intrufted. The latter was begun, though finiflied only in the reign pf Wil-
was a great archited, and founded the univerfity of Ham Rufus, who likewife rebuilt London Bridge with
Cambridge. wood, and in 1087 firft.conftruded the palace and hall
The true re-eftablilhment of mafonry in England, of Weftminfter.
however, is dated from, the reign of King Athelftane; The raafons now continued to be patronifed by the
aad there is ftill extant a grand lodge- of raafons at fovereigns of England in fucceffion. The lodges af»
York, who trace their exiftence from this period. This fembled during the reign of Henry I. and.during that
Ipdge, the moft. ancient in England, was founded in
926, under the patronage of Edwin the king’s bro¬
ther, who obtained for them a charter from Athel¬
ftane, and became grand mafter liimfelf. By virtue
of this charter it is faid, that all the mafons..in the
of Stephen, the fociety were employed in building a
chapel at Weftminfter, now the Houfe of Commons, ,
and feveral other works; the prefident of the lodges,
being now Gilbert de Clare, the. marquk of Pem¬
broke. During the reign of Henry II. the lodges-
kingdom were convened at a general affembly in that were fuperintended by the grand-mafter of the Knights
...n— Templars, who employed them ih building their temple
iji Fleet-Street in the year 1x55. Malbnry coutinu-
where they eftablilhed a general or grand lodg<
fpr their future government; Under the patronage
and jurifdiftion.of this lodge it is alfo alleged that the ed under the patronage of this order till the year 1199,
fraternitj^increafed very confiderably, and that kings,. T~L“ r' J J n' 1^ T ’ ^
princes, and other eminent perfons who had been ini¬
tiated into the myftenes, paid due allegiance to the
affembly. But as the times were yet turbulent and
barbarous, the art of mafonry was fometimes more
fometimes lefs patronifed ; and of courfe the affembly
more or lefs refpefted according to the refpedl which
theartitfelf met with. The appellation of, ancient York
mafons is well known both in Ireland and Scotland ;
and the general tradition. is, that they originated at
when John fucceeded Richard I. in the throne of-
England, and Peter de Colechiirch was then appoint¬
ed grand-mafter. He began to rebuild London bridge
with ftone,. which was afterwards finifhed by William
Ale-main in 1299. Peter.de Rupibus fucceeded Peter,
de Colechurch in the office of grand-mafter, and Geof¬
frey Fitz-Peter, chief furveyor of the king’s works,
affted as deputy under him; mafonry continued alfo to
flourifh under the aufpices of thefe two artifts during
this and the following reign. On the acceffion of Ed- -
Auldby near York.; and as- Auldby was a feat of ward I. in 1272, the fuperintendence of the ma-fons
Edwin, this- tradition gives confiderable conftrma- was entrufted to Walter Giffard archbi/hpp of York,
tion to the above account; There is . indeed great Gilbert de Clare earl of Gloueefter, and Ralph lord
reafon to believe that York was the original feat of of Mount Hermer, the progenitor of the family of
mafonic government, no other place having claim- the Montagues; and by thefe. architects the abbey of
ed it, and the whole fraternity having at various .Weftminfter was finiffied,. after having been begun in.
times owned allegiance to the anthority there efta- 1220, during the minority of Henry II. During the
blifhed ; though we know not whether, that alle- reign of Edward II. the fraternity were employed in
glance be now given or not. Certain, ft is,, that if binding Exeter and .Oriel Colleges in Oxfoyd, -Clare- •
fech a lodge was once eftabliffied there, of which there is hall in Cambridge, & c. under the aufpices of Walter
no reafon to doubt, we have no account of its being
regularly moved from that place to any other part
of the kingdom with eonfent of its members. Many
refpeftabk meetings have indeed, been held at diffe¬
rent times in other parts, op the kingdom, but there
is po accomit of any other general meeting being held
in another place than York till'very lately.
While prince Edwin lived,,the mafons were employ.
Stapleton bilhop of Exeter, who had been appointed
grand-mafter of the mafons in 1307.
Edward III. was a great encourager of learning in
general, and not only patronifed the mafons, but ap¬
plied very affiduoufiy to the conftitutions»of the order,
reyifed and meliorated the ancient charges, and added
feveral ufeful regulations to the original code by which-,
the fraternity, had been governed. He patronifed the
ed as formerly in building churches, monafteries, &c. lodges, and appointed five deputies under him to in-
and repairing thoffi which had fuffered by the ravages fpeCt their proceedings-; and at this period it appears
of the Danes ; and after his death the order was pa- from fome old records, that the lodges were numerous,
tronifed by king Athelftane. himfelf.; but on his de- and that the fraterqity held communications under the
ceafe the mafons were difperfed, and remained ip afi protedfion pf the civil ipagiftrates. William.a Wyke-
upfettled flat* till the reign of Edgar in .960. They ham was continued grand-mafter on the acceffion of
Richard
MAS [ 621 1 MAS
Mafonry. Richard II. and by him both the New College in Ox-
"v——' ford and Winchefter College were founded at his own
expence. After the accelfron of Henry IV. Thomas
Fitz-AUan earl of Surrey was appointed grand-ma-
fter, who, after the engagement at Shrewfbury, found¬
ed Battle-abbey and Fothenngay ; the Guildhall at
London being alfo built in this reign. On the accef-
fion of Henry V. the fraternity were- directed by
Henry Chichely archbilhop of Canterbury,, under
whom the lodges and communications of tlxe fraternity
were frequent. In-1425, however, during the reign
of Henry VI. an adt was made agaiuft the meetings
of the chapters and congregations of mafons,. becauie
it was faid, that by fuch meetings “ the good courfe
and effect of the ftaiutes of labourers were openly vio¬
lated and broken, in fubverfion of the law, and to the
great damage of all the commons.” But this adt was
not put in force, nor did the fraternity ceafe to meet
as ufual under the protedtion of archbifhop Chichely,
who Hill continued to prelide over them. The reafon
of this extraordinary edidt is faid to have been as fol¬
lows. The duke of Bedford, at that time regent
of the kingdom, being in France, tire regal power was
veiled in his brother Humphrey duke of Gloucdler,
who was ftyfed protedlor and’guardian of the kingdom.
The care of the young king’s perfon and education
was entrufted to Henry Beaufort bifhop of Wineke-
fler, the duke’s uncle. This prelate being of an am¬
bitious difpofition, and afpiring at the foie govern¬
ment, had continual difputes with his nephew the
protedtor; and by reafon of the violent temper of that
prince, gained frequent advantages over him. This
animofity increafed to fuch a degree, that the parlia¬
ment was at length obliged to interpofe. On the
meeting of that affembly in the month of April 142 c,
however, the Cervants and followers of the peers came
thither, armed with clubs and Haves 1 on which account
it received the name of the Bat Parliament, and at this
time the adt againit mafons was made. This was ow¬
ing to the influence of the biflipp, who wiflied to de-
ftroy the meetings of the fraternity on account of the
fccrecy obferved in them. ’ Dr Anderfon, in the firft
edition of the Book of Conftitutions, makes the fol¬
lowing obfervation upon this adt“ It was made in
ignorant times, when true learning was a crime, and
geometry condemned for conjuration y but it cannot
derogate from the honour of the ancient fraternity,,
who, to be fare, would never encourage any- fuch con¬
federacy of their working brethren. By tradition* it
is believed that the parliament were then too much in.
fluenced by the illiterate clergy, who were not accept¬
ed. mafons, nor underilood architedture (as the clergy
of fome former ages), and were generally thought un¬
worthy of this brotherhood. Thinking they had an-
indefeaflble right to know all fecrets by virtue of au¬
ricular confeffiun, and the mafons never c.onfeffing any
thing thereof* the faid clergy were highly offended y
and at iirft, fufpedting them of wickednefs, reprefent-
ed them as dangerous to the Hate during, that minori¬
ty ; and foon influenced the parliament to lay hold of
fiich fuppofed arguments of the working mafons for-
making an adt that might feem to refledt diflionour up¬
on even the whole fraternity, in whofe favour feveral
adts had been made before that period, and were made
after it.”
The bifhop was foon after this diverted from his Mafonry.,
perfecution of the mafons by an affair of a more im-  
portant kind. He had formed a defign of furprifmg
the city of London on the evening of St Simon and
St Jude’a day, that on which the Lord Mayor was
invefted with his office. But die plot having been
difeovered by the duke of Gloueefter, the Mayor was
fent for while at dinner, and ordered to keep a ftridl
watch for that night. The biffiop’s party accordingly
made an attempt to enter by the bridge about nine the
next morning, but were repulfed by the vigilance of
the citizens. At this the prelate wasfo much enraged,
that he collected a- numerous body of archers and men
at arms, commanding them to affault the gate with
ftiot. By the prudence of the magiilrates, however,
all violent meafures were Hopped; but no reconciliation
could be procured betwixt the two parties, though it
was attempted by the archbifhop of Canterbury, and
Feter duke of Coimbra, eldeH fon to the king of Por¬
tugal, with feveral other perfons of dillin&ion. At
lull the bifhop wrote, a letter to the duke of Bedford,
urging his return to England* and informing him oT
the danger there was of a civil war* and reflecting up¬
on the duke of Glaucefler- This letter had the delired
effect. The regent returned, and held a great council
at St Albans on the 2 ill of February* hut adjourned
it to the 15th of March-at Northampton, and to the
25th of June at Leiceffer. Bats and ftaves were
now prohibited at thefe meetings; but the parties af-
fembled with weapons no lefs- formidable, viz. with
flings, Hones, and leaden plummets. The duke of
Bedford employed all his authority to reconcile the
differences ; and at laH obliged the two rivals to pro-
mife before the affembly that they would bury all a-
nimofities in oblivion. During the difeuflion of this
matter five charges were exhibited by the duke of
Gloucefter againft the bifhop one of which was, that
“ he had, in his letter to the duke of Bedford, at
France, plainly declared his malicious purpofe of af-
fembling the people, and ffirring up a rebellion in the
nation, contrary to the king’s peace.” To this the
bifhop anfwered, “ That he never had any intention
to diflurb the peace of the nation or raife a rebellion;
but that he Cent to the duke of Bedford; to folicit
his return to England, to fettle all thofe differences
which were fo prejudicial to the peace of the king¬
dom : That though he had indeed written in the let¬
ter, ‘ That if he tarried, we fhould .put the land in-
adventure by a field, fuch a brother you, have here,*1
he did not mean it of any defign of his own, but-
concerning the feditious affemblies of mafons, carpen¬
ters, tyler*, and plaiiterers; who being dillreffed by
the late adt of parliament againff the exceffive wages ■
of thefe trades* had given out many feditious fpeeches
and menaces againfl certain great men, which tended
much to rebellion,” &c.
Notvvithflanding this heavy charge, the duke of
Gkmcefler, who knew the innocence of the parties
accufed, took the mafons under his protedtion, and
transferred the charge of fedition and rebellion from
them to the biffiop and his followers. By the intereH
of the latter, however, the king granted him a pardon
for all offences ; and though the duke drew up freih
articles of impeachment againfi him in 1442, and pre-
fented them in perfon to the king, the council, being
compel ed
MAS r 1 MAS
^Maibnry. Ccimpofed moftly of ecclefiallics, preceded fo (lowly
" in the bufinefs, that the duke, wearied out with the
tedioufnefs of the matter, dropped the profecution
entirely.
This conteft terminated in the impeachment, im-
prifonment, and murder of the duke of Gloucefter
himfelf. This event might have keen attended with
bad confeqtience, had not their inveterate enemy, the
prelate himfelf, been taken off by death in about two
months after the duke. The mafons then continued
hot only to meet in fafetyj but were joined by the
king himfelf. He was, that very year (1442) ini¬
tiated into mafonry, and from that time fpared no
pains to become completely mafter df the art. He
perufed the ancient charges, revifed the COnftftutions,
and, with the cortfent of his council, honoured them
with his fan&iort. The example of the fovereign was
followed by many of the nobility, who afliduoufly ftu-
died the art. The king prefided over the lodges in
perfon, nominating William Wanefleet bifhop of
Winchefter grand-mafter. This bilhop at his own
expence built Magdalene college, Oxford, and feveral
religious houfes. Etbn-college hear Windfor, and
King’s-college at Cambridge, were alfo founded du¬
ring this reign. Henry himfelf founded Chrift’s-«ol-
lege, Cambridge^ as his queen Margaret of Anjou did
Queen’s-college in the fame Univerfity.
About this time alfo, the mafons were pfote&ed
and encouraged by James I. of Scotland, who, after
his return from captivity, became a zealous patron of
arts and learning of all kinds. He honoured the
lodges with his royal prefence, and fettled an annual
revenue of four pounds Scots (an Englifh noble) to
be paid by every mafter-mafon in Scotland, to a grand-
mafter chofen by the grand-lodge, and approved by
the crown, one nobly born, or an eminent clergyman
who had his deputies in cities arid counties: fomething
was likewife paid him by every new brother at his en¬
try. His office intitled him to regulate every thing
in the fraternity which could not come under the ju-
rifdi&ion of law-courts; and, to prevent law-fuits,
’ both mafon and lord, or builder and founder, appeal¬
ed to him. In his abfence, they appealed to his de¬
puty or grand-warden, who redded next the piei
mifes.
The fiourifhing date of mafonry was interrupted by
the civil wars between the houfes of York and Lan-
cafter, which brought it almoft totally into neglect.
About 1471, however, it revived under the aufpices
of Robert Beauchamp bilhop of Sarum, who had
been appointed grand-mafter by Edward IV. and ho¬
noured with the title of Chancellor of the Ga>-ter, for
repairing the caftle and chapel of Windfor. It again
declined during the reigns of Edward V. and Rich¬
ard III. ; but came once more into repute on the ac-
ceffion of Henry VII. in 1485. It was now patron-
jfed by the mafter and fellows of the order of St John
at Rhodes (now Malta) ; who aflembled their grand-
lodge in 1500, and chofe Henry for their proteftor.
On the 24th of June 1502, a lodge of maftets was
formed in the palace, at which the king prefided as
grand-mafter; and having appointed John Klip abbot
ef Weftminfter, and Sir Reginald Bray knight of
the garter, his wardens for the occafion, proceeded
in great ftate to the eaft end of Weftminfter abbey,
where he laid the firft (tone of that excellent piece of Mafofirf,
Gothic architefture called Henry the Seventh's Chapel. “—V*-4”**
The capedtone of this building was celebrated in 1507.
The palace of Richmond, as well as many other noble
ftrudtures, were railed under the direftion of Sir Re¬
ginald Bray ; and the colleges of Brazen-Nofe in Ox¬
ford, and Jefus and St John’s iri Cambridge, were all
finifhed in this reign.
Gn the acceffion of Heriry VIII. Cardinal Wolfey
was appointed grand-mafter; who built Hampton-
court, Whitehall, Chrift-church college, Oxford, with
feveral other noble edifices; all of which, upon the dif-
grace of that prelate, were forfeited to the crown in
1530; Wofc'ey was fuCceeded as grand-mafter in
1534 by Thomas Cromwell earl of Eflex ; who em¬
ployed the fraternity in building St James’s palace,
Chrift’s hofpital, and Greenwich caftle. Cromwell
being beheaded in 1540, John Touchet lord Audley
fucceeded to the office of grand-maftet, and built Mag¬
dalen college iri Cambridge, rind many other ftruc-
turesi Irt 1547, the duke of Somerfet, guardian to
the king, and regent of the kingdom, became fuper-
irltendant of the mafons, and built Somerfet-houfe in
the Strand ; which, on his being beheaded, was for¬
feited to the crown in 1552.
After the death of the duke of Somerfet, John Pay-
net biffiop of Winchefter prefided over the lodges
till the death of the king in 1553. From this time
they continued without any patron till the reign of
Elizabeth, when Sir Thomas Sackville accepted of
the office of grand-mafter. Lodges, however, had
been held during this peribd in different parts of
England ; but the general or grand lodge affembled
in the city of York, where it is faid the fraternity
were numerous and refpeftable.^Of the queen we
have the following curious anecdote with regard to
the mafons : Hearing that they were in poffeffion of
many fecrets which they refufed to difclofe, and be¬
ing naturally jealous of all fecret affemblies, (he fent
an armed force to York to break up their annual
grand-lodge. The defign was prevented by the inter-
pofition of Sir Thomas Sackville, who took care to
initiate fotne of the chief officers whom (he had fent
on this duty in the fecrets of mafonry. Thefe joined
in communication with their new brethren, and made
fo favourable a report to the queen on their return*
that (he countermanded heri orders, and never after¬
wards attempted to difturb the meeting of the frater
nity. In 1567, Sir Thomas Sackville refigned the of¬
fice of grand-mafter in favour of Francis Ruffel earl
of Bedford, and Sir Thomas Greffiam an eminent
merchant; The former had the care of the brethren
in the northern part of the kingdom affigned to him,
while the latter was appointed to fuperintend the
meetings in the fouth, where the fociety had confide-
rably increafed, in confequence of the honourable re¬
port which had been made to the queen. The gene¬
ral affembly, however, continued to meet at York as-
formerly 5 and here all records were kept, and ap¬
peals . made on evety important oricafion to the af¬
fembly.
Sir Thomas Greiham abovetnentioiied propofed to
ereif a building in the fcity of London for the benefit
of commerce, provided the citizens would purchafe
a fpot proper for the purpofe. Accordingly fome
houfes
MAS [ 62j ] MAS
Mefonry houfes between Cornhill aftd Threadneedlb-flreet be- thy men were initiated, and the myfteries of the order Mafonry,
"V—- ing pulled down, the foundation-Hone of the building held in high eftimation. *
was laid on the 7th of June 1566, and with fuch ex- After Charles 1. afcended the throne, Earl Pern-
pedition was the work carried on, that the whole was broke was continued in his office till the year 1630,
fkii/hed in November 1 ^67. This building, which when he reiigned in favour of Henry Danvers earl of>
was conflru&ed on the plan of the exchange of Ant- Danby. This nobleman was -fucceeded in 1633 by-
werp, was called at firtt fimply the Bourfe> but in Ja- Thonaas Howard earl of Arundel, the anceftor of the
nuary 1570, the queen having dined with Sir Tho- Norfolk family. In 1635, Francis RufTel earl of
mas, returned through Cornhill, entered the Bourfe Bedford accepted the government of the fociety; bat
on the fouth fide, and having viewed every part of the Inigo Jones having continued to patronize the lodges
building, particularly the gallery which extended round during his lordlhip’s adminiilration, he was re-elected
the whole ftru&ure, and which *ras furnifhed with the following year, and continued in office till the year ■
fhops filled with all forts of the fineft merchandize in of his death, 1646. The progrefs of mafonry, how-
the city, (he caufed the edifice to be proclaimed, in ever, was for fome time obftru&ed by the-breaking
her prefence, by herald and trumpet, the Royal Ex- out of the civil wars ; but it began to revive under the
change; and on this occafion, it is faid Sir Thomas patronage of Charles II. who had l>een received into-
appeared publicly in the charafter of grand-maftei-. „ the order during his exile. Some lodges during this
The queen being now thoroughly convinced that reign were conilituted by leave of the feveral noble
the fraternity of mafons did not interfere in Hate af- grand-mafters, and many gentlemen and famous fcho-
fairs, became quite reconciled to their affemblies, and lars requefted. at that time to be admitted into the.
from this time mafonry made a confiderable progrefs; fraternity. Oh the 7 th of December 1663, a gene-
lodges were held in different parts of the kingdom, ral affembly was held, where Henry Jennyn earl of St
particularly in London and its neighbourhood, where Alban’s was elefted grand-mafter; who appointed
the number of the brethren increafed confiderably. Sir John Denham his deputy, and Mr Chriftopher
Several great works were carried on there under the Wren, afterwards the celebrated Sir Chriltopher
aufpices of Sir Thomas Grelham, from whom the fra- Wren, and John Webb, his wardens. At this affem-
ternity received every encouragement. bly feveral ufeful regulations were made, for the better
Sir Thomas-was fucceeded in the office of grand- government of the lodges ;^and the greatelt harmony
mailer by Charles Howard earl of Effingham, who prevailed among the whole fraternity. The earl of
continued to prefide over the lodges in the fouth till St Alban’s was fucceeded in his office of grand-mailer
the year 1588; when George Hailings earl of Hunt- by earl Rivers in the .year. 1666, when Sir Chrifto-
ingdon was chofen grand-mailer, and. remained in pher Wren ,was appointed deputy, and diilinguiihed •'
the office till the deceafe of the queen in 1603, himfelf beyond any of his predeceilbra in promoting.
On the acceffion of James I. to the crown of Eng- the prbfperity of the lodges which remained at that
land, mafonry flouriilied in both kingdoms, and lodges time, particularly that, of St .Paul’s^naw the lodge,
were held in both kingdoms. A number of gentle- of Antiquity, which he patronized upwards of iS
men returned from their travels, with, curious draw- years. At this time he attended the. meetings regu-
ings of the old Greek and Roman architeblure, as larly ; and during his prefidency made a prefent to
well as ftrong inclination to revive a knowledge of it. the lodge of three mahogany candlefticks, which at
Among thele was the celebrated Inigo Jones, who that time, w-ere very valuable. They are Hill prefer-
was appointed general furveyor to the king. He was ved, and highly valued as a teftimony of the efteem of
named grand-mailer of England, and was deputed by. the donor.
the king to prefide over the lodges, (a). Several. The fire which in 1666 deilroyed fuch a great part
learned men. were now initiated, into the myileries of of .London, afforded ample opportunity for the mafons
mafonry, and the fociety incteafed coniidentbly , in re- to exert their abilities. After a calamity , fo hidden
putation and confequenee.. Ingenious* artiils reforted and extentive, however, it. became, neceffary to adopt
to England in great numbers ; lodges were conftituted fome regulations to prevent, fuch a catailrophe in time
as feminaries of inftrublion in the fciences and polite to come. It was now determined, that in all the new
arts after the model of the Italian fchools ; the com- buildings to be erected, Hone, finould be ufed inllead
munications of the fraternity were eltabliffied, and the of . timber. Wren was ordered by the king and grand-
annual feffivals regularly obferved. Under the direc- maffer to draw up the plan of a city with broad and
tion of this accompliftied architebl, many magnificent regular fireets.,. Dr. Chrillopher Wren was appointed
ftruftures were railed; and among the reH he-was furveyorrgeneral and principal architebl for rebuilding
employed, by command of-the fotereign, to plan a, the city, the cathedral ,of St Paul, and all. the paro-
new palace at Whitehall, worthy of the refidence of chial churches enabled by parliament, in lieu of thofe
the kings of England. This was executed ; but for that - were . deHroyed, with other public ffrublures.
want of a parliamentary fund, no more of the plan was This,gentleman, however, conceiving the charge to
ever finifhed than.the banqueting-houfe. Inigo Jones be .too important for a .fingle perfon, felebled for his
continued in the office of grand-mafier till the . year affifiant Mr Robert Hook profeffor of geometry in
1618, when he was fucceeded by the earl of Pern- Greffiam. college.. The latter was immediately em-
broke; under whofe aufpicesmany eminent and weal-, ployed in meafuring, adjnlting, and fetting out the.>
ground
(a) Mr Prefion obferves, that the grand-mafter of. the north bears the title ofgrand-wajler of all England^,
which {fays he} may probably have been occalioned by the title of grand-majkr.
MAS [ 624 1 MAS
'W^nrrry. nrroytnd of the private ftrcets to the feveral proprietors, fonry (hould not be confined to operative mafons, but Mifonry;
The model and plan were laid before the king and that people of all profeffions fhould be admitted to par- -v*—*-1
houfe.of commons, and the practicability of the whole ticipate in them, provided they were regularly appro-
fcheme, without any infringement of private proper- ved and initiated into the order,
ty : but unfortunately it happened, that the greater Thus the fociety once more rofe into efteem ; and
partof the citizens were totally averfe to leaving their old on the acceffion of George I. the mafons, now de-
‘habitations, and building houfes in other places; and prived of Sir Chriftopher Wren, refolved to unite again
fo obftinate were they in their determinations, that under a grand-mafter, and revive the annual feftivals.
*hey chofe rather to have their old city again under With this view, the members of the only four lodges
all its difadvantages, than a new one upon the impro- at that time exifting in London, met at the Apple-
-ved plan. Thus an opportunity was loft of making tree tavern in CharleS-ftreet, Covent Garden ; and ba¬
the new city the moft magnificent as well as the moft ving voted the oldeft mafter-mafon then prefent into
•convenient for healtli and commerce of any in Europe, the chair, conftituted themfelves a grand-lodge pro
Hence the architect, being cramped in the execution tempore. It was now refolved to renew the quarterly
of his plan, was obliged to alter and abridge it, and communications among the brethren ; and at an au¬
to model the city after the manner in which it has nual meeting held on the 24th of June the fame
fince appeared.—In 1673 the foundation-ftone of the year, Mr Anthony Sayer was elefted grand-mafter,
cathedral of St Paul’s was laid with great folemnity invefted by the oldeft mafter-mafon there prefent, in-
by the king in perfon, and the mallet which he ufed ftalled by the mafter of the oldeft lodge, and had due
on this occafion is ftill preferred in the lodge of Anti- homage paid him by the fraternity. Before this
quity as a great curiolity. time a fufficient number of mafons, met together
During the time that the city was rebuilding, within a certain diftrift, had ample power -to make
lodges were held by the fraternity in different places, mafons without a warrant of conftitution ; but it was
and many new ones conftituted, to which the beft ar- now determined, that the privilege of affembling as
chitefts reforted. In 1674, earl Rivers refigned the mafons fhould be veiled in certain lodges or affemblies
office of grand-mafter in favour of George Villiers of mafons convened in certain places, and that every
■duke of Buckingham, who left the care of the frater- lodge to be afterwards convened, excepting the four
nity to his wardens, and Sir Chriftopher Wren who old lodges then exifting, fhould be authorized to a<ft
ftill continued to a<ft as deputy. In 1679, t^ie duke by a arrant from the grand-mafter for the time,
refigned in favour of Henry Bennet earl of Ailing- granted by petition from certain individuals, with the
ton : but this nobleman was too deeply engaged in confent and approbation of the grand-lodge in com-
ftate affairs to attend to his duty as a mafon, though munication ; and that without fuch warrant, no lodge
the lodges continued to meet under his fan&ion, and fhoitld hereafter be deemed regular or conftitutional.
many refpeftable gentlemen joined the fraternity. Du- The former privileges, howeve , were ftill allowed to
ring the fhort reign of James II. the mafons were remain to the four old lodges then extant. In con-
much neglefted. In 1685, Sir Chriftopher Wren fcquence of-this, the old mafons in the metropolis veft-
was ele6ted to the office of grand-maftcr, who appoint- ed all their inherent privileges as individuals in the
ed Gabriel Cibber and Mr Edward Strong his war- four old lodges, in truft that they never would fuffer
dens: yet notwithftanding the great reputation and the ancient charges and land-marks to be infringed,
abilities of this celebratedarchiteft, mafonry continued The four old lodges, on their part, agreed to extend
in a declining way for many years, and only a few their patronage to every new lodge which fhould here-
lodges were held occafionally in different parts of the after be conftituted according to the new regulations
kingdom. of the fociety ; and while they afted in conformity to
At the Revolution, the fociety was in fuch a low ftate the ancient conftitutions of the order, to admit their
in the fouth of England, that only feven regular lodges mafters and wardens to fliare with them all the pri-
were held in London and its fuburbs ; and of thefe only vileges of the grand-lodge, that of precedence only ex-
two, viz. that of St Paul’s and one at St Thomas’s hof- cepted.
pital, Southwark, were of anyconfequence. Butin 1695 Matters being thus fettled, the brethren of the four
king William having been initiated into the myfteries, old lodges coniidered their attendance on the future
honoured the lodges with his prefence, particularly one communications of the fociety as unneceflary ; and
at Hampton-court, at which he is faid to have frequent- therefore trufted implicitly to their mailers and war-
ly prefided during the time that the new part of his dens, fatisfied that no meafure of importance would
palace was building. Many of the nobility alfo were be adopted without their approbation. It was,
prefent at a general affembly and feaft held in 1697, however, foon difeovered, that the new lodges being
particularly Charles duke of Richmond and Lenox, equally reprefented with the old ones at the communi-
who was elected grand-mafter for that year; but in cations, would at length fo far outnumber them, that
1098 refigned his office to Sir Chriftopher Wren, who by a majority they might fubvert the privileges of
continued at the head of the fraternity till King Wil- the original mafons of England v-hich had been cen-
liam’s death in i 702. tered in the four old lodges; on which account a code
During the reign of Queen Anne, mafonry made of laws was, with the confent of the brethren at large,,
r.o confiderable progrefs. Sir Chriftopher’s age and drawn up for the future government of the fociety.
infirmities drew off his attention from the duties of To this the following was annexed, binding the grand-
his office, the annual feftivals were entirely negle&ed, mafter for the time betng, his fucceffors, and the ma-
and the number of mafons confiderably diminiftied. fter of every lodge to be hereafter conftituted, to pre-
It was therefore determined that the privileges of ma- ftrve it inviolably ; “ Every annual gland-lodge ha*
N° J96. 6 su* ’
M AS [ 625 ] MAS
Mafonry. an inherent power and authority to make new regu-
lations, or to alter thefe for the real benefit of this
ancient fraternity, provided always that the old land¬
marks be carefully preferved : and that fuch altera¬
tions and new regulations be propofed and agreed to
at the third quarterly communication preceding the an¬
nual grand feaft ; and that they be offered alfo to the
perufal of all the brethren before dinner, in writing,
even of the youngeft apprentice; the approbation and
confent of the majority of all the brethren prefent
being abfolutely neceffary to make the fame binding
and obligatory.” To commemorate this circumftance,
it has been cuftomary, ever fince that time, for the
mafter of the oldeft lodge to attend every grand in-
ftallation ; and, taking precedence of all prefent, the
grand-mafter'only excepted, to deliver the book of
the original conffitutions to the new inftalled grand-
mafter, on his promifing obedience to the ancient
charges and general regulations.
By this precaution the original conftitutions were
eftablifhed as the bafis of all fucceeding mafonic jurif-
didtion in the fouth of England; and the ancient land¬
marks, as they are called, or the boundaries fet up as
checks againll innovation, were carefully fecured from
the attacks of any future invaders. No great progrefs,
however, was made during the adminiftration of Mr
Sayer, only two lodges being conftituted, though
feveral brethren joined the old ones. In 1718 Mr
Sayer was fucceeded by Mr George Payne, who col-
lefted many valuable manufcripts on the fubjedt of ma-
fonry, and earnefily requefted, that the fraternity
would bring to the grand lodge any old writings or re¬
cords concerning the fraternity, to fhow the ufages
of ancient times: and in confequence of this invita¬
tion, feveral old copies of the Gothic conftitutibns
were produced, arranged, and digefted. Another af-
fembly anAfeaft were held on the 24th of June 1719,
when Dr Defaguliers’was unanimoufiy elefted grand-
mafter. At this feaft the old, regular, and peculiar
toafts were introduced ; and from this time we may
date the rife of free-mafonry on its prefent plan in
the fouth of England. Many new lodges were efta-
blilhed, the old ones vifited by many mafons who had
long neglefted the craft, and feveral noblemen ini¬
tiated into the myfteries. In 1720, however, the
fraternity fuftained an irreparable lofs by the burning
of feveral valuable manufcripts, concerning the lodges,
regulations, charges, fecrets, &c. (particularly one
written by Mr Nicholas Stone, the warden under Inigo
Jones). This was done by fome fcrupulous brethren,
who were alarmed at the publication of the mafonic
conftitutions. At a quarterly communication it was
this year agreed, that, for the future, the new grand-
mafter fiiall be named and propofed to the grand lodge
fome time before the feaft ; and if approved and pre¬
sent, he (hall be faluted as grand-mafter eledt: and
that every grand-mafter, when he is inftalled, (hall
have the foie power of appointing his deputy and war¬
dens according to ancient cuftom.
In the mean time mafonry continued to fpread in
the north as well as the fouth of England. The
. general affembly, or grand lodge at York, continued
to meet as ufual. Several lodges met in 1705, under
the direftion of Sir John Tenipeft baronet, then grand-
* mafter; and many perfons of worth and character were
Vol. X. Part II.
initiated into the myfteries of the fraternity. The Mafonry-
greateft harmony fubfifted between the two grand
lodges, and private lodges were formed in both parts
of the kingdom under their feparate jurifdiftion. The
only diftindtion which the grand lodge in the north
appears to have retained is in the title of the Grand
Lodge of all England ; while the other was only called
the Grand Lodge of England. The latter, however,
being encouraged by fome of the principal nobility,
foon acquired confequence and reputation, while the
other feemed gradually to decline ; but, till within
thefe few years, the authority of the grand lodge at
York was never challenged ; on the other hand, every
mafon in the kingdom held that affembly in the high-
eft veneration, and confidered himfelf bound by the
charges which originated from that affembly. It was
the glory and boaft of the brethren in almoft every
country where mafonry was eftablifhed to be account¬
ed defcendants of the original York mafons; and
from the univerfality of the idea that mafonry was
firft eftablifhed at York by charter,- the mafons of
England have received tribute from thejirft dates in Eu¬
rope. At prefent, however, this focial intercourfe is
abolifhed, and the lodges in the north and fouth are al¬
moft entirely unknown to one another ; and neither the
lodges of Scotland nor Ireland court the correfpon-
dence of the grand lodge at London. This is faid
to have been owing to the introdudtion of (bme in¬
novations among the lodges in the fouth ; but for the
coolnefs which fubfifts between the two grand lodges
another reafon is affigned. A few brethren at York
having, on fome trivial occafion, feceded from their
ancient lodge, they applied to London for a warrant
of conftitution. Thfir application was honoured with¬
out any inquiry into the merits of the cafe ; and thus,
inftead of being recommended to the mother-lodge to
be reftored to favour, thefe brethren were encouraged
to revolt, and permitted, under the fanftion of the
grand lodge in London, to open a new lodge in the
city of York itfelf. This illegal extenfion of power
juftly offended the grand lodge at York, andoccafion-
ed a breach which has never yet been made up.
The duke of Buccleugh, who in 1723 fucceeded
the duke of Wharton as grand-mafter, firft propofed
the fcheme of railing a general fund for diftreffed ma¬
fons. The duke’s motion was fuppqrted by Lord
Paifley, Colonel Houghton, and a few other brethren;
and the grand lodge appointed a committee to con-
fider of the moft effeftual means of carrying the fcheme
into execution. The difpofal of the charity was firft
veiled in feven brethren; but this number being found
too fmall, nine more were added. It was afterwards
refolved that 12 mailers of contributing lodges, in ro¬
tation with the grand officers, Ihould form the com¬
mittee ; and by another regulation lince made, it has
been determined that all pall and prefent grand of¬
ficers, with the mailers of all regular lodges which
(hall have contributed within 12 months to the cha¬
rity, (hall be members of the committee. This com¬
mittee meets four times in the year by virtue of a
fummons from the grand mafter or his deputy. The
petitions of the diftreffed brethren are confidered at
thefe meetings; and if the petitioner be confidered as
a deferving objeil, he is immediately relieved with
five pounds. If the circumltances of the cafe are of
4 K a
MAS
[ 626 ]
MAS
• a peculiar nature, his petition is referred to the next exiftence among the fuperftitious Egyptians., The Mafoiry,
communication, where he is relieved with any fum the
committee may have fpecified, not exceeding 20 gui¬
neas at one time. Thus the diftreffed have always found
ready relief from this general charity, which is fup-
ported by the voluntary contributions of different
lodges out of their private funds, without being bur-
denfome to any member in the fociety. Thus has
the committee of charity for free mafons been efta-
blifhed ; and fo liberally have the contributions been,
fcheme was firft put in execution in London ; and by Ma<orai ,
means of his pretended knowledge in the myfteries of " ’ ” ,
this art, the Count procured great fums of money,
and attached to himfelf a vafl number of followers.
The following particulars concerning it were confeffed
by him before the inquifition at Rome.
The Egyptian mafons are divided into feveral fefts,
but there are two more elleemed than the reft. The
firft is that of the adepts, the members of which (fay
that though the fums annually expended for the relief the inquifitors) profefs the moft irreligious fentiments,
of the diftreffed brethren have for feveral years paft
amounted to many thoufand pounds, there ftill remains
a confiderable fum.
The moft remarkable events which of late has taken place
in the affairs of mafonry, are the initiation of Omitul-
Omrah Bahauder, eldeft fon of the nabob of the Car¬
and employ magic in their operations; but their prin¬
cipal objeft is the deftruftton of the Catholic religion
and of monarchy. The members of the other pretend
to be occupied about the fecrets of the hermetic art,
and more efpecially the philofopher’s ftone. Cag-
lioftro ownqd that he was affociated in London with
natic, who was received by the lodge of Trinchino- the fecond of thefe fefts ; that his wife was likewife
poly in the year 1779. The news being officially
tranfmitted to England, the grand lodge determined
to fend a congratulatory letter to his highnefs on
the occafion, accompanied with an apron elegantly
decorated, and a copy of the book of Conftitutions
fuperbly bound. The execution of this commiffion
was entrufted to Sir John Duy, advocate-general of
•Bengal; and in the beginning of 1780, an anfwer
was received from his highnefs, acknowledging the re¬
ceipt of the prefent, and expreffing the warmeft at¬
tachment and benevolence to his brethren in England.
The letter was written in the Perfian language, and
inclofed in an elegant cover of cloth of gold, and ad-
dreffed to the grand-mafter and grand lodge of Eng¬
land. A proper reply was made ; and a tranflation
of his highnefs’s letter was ordered to be copied on
vellum ; and, with the original, elegantly framed and
glazed, and hung up in the hall at every public meet¬
ing of the fociety.
After fuch a long hiftory of the rife and progrefs of ftroke
mafonry, it muft be natural to inquire into the ufes confequence.
of the inftitution, and for what purpofe it has been
patronifed by fo many great and illuftrious perfonages.
The profound fecrecy, however, in which every thing
relating to mafonry is involved, prevents us from be¬
ing: very particular on this head. The mafons them¬
ing very particular on
felves fay, in general, that it promotes philanthropy,
friendfhip, and morality; that in proportion as ma¬
fonry has been cultivated, the countries have been ci¬
vilized, See. How far this can be depended upon, the
fraternity them felves belt know. Another advantage,
however, feems lefs equivocal, viz. that its figns ferve
as a kind of univerfal language, fo that by means of
them people of the moft diftant nations may become
acquainted, and enter into friendfhip with one another.
This certainly muft be accounted a very important cir-
cumftance; and confidering the great number which
have been, and daily are, admitted to the fociety, and
their inviolable attachment to the art, we muft cer¬
tainly conclude, that if it contains nothing of great
importance to mankind at large, it muft at leaft be
extremely agreeable, and even fafeinating to thofe
who are once initiated.
Egyptian Masomly, a new fyftem of mafonry taught
by the celebrated impoftor the Count Caglioftro.—
It is not known whether this fyftem was an invention
of his own, or whether any fuch thing really has an
member, and received a diploma, which Coft five gui •
neas. The lady was prefented with a ribbon, on which
were embroidered the words Union, Silence, and Vir~
tut; and fhe was defired to fleep the following night
with the ribbon attached to her thigh. When a male
candidate is to be admitted, his courage muft be tried
in a number of ways. Caglioftro himfelf fubmitted
to thefe trials ; among which the following are men- .
tioned in the account of his life. He was firft hoifted
up to the cielihg by means of a pulley, and, after fuf-
fering confiderable pain, had his hand fcorched by
means of a candle. His eyes were then covered with
a bandage, and he received an empty piftol, with or¬
ders to charge it. This being done, he was ordered
to difeharge it againft his head ; and upon his refufing
to do fo, the piftol was taken from him with contempt,
but returned after a number of ceremonies. This had
fuch an effeft upon him, that without any regard to
felf-prefervation, he drew the trigger* and,got a fmart
the fkull, which, however, produced no bad
ce. At the initiation of other candidates,
he difeovered that the piftol was changed, an unload¬
ed one being put into the hands of the perfon when
blind-folded, and that one of the affiftants ftruck him
a fmart blow on the head, to make him think himfelf
wounded. The ceremony was concluded with his ta¬
king an oath of fecrecy and obedience to the grand-
mafter.
MASORA, a term in the Jewifh theology, fignify-
ing a work on the Bible, performed by feveral learned
rabbins, to fecure it from any alterations which might
otherwife happen.
Their work regards merely the letter of the Hebrew
text, in which they have, firft, fixed the true reading
by vowels and accents : they have, fecondly, numbered
not only the chapters and feftions, but the verfes,
words, and letters of the text: and they find in the
Pentateuch 5245 verfes, and in the whole Bible 23206-
The mafora is called, by the Jews, the hedge or fence of
the laov, becaufe this enumeration of the verfes, &c.
is a means of preferving it from being corrupted and
altered. They have, thirdly, marked whatever irregu¬
larities occur in any of the letters of the Hebrew text;
fuch as the different fize of the letters, their various
pofitions and inverfions, &c. and they have been fruit¬
ful in finding out reafons for thefe irregularities and
myfteries in them. They are, fourthly,#fuppofed to
be
MAS
be the imthors of the Kerl and Chetibh, or the margi-
Mafijae. pai Corre£tion8 of the text in our Hebrew Bibles.
"’’"v The text of the facred books, it is to be obferved,
•was originally written without any breaks or divilions
into chapters or verfes, or even into words ; fo that a
whole book, in the ancient manner, was but one con¬
tinued word : of this kind we have ftill feveral ancient
manufcripts, both Greek and Latin. In regard, there¬
fore, the facred writings had undergone an infinite
number of alterations, whence various readings had
arifen, and the original was become much mangled
and difguifed, the Jews had recourfe to a canon, which
they judged infallible, to fix and afcertain the reading
of the Hebrew text; and this rule they call mafora,
“ tradition,” from iou, tradidit, as if this critique were
nothing but a tradition which they had received from
their forefathers. Accordingly they fay, that when
God gave the law to Mofes at Mount Sinai, he taught
him, firil, the true reading of it; and, fecondly, its
true interpretation ; and that both thefe were handed
down by oral tradition, from generation to generation,
till at length they were committed to writing. The
former of thefe, viz. the true reading, is the fubjeft of
the mafora; the latter, or true interpretation, that of
the mifhna and gemara.
According to Elias Levita, they were the Jews of a
famous fchool at Tiberias, about 500 years after
Chrift, who compofed, or at leaft began, the mafora ;
whence they are called mafurites, and maforetic 'doc¬
tors. Aben Ezra makes them the authors of the
points and accents in the Hebrew text, as we now find
it; and which ferve for vowels.
The age of the maforites has been much difputed.
Archbifhop Uflier places them before Jerom; Capel,
at the end of the fifth century; father Morin, in the
tenth century. Bafnage lays, that they were not a fo-
ciety, but a fucceffion of men ; and that the mafora is
the work of many grammarians, who, without aflbci-
ating and communicating their notions, compofed this
collection of criticifms ou the Hebrew text'. It is
urged that there were maforites from the time of Ezra
and the men of the great fynagogue, to about the year
of Chriit 1030; and that Ben Afher and Ben Naph-
tali, who were the beft of the profefiion, and who, ac¬
cording to Bafnage, were the inventors of the mafora,
flouriihed at this time. Each of thefe publiftied a
copy of the whole Hebrew text, as correft, fays Dr
Prideaux, as they could make it. The ealtern Jews
have followed that of Ben Naphtali, and the weftern
that of Ben Aflrer ; and all that has been done fince
is to copy after them, wirhout making any more cor-
Teftions, or maforetical criticifms.
The A rabs have done the fame thing by their Ko¬
ran that the maforites have done by the Bible ; nor
do the Jews deny their having borrowed this expedi¬
ent from the Arabs, who firft put it in practice ia the
leventh century.
There is a great and little mafora printed at Ve¬
nice and at Bafil, with the Hebrew text in a different
character. Buxtorf has written a maforetic commen¬
tary, which he calls Tiberias,
MASQUE, or Mask, a cover for the face, con¬
trived with apertures for the eyes and mouth ; origi¬
nally worn chiefly by women of condition, either to
preferve their complexion from the weather, or out of
MAS
modelty to prevent their being known. Poppnea, wife
of Nero, is faid to be the firff inventor of the mafque ;
which flic did to guard her complexion from the fun
and weather, as being the moft delicate woman, with
regard to her perfon, that has been known.
Theatrical mafques were in common ufe both among
the Greeks and Romans: Suidas and Athenseus aferibe
the invention of them to the poet Choerilus, a con¬
temporary of Thefpis; Horace attributes them to dSf-
chylus ; but Ariffotle informs us, that the real inven¬
tor, and confequently the time. of their firft intro-
du&ion and ufe, were unknown. Brantome obferves,
that the common ufe of modern mafques was not in¬
troduced till towards the end of the fixteenth century.
MAsqufe is alfo ufed to fignify any thing ufed to
Cover the face, and prevent a perfon’s being known.
The penitents of Lyons and Avignon hide their faces
with large white veils, which ferve them for mafques.
The Iron M.AS3UR (Mafque de Fer), or Man ivith
the iron mafque, a remarkable perfonage fo denomina¬
ted, who exifted as a ftate prifoner in France during
the latter part of the laft century. As the circunw
fiances of this perfon form a hiftorical problem which
has occafioned much inquiry, and given rife to many
conjectures, as well as of late, in confequence of the de-
ftruCtion of the Baftile, excited in a particular manner
the curiofity of the public, it (hall be endeavoured to
condenfe in this article the fubftance of every thing
material that has been publiflied on the fubjedt. We
fhall firft relate fuch particulars concerning this extra¬
ordinary prifoner as appear to be well authenticated ;
and (hall afterwards mention the different opinions and
conjectures that, have been entertained with regard to
his real quality, and the caufes of his confinement.
I. The authenticated particulars concerning the iron
Mafque are as follows:—-A few months after the death
of Cardinal Mazarine, there arrived at the ifle of Sainte
Marguerite, in the fea of Provence, a young prifoner
whofe appearance was peculiarly attracting : his per¬
fon was above the middle fixe, and elegantly formed ;
his mien and deportment were noble;'and his manners
graceful; and even the found of his voice, it is faid,
had in it fomething uncommonly interefting. On the
road he conllantly wore a mafic made with iron fprings,
to enable him to eat without taking it off. It was at
firft believed that this mafque was made entirely with
iron ; whenee he acquired the name of “ the Man with
the iron mafic.” His attendants had received orders
to difpatch him if he attempted to take off his mafque
or difeover himfelf.—He had been firft confined at
Pigneol, under the care of the governor M.de St Mars;
and upon being fent from thence to Sainte Margue¬
rite, he was accompanied thither by the fame perfon,
who continued to have the charge of him. He was
always treated with the moft marked refpefft : he was
ferved conftantly in plate; and the governor himfelf
placed his difties on the table, retiring immediately af¬
ter and locking the door behind him. He tu-to'yoit
(thee’d and thou’d) the governor; who, on the other
hand, behaved to him in the moft refpe&ful manner,
and never wore his hat before him, nor fat down in
his prefence unlefs he was defired. The Marquis de
Louvoifis, who went to fee him at St Marguerite,
fpoke to him Handing, and with that kind of attention
which denotes high refpeft.
4 K 3
C 627 1
M»f>i
During
Mafi’ue-
MAS [ 6j8 ] MAS
During bis reiidence here, he attempted twice, in
an indiredt manner, to make himfelf known. One
day he wrote fomething with his knife on a plate, and
threw it out of his window towards a boat that was
drawn on (hore near the foot of the tower. A iiflier-
man picked it up and carried it to the governor. M.
de St Mars was alarmed at the fight; and alked the
man with great anxiety, whether he could read, and
whether any one elfe had feen the plate ? The man
anfwered, that he could notread, that he had but juft
found the plate, and that no one elfe had feen it. Pie
was, however, confined till the governor was well af-
fured of the truth of his affertions.-—Another attempt
to difcover himfelf proved equally unfuccefsful. A
young man who liv« d in the ifle, one day perceived
fomething floating under the prifoner’s window ; and
on picking it up, he difcovered it to be a very fine
fhirt written all over. Pie carried it immediately to
the governor ; who, having looked at fome parts of
the writing, alked the lad, with fome appearance of
anxiety, if he had not had the curiofity to read it?
Pie protefted repeatedly that he had not: but two
days afterwards he was found dead in his bed.
The Mafque de Fer remained in this ifle till the year
1698, when M. St Mars being promoted to the go¬
vernment of the Baftile, conducted his prifoner to that
fortrefs. In his way thither, he ftopt with him at his
eftate near Palteau. The Mafque arrived there in a
litter, furrounded by a numerous guard onhorfeback.
M. de St Mars eat at the fame table with him all the
time they refided atPalteau ; but the latter was always
placed with his back towards the windows ; and the
peafants, who came to pay their compliments to their
mailer, and whom curiofity kept conftantly on the
watch, obferved that M. de St Mars always fat oppo-
fite to him with two piftols by the fide of his plate.
They were waited on by one fervant only, who brought
in and carried out the dilhes, always carefully Ihutting
the door both in going out and returning. The
prifoner was always malked, even when he paf-
fed through the court; but the people faw his teeth
and lips, and alfo obferved that his hair was grey.—
The governor flept in the fame room with him, in a
fecond bed that was placed in it on that occafion. In
the courfe of their journey, the iron-malic was, one
day, heard to alk his keeper whether the king had
any defign on his life ? “ No, Prince,” he replied ;
“ provided that you quietly allow yourfelf to be con¬
duced, your life is perfedy fecure.”
The ftranger was accommodated as well as it was
polfible to be in the Baftile. An apartment had been
prepared for him by order of the governor before his
arrival, fitted up in the moll convenient ftyle; and
every thing he exprelfed a defire for was inftantly pro¬
cured him. His table was the bell that could be pro¬
vided ; and he was ordered to be fupplied with as rich
clothes as he defired : but his chief tafte in this laft
particular was for lace, and for linen remarkably fine.
It appears that he was allowed the ufe of fuch books
as he defired, and that he fpent much of his time in
reading. He alfo amufed himfelf with playing upon
the guitar. He had the liberty of going to mafs;
but was then ftriftly forbid to fpeak or uncover his
face : orders were even given to the foldiers to fire upon
him if he attempted either; and their pieces were al- Mafque.
ways pointed towards him as he palled through- v1"”*
the court. When he had occafion to fee a furgeon
or a phyfician, he was obliged, under pain of death,
conftantly t® wear his mailt. An old phyfician of the
Baftile, who had often attended him when he was in-
difpofed, faid, that he never faw his face, though he
had frequently examined his tongue, and different parts
of his body ; that there was fomething uncommonly
interefting in the found of his voice ; and that he ne¬
ver complained of his confinement, nor let fall from
him any hint by which it might be gueffed who he
was. It is faid that he often paffed the night in walk¬
ing up and down his room.
This unfortunate prince died on the 19th of No¬
vember 1703, after a Ihort illnefs; and was interred
next day in the burying-place of the parilh of St Paul.
The expence of his funeral amounted only to forty
livres. The name given him was Marchiali: and even
his age, as well as his real name, it feemed of impor¬
tance to conceal; for in the regifter made of his fune¬
ral, it was mentioned that he was about forty years
old ; though he had told his apothecary, fome time
before his death, that he thought he mull be lixty.—
It is a well known faft, that immediately after the
prifoner’s death, his apparel, linen, clothes matralfes,
and in Ihort every thing that had been ufed by him,
were burnt; that the walls of his room were fcraped,
the floor taken up, evidently from the apprehenfion
that he might have found means of writing any thing
that would have difcovered who he was. Nay fuch
was the fear of his having left a letter or any mark
which might lead to a difcovery, that his plate was
melted down ; the glafs was taken out of the window
of his room and pounded to dull; the window-frame
and doors burnt; and the ceiling of the room, and
the plafter of the infide of the chimney, taken down.
Several perfons have affirmed, that the body was bu¬
ried without a head ; and Monfieur de Saint Foix in¬
forms us f, that “ a gentleman having bribed the fex- ). in hfi Ef.
ton, had the body taken up in the night, and found/;« Hijia-
a Hone inllead of the head.” nques.
The refult of thefe extraordinary accounts is, that
the iron mafque was fiot only a perfon of high birth,
but mull have been of great confequence ; and that
his‘ being concealed was of the. utmoft importance to
the king and miniftry. We come now, therefore, to
notice,
II. The opinions and conjedlures that have been
formed concerning the real name and condition of this
remarkable perfonage. Some have pretended that he
was the duke of Beaufort ; others, that he was the
Count de Vermandois, natural fon to Louis XIV. by
the duchefs de la Valliere. Some maintain him to
have been the duke of Monmonth, natural fon of
Charles II. of England by Lucy Walters ; and others
fay, that he was Gerolami Magni, minifter to the duke
of Modena.
Befides thefe conjectures, none of which poffeffes
fufficient probability to entitle them to confideration,
a fifth has been advanced ; namely, That the Iron
Mafque was a fon of Anne of Auftria, queen to
Louis XIII. and confequently that he was a brother of ,
Louis XIV.; but whether a baftard brother, a bro¬
ther-
MAS [ 629 ] MAS
Maf<iue. ther-german, or a half brother, is a qucftion that twin brother might one day be employed to renew M
l-‘-—v—■— has given rife to three feveral opinions, which we (hall thofe civil wars with which France had been fo often
Hate in the order of time in which the refpeftive tranf- afflicted, cautioufly concealed his birth, and fent him
actions to which they allude happened. away to be brought up privately. Having but an im-
1. The firft opinion is, that the queen proved with perfect knowledge of the circumftances that followed, I
child at a time when it was evident it could not have fhall fay nothing more, for fear of committing errors ;
been by her hufband, who, for fome months before, but I firmly believe the fait I have mentioned; and time
had never been with her in private. The fuppofed will probably prove to my reader, that I have ground
father of this child is fai.d by fome to have been the for what I have advanced.”
duke of Buckingham, who came to France in May This opinion has been more noticed fince the pub-
1621;, to conduit the princefs Henrietta, wife of Wcation of a. work caMzdi Memoires du Marechal Due ik
Charles I._to England. The private letters and me- Richlieu, written by the Abbe Soulavie ; concerning
moirs of thofe times fpeak very fufpicioufly of the which it may be proper to premife, that the prefent
queen and Buckingham ; his behaviour at Amiens, duke of Richlieu, fon of the marechal, difavows this
whither the quen and queen-mother accompanied the work; while the Abbe Soulavie, who had been em-
princefs in her way to Boulogne, occaftoned much nuhtf- ployed by the marechal, Infills on the authenticity of
perinv: notwithftanding the pains that, have been ta- his papers (a). He'informs us, that the duke of Rich-
ken by La Porte in his Memoires to excufe his miftrefs, lieu was the lover of Mademoifelle de Valois, daughter
it appears that the king, on this occafion, was ex- of the regent duke of Orleans, and afterwards duchefs
tremely offended at her, and that it required all the of Modena, who in return was palfionately fond of him :
influence and addrefs of the queen-mother to ef- that the regent had fomething more than a paternal
feet a reconciliation. It is faid, that this child was affection for his daughter; and that, though (he held
privately brought up in the country ; that when Ma- his fentiments in abhorrence, the duke of Richlieu
zarin became a favourite, he was entrufted with the made ufe of her influence with her father to difeover
care of him ; and that Louis XiV. having difeovered the fecret of the prifoner with the mafque : that the
the fecret on the death of the cardinal, thought it ne- regent, who had always ohferved the moll profound fi-
ceffary to confine him in the manner that has been re- lence on this fobject, was at lad perfuaded to entruil
lated. her with a manufeript, which fhe immediately fent to
Hijl.ofthe But it may be obferved, that this fecret could her lover, who took a copy of it. This manufeript is
jBa/7(7e,n06.fcarcely have efcaped the vigilance of the cardinal de .fuppofed to have been written by a gentleman on his
iJ' 343* Richlieu ; and it is not improbable, that a miniiler fo death-bed, who had been the governor of the prifoner.
little fcrupulous, if inclined to fave the honour of a ,The following is an extract of it, from what the Abbe
queen, would have removed a child, who, if he lived,. Soulavie has told us.
might have been made ufe of to dillurb the tranquil- “ The birth of the prifoner happened in the evening
lity of the kingdom. After this fupp&Ced birth, the of the 5th of September 1638, in prefence of the chan^
queen had frequent quarrels with the king, and, what cell or, the bilhop of Meaux, the author of the manu-
was more dangerous, with the cardinal; who even feript, a midwife named Peronete, and a fieur Honorat.
ufed every means in his power to enquire into her moll This circumflance greatly dillurbed the king's mind ;
private Iran factions. ' It was on a memorable occa- he obferved, that the Salique law had made no provi-
iion of this kind, that her fervant La Porte was fion for fuch a cafe ; and that it was even the opinion
thrown into the Baftile ; and it can fcarcely be ima- of fome, that the laft born was the firlt conceived, and
gined (he would have had the iirmnefs Ihe then difplay- therefore had a prior right to the other. By the ad-
ed, while confcious of fo much guilt, and under the vice of cardinal de Richlieu, it was therefore refolved
rilk of having it discovered. The prifoner with the to conceal his birth, but to preferve his life, in cafe by
mafque appears, by feveral accounts, to have been a the death of his brother it Ihould be neceffary to avow
youth of a haqdforne figure in tl;e year 1^61 ; and in him. A declaration was drawn up, and figned and
1703, when he died, to have been above fixty ; but fworn to by all prefent, in which every circumllance
had he been a fon of Buckingham, he would have been was mentioned, and feveral marks on his body deferi-
about thirty-fix in 1661, when he could not be faid bed. This document being foaled by the chancellor
to have been a youth ; and in November 1703, above with the royal feal, was delivered to the king; and all
feventy-eight. were commanded and took an oath never to fpeak on
2. The fecond opinion is, that he was the twin-bro- the fubjeft, not even in private and among themfelves.
ther of Louis XIV. born fome hours after him. This The child was delivered to the care of Madame Pero-
firil appeared in a (hort anonymous work publilhed ndte the midwife, to be under the direction of cardinal
without date, and without the name ©f place or prin- de Richlieu, at whofe death the charge devolved to
ter. It is therein faid, “ Louis XIV. was born at cardinal de Mazarin. Mazarin appointed the author
St Germains en Laye, on the 5th of September 163S, of tire manufeript his governor, and entrufted to him
about noon ; and the illuftrious prifoner, known by the care of his education. But as the prifoner was
the appellation of the Iron mafque, was born the fame extremely attached to Madame Peronete, and fhe
day, while Louis XIII. was at fupper. The king equally fo to him, file remained with him till her
and the cardinal, fearing that the pretenfions of a death. His governor carried him to his houfe in Bur¬
gundy,
(a) A letter from the duke of Richlieu, and an anfwer from the Abbe Soulavie, appeared in the Journal
de Paris.
MAS
Mafqn*
gundy, where he paid the greateft attention to his
education.
“ As the prifoner grew up, he became impatient to
difcover his birth, and often importuned his governor
on that fubjedt. His curiofity had been roufed, by
t 630 ]
MAS
the knowledge of Louis the XIII. ? That the marechal Mafqije.
feemed embarraffed, but afterwards laid, that he was v-—’-*
neither the baftard brother of Louis the XIV. nor the
duke of Monmouth, nor the count of Vermandois, nor
the duke of Beaufort, as different authors had advan*
obferving that meffengers from the court frequently ced ; that their conjectures were nothing but reveries
arrived at the houfe ; and a box, containing letters
from the queen and the cardinal, having one day been
inadVSttently left out, he opened it, and faw enough
to guefs at the fecret. From that time he became
thoughtful and melancholy, ‘ which (fays the author)
I could not then account for. He fliortly after aiked
me to get him a pot trait of the late and prefent king,
but added, that they however had related many cir-
cumltances that were true ; that in fact the order was
given to put the prifoner to death , if he difcovered
himfelf; and that he finilhed the converfation by fay¬
ing, All I can tell you on the fubjedt is, that the pri¬
foner was not of fuch confequence when he died at the
beginning of the prefent century as he had been at the
but I put him off by laying that I could not procure beginning of the reign of Louis the XIV. and that he
any that were good. He then delired me to let him
go to Dijon; which I have known fince was with an
intention of feeing a portrait of the king there, and
of going fecretly to St John de Lus, where the court
then was on occalion of the marriage with the infanta.
He was beautiful; and love helped him to accomplilh
his wiihes. He had captivated the affeCtions of a
Ihut up for important reafons of Hate.” The
Abbe Soulavie tells us, that he wrote down what had
been faid, and gave it to the Marechal to read, who
corrected fome expreffions. The Abbe having pro-
pofed fome further queftions, he anfwered, “ Read what
Voltaire publifhed laft on the fubjeCt of the prifoner
with the mafque, efpecially at the end, and refleCt on
young houfekeeper, who procured him a portrait of it.”-—The paffage of Voltaire alluded to is as fol-
the king. It might have ferved for either of the bro- lows.
thers; and the difcovery put him into fo violent a “The man with the mafque (fays he) is an enigma
paffion, that he immediately came to me with the por- of which every one would gueis the meaning. Some
trait in his hand, faying, Voila mon frere, et voila qui
je futs, Ihowing me at the fame time a letter of the
cardinal de Mazarin that he had taken out of the box.’
Upon this difcovery his governor immediately lent an
exprefs to court to communicate what had happened)
have faid that it was the duke of Beaufort; but the
duke of Beaufort was killed by the Turks in the de¬
fence of Candy in 1669, a,nd the prifoner with the
mafque was at Pignerol in 1661. Befides, how could
the duke of Beaufort have been arrefted in the midft
and to defire new inftrudions; the confequence of of his army, and brought to France, without any one
' ' ’ ’ ’ ’ 1 ' knowing it? and why confine him? and why that
made ?—Others have dreamed that , he was the count
de Vermandois, natural fon of Louis XIV. who died
publicly at the army in 1683 of the fmall-pox, and
was buried at the little town of Aire and not Arras ;
in which Father Griffet was miffaken, but in which
to be fure there is no great harm.—Others have ima¬
gined, that it was the duke of Monmouth, who was
beheaded publicly in London in the year 1685. But
for this he mutt have rifen again from the dead, and
he mutt have changed the order of time, and placed
the year 1662 in the room of the year 1685. King
James, who never forgave any ofie, and whq on that
account deferved all that happened to him, mutt have
pardoned the duke of Monmouth, and got another to
die in his Head, who perfectly refembled him. This
Sofia mutt firit have been found, and then he mutt
which was, that the goverftor and the young prince
under his care were arretted and confined.”
This memoir, real or fictitious, concludes with fay¬
ing, “ I have fuffered with him in our common pri-
fon: I am now fummoned to appear before my Judge
on high; and for the peace of my foul 1 cannot but
make this declaration, which may point out to him the
means of freeing himfelf from his prefent ignominious
fituation, in cate the king his brother thould die with¬
out children. Can an extorted oath compel me to ob-
ferve fecrecy on a thing fo incredible, but which ought
to be left on record to pofterity.”
3. The third opinion is, that he was a fon of the
queen” by the cardinal de Mazarin, born about a year
after the death of her hutband Louis XIII.; that he
was brought up fecretly; and that foon after the death
ef the cardinal, which happened on the 9th of March
1661, he was fent to Pignerol. To this account Fa- have had the goodnefs to let his head be cut off
ia Vtrite de ther Griffet* objefts, “ that it was needlefs to mafque
4'HiJloire, a face that was unknown; and therefore that this
p. 310. n. 0pinion does not merit difeuffion.” But in anfwer
it has been obferved, That the prifoner might ftrongly
refemble Louis XIV. which would be a fufficient rea-
fon to have him mafked. This opinion is fuppofed to
have been that entertained by Voltaire, who afferts his
thorough knowledge of the fecret, though he declined
public, to fave the duke of Monmouth. It was ne-
ceffary that all England Ihould be miilaken ; and that
King James firould beg of Louis XIV. to be fo obli¬
ging as to be his gaoler ; that Louis XIV. after ha¬
ving Ihown this trifling piece of civility to King James,
(hould not have been wanting in the fame attention to
his friend King William and to Queen Anne (with
both of whom he was engaged in war), and to pleafe
being altogether explicit. The Abbe Soulavie, author them, retained the dignity of gaoler, with which James
pj Memoirs of the Marechal cie Richlieu, fpeaking on had honoured him.
this fubjeil:, fays, “ That he once obferved to the Ma¬
rechal, that he certainly had the means of being in¬
formed who the prifoner was; that it even feemed that
he had told Voltaire, who durft not venture to publilh
the fecret; and that he at laft alked him, whether he
was not the elder brother of Louis XIV. born without
5
All thefe illufions being diflipated, it then remains
to know who this prifoner was, and at what age he
died. It is clear, that if he was not permitted to
crofs the court of the Baftile, or to {peak to his phy-
fician, except covered with a mafque, it mult have been
from the upprehenfion that his features and counte¬
nance
MAS [ 631 ] MAS
Mafque. nance might have difcovered feme refemblance. He
  could fhow his tongue, but not his face. He faid him-
felf to the apothecary of the Baftile, a few days before
his death, that he believed he was about 60. Mr Mar-
foban, who was fon-in-law to this apothecary, and fur-
geon to the marechal de Richlieu, and afterwards to
the regent duke of Orleans, told me this frequently.
Why give him an Italian name?—They always called
him Marchiali. He who writes this article perhaps
' knows more than Father Griffet, but he will fay no¬
thing farther.”
This opinion has been lately refumed, illuftrated,
and enforced, by M. de Saint Mihiel, in a work in-
titled Le Veritable Hommey See. “ The real Man with
the Iron Mafque.” The author, in fupport of his
idea, attempts to prove that Anne of Auitria and Car¬
dinal Mazarine were married. This, fays he, the
duchefs of Orleans allures us of in three of her letters.
In the firft, dated Sept. 13. 1713, Ihe exprefles her-
felf as follows : “ Old Beauvais, who was firft lady of
the bed-chamber to the queen-dowager, was acquaint¬
ed with the fecret of the ridiculous marriage; this
rendered it necefiary for the queen to do eveiy thing
that her confidant wilhed} and this circumftance has
given rife in this country to an extenfion of the rights
of firft ladies of the bedchamber.” In the fecond of
thefe letters, dated Nov. 3.1717, (he fays, “The queen-
mother, widow of Louis XIlI. did worfe than love
Cardinal Mazarine; Ihe married him, for he was not
a prieft : he was not even in orders; and who could
have hindered her ? He was moft horribly tired of the
good queen-mother, and lived on very bad terms with
her, which is the reward that people deferve for enter¬
ing into fuch marriages.” In her third letter, dated
July 2. 1719, fpeaking of the queen, the duchefs fays,
“ She was perfectly eafy refpefiting Cardinal Mazarine;
be was not a prieft, and therefore nothing could pre¬
vent their being married. The fecret palfage through
which the Cardinal went every evening to the queen’s
apartment is ftill to be feen at the Palais-Royal.” A-
mong other proofs befides the above, which M. de
St Mihiel brings to fubftantiate this marriage, he ob-
ferves, that Mazarine held all councils of ftate in his
apartment whilft he was (having or dreffing; that he
never permitted any perfonto fit down in his prefence,
not even the chancellor nor marihal de Villeroi; and
that while they were deliberating with him on ftate
affairs he would be often playing with his monkey or
linnet. What man (continues the author) would have
fubjefted to fuch humiliations a chancellor, who holds
the firft office in the kingdom fince that of conftable
has been fuppreffed, and a marftial who was governor
to the king, had he not been in reality a fovereign
himfelf, in virtue of his being hufband to the queen-
regent? He therefore concludes, that the man with
the iron mafque was fon to Anne of Auftria and Car¬
dinal Mazarine ; and endeavours to juftify this affer-
tion by a variety of conjectural proofs. Of fome of
thefe we (hall give a fhort Iketch :
1. No prince, or perfon of any cpnfideration, after
the year 1644, at which time the man with the iron
mafque was born, until the time when his exiftence
was known, difappeared in France. This perfonage,
therefore, was not a prince or great lord of France
inown at that time.
2. The man with the iron mafque was not a fo- Mafque.
reigner; for foreigners, even of the higheft dittinttion, —v"—’
did not at that period ftudy the French language in
fuch a manner as to attain fo great perfection in it
as to pafs for Frenchmen. If this prifoner had fpokea
with the leaft foreign accent, the officers, phyficians,
furgeons, apothecaries, confeffors, and others employ¬
ed in the prifons where he was, and efpecially the pri-
foners with whom he converfed at St Margaret, would
not have failed to difeover it. From all this M. de
St Mihiel infers that he muft have been a French¬
man.
3. The exiftence of the man with the iron mafque
has been known for upwards of 90 years. Had any
perfon of high rank difappeared at an anterior period,
his friends, relations, or acquaintances, would not have
failed to claim him, or at leaft to fuppofe that he was
the man concealed by this mafque. But no one dif¬
appeared, nor was any one claimed: the man with the
iron mafque was therefore a perfon unknown.
4. This man was not torn away from fociety on ac¬
count of any criminal aftion ; for when he was arreft-
ed, it was forefeen that he would caufe much embar-
raffment, and occafion great expences. He was there¬
fore not a criminal, elfe means would have been pur-
fued to get rid of him ; and confequently all the im¬
portance of his being concealed was attached folely ta
his perfon.
5. This ftranger muft have been a perfon of very
high birth ; for the governor of the prifon St Mars
behaved always to him with the greateft refpeCt.
6. Louis XIII. played on the guitar; LouisXIV.
did the fame in a very mafterly manner; and the man
with the iron mafque played alfo on that inftrument r
which gives us reafon to believe that his education was
direfted by the fame perfops who had prefided over
that of Louis XIV. and who appear to have been the
particular choice of Anne of Auftria.
7. This ftranger died on the 19th of November
1703 ; and a few days before his death, he told the
apothecary of the Baftile, that he believed he was
about 60 years of age. Suppofing that he was the*
59 and a half, he muft have been born towards the
end of May 1644; an<^ ^ was 60 wanting three
months, he muft have been born in the end of Auguft,
or the beginning of September, of the fame year; a
period when the royal authority was in the hands of
Anne of Auftria, but in reality exercifed more by
Mazarine than by her. “ I have already proved (con¬
tinues the author), that from the firft day of the re¬
gency of Anne of Auftria, the greateft friendffiip,
and even intimacy, fubfifted between this princefs and
the cardinal; that thefe fentiiqents were changed into
a mutual love ; and that they were afterwards united
by the bonds of marriage. They might, therefore,
well have a fon about the month of September 1644,
as Louis XIII. had been then dead more than 15
months, having died on the 15th of May the year
preceding. But nothing of what I have related, o- {
of what has been written, and acknowledged as faCt,'
refpeding the man with the iron ma(k, can be ap¬
plied, except to a fon of Mazarine and Anne of Au¬
ftria. The man with the iron ma(k was indebted^
therefore, for his exiftence to cardinal Mazarine, and
the regent widow of Louis XIII.”—To account for
the
MAS [ 632
^ Mafque. the manner in which the queen was able to conceal
v her pregnancy and delivery, Madame de Motteville is
quoted ; who relates, under the year 1644, that Anne
of Auftria quitted tlie Louvre, becaufe her apartments
there difpleafed her : that Hie- went to refide at the
Palais-Royal, which Richlieu, when he died, be¬
queathed to the deceafed king : that when fire firft
occupied this lodging, fhe ’was dreadfully ajfliQed with
the jaundice : that the phyficians afcribed this dvforder
to her deje&ion and application to bufinefs, which
gave her much embarrafiment: but that being cured
of her melancholy, as well as of her malady, fhe re-
folved to think only of enjoying tranquillity ; which
fhe did, by communicating to her minifter the burden
of public affairs. On this quotation, M. de St Mi-
hiel alks, “ Is it not very Angular, that the queen,
who, during the 29 years of her former wedded Hate,
had always refided in the Louvre, efpecially from
1626, when Louis XIII. ceafed to cohabit with her.
]
MAS
Mafraki-
that fhe. fliould indulge the affeftion fhe entertained Mafque
for cardinal Mazarine, and that fhe fhould marry him. .. Jl.
Every circumftance that could tend to favour fuch a
marriage will be found united in her fituation. She -
was at a diilance from her family; abfolute miflrefs of
all her actions; and had, befrdes, a heart formed for
love. Mazarine, though a cardinal, had never entered
into orders; he gave out that he was defcended from
a great family ; he was handfome and well made ; he
was of a mild, infmuating difpofition. and remarkably
engaging in converfation ; and his office, as prime mi¬
nifter, afforded him every opportunity of vifiting and
converfing w'ith the queen whenever he thought pro¬
per. Is it, therefore, fo very aftonifhing, that, with
fo many advantages, he was able to captivate the queen
fo far as to induce her to marry him ? Such a marriage
was not, indeed, according to the ufual courfe of
things. Yet it was not without many precedents,
particularly among fovereigns of the other fex, who
until their re-union, which took place in the begin- had given their hands to perfons of inferior rank.
ning of December 1637, fhould have quitted it pre-
cifely in 1644, becaufe fhe was difpleafed with her
apartments ? How happened it that her apartments
difpleafed her this year, and neither fooner nor later ?
She might undoubtedly have had any kind of furni¬
ture there which fhe defired, and every alteration made
according to her wifhes, as fhe was then abfolute mif-
trefs: but the caufe of her determination is plain ; the
apartments of the Palais-Royal, which front a garden,
were much more convenient for her to be delivered in
fecret.”
8. As it is neceffary that fome name fhould be gi¬
ven to every man, in order to diftinguifh him from
another, that of Marchiali was given to the man with
the iron mafic.: a name which evidently fhows, that
it had been invented by an Italian. [Cardinal Ma¬
zarine was a native of Pifcina in the Abruzzo.3
9. Anne of Auftria was remarkably delicate re-
fpedting every thing that touched her perfon. It was
with great difficulty that cambric could be found fine
enough to make fhifts and fheets for her. Cardinal
Mazarine once rallying her on this fubject, faid, That
if (lie Jhoidd be damned, her punifljment in hell would be to
fleep in HollandJheets. The predominant tafte of the
man with the iron mafque, was to have lace and linen
of the moft extraordinary finenefs. “ Who (fays the
author) does not perceive, in this fimilarity of taftes,
the maternal tendernefs of Anne of Auftria, who
would have thought her fon a great fufferer had he
not been indulged with fine linen ?”
“ Louis XIII. (continues M. de St Mihiel) was a
hufband of a gloomy difpofition, and an enemy to
pleafure : while the queen, on the contrary, was fond
of focial life ; and introduced at the court of France,
Specially after fhe became free, that eafe and polite-
nefs which diftinguifhed it under Louis XIV. from all
the other courts of Europe. Louis XIII, had alfo
a difagreeable countenance, and a breath fo offenlive,
that it was a punifhment for Richlieu to remain near
him. It is clear, therefore, that fhe could not be
.much pleafed with fuch a hufband. When fhe be-
e«nie regent of the kingdom by the king’s death.
Thus Chriftian IV. of Denmark efpoufed Chriftina
Monck; Frederick IV. efpoufed Mademoifelle Re-
wentlau ; James II. heir to the throne of England,
married the daughter of a counfellor ; Peter the Great
raifed to the throne Catharine I. the daughter of a
poor villager, yet pohaps the moft accomplifhed wo¬
man at that time between the Viftula and the pole ;
and Louis XIV. efpoufed the widow of a poet, but a
woman poffeffed of the moft extraordinary merit.
As the women, however, are not forgiven fo readily
as the men for entering into fuch marriages, Anne of
Auftria kept hers a fecret from this motive, and be¬
caufe fhe would have been in danger of lofing the re¬
gency of the kingdom had it been known."
The reafoning of M. de St Mihiel is both ingeni¬
ous and plaufible ; though the probability of the ac¬
count is fomewhat diminiflied by confidering what
muft have been the queen’s age at this period, after
fhe had been Louis s wife for 29 years before his
death.—The account immediately preceding, without
this objection, feems abundantly credible. But whe¬
ther, upon the whole, either of them can be received
as decifive, or whether the myftery of the iron mafk
remains ftill to be unravelled, we muft leave to the
reader to determine.
Masque, in archite&ure, is applied to certain
pieces of fculpture, reprefenting fome hideous forms,
grotefque, or fatyrs faces, &c. ufed to fill up and
adorn vacant places, as in friezes, the pannels of doors,
keys of arches, &c. but particularly in grottos.
MASQUERADE, or Mascarade, an affembly
of perfons mafqued or difguifed, meeting to dance and
divert themfelves. This was much in ufe with us, and
has been long a very common pradice abroad, efpe¬
cially in carnival time.
The word comes from the Italian mafcarata, and
that from the Arabic mafcara,. which fignifies “ rail¬
lery, buffoonery.” Granacci, who died in 1543,
is faid to have been the firft inventor of mafque-
rades.
MASRAKITHA, a pneumatic inftrument of mu-
fic among the ancient Hebrews, compofed of pipes of
which happened on the 14th of May 1643, as ^ie had various fizes, fitted into a kind of wooden cheft, open
not enjoyed that happinefs which arifes from a clofe
union of hearts, it will not appear extraordinary
. N° 196. 1
at the cop, and flopped at the bottom with wood co¬
vered with a /kin. Wind was conveyed to it from
the
MAS [ 633 1 MAS
the Ups, by means of a pipe fixed to tbe cheft : the
pipes were of lengths mufically proportioned to each
other, and the melody was varied at pleafure, by flop¬
ping and unflopping with the fingers the apertures
at the upper extremity. See Plate CCLXXIX.
MASS, in mechanics, the matter of any body
cohering with it, i, e, moving and gravitating along
with it. In which fenfe, mafs is diftinguifhed from
bulk, or volume, which is the expanfion of a body in
length, breadth, and thicknefs.
The mafs of any body is rightly eftimated by its
weight. And the maffes of two bodies of the fame
weight are in a reciprocal ratio of their bulks.
Mass, Miffa, in the church of Rome, the office or
prayers ufed at the celebration of the eucharift ; or in
other words confecrating the bread and wine into the
body and blood of Chrift, and offering them fo tran-
fubftantiated as an expiatory facrifice for the quick
and the dead.
As the mafs is in general believed to be a reprefen-
tation of the paffion of our bleffed Saviour, fo every
aftion of the prieft, and every particular part of the
fervice, is fuppofed to allude to the particular circum-
ftances of his paffion and death.
Nicod, after Baronius, obferves that the word
comes from the Hebrew mijfach, f oblatum ;) ox from
the Latin tnijfa miffbrum ; becaufe in the former
times, the catechumens and excommun. •«ited were fent
out of the church, when the deacons faid, Ite, miffa
ejly after fermon and reading of the epiftle and go-
fpel; they not being allowed to affift at the confecra-
tion. Menage derives the word from tnlffio, “ dif-
miffing Others from mijfa, “ miffing, fending 5”
becaufe in the mafs, the prayers of men on earth are
fent up to heaven.
The general divifion of maffes'confifts in high and
low. The firft is that fung by the chorifters, and cele¬
brated with the affiftance of a deacon and fub-deacon ;
low maffes are thofe in which the prayers are barely
rehearfed without finging.
There are a great number of different or occafional
maffes in the Romiffi church, many of which have
nothing peculiar but the name : fuch are the maffes of
the faints; that of St Mary of the fnow, celebrated
on the fifth of Auguft ; that of St Margaret, patronefs
of lying-in women ; that of the feaft of St John the
Baptift, at which are faid three maffes 5 that of the
Innocents, at which the gloria in exdelfis and the
hallelujah are omitted, and it being a day of mourn¬
ing, the altar is of a violet-colour. As to ordinary
maffes,. fome are faid for the dead, and, as is fuppofed,
contribute to fetch the foul out of purgatory rat thefe
maffes the altar is put in mourning, and the only de¬
corations are a crofs in the middle of fix yellow wax-
lights ; the drefs of the celebrant, and the very mafs-
book, are black; many parts of the office are omitted,
and the people are difmiffed without the benediddion.
If the mafs be faid for a perfon diftinguiffied by his
rank or virtues, it is followed with a funeral oration ;
they ereft a chapelle ardente, that is, a reprefentation
of the deceafed with branches and tapers of yellow
wax, either in the middle of the church, or near the
deceafed’s tomb, where the prieft pronounces a folemn
abfolution of the deceafed. 1 here are likewife pri¬
vate maffes faid for ftolen or ftrayed goods or cattle,
Vol. X. Part II.
for health, for travellers, Arc. which' gef under the
name of votive mdjjes. There is ftill a further diftinc- Mag-jCrff
tion of maffes denominated from the countries in which .
they were ufed ; thus the Gothic mafs, or mi/fa mofa-
rabum, is that ufed among the Goths when they were
mafters of Spain, and which is ftill kept up at To¬
ledo and Salamanca ; the Ambroflan mafs is that com-
pofed by St Ambrofe, and ufed only at Milan, of
which city he was bifhop; the Gallic mafs, ufed by
the ancient Gauls ; and the Roman mafs, ufed by ah
moft all the churches in the Romiffi communion.
Mass of the Prefantiified, (miffa prxfanStificatorum ),
is a mafs peculiar to the Greek church, in which there
is no confecration of the elements; but after finging
fome hymns, they receive the bread and wine which
was before confecrated. This mafs is performed all
Lent, except on Saturdays, Sundays, and the annun¬
ciation. The prieft counts upon his fingers the days
of the enfuing week on which it is to be celebrated,
and cuts off as many pieces of bread at the altar as
he is to fay maffes ; and after having confecrated them,
fteep them in wine, and then puts them in a box ;
out of which, upon every occafion, he takes fome of
it with a fpoon, and putting it on a diffi fets it upon
the altar.
MASSA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Terra di Lavoro, with a biffiop’s
fee ; feated on a mountain near the fea, in E. Long.
10. o. N. Lat. 43. 5.
Massa, an ancient, populous, and handfome town
of Italy, and capital of a fmall territory of the fame
name, with the title of a principality, and a ftrong
caftle. It is famous for its quarries of fine marble,
and is fituated in E. Long. 14. 23. N. Lat. 40. 40.
MASSACHUSETS colony, the principal fubdi-
vifion of New England, having Hampffiire on the
north, the Atlantic ocean on the eaft and fouth,
and Connefticut and New York on the weft. It is
about 100 miles long, and 40 broad. See New
England.
MASSACRE, a term ufed to fignify the fudden
and promifeuous butchery of a multitude. The moft
atrocious example of this kind upon record is that cal¬
led the Parifian Massacre, or Maffacre of St Bartholo¬
mew's Day. The Parifian maffacre was carried on
with fuch deteftable perfidy, and executed with fuch
a bloody cruelty, as would furpafs all belief, were it
not attefted by the moft undeniable evidence. In
the year 1572, in the reign of Charles IX. many of
the principal proteftants were invited to Paris, under a
folemn oath of fafety, upon occafion of the marriage
of the king of Navarre with the French king’s filter,
viz. the king of Navarre’s mother, Coligni admiral
of France, with other nobles. The queen-dow¬
ager of Navarre, a zealous proteftant, was poifoned
by a pair of gloves before the marriage was folemni-
zed; and on the 24th of Auguft 1572, being Bar¬
tholomew’s day, about day-break, upon the toll of the
bell of the church of St Germain, the butchery be¬
gan. The admiral was bafely murdered in his own
houfe; and then thrown' out of the window, to grati¬
fy the malice of the duke of Guife : his head was af¬
terwards cut off, and fent to the king and queen-mo¬
ther ; and his body, after a thoufand indignities offer¬
ed to it, hung up by the feet on a gibbet. After this*
4 L the
M A S
f 634- ]
MAS
the mfirdtrers ravaged the whole city of Paris, and
butchered in three days above ten thoufand lords, gen¬
tlemen, prefidents, and people of all ranks. An hor¬
rible fcene of things, fays Thuanus, when the very
•iireets and paifages refounded with the noife of thofe
that met together for murder and plunder; the groans
of thofe who were dying, and the Ihrieks of fuch as
were juft going to be butchered, were every where
heard ; the bodies of the llain thrown out of the win-
•dows ; the courts and chambers of the houfes filled
with them ; the dead bodies of others dragged through
the ftreets, their blood running down the channels in
fuch plenty, that torrents feemed to empty themfelves
in the neighbouring river: and, in a word, an innu¬
merable multitude of men, women with child, maid¬
ens, and children, were all involved in one common
deftruction ; and the gates and entrances of the king’s
palace all befmeared with their blood.
From the city of Paris the maffacre fpread al-
moft throughout the whole kingdom. In the city of
Meaux they threw above two hundred into jail; and
after they had raviihed and killed a great number of
women, and plundered the houfes of the proteftants,
they executed their fury on thofe they had imprifoned,
and calling them out one by one, they were killed, as
Thuanus exprefies, like Iheep in a market; the bodies
of lome were flung into ditches, and of others into the
river Maine. In Orleans they murdered above five
Inmdren men, women, and children, and enriched
themfelves with their fpoil. The fame cruelties were
practifed at Angers, Troyes, Bourges, La Charite,
and efpecially at Lyons, wheie they inhumanly de-
ftroyed above eight hundred proteftants ; children
hanging on their parents necks; parents embracing
.their children ; putting ropes about the necks of fome,
dragging them through the ftreets, and throwing them,
mangled, torn, and half-dead, into the river.
It would be endlefs to mention the butcheries com¬
mitted at Valence, Romaine, Rouen, &c. We fhall,
therefore, only add, that, according to Thuanus, above
thirty thoufand proteftants were deftroyed in this maf-
i'acre, or, as others with greater probability affirm, a-
bove one hundred thoufand.
Thuanus himfelf calls this a moft deteftable villainy j
and, in abhorrence of St Bartholomew’s day, ufed to
repeat thefe words of P. Statius, Silv. v. Hi. ver. 8&.
Sc.
ExcitLt ilia dies tevo, ne pojlera credant
Secula. Nos certe taceamus, et obruta muha
Noble tegi proprice patiamus crimina gen!is.
Jin the words of Job, chap. iii. vcr. 3. &c. “ Let that
day perilh; and let it not be joined unto the days of
the year. Let darknefs and the ffiadow of death ftain
it,” &c. And yet, as though this had been the moft
heroic tranfaftion, and could have procured immortal
glory to the authors of it, medals were ftruck at Pa¬
ris in honour of it.
But how was the news of this butchery received at
Rome, that faithful city, that holy mother of churches!
How dia the vicar of Chrift, the fucceflbr of Peter,
and the father of the Chriftian world, reliffi it ? Let
Thuapus tell the horrid truth. When the news, fays
he, came to Rome, it was wonderful to fee how they
c .ulted for joy. On the 6th of September, when the
letters of the pope’s legate were read in the aflembly
of the cardinals, by wdiich he allured the Pope that MitTa£etx
all was tranfafted by the exprefs will and command of M
the king, it was immediately decreed that the pope. a 1 n'.
ffiould march with his cardinals to the church of St
Mark, and in the moft folemn manner give thanks
to God for fo great a bleffing conferred on the fee of
Rome and the Chriftian world; and that on the
Monday after, folemn mafs ffiould be celebrated in the
church of Minerva ; at which the pope, Greg. XIII.
and cardinals were prefent ; and that a jubilee
ffiould be publilhed throughout the whole Chriftian
world, and the caufe of it declared to be, to return
thanks to God for the extirpation of the enemies of
the truth and church in France. In the evening
the cannon of St Angelo were fired, to teftify the
public joy ; th% whole city illuminated with bonfires;
and no one fign of rejoicing omitted that was ufually
made for the greateft victories obtained in favour of
the Roman church.
MASSAGETAE, an ancient people about whofe
feat there is as much doubt as about that of the Ama¬
zons : Tibullus and Ammian place them near Alba¬
nia, beyond the Araxes, which fometimes denotes the
Oxus; it is probable thcy-dwelt to the eaft of Sogdi-
ana, (Dionyfius Periegetes, Herodotus, Arrian).
MASSALIANS, a fet of enthufiafts who fprang
up about the year 361, in the reign of the emperor
Conftantius, who maintained that men have two fouls,
a celeftial and a diabolical, and that the latter is driven
out by prayer.
MASSAN1ELLO, fee Hi/lory of N.tvLf.t,
MASSETER, in anatomy. See there, (Table of
the Mufcles).
MASSICOT, fee Masticot.
MASS1EU (William), a learned French writer,
member of the academy of belles lettres, and of the
French academy, was horn at Caen in Normandy in
1665, and completed his ftudies at Paris, when he
entered amongft the Jefuits ; but afterwards left them,
that he might follow his inclination to polite literature
with the greater freedom. In 1710 he was made
Greek profeflbr in the royal college •, and enjoyed thal
poll till his death, which happened at Paris in 172i»
He wrote, 1. Several curious difleitations in the me¬
moirs of the academy of inferiptions. 2. A hiftory of
the French poetry, in i2ino, &c.
MASSILIA, (anc. geog ) a town of Gallia Nar-
bonenfis, a colony of Phoceans, from Phocxa, a city
of Ionia, and in confederacy with the Romans; um-
verfally celebrated, not only for its port, commerce,
and ftrength, but efpecially far its pofitenefs of man¬
ners and for its learning. According to Strabo, it
was the fchool for barbarians, who were excited by
its means to a fondnefs for Greek literature, fo that
even, their public and private tranfaftions were all exe¬
cuted in that language. Strabo adds, “ At this day
the nobleft Romans repair thither for ftudy rather than
to Athens.” Now Marseilles^ city and port-tawn
of Provence.
MASSILLON (Jean Baptifte), fon of a notary
at Hieres in Provence, was born in 1663, and enter¬
ed into the congregation of the oratory in 1681.
He gained the affections of every per fon in the towns
to whi«h he was fent, by the charms of his genius, the
livdinefs of his character, and by a fund of the moit
delicate
MAS [ 635 1 MAS
Maffi'Ion. delicate and affefting politenefs. His firft attempts in
^J the art of eloquence were made at Vieniie» while he
was. profefibr of theology. Hi; funeral oration on
Henry de Villars, archbilhop of that city, received uni-
verfal approbation. This fuccefs induced Father de
la Tour, who was at that time general of the congre¬
gation, to call him to Paris. After he had been there
for fome time, he was afked what he thought of the
preachers who made a figure on that great theatre ?—
“ I find them pofleffed of great genius and abilities
(anfweredhe) ; but if I preach, I will not preach like
them.” He in fail kept his wrord, and ilruck out a
new path in this great field of eloquence. P. Bourda-
loue was excepted from the number of thofe whom he
propofed not to imitate. If he did not take him for a
model in every thing, the reafon was, that his ge¬
nius led him to a different fpecies of eloquence.—
His manner of compofing, therefore, was peculiar to
himfelf, and, in the opinion of men of tafle and judge¬
ment, was fuperior to that of Bourdaloue. The affect¬
ing and natural fimplicity of the father of the oratory,
{laid a great man), appear fitter to bring home the
truths of Chriftianity to the heart than all the dialec¬
tics of the Jefuit. We muft feck for the logic of the
gofpel in our own breafts; and the moft powerful rea-
fonings on the indifpenfable duty of relieving the dif-
treffed, will make no impreffion on that man who has
beheld without concern the fufferings of his brother.
If logic is neceffary, it is only in matters of opinion;
and thefe are fitter for the prefs than for the pulpit,
which ought not to be the theatre of learned difcnf-
fions. The truth of thefe reflections was clearly per¬
ceived when he appeared at court. Upon preaching
his firft advent fermon at Verfailles, he received this
eulogium from the mouth of Louis XIV. Father,
when I hear others preach, I am very well pleafed
with them ; but whenever I hear you, I am diffatis-
fied with myfelf.” The firft time he preached his fa¬
mous fermon on the fmall number of the cleft, the whole
audience were, at a certain place of it, feized with a
hidden and violent emotion, and almoft every perfon
half rofe from his feat by a kind of involuntary
movement. The murmur of acclamation and furprize
was fo great, that it threw the orator into confufion ;
but this only heightened the impreffion of that pathe¬
tic difcourfe What was moft furprifing in Malfillon,
was his defcriptions of the world, which were fo fub-
Hme, fo dedicate, and fo ftriking in the refemblance.
When he was afked whence a man, like him, whofe
life was dedicated to retirement, could borrow them ?
he anfvvered, “ From the human heart ; however lit¬
tle we examine it, we will find in it the feeds of every
paffion. When I compofe a fermon (added he), I
imagine myfelf confulted upon fome doubtful piece of
bufmefs. I give my whole application to determine
the perfon who has recourfe to me, to aft the good
and proper part. I exhort him, 1 urge him, and I
leave him not till he has yielded to my perfuafions.”
His declamation did not fail to be accompanied with
fuccefs. “ We think we fee him in our pulpits (fay
thofe who had the pleafure of hearing him), with
the Ample air, the modeft carriage, the down-caft and
humble looks, the eafy gefture, the affefting tone,
and the countenance of a man deeply penetrated with
his fuhjeft, conveying the cleareft information to the
underftanding, and railing the moft tender emotions Mafli'lon.
in the heart.” Baron, the famous comedian, having vr—*
met him one day in a houfe which was open for the
reception of men of letters, paid him this compli¬
ment : “ Continue to deliver as you do. Your man¬
ner is peculiar to yourfelf; leave the obfervance of
rules to others.” When this famous aftorcame from
hearing one of his fermons, truth diew from him the
following confeffion, which is fo humiliating to his
profeffion : “ Friend (faid he to one of his compa¬
nions who accompanied him), here is an orator; we
are only zrSorf.”
In 1704 Maffillon made his fecond appearance at
court, and difplayed ftill more eloquence than before.
Louis XIV. after exprelfing his fatisfaftion to him,
added, in the moft gracious tone of voice, Et je veux,.
mon pere, vous entendre tons les deux ans. Thefe flatter-,
ing encomiums did not leflen his modally. When one.
of his fellows was congratulating him upon his preach¬
ing admirably, according to cuftom, “ Oh ! give over.
Father (replied he), the devil has told me fo already,
much more eloquently than you.” The duties of his
office did not prevent him from enjoying fociety ; and.
in the country he forgot that he was a preacher, but
always without trefpaffing againft decency. One
day when he was at the houfe ef M. de Crozat,
the latter faid to him', “ Father, your doftrine
terrifies me, but I am encouraged by your life.” He
was chofen, on account of his philofophical and con¬
ciliatory difpoiition of mind, to reconcile the cardinal
de Noailles with the Jefuits. All he gained by his at¬
tempts was the difpleafure of both parties ; and he
found that it was eaiier to convert finners than to re-
rconcile theologians. In 1717, the regent, perfonally
acquainted with his merit, appointed him to the bi-
fhopric of Clermont. The next year, being deftined
to preach before Louis XV. who was only nine years
of age, he compofcd in fix weeks thefe difeourfes
which are fo well known by the name of Petit Careme.
Thefe are the chef d’oeuvre of this orator, and indeed
of the oratorical art. They ought continually to be
read by preachers as models for the formation of their
tafle, and by princes as lefibns of humanity.
Maffillon was admitted into the French academy a
year afterwards, in 1719. The abbacy of Savigny
becoming vacant, the cardinal du Bois, to whom he
had been weak enough to give an atteftation for
being a prieft, procured it for him. The funeral 01 a-
tion of the duchefs of Orleans, in 1723, was the laft
difcourfe he pronounced in Paris. He never after¬
wards left his diocefe, where his gentlenefs, politenefs,
and kindnefs, had gained him the atfeftion of all who
knew him. He reduced the exorbitant rights of the
epifcopal roll to moderate fums. In two years, he
caufed 20,000 livres to be privately conveyed to the
Hotel-Dieu of Clermont. Hispeaceable difpoiition was,
never more difplayed than while he was a bifhop. He
took great pleafure in collefting the fathers of the oe
ratory and the Jefuits at his country-houfe, and in
making them join in fome diverfion. He died on the
28th of September 1742, at the age of 70. His.
name has become that of eloquence itfelf. Nobody
ever knew better how to,touch the pafiions. Prefer¬
ring fentiment to every thing elfe, he communicated
to the foul that lively and falutary emotion which ex-
4 L a cites
MAR [ 636 ] M A S
did hi* difcourfes difplay ! what knowledge of the hu¬
man heart! what conftant difclofing of a mind deeply
affetfed with his fubjeft ! what drain of truth, philo-
fophy, and humanity ! what imagination, at once the
moft lively, and guided by the founded judgment !
Juft and delicate thoughts ; fplendid and lofty ideas;
elegant, welt chofen, fublime, and harmonious expref
Hons; brilliant and natural images; true and lively
colouring ; a clear, neat, fwelling, and copious ftyle,
equally fuited to, the capacity of the multitude, and
fitted to pleafe the man of genius, the philofopher,
and the courtier, form the charafter of Maflillon’s e-
loq .ence, efpecially in his Petit Can-me. He could
at once think, defcribe, and feel. It has been juftly
obferved concerning him, that he was to Bourdalone
what Racine was to Corneille. To. give the finifhing
ftroke to his eulogium, Of all the French orators,, he
is the mod eiteemed by foreigners.
An excellent edition of MaffiUori.’s works was pub-
lifhed by his nephew at Paris in 1745 and 1746, in
i 4 vols. large 12m.o, and 12 vob. of a fmall fixe.—
Among them we find, 1. Complete fets of Sermons
for Advent and Lent. It is particularly in his moral
difcourfes, fuch as are a!mo(l all tkofe of his fermons
for Advent and Lent, that Maflillon’s genius appears.
He excels, fays M. d’Alembert, in that fpecies of e-
loquence, which alone may be preferred to all others,
which goes directly to the heart, and which agitates'
without wounding the foul. He fearches the iiimoft
receffes of the heart, and lays open the fecret work¬
ings of the paflions, with fo delicate and tender a
hand, that we are hurried along rather than overcome.
His didtion,. which is always cafy, elegant, and pure,
every where partakes of that noble fimplicity, with¬
out which, there can be neither good taiie nor true e-
loquence ; and this fimplicity is, in Maflillon, joined
to the moft attractive and the fweeteft harmony, from
which it likewife borrows new graces. In fhort, to
complete the charm produced by this enchanting ftyle,
we perceive that thefe beauties are perfectly natural;
that they flow eafily from this- fource, and that they
have occafioned no labour- to the compofer.. There
«ven occur fometimes in the expreffions, in the turns,
or in the afleCting melody of his ftyle, inftances.of ne*
gligence which may be called happy, becaufe. they
completely remove every appearance of labour. By
thus abandoning himfelf to the natural: current of
thought and expreflion, M aflillon gained as many friends
as hearers. He- knew,, that the more anxious an ora¬
tor appears to raife admiration, he will.find thofe who
hear him the lefs difpofed to beftpw it. 2. Several
Funeral Orations, Difcourfes, and Panegyrics, which
had never been publifhed. 3. Ten difcourfes, known
by the name of Petit Careme. 4. The Conferen¬
ces ecclcjiaJUques, which he delivered in the feminary
of St Magioire upon his arrival at Paris ; thofe which
he delivered to the curates of his dioeefe; , and the
difcourfes which he pronounced at the head of the
jynods which he aflembled every: year. 5. Paraphrales
on feveral of the Pfalms. The illuftrious author of
tfiefe excellent trafts.wifli.ed that they had inToduced
into France a praCtice which. pTevails in England, of
Heading fermons initead of preaching them from me¬
mory ; a cultom which is very convenient, but by Msflingtt
which all the warmth and fervour of eloquence are II
loft. He, as well as two others of his brethren, had. Maffon’ A
ftopt fhort in the pulpit exaCtly on the fame day.—• v "
They were all to pfeach at different hours on Good-
Friday, and they went to hear one another in fuccef-
fion. The memory of the firft failed.; which fo ter¬
rified the other two, that they experienced the fame
fate. When our illuftrious orator was allied, what
was his beft fermon ? he anfwered,. “ That which I
am moft mafter of.” The fame reply is aferibed to
Bourdaloue. The celebrated P. la Rne was of the o-
pinion of Maflillon, that getting by heart was a flavery
which deprived tlie pulpit of a great many orators, and
which was attended with many inconveniencies to thofe
who dedicated themfelves to it. The Abbe de la
Porte has oolleCled into 1 voL tzmo the moft ftriking
ideas, and the moft fubli'me ftrokes, which occur in
the works of the celebrated bifhop of Clermont. This
collection, which is made with great judgment, appear¬
ed at Paris in 1748, I2ino, and forms the 15th volume
of the large edition in 12010, and the 13th. of the
fmall in 1 2mo, It is entitled, Pmfees fur different fu-
jets de morale et de pieie, tire.es. See.
MASSINGER (Philip), an Englifh dramatic
poet, was born at Salifbury about the year 1.581, and.
was educated at Oxford. He left the univerfity with¬
out taking any degree ; and went to London to im¬
prove his poetical genius -by polite converfation.
'i liere he wrote many tragedies and comedies, which,
were received with vaft applaufe ; and were greatly
admired for the economy of the plots and the purity
of the ftyle. He was at the feme time a perion oP
the moft confummate modefty 1 which rendered him
extremely beloved by the poets of his time, particu¬
larly by Fletcher, Middleton, Rowley, Field, and
Decker,, who thought it an honour, to write in eon-
junCtion. with. him. lie was as remarkable for his.
abilities as his modefty. He died fuddenly at his
houfe on tire Bank-lide in Southwark, near the play-
houfe; and was interred in St Saviour’s church-yard,.
in the feme grave with Mr Fletcher the poet.
MASSIVE, among builders, an epithet given to
whatever is too heavy and folid r thus a maflive co-?
lumn is one too fhort and thick, for the onW whofe
capital it bears ; and a mafiive wall is "one whole open--
fugs or lights are too fmall in,proportion.
MASSON (Papirius), a French writer, was the.
fon of a rich merchant, and born in the territory of.
Forez, May 1544. After Undying the belles lettres
and philofophy, and travelling to different places, he.
came to Paris, where he was made librarian to the
chancellor, of the duke of Anjou, in which place he.
continued ten years. In 1576, he was made an advo¬
cate of parliamentyet never pleaded hut one.caufe,
which, however, he gained with univerfel applaufe 
When the troubles of France were at an end, he mar¬
ried the After of a counfellor in parliament, with whom,
he lived thirty-four years, but had no iffue by her.—■
The infirmities of age attacked him fome time before
his death, which happened Jan. 9, 161 j. He wrote
four books of French annals in Latin, firft printed at
Paris 1577, and. afterwards in 1598, 410. The fe¬
cund edition, more enlarged than the firft, deduces-
6- things
MAS r 637 *1 MAS
Maff n, thinfrs from Pharamond to Henry II. Maffon confi-
NlaiTuah. ^ered this as hi* principal performance; yet he is now
v chiefly known by his Elagia virorum clarijftmorum,
although he publifhed feveral other works.
Masson (John), a reformed minifter in Holland
fome years ago. He was originally of France, but
fled into England to enjoy that liberty in religion
•which his country refufed him. He wrote, Hijtoire
critique tU hi npublique des Uttres, from 17x2 to 1717,
in 15 vols. 12 mo. 2. Vita Hor a hi. Ovidii, et Plinii
j^nioris” 3 vols fmall 8vo, and printed abroad, though
dedicated to Engliftimen of rank : the frrft at Leyden,
1708, to lord Harvey; the fecond at Amllerdam,
1708, to Sir Juftinian Ifham ; the third at Amlter-
dam, 1709, to the bilhop of Worcefter. Thefe lives
are drawn up in a chronological order, very learnedly
and very critically ; and ferve to illuftrate the hiftory,
not only of thofe particular pe/foirs, but of the times
alfo in which they lived. 3. Hijloire de Pierre Bayle
& de fes ouwages ; Amfterdam, 1716, in 1 2mo. 'Phis
at kail is fuppofed to be his, though at hrft it was
given to M. la Monnoye.
Masson (Anthony), an eminent French engraver,
who flourished towards the conchifion of the laft cen¬
tury, and refided chiefly at Paris. It appears that he
fometimcs amufed himfelf with painting portraits from
the life, fome of which he alfo engraved. We have
no account of the life of this extraordinary artift ; nor
are we even informed from what mailer he learned the
principles of engraving. He worked entirely with
the graver, and handled that inftrnment with allonilh-
ing facility. Fie feems to have had no kind of rule
to divedt him with refpett to the turning of the
ftrokes; but twilled and tirled them about, without
the haft regard to the different forms he intended to
exprefs, making them entirely fubfervient to his own
Caprice. Yet the effedl he has produced in this Angu¬
lar manner (Mr Strutt obferves), is not only far fu-
perior to what one could have fuppofed, but is often
very pidlurefque and beautiful, ft was not in hillori-
cal engraving that his greatefl ffrength cop filled. He
could not draw the naked parts of the human fi¬
gure fo corredlly as was neceffary ; but where the fub-
jedt required the figures to be clothed, he fuceeededin
a wonderful manner. Among the moft elteemed
works by this admirable artift, may be reckoned the
following ; The afl'umption of the Virgin, a large up-
sight plate from Rubens ; a holy family, a middling-
fized plate, lengthwife, from N. Mignard ; Chrift
with the pilgrims at Emaus, a large plate, length-
wife, from Titian, the original pidture of which is in
tfhe cabinet of the king of France- This admirable
print is commonly known by the nunc of the table-
(doth ; for the cloth, with which the table is covered,
is executed in a very fmgular ftyle. Alfo the follow¬
ing portraits, among others; The comte de Harcouut,
a large upright plate, reckoned a mafterpiece in this
chats of fubjedls ; Guillaume de Brifacier, fecretary to
the queen of France ; a middling-fized upright plate
ufually. known in England by the name of the Grey¬
headed Man, btcaufe the hair in this print is fa finely
executed.'
MASSUAH, a fmall ifland in the Red Sea, near
the coaft of Abyfiinia, about three quarters of a mile
kmg, and half as broad, one-third of which is occu¬
pied by houfes, another by cifterns for receiving rain- MalTjah.
water, and one referved for a burial place. It l—-y-—^
has an excellent harbour, with water fufficiently
deep for Ihips of any fize to the very edge of the
ifland ; and fo well fecured, that they may ride in fafe-
ty, let the wind blow from what quarter or with
what degree of ftrength it. will. By the ancients it
was called Sebajiicum Os, aiid was formerly a place of
great confequence on account of its harbour, from
whence a very extenfive commerce was carried on, and
pofleffed a (hare of the Indian trade in common with
other ports of the Red Sea near the Indian Ocean.—
A very confiderable quantity of valuable goods was
alfo brought thither from the tra£l of mountainous
country behind it, which in all ages has been accounted
very unhofpitable, and almoft inacceffible to firangers.
The principal articles of exportation were gold, ivory,
elephants, and buffaloes hides ; but above all flaves,
who, on account of their perfonal qualifications, were
more efleemed than thofe from any other quarter.—
Pearls of a confiderable fize, and of a fine water, are
likewife found along the coaft ; from the abundance of
all which valuable commodities, the great defe<$l, a
want of water, was forgot, and the inhabitants cheer¬
fully fubmitted to fuch a great inconvenience. The-
ifland of Maffuahfell under the power of the Turks in
the time of the emperor Selim, foon after the con-
queft of Arabia Felix by Sinan Balha, and was for
fome time governed by an officer from Conftantinople.
From thence the conqueft of Abyffinia was for fome
time attempted, but always without fuecefs. Hence
it began to lofe its value as. a garrifon for troops, as it
had done in the commercial way afterthe difeovery oF
the paffage to India by the Cape of Good Hope.—
Being thus deprived of it; importance in every refpeil,
the .Turks no longer thought it worth while to fend a
balhaw thither as formerly, but conferred the govern¬
ment upon the chief of a tribe of Mahometans named
Belowie, who inhabit the coafts of the Red Sea under
the mountains of Habab, in the latitude of about 140
north. On this officer they conferred the title of
Nay be; and on the removal of the bafhaw, he remained-
in fa6l mailer of the place, though, to fave appear¬
ances, he pretended to hold it from-the Ottomon Porte,
by a firman from the Grand Sig.nior for that putpofe,
and the payment of an annual tribute.
The Turks had originally put into the town of
Maffuah a garrifon of Janizaries; who,being left there
on the withdrawing of the bafhaw, and intermarrying;
with the natives, foon became entirely fubjefled to
the Naybe’s influence. The latter, finding himfelf at
a great diftance from his protestors the Turks, whofe
garrifons were every where falling into decay, and
that in confequence of this he was entirely in the’
•power of the emperor of Abyffinia, began to think of
taking fome method of fecuring himfelf on that fide.
Accordingly it was agreed that one half of the cuftoms-
fhould be paid to the Abyffinian monarch; who in re¬
turn was to allow him to enjoy his government umnp-
lefted.. Flaving thus fecured the friendfhip. of the
emperor of Abyffinia, the Naybe began gradually to-
withdraw the tribute he had been accuftomed to pay
to the bafhaw of Jidda, to whofe government Maffuah
had been affigned ; and at laft to pay a., liltle regard
to the government of Abyffinia; and in this ftate of
M A S f 6
■ independence he*was when Mr Bruce arrived there in
' 1769 on his way to Abyffinia. This gentleman found
both the prince and his people extremely unhofpitable
and treacherous; fo that he underwent a variety of dan¬
gers during his relidence there, nor wras it without
great difficulty that he could get away from thence at
laft.
The ifland of Mafluah,- as we have faid, is entirely
deftitute of water ; nor can it be fupplied with pro-
viiions-of any kind but from the mountainous country
of Abyffinia on the continent. Arkeeko, a large
town in the bottom of the bay, has water, but is in
the fame predicament with regard to provilions; for
the adjacent traft of flat land, named Sambar, is a
perfedl defart, inhabited only from the month of No¬
vember to April by fome wandering tribes, who carry
all their cattle to the Abyffinian fide of the mountains
when the rains fall there. Being thus in the territo¬
ries of the Abyflinians, it is in the power of the em¬
peror of that country, or of his officer the Baharna-
gafh, to ftarve Mafl’uah and Arkeeko, by prohibiting
■the pafiage of any provifions from the Abyffinian fide
of the mountains.
The houfes of Maffuah are generally conftrufted of
long poles and bent grafs, as is ufual with other towns
.of Arabia: only about 20 are of Hone, and fix or
eight of thefe two ftories high. The ftones with
which they are built have been drawn out of the fea ;
and in them the bed of that cyrious mufcle found em¬
bodied in the folid rock at Mahon is frequently to be
feen. Thefe are called dattoli da marc, or fea-dates:
but our author never faw any of the fifh themfelves,
-though he has no doubt that they may be met with
in the rocky iflands of Maffuah if they would take the
trouble of breaking the rocks for them. All the ne-
ceffaries of life are very dear in this place; and their
quality is alfo very indifferent, owing to the diftance
from whence they muff be "brought, and the danger
of carrying them through the defart of Samhar, as
well as to the extortions of the Naybe himfelf, who,
•under the name of cujloms, takes whatever part of the
goods he thinks proper 4 fo .the profit left to the mer¬
chant is fometimes little or nothing. All the money
here is valued by the Venetian fequint and it is owing
to the commercial intercourfe with the Arabian coafl
that any money at all is to be met with on this ifland
or the eaftern coall of Africa. Glafs beads of all
kinds and colours, whether whole of broken, pafs for
fmall money.
Though Maffuah has now loft very much of its com¬
mercial importance, a confiderable trade is ftill carried
on from the place. From the Arabian fide are im¬
ported blue cotton and ohter cloths ; fome of them
from India being very fine. Other articles are Vene¬
tian beads, cryftal, looking and drinking glaffes, with
coho! or crude antimony. Thefe three laft articles
come in great quantity from Cairo, firft in the coffee-
ftiips to Jidda, and then in fmall barks to the port of
Mafluah. Old copper is alfo a valuable article of com¬
merce. The Galla and all the various tribes to the
weft ward of Gondar wear bracelets of this metal,
which in fome parts of that barbarous country is faid
to fell for its weight of gold. Here is alfo a fhell, an
univalve of the fpeeies of volutes, which fells at an
high price, and paffes for money among the various
38 ] M A S
tribes of Galla. The Banians were once the pririei- Mufluet,
pal merchants of Maffuah ; but their, number is now , t
reduced to fix, who are filver-fmitha, and fubfifts by '
making ornaments for the women on the continent.
They likewife effay gold, but make a poor livelihood.
MASSUET (Rene, or Renatus), a very learned
Benediftifie of the congregation of St Maur, was
born at S. Owen de Macelles, in 1665'. He is chief¬
ly known for.the new edition of St Irenaeus, which
he publifhed in 1710. He confulted feveral manu-
feripts, which had never been examined, for that pur-
pofe, and made new notes and learned prefaces. He
died in 17]6, after having written and publifiled fe¬
veral other works.
MAST, a long round piece of timber, elevated
perpendicularly upon the keel of a fiiip, to which are
attached the yards, the fails, and the rigging. A
maft, with regard to its length, is either formed of
one fingle piece, which is called a pok-maji, or com-
pofed of feveral pieces joined together, each of which
retains the name of maft. feparately. The loweft of thefe
is accordingly named the lower-majl, a, fig. 1. the pja,e
next in height is the top-maft, b, which is eredted at CCLXXXl
the head of the former ; and the higheft is the top-gal¬
lant maft, c, which is prolonged from the upper end
of the top-maft. Thus the two laft are no other than
a continuation of the firft upwards.
The lower-mail is fixed in the ihip by an apparatus,
deferibed in the articles Hulk and Sheers : the foot,
or heel of it, refts in a block of timber called the Jiep,
which is fixed upon the hdfon : and the top-maft is at¬
tached to the head of it by the cap and the trejile-trea.
The latter of thefe are two ftrong bars of timber, fup-
ported by two prominences, which are as ftioulders on
the oppofite fides of the maft, a little under its upper
end : athwart thefe bars are fixed the crofs-trees, upon
which the frame of the top is fupported. Between the
lower-maft-head and the foremoit of the crofs-trees, a
fquare fpace remains vacant, the fides of which are
bounded by the two treftle-trees. Perpendicularly
above this is the foremoft hole in the cap, whole after¬
hole is folidly fixed on the head of the lower-maft. The
top-maft is erected by a tackle, whofe effort is commu¬
nicated from the head of the lower-maft to the foot of
the top-maft ; and the upper end of the latter is ac¬
cordingly guided into and conveyed up through the
holes between the treftle-trees and the cap, as above-
mentioned. The machinery by which it is elevated,
or, according to the fea-phrafe, fiuayed up, is fixed in
the following manner : the top rope d, fig. 3. paffmg
through a block e, which is hooked on one fide of the
cap, and afterwards through a hole, furnifhed with a
ftieave or pulley f, on the lower end of the top-maft,
is again brought upwards on the other fide of the maft,
where it is at length faftened to an eye bolt in the cap
g, which is always on the fide oppofite to the top-
block e. To the lower end of the top-rope is fixed
the top-tackle b, the effort of which being tranfmit-
ted to the top-rope d, and thence to the heel of the
top-maft/, neceffarily lifts the latter upwards, paral¬
lel to the lower-maft. When the top-mall 1.. railed t*
its proper height, fig. 4. the lower end of it becomes
firmly w edged in the fquare hole above deferibed, be¬
tween the trcille-trees. A bar of wood or iron called
the fd, is then thruft through a hole « in the heel of
4
\ 1 A « rp
Plate CCL^XH.
^•A
/^ayii/ou^iioT^yZstt~.
.
MAS [ 639 ] MAS
I Maft. it, acrofs the treflle-trees, by which the whole weight
of the top-maft is fupported.
In the fame manner as the top-maft is retained at
the head of the lower-maft, the top-gallant-maft is
ereiled, and fixed at the head of the top-maft.
• Befidts the parts already mentioned in the conftruc-
tion of marts, with refpeft to their length, the lower-
mafts of the largeft fhips are compofed of feveral pieces
united into one body. As thefe are generally the moft
fubftantial parts of various trees, a mail, formed by
this alTemblage, is juftly efteemed much ftronger than
one confifting of any Angle trunk, whofe internal fo-
lidity may be very uncertain. The feveral pieces are
formed and joined together, as reprefented in the fec-
Pl.ite tjon of u lower-maft of this fort, fig. 5. where a is
kCCLXXXl tfie or principal piece into which the reft are fix¬
ed, with their fides or faces clofe to each other. The
whole is fecured by feveral ftrong hoops of iron, driven
on the outfide of the mart, where they remain at pro¬
per diftances.
The principal articles to be confidered in equipping
a ftiip with marts are, ift, the number; 2d, their iitua-
tion in the veflel; and, qd, their height above the water.
The malls being ufed to extend the fails by means
of their yards, it is evident, that if their number were
multiplied beyond what is necefi'ary, the yards muft
be extremely ihort, that they may not entangle each
Other in working the fhip, and by confequence their
fails will be very narrow, and receive a fmall portion
of wind. If, i>n the contrary, there is not a fufficiejit
number of marts in the veflel, the yards will be too
large and heavy, fo as not to be managed without dif¬
ficulty. There is a mean between thefe extremes,
which experience and the general praftice of the lea
have determined ; by which it appears, that in large
Ihips every advantage of failing is retained by three
marts and a bowfprit.
The moft advantageous pofition of tlie marts is un¬
doubtedly that from whence there refults an equilibri¬
um between the reiiltance of the water on the body of
the Ihip on one part, and of the diretftion of their
effort on the other. By every other pofition this equili-
biium is deftroyed, and the greateft effort of the marts
will operate to turn the ftiip horizontally about its di-
rf&ion ; a circumftance w-hich retards her velocity. It
is counterbalanced indeed by the helm ; but the fame
iaconvenience ftill continues; for the force of the wind,
having the refiftance of the helm to overcome, is not
entirely employed to pulh the veffel forward. The
axis of the refiftanee of the water ftiould then be pre-
vioully determined, to difeover the place of the main-
maj}, in order to fufpend the efforts of the water equal¬
ly, and place the other mails fo as that their particu¬
lar direftion will coincide with that of the main-mart.
The whole of this would be capable of a folution if the
figure of the veffel were regular, becaufe the point,
about which the refiftance of the water would be in
equilibrio, might be difeovered by calculation.
But when the real figuic of the fhip is.confidered,
thefe flattering ideas will inftantly vanifti. This obfer-
vation induced M. Saverien to employ a mechanical
method to difeover the axis of refirtance of the water,
•which he apprehended might be ufed with fuccefs in
the manner following:
When the veffel is launched, before the places of the M .ft,
marts are determined, extend a rope AB, fig. 6. from , ,
the head to the item. To the extremities A and B pjate
attach tw'o other ropes, AD, BC, and apply to theCCLXXXi
other ends of thefe ropes twro mechanical powers, to
draw the ftiip according to the direction BC, parallel
to itfelf. The whole being thus difpofed, let a move-
able tube Z, fixed upon the rope AB, have another
rope ZR attached to it, whofe other end communi¬
cates with a mechanical power R, equal to the two
powers D and C. This laft being applied to the fame
veffel, in fuch manner as to take off the effefts of the
two others by Aiding upon the rope AB, fo as to dif¬
eover fame point Z, by the parallelifm of the ropes
AD, BC feebly extended with the rope ZR ; the line
ZR will be the axis of the equilibrium of the water’s
refiftance, and by confequence the main-maft ftiould
be planted in the point Z.
The figures E, E, E, are three windlaffes on the
ftiore, by which this experiment is applied.
With regard to the iituation of the other marts, it is
neceffary, in the fame manner, to difeover two points;
fo- that the direction of the two mechanical powers ope ¬
rating, will be parallel to the axis of refiilance RZ al¬
ready found.
The exfnft height of the marts, in proportion to the
form and fize of the ftiip, remains yet a problem to be
determined. The more the marts are elevated above
the centre of gravity, the greater will be the furface
of fail which they are enabled to piefent to the wind;
fo far an additional height feems to have been advan¬
tageous. But this advantage is diminiftied by the cir¬
cular movement of the mart, which operates to make
the veffel ftoop to its effort; and this inclination is
inereafed in proportion to the additional height of
the mart, an inconvenience which it is necefiary to
guard againft. Thus what is gained upon one hand is
loft upon the other. To reconcile thefe differences, it
is certain, that the height of the mart ought to be de¬
termined by the inclination of the veffel, and that the
point of her greateft inclination ftiould be the term of
this height above the centre of gravity. See the article.
Trim.
With regard to the general practice of determining
the height of the malts, according to4Jiedifferent rates
of the Thips in the royal navy, the reader is referred to
the article Sail.
In order to fecure the marts, and counterbalance the
ftrain they receive from the effort of the fails imprei's- -
ed by the wind,, and the agitation of the ftiip at fea>
they are fuftained by feveral ftrong ropes, extended
from their upper ends to the outfide of the veffel, call¬
ed Jhrouds, as reprefented in fig. 4. They are further
fupported by-other ropes, ftretohed from their .heads
towards the fore-part of the veffel.
The mart, which is placed at the middle of the
ftiip’s length, is called the main-majl; that which is>
placed in the forepart, the fore-majl; and that which*
is towards the ftern, is termed the mizen-maji.
N. B.. Mixen is-applied to this mart by all the na- '
tions of Europe, except the French, who alone calf
the fore-mart m if nine.
MASTER, a title given to feveral officers andi
jperfons of authority and command; particularly to:.
the:
MAS l 640 ] MAS
Matter, the chiefs of the orders of knighthood, &c.—Thus we der; and to attend at the general mutters in the dock-
V"T,"“"/ fay the grand-matter of Malta ; of St Lazarus } of the yards, taking care that all the officers, artificers, and1”
golden fleece ; of the free mafons, &c.
Master itnagifler), was a title frequent among the
Romans : they had their matter of the people, magi-
Jlcr populi, who was the dictator. Matter of the ca¬
valry, rrwgijhr equitum, who held the fecond poft in an
labourers, regittered at the navy-books, are prefent at
their duty.
Master of the Ceremonies^ is an officer inftituted by
King James I. for the more folemn and honourable
reception of ambafladors, and ftrangers of quality.
army after the di&ator. Under the later emperors whom he introduces into the prefence The badge
there were alfo matters of the infantry, magijlripeclitum. of this office is a gold chain and medal, having on one
A matter of the cenfus, magijler cenfus, who had no- fide an emblem of peace, with King James’s motto ;
and on the reverfe the emblem of war, with Dieu £5*
mon droit. He is always fuppofed to be a perfon of
good addrefs, and a matter of languages, and has an,
appointment of 3001. a year : he is conftantly attend¬
ing at court, and hath under him an affiftant-mafter.
thing of the charge of a cenfor,or fubcenfor,aa the name
feems to intimate; but was the fame with theprapoft-
tus frumentariorum.
Master of the Militia (magijler militia), was an of¬
ficer in the lower empire, created, as it is faid, by
Dioclefian, who had the infpeftion and government of or deputy, at 6s. 8d. a day, who holds his place
all the forces, with power to puniffi, &c. fomewhat during the king’s pleafure.
like a conftable of France. At firft there were two
of thefe officers inftituted, the one for the infantry,
and the other for the cavalry ; but the two were united
into one under Conftantine. Afterwards, as their power
•was increafed, fo wr« their number alfo; and there
was one appointed for the court, another for Thrace,
There is alfo a third officer, called marjhal of the ce¬
remonies, with look a-year, whofe bufinefs is to re¬
ceive and diftribute the matter’s orders, or the de¬
puty’s, for the fervice ; but without their order he
can do nothing. This is the king’s gift.
Masters of Chancery are ufually chofen out of the
another for the Eaft, and another for Illyria. They barrifters of the common law ; and fit in chancery, or
were afterwards called comites, counts, and clarijfimi. at the rolls, as affittants to the lord chancellor and
Their power was only a branch of that of the pr*~ the matter of the rolls. All thefe, fo late as the reign
feBus pratorii, who by that means became a civil of- of Queen Elizabeth, were commonly doftors of the
ficer. civil law.—-To them are alfo committed interlocutory
Master of Jirms (magijler armorum), was an officer reports, examination of bills'in chancery, ftating of
or comptroller under the matter of the militia. accounts, taxing colls, &c. and fometimrs, by way of
Master of the Offices (magijler ojf.ciorum), had the fu- reference, they are impowered to make a final deter-
perintendance of all the officers of the court: he was
alfo called magijler officii palatini; fimply magijler ; and
his poll magifleria.—This officer was the fame in the
wettern empire with the curopalates in the eaftern.
mination of caufes.
They have time out of mind had the honour to fit
in the lords houfe, though they have neither writs nor
patent to impower them ; but they are received as af-
Mastf.r at Arms, among us, is an officer appointed fittants to the lord chancellor and matter of the rolls,
to teach the officers and crew of a Ihip of war the They had anciently the care of infpefting all writs
exercife of fmall arms; to confine and plant centi- of fummons, which is now performed by the clerk of
nels over the prifoners, and fuperintend whatever re- the petty-bag. When any meflage is fent from the
Jates to them during their confinement. He is alfo lords to the commons, it is carried by the matters of
to obferve that the fire and lights are all extinguiftied chancery. Before them alfo affidavits are made, and
as loon as the evening-gun is fired, except thofe which deeds and recognizances acknowledged,
are permitted by proper authority, or under the in- Befides thefe, who may be called majlers of chancery
fpeftion of centinels. It is like wife his duty to attend ordinary (being 12 in nurnber, whereof the matter of
the gangway when any boats arrive aboard, and fearch the rolls is reputed the chief), there are alfo matters
them carefully, together with their rowers, that no of chancery extraordinary, appointed to aft in the fe-
fpirituous liquors may be conveyed into the Ihip un- veral counties of England beyond 10 miles dittance
lefs by permiffion of the commanding officer. In thefe from London, by taking affidavits, recognizances, &c.
feveral duties he is affifted by proper attendants, call- for the eafe of the fuitors of the court.
ed his corporals, who alfo relieve the centinels and
another at certain periods.
Master of Arts, phe firft degree taken up in foreign
univerfities, but the fecond in ours; candidates not
being admitted to it till they have ftudied in the uni-
verfity feven, years.
Master-Attendant, is an officer in the royal dock-
Master of the Faculties, an officer under the arch-
bifhop of Canterbury, who grants licences and dif-
pehfations: he is mentioned in the ftatute 22 and 23
Car. II. . See Court of Faculties.
MASTF.R-Gunner. See Gunner.
Master of the Florfe is reckoned the third great of¬
ficer of the court, and is an office of great honour and
yards, appointed to haften and affift at the fitting out antiquity, and always (when not put in commiffion)
or difmantling, removing, or fecuring veifels of war, filled by noblemen of the highett rank and abilities.
&c. at the port where he refides. He is particularly He has the management and difpofal of all the king’s
to obferye, that his majefty’s {hips are fecurely moor- ftables and bred horfes. He has authority over the
ed, and for this purpofe he is expefted frequently to equerries and pages, coachmen, footmen, grooms, ri-
review the moorings which are funk in the harbour, ders of the great horfe, farriers, and fmiths. He ap-
and obferve that they are kept in proper repair. It
is alfo his duty to vifit all the {hips in ordinary, and
fee that they are frequently cleaned and kept in or-
N° 156.
points all the other tradefmen who work for the king’*
{tables; and by his warrant to the avenor, makes them
an oath to be true and faithful. In Ihort, he is
en*
give a
MAS r 641 ] MAS
entrufted xvlth all the land? and revenues appropriated not be inrolled till the fame are figned by his lord-
^ for the king’s breed of horfes, the expences of the Ihip.
liable, and of the coaches, litters, &c. He alone has In his gift are the fix clerks in chancery, the exa«
the privilege of making ufe of any of the king’s horfes, miners, three clerks of the petty-bag, and the fix
pages, footmen, &c.; and at any folemn cavalcade he clerks of the rolls-chapel where the rolls are kept. See
rides next the king, and leads a horfe of date. His Rolls, Clerk, &c.
falary is L.1276 : 13 : 4 per annum. There is alfo
a mafter of the horfe in the eftabliihment of her ma-
jefty’s houfehold, with a falary of Bool, a-year.
Master of the Houfehold) is an officer under the trea-
furer of the houfehold, in the king’s gift: his bufi-
nefs is to furvey the accounts of the hbufehold.—He
has L. 66 : 13 : 4 a-year wages, and L. 433 : 6 : 8
board-wages.
Master of the Mint, was anciently the title of him
who is now called warden of.the mint; whofe office is
to receive the filver and bullion which comes to the
mint to be coined, and to take care thereof. The
office of mafter and worker is now diftin£t: and this
officer is allowed for himfelf and three clerks 6501.
a-year.
Master of the Ordnance. See Ordnance.
Master of the Revels, an officer with an appoint-
rnent of tool, a-year, whofe bufinefs is to order all
things relating to the performance of plays, mafques,
balls, &c. at court. Formerly he had alfo a jurif-
diftion of granting licences to all who travel to a£t
plays, puppet-fhews, or the like diverfions; neither
could any new play be ailed at either of the two
houfes till it had paffed his perufal and licence ; but
thefe powers were afterwards much abridged, not to
fay annihilated, by a ftatute for regulating playhoufes,
till the licenfing plays by the lord chamberlain was
eftabliftied. This officer has a yeoman with £.46:11:8
a-year.
The mafter of the rolls is always of the privy-coun¬
cil ; and his office is of great profit, though much
Ihort of what it has been.
Master of a Ship, an officer to whom is committed
the direilion of a merchant-veffel, who commands it
in chief, and is charged with the merchandifes aboard.
In the Mediterranean the mafter is frequently called
patron, and in long voyages captain.
It is the proprietor of the veffel that - ppoints the
mafter ; and it is the mafter who provides the equi¬
page, hires the pilots, failors, &c. The. mafter is ob¬
liged to keep a regifter of the feamen and officers, the
terms of their contrail, the receipts and payments,
and, in general, of every thing relating to his com-
miffion.
Master of a Ship of War, is an officer appointed by
the commiffioners of the navy, to take charge of na¬
vigating a fhip from port to port under the direilion
of the captain. The management and difpofition of
the fails, the working of a (hip into her ftation in
the order of battle, and the direilion of her rnove^-
ments in the time of ailion, and in other circum-
ftances of danger, are alfo more particularly under his
infpe&ion. It is likewife his duty to examine the
provifions, and accordingly to admit none into the (hip
but fuch as are found, fweet, and wholefome. He
is moreover charged with the ftowage; and for the
performance of thefe fervices he is allowed feveral af-
fiftants who are properly termed males and quarter-ma-
Master of the Rolls, a patent-officer for life ; who Jlers.
has the cuftody of the rolls and patents which pafs Master of the Temple. The founder of the order
the great feal, and of the records of the chancery. of the templars, and all his fuccefibrs were called magni
In the abfence of the lordchancellor or keeper, heal- templi mag'flri ; and ever fince the diffolution of the
fo fits as judge in the court of chancery ; and is by order, the fpiritual guide and director of the houfe is
Sir Edward Coke called his called by that name. See Temple and Templar.
s ajjijlant.
At other times he hears caufes in the rolls-chapel,
3nd makes orders and decrees. He is alfo the firil of
the mafters of chancery, and has their affiftance at
the rolls: but all hearings before him are appealable
to the lord chancellor.
He has allb his writ of fummons to parliament, and
fits next to the lord chief juftice of England on the
fecond woolpack. He has the keeping of the parlia¬
ment-rolls, and has the rolls-houfe for his habitation;
as alfo the cuftody of all charters, patents, commif-
d by t
There were alfo feveral other officers under this de¬
nomination, as mafter of the wardrobe, with a falary
of 2000I. a-year; mafter of the harriers, with 2000I.
a-year; mafter of the ftaghounds, with Bool, a-year;
mafter of the jewel-office, &c. all now aboliftied.
Master and Servant; a relation founded in con¬
venience, whereby a man is directed to call in the af¬
fiftance of others, where his own flail and labour will
not be fufficient to anfwer the cares incumbent upon
him. For the feveral forts of fervants, and how that
fions, deeds, and recognizances, which being made of chara£ter is created or deftroyed, fee the article Ser-
rolls of parchment gave rife to the name. Anciently
be was called clerk of the rolls.
Concerning the authority of the mafter of the rolls
to hear and determine caufes, and his general power
in the court of chancery, there were (not many years
fince) divers queftions and difputes very warmly agi¬
tated ; to quiet which it was declared by ftat. 3.
vant. In the prefent article we fhall confider, firft,
the effe6l of this relation with regard to the parties
themfelves; and fecondly, its effedls with regard to
others.
1. The manner in which this relation afTefts either siaci/t.
the mafter or fervant. And, firft, by hiring and fer- Cmiment.
vice for a year, or apprenticelhip under indentures,
Geo. II. cap. 30. that all orders and decrees by him perfon gains a fettlement in that parilh wherein he laft
made, except fuch as by the courfe of the court were ferved 40 days. In the next place, perfons ferving
appropriated to the great feal alone, ffiould be deem- feven years as apprentices to any trade have an ex-
ed to be valid ; fubjedt neverthelefs to be difeharged clufive right to exercife that trade in any part of Eng-
©r altered by the lord chancellor, and fo as they fhall land. This law, with regard to the exclufive part
VoL X. Part II. 4 M it.
MAS
it, has by turns beert looked upon as
" as a beneficial one, according to the prevailing hu¬
mour of the times : which has occafioned a great va¬
riety of refolutions in the courts of law concerning it;
and attempts have been frequently made for its re¬
peal, tho’ hitherto without fuccefi. At common law
every man might ufe what trade he pleafed ; but this
itatute reftrains that liberty to fuch/as have ferved as
apprentices: the adverfaries to which proviiion fay,
that all reflridfions (which tend to introduce monopo¬
lies) are pernicious to trade ; the advocates for it al¬
lege, that unflcilfulnefs in trades is equally detrimen¬
tal to the public as monopolies. This reafon indeed
only extends to fuch trades, in the exercife whereof
/kill is required : but another of their arguments goes
much farther; viz. that apprenticefhips are ufeful to
the commonwealth, by employing of youth, and learn¬
ing them to be early induftrious; but that no one
would be induced to undergo a feven years fervitude,
if others, tho’ equally Ikilful, were allowed the fame
advantages without having undergone the fame difei-
pline: and in this there feems to be much reafon.
However, the refolutions of the courts have in gene¬
ral rather confined than extended the reftri&ion. No
trades are held to be within the ftatute, but fuch as
were in being at the making of it: for trading in a
country village, apprenticefhips are not requifite, and
following the trade feven years is fufficient without any
binding; for the ftatute only fays, the perfon muft
ferve as an apprentice, and does not require an aftual
apprenticefhip to have exifted.
A mafter may by law corredf his apprentice for ne¬
gligence or other mifbehaviour, fo it be done with
moderation : though, if the mafter or mafter’s wife
beats any other fervant of full age, it is good caufe of
departure. But if any fervant, workman, or labourer,
affaults his mafter or dame, he fhall fuffer one year’s
imprifonment, and other open corporal punifhment,
not extending to life or limb.
By fervice all fervants and labourers, except appren¬
tices, become intitled to their wages: according to
agreement, if menial fervants ; or according to the ap¬
pointment of the fheriff or feffions, if labourers or fer¬
vants in hufbandry : for the ftatutes for regulation
of wages extend to fuch fervants only; it being im-
poffible for any magiftrate to be a judge of the em¬
ployment of menial fervants, or of courfe to affefs their
wages.
2. Let us now fee how ftrangers may be affedl-
ed by this relation of mafter and fervant; or how a
mafter may behave towards others on behalf of his
fervant, and what a fervant may do on behalf of his
mafter.
And, firft, the mafter may maintain, that is, abet
and affift, his fervant in any aftion at law againft a
ftranger: whereas, in general, it is an offence againft
public juftice to encourage fuits and animofities, by
helping to bear the expence of them, and is called in
law maintenance. A mafter alfo may bring an aftion
againft any man for beating or maiming his fervant:
but in fuch cafe he muft aflign, as a fpecial reafon for
fo doing, his own damage by the lofs of his fervice ;
and this lofs muft be proved upon the trial. A mafter
likewife may juftify an aflault in defence of his fervant,
[ 642 1 MAS
hard law, or and a fervant in defence of his mafter: the mafter, be- Mafter.
caufe he has an intereft in his fervant, not to be de- l——v*
prived of his fervice ; the fervant, becaufe it is part of
his duty, for which he receives his wages, to ftand by
and defend his mafter. Alfo if any perfon do hire or
retain my fervant, being in my fervice, for which the
fervant departeth from me and goeth to ferve the other,
I may have an aftion for damages againft both the
new mafter and the fervant, or either of them : but if
the new mafter did not know that he is my fervant,
no aeftion lies; unlefs he afterwards refufe to reftore
him upon information and demand. The reafon and
foundation upon which all this doftrine is built, feem
to be the property that every man has in the fervice of
his domeftics; acquired by the contraft of hiring, and
purchafed by giving them wages.
As for thofe things which a fervant may do on be¬
half of his mafter, they feem all to proceed upon this
principle, that the mafter is anfwerable for the aft of
his fervant, if done by his command, either exprefsly
given or implied : nam qui facit per alium, facit per fe.
Therefore, if the fervant commit a trefpafs by the
command or encouragement of his mafter, the mafter
ftrall be guilty of it: not that the fervant is excufed,
for he is only to obey his mafter in matters that are
honeft and lawful. If an innkeeper’s fervants rob hia
guefts, the mafter is bound to reftitution ; for as there
is a confidence repofed in him, that he will take care
to provide honeft fervants, his negligence is a kind of
implied confent to the robbery ; nam, qui non prohilet,
cum prohibere pojjit, jubet. So likewife if the drawer
at a tavern fells a man bad wine, whereby his health is
injured, he may bring an aftion againft the mafter;
for although the mafter did not exprefsly order the fer¬
vant to fell it to that perfon in particular, yet his per¬
mitting him to draw and fell it at all is impliedly a ge¬
neral command.
In the fame manner, whatever a fervant is permitted
to do in the ufual courfe of his bufinefs, is equivalent
to a general command. If I pay money to a banker’s*
fervant, the banker is anfwerable for it: if-1 pay it
to a clergyman’s or a phyfician’s fervant, whofe ufual
bufinefs it is not to receive money for his mafter, and
he imbezzles it, I muft pay it over again. If a fteward
lets a leafe of a farm, without the owner’s knowledge,
the owner muft ftand to the bargain ; for this is the
fteward’s bufinefs. A wife, a friend, a relation, that
ufe to tranfaft bufinefs for a man, are quoad hoc his fer¬
vants ; and the principal muft anfwer for their con-
du£I: for the law implies, that they aft under a ge¬
neral command; and without fuch a doftrine as this
no mutual intercourfe between man and man could fub-
fift with any tolerable convenience. If I ufually deal
with a tradefman by myfelf, or conftantly pay bin*
ready money, I am not anfwerable for what my fer¬
vant takes up upon truft; for here is no implied order
to the tradefman to truft my fervant: but if I ufually
fend him upon truft, or fometimes on truft and fome-
times with ready money, I am anfwerable for all he
takes up ; for the tradefman cannot poflibly dillinguifh
when he comes by my order and when upon his own
authority.
If a fervant, laftly, by his negligence does any da¬
mage to a ftranger, the mafter IhaU anfwer for his ne-
gleft;
MAS l 643 ] MAS
Matter gleft: if a fmith’s fervant lames a horfe while he is
J|. , flioeing him, an aftion liesagainft themalter, and not
, ^ ' againft the fervant. But in thefe cafes the damage
muft be done while he is actually employed in the
mailer’s fervice ; otherwife the fervant lhall anfwer for
•his own milbehaviour. Upon this principle, by the
common law, if a fervant kept his mailer’s fire negli¬
gently, fo that his neighbour’s houfe was burned down
thereby, an a£lion lay againll the mailer; becaufe this
negligence happened in his fervice: otherwife, if the
fervant, going along the llreet with a torch, by ne¬
gligence fets fire to a houfe ; for there he is not in his
mailer’s immediate fervice, and mull himfelf anfwer
the damage perfonally. But now the common law is,
in the former cafe, altered by llatute 6 Ann. c. 3.
which ordains, that no aftion lhall be maintained a-
gainll any in whofe houfe or chamber any fire lhall
accidentally begin ; for their own lofs is fufficient pu-
nilhment for their own or their fervant’s carelelfnefs.
But if fuch fire happens through negligence of any
fervant (whofe lofs is commonly very little), fuch fer¬
vant lhall forfeit 1001. to be diltributed among the
fufferers; and, in default of payment, lhall be com¬
mitted to feme workhoufe, and there kept to hard la¬
bour for 18 months. A mailer is, lallly, chargeable
if any of his family layeth or calleth any thing out of
his houfe into the llreet or common highway, to the
damage of any individual, or the common nuifance of
his majelly’s liege people : for the mailer hath the fu-
perintendance of all his houfehold. And this alfo
agrees with the civil law ; which holds, that the pater
familias, in this and fimilar cafes, ob alterius culpam te¬
net ur, Jive fervi. Jive liberi.
We may obferve, that in all the cafes here put, the
mailer may be frequently a lofer by the trull repofed
in his fervant, but never can be a gainer: he may
frequently be anfwerable for his fervant’s milbehaviour,
but never can Ihelter himfelf from punilhment by lay¬
ing the blame on his agent. The reafon of this is Hill
uniform and the fame ; that the wrong done by the
fervant is looked upon in law as the wrong of the
mailer himfelf; and it is a Handing maxim, that no
man lhall be allowed to make any advantage of his own
wrong.
MASTKR-Load, in mining, a term ufed to exprefs
the larger vein of a metal, in places where there are
feveral veins in the fame hill. Thus it often happens,
that there are feven, fometimes five, but more ufually
three veins or loads, parallel to each other, in the
fame hill. Of thefe the middle vein is always much
the largell. This is called the mqftcr-load; and the
others which lie three, two, or one on each fide of
this, are called the concomitants of the mailer-load.
MASTFR-lVort, in botany. See Imperatorja.
MASTICATION, the aftion of chewing, or
of agitating the folid parts of our food between the
teeth, by the motion of the jaws, the tongue, and the
lips, whereby it is broken into fmall pieces, impreg¬
nated with faliva, and fo fitted for deglutition and a
more eafy digellion. See Anatomy, n" 104.
MASTICH, a kind of refin exfuding from the len-
tifeus tree ; and brought from Chio, in fmall yellowifh
tranfparent grains or tears, of an agreeable fmell,
efpecially when heated or fet on fire. See Pistachxa.
This refin is recommended in old coughs, dyfente- Maflicot
ries, hnemopto s, weaknefs of the llomach, and inge- II
neral in all debilities and laxity of the fibres. Geof- Matac*'
froy direfts an aqueous decoftion of it to be ufed for ~ v
thefe purpofes : but water extrafts little or nothing
from this refin. Reftified fpirit almoft. entirely dif-
folves it, and the folution is very warm and pungent.
Mallich is to be chofen in drops, clear, well-fcented,
and brittle.
We meet with a kind of cement fometimes kept in
the (hops under the name of maitich. It is compofed
of this gum, and feveral other ingredients, and is
formed into cakes for ufe. This is intended for the
fervice of lapidaries, to fill up cracks in Hones, See.
but is by no means to be ufed for any medicinal pur¬
pofes.
MASTICOT, or yellow lead, is the calx or
alhes of lead, gently calcined, by which it. is changed
to a yellow or lighter or deeper teint, according to
the degree of calcination. MaHicot is fometimes ufed
by painters, and it ferves medicinally as a drier in the
compofition of ointments or plafiers. The mailicot
which is ufed by the Dutch as the ground of their
glazing, is prepared by calcining a mixture of one
hundred weight of clean fand, forty-four pounds of
foda, fold with us under the name of barilla, and thir¬
ty pounds of pearl-afhes.
MASTIFF-dog, or band-dog, (canis villal'tcus or
catenarius), is a fpecies of great fize and Hrength, and
a very loud barker. Manwood fays, that it derives its
name from mafe thefefe, being fuppofed to frighten a-'
way robbers by its tremendous voice. Great Britain
was formerly fo noted for its maHiffs, that the Roman
emperors appointed an officer in this iiland, with the
title of Procurator Cynegii, whofe foie bufinefs was to
breed, and tranfmit from hence to the amphitheatre,
fuch as would prove equal to the combats of the place.
Strabo, lib. iv. tells us, that the maHiffs of Britain were
trained for war, and ufed by the Gauls in their battles.
See Can is.
MASTIGADOUR, or slabbering-bit, in the
manege, a fnaffle of iron, all fmooth, and of a piece,
guarded with paternoHers, and compofed of three halfs
of great rings, made into demi-ovals, of unequal big-
nefs; the leffer being inclofed within the greater, which
ought to be about half a foot high.
MASULAPATAN, a populous town of Afia in
the Eaff Indies, and on the coaff of Coromandel, in
the dominions of the Great Mogul. It carried on a
great trade, and moH nations in Europe had faftories
here ; but the Englifh have now left it, and even the
Dutch themfelves have not above a dozen people here
to carry on the chintz trade. The inhabitants are
GentooS, who will not feed on any thing that has life;
and they had a famous manufafture of chintz, which
is greatly decayed fince the Englifh left off buying-
The Great Mogul has a cuHom-houfe here ; and the
adjacent countries abound in corn, tobacco, and tim¬
ber for building. It is feated on the weft fide of the
Bay of Bengal, 200 miles north of fort St George.
W. Long. 81. 25. N. Lat. 16. 30.
MATACA, or Mantaca, a commodious bay in
America, on the north coaft of the ifland of Cuba,
Here the galleons ufually come to take in frefh water
4 M 2 in
MAT [ 644 ] MAT
in their-return to Spain. It is 35 miles from the Ha-
vannah. W. Long. 85.6. N. Lat. 25. 0.
MAT AM A N, a country of Africa, bounded by
Benguela on the north, by Monomotopa on the eaft,
by Cafraria on the fouth, and by the Atlantic Ocean
on the weft. There is no town in it, and the inhabi¬
tants live in miferable huts, it being a defart country,
and but little vifited by the Europeans.
MATAN, or Mactan, an iiland of Alia in the
Eaft-Indian fea, and one of the Philippines. The
inhabitants have thrown off the yoke of Spain ; and
it was here that Magellan was killed in April 1521.
Cape MATA PAN, the molt fouthern promontory
of the Morea, between the gulph of Coran and that
of Colo-China.
MATARAM, a large town of Afia, formerly the
capital of an empire of that name in the iiland of Ja¬
va. It is. ftrong by fituation, and is feated in a very
fertile, pleafant, and populous country, furrounded
with mountains. E. Long. 111. 25. S. Lat. 7. 55.
MATARO, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; feat¬
ed on the coaft of the Mediterranean, 15 miles north-
eaft of Barcelona, and 33 fouth-weft of Gironne. It
is a fmall town, but induftrious and well-peopled;
and the environs abound in vineyards, which produce
wine much famed for. its flavour. It likewife contains
feveral manufactories, and is confidered as one of the
richeft and molt aCtive towns in Catalonia. E. Long.
2. 35. N. Lat. 41. 30.
MATCH, a kind of rope flightly twilled, and
prepared to retain fire for the ufes of artillery, mines,
fire-works, &c.
It is made of hempen-tow, fpun on the wheel like
cord, but very flack’; and is compofed of three twills,
which are afterwards again covered with tow, fo that
the twills do not appear : laftly, it is boiled in the lees
of old wines.- This, when once lighted at the end,
burns on gradually and regularly, without ever going
out till the whole be con fumed : the hardeft and drieft
match is generally the heft.
Quick-M/itch. See QuiCK-Match.
MATCHING, in the wine-trade, the preparing
veffels to preferve wines and other liquors, without
their growing four or vapid. The method of doing it
is as follows : Melt brimftone in an iron ladle, and
when thoroughly melted, dip into it flips of courfe li¬
nen-cloth ; take thefe out, and let them cool: this the
wine-coopers call a match. Take one of thefe matches,
fet one end of it on. firev and put it into the bung-
hole of a calk ; ftop it loofely, and thus fuffer the match Mafa,
to burn nearly out: then drive in the bung tight, and Matera*
fet the calk afide for an hour or two. At the end of
this time examine the calk, and you will find that the
fulphur has communicated a violent pungent and fuf-
focating fcent to the calk, with a confiderable degree
of acidity, which is the gas and acid fpirit of the ful¬
phur. The calk may after this be filled with a fmall
wine which has fcarce done its fermentation ; and
bunging it down tight, it will be kept good, and will
foon clarify ; this is a common and very ufeful method ;
for many poor wines could fcarce be kept potable even
a few months without it.
MATE of a Ship of IVar, an officer under the di¬
rection of the mailer, by whofe choice he is generally
appointed, to affift him in the feveral branches of his
duty. Accordingly, he is to be particularly attentive -
to the navigation in his watch, &c. to keep the.log
regularly, and examine the line and glaffes by which
the Ihip’s courfe is meafured, and to adjuft the fails to
the wind in the fore-part of the Ihip. He is to have
a diligent attention to the cables, feeing that they are
well coiled and kept clean when laid in the tier* and
fufficiently ferved when employed to ride the Ihip. Fi¬
nally, he is to fuperintend and affift at the ftowage of
the hold, taking efpecial care that all the ballaft and
provifions are properly flowed therein.
Mate of a Merchant-Ship, the officer who com*-
mands in the abfence of the mailer thereof, and lhares
the duty with him at fea; being charged with every
thing that regards the internal management of the (hip,
the direding her courfe, and the government of her
crew.
The number of mates allowed to (hips of war and
merchantmen is always in proportion to the fixe of the
veffel. Thus a firil-rate man of war has fix mates, and
an Eaft-Indiaman the fame number; a frigate of IO
guns, and a fmall merchant-fliip, but only one mate in
each; and the intermediate (hips have a greater or
fmaller number,, according to their feveral fixes, or to
the fervices on which they are employed.
DuRAtfWPiA MATER, the names given by anato-
miftsto the two membranes which futround the brain.
See Anatomy, n° 129, 130.
MATERA, a confiderable town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra d’Otranto, with
a bilhop's fee, feated on the river Canapro. E. Long.
16. 43. N. Lat. 40. 51 =
MATERIA M E D I C A*
Of Claffifi-
cation.
A General name for every fubftance ufed in me- Such fubftances as may be ufed for thefe purpofes Of CIaflifi-
dicine,. and by fome extended even to every ar- without any great preparation are called fimple medi-, CJt‘en- 1
tide ufed as food or drink. cines, or Jimples ; and with thefe the writers on mate-
Thus the materia medica becomes exceedingly ex- fia medica are chiefly converfant. . In treatifes writ-
tenfive : however,, before we enter upon any particular ten profeffedly on this fubjeCl, it is common to give
difcuffion of the fubjeCl, it appears proper to give fome a particular defcription of each article, the charade-
general idea of medicines and their operation. riftic marks by which it may be dillinguiflied from all
A medicine, properly fo called,, is a fubftance which, other fubftances, and the methods by which an adul-
when applied to the living human.body, makes fuch an teration or an imperfedion may be difcovered in it„
alteration in it as either to prevent the approach of dif- together with the dofe in which it can fafely be gi-
«afe, or to remedy a morbid ilate when already prefent. ven: but as all thefe particulars are taken notice of in
M A T E R I A M E D I C A. 645
i »f Clafllfi- different parts of tin’s work, it is only neceffary here to
cation, mention the general claffification, and enumerate the
names of the various fubftances ufed in medicine, af¬
ter giving, as hath been already promifed, a brief and
general account of their mode of operation.
Concerning the manner in which medicines aft, phy-
ficians have greatly differed, and each has followed his
own particular theory. The followers of Boerhaave
have fuppofed their aftion to be direftly upon the folids
and fluids; while thofe who build their theories on the
hypothefis of Hoffman have afferted, that all medicines
act immediately upon the nervous fyftem, and from
thence only in a fecondary manner are their effefts dif-
fufed over the folids and fluids. To difcufs this que-
ftion is not our bufinefs at prefent : neither indeed is
it a matter of great confequence whether it be difcuf-
fed or not; feeing all parties muft own, that certain ef¬
fects follow the ufe of certain particular fubftances, whe¬
ther thefe fubftances a£t firft upon the nervous fyftem
or upon- the folids and fluids.
From their operations on the human body medi¬
cines are moll ufually divided into claffes. Some are
found to have the property of rendering the folid parts
of the body more lax than before, and are therefore
called relaxing medicines: Others there are which
have an effeft directly contrary, and are therefore call¬
ed indurating medicines: A third kind are found to
excite inflammation in the part to which they are
applied, and are therefore called injlammatory medi¬
cines : And, laftly, a fourth kind are found remarkably
either to increafe or diminilh the vigour of the body,
or what is called the tone of the folids ; and have
therefore got the name of tonics if they increafe, and
fedatives if they diminilh, this tone.
Some medicines are fuppofed neither remarkably to
increafe nor diminilh the tone of the folids; but to
perform their office either by corre&ing fome morbid
matter in the body, or by evacuating it: in the for¬
mer cafe they are called alterants, in the latter evacu-
ants.
Thefe are the general divifions or claffes into which
medicines are commonly divided ; but when we begin
more particularly to coniider their virtues, a great
many inferior divifions arife.—Of the relaxing me¬
dicines, fome, when externally applied, are fuppofed
only to foften the part; and in that cafe are called
emollients: while others, which have a power of con-
Yerting the humours ttagnating in any inflamed part
into pus, are called maturants, or fuppuratives. Se¬
dative medicines, externally applied, are fometimes
called paregorics : when taken internally, if they take
off a fpafm then exifting in the body, they are-called an-
tifpafmodics ; if they mitigate pain, anodynes ; if they
produce a quiet fleep, hypnotics ; or if they produce
a very deep and unnatural lleep, together with-a re¬
markable ftupefaction of the fenfes, they are then call¬
ed narcotics.
Tonic medicines obtain the name of corroboratives,,
analeptics, or nervine medicines, when they llightly
increafe the contraftile power of the folids; but of
ajlringents, if they do this in a great degree, efpecially
if at the fame time that they indurate the folids they
alfo coagulate the fluids. Some of thefe medicines
have received names from their fuppofed virtue of pro-
moling the growth of the flefh, confolidating wounds, Of Claflifi-
and flopping fluxes of blood : but it is now difcover- , catlor- ,
ed that no medicines whatever are endowed with any 11
fuch. powers; and therefore the divifions into farco-
tics traumatics, or vulneraries, &c. are feldom ufed.
— If aftringent medicines are ufed with an intention
to drive, by the conftridlion which they occafion, any
kind of matter from the furface towards the internal
parts of the body, they are called repellents ; but if
they infeniibly expel any kind of ftagnating matter from
the parts where it is contained, they are then called
difcutients ; and laftly, Jlimulants, or at;ractives, if they
bring a greater flux of humours to the part to which
they are applied.
As to medicines of the inflammatory kind, they
are divided into vejicatories or blilters, which by their
application raife watery bladders on the fkin ; and
cather<rtics, efcharotics, or corroftvss, if they eat into
and deftroy the fubftance of the folid parts themfelves.
Another fubdivifion has been added, viz. that of ru-
lefaSive medicines, or fuch as only induce a rednefs-
on the part to which they are applied ; but thefe be¬
long to the veficatories, and what proves only rube~
/active to one will frequently blifter another.
The alterants are divided into abforbents, fuch as by
their alkaline quality neutralife and deftroy any acid
matter which may be in the ftomach ; and antifeptics,
or thofe which correct any putrid matter in it; coa¬
gulants when they thicken the humours, and refol- -
vents if they thin them ; heating medicines when they
increafe the velocity of the blood, and refrigerating
if they diminifh it.
The evacuating medicines are divided according to
the nature of the humour they evacuate. Thus, if
they evacuate the contents of the ftomach by vomiting,
they are called emetics ; if they induce purging, they
are called cathartics; if they only evacuate the imme¬
diate contents of the inteftines, they are named ecco-
protics ; or if a moderate evacuation is produced, with¬
out ficknefs or pain, they are called laxatives.—The
medicines which-gently promote the expulfion of hu¬
mours through the pores of the Ikin, are called dia¬
phoretics. If they do this in great quantity and with
violence, they are called fudorijics. Such as excite
urine, are called diuretics. Such as produce their
evacuation by the glands of the palate, mouth, and
falival ducts, are called falivating medicines; thofe
which promote the evacuation of mucus from the
throat, are called apophlegmatics; while, thofe which
evacuate by the nofe, are called ptarmics, errhines,
Jlernutatories ; and thofe which .promote the menftrual
flux, emmenagogues To the order of evacuants alfo
fome reduce thofe medicines which expel any unnatural
bodies, as wmrms, ftones, and flatus. Thofe which
deftroy worms are called anthelmintics; thofe which
diffolve the Hone in the.bladder, lithontriptics; and fuch
as expel flatus, carminatives.
According to thefe divifions Mr Vogel claffes the
articles of his Materia Medica; butDrLewis choofesto
arrange them according to the natural qualities of
the fubftances themfelves, and not their eft'e£ls on the
human body.
Writers on the materia medica (he obferves) have,
taken great pains in arranging the various articles of.
whichi
«46 MATERIA
Of Ar- which it is compofed, into different divifions and fub-
ranue^.ent, divif10nS} according to their real or reputed medicinal
powers.
It lias been imagined, that the whole materia me-
dica is reducible under the three diflinftions of al¬
teratives, evacuants, and rejloratives : the firft compre¬
hending all that has any power to alter the conftitu-
tion, without fenfibly increafmg or diminifhing any of
the natural evacuations ; the fecond, whatever viiibly
promo,tes thofe difcharges ; and the third, all that
contributes to leffen them, and make the increafe great¬
er than the wafte. Thefe divifions being too gene¬
ral, they are broken into fubdivifions ; and thefe again
are further divided into different claffes, under more re-
dlrained denominations, as cardiac, carminative, hy-
Iteric, ftomachic, &c.
Specious as this plan may appear to be, he ima-
.gines the execution of it, to any ufeful purpofe^
would require a far more extenfive knowledge of the
nature and operation of medicines than has yet been
attained to. A juft and ufeful method of limples is
fcarcely to be expefted, while thofe properties on
which the method is founded are imperfe&ly known,
and in many articles only conje&ural.
In all the arguments that have been hitherto con¬
trived upon this plan, there appears a ftriking incon¬
gruity among the feveral articles of which even the
ultimate fubdivifions are compofed; fubftances ex-
r tremely diffimilar being claffed together, as cantharides
and tea, tobacco and bran, hemlock and cowflips,
feurvy-grafs and raifins, arum root and liquorice,
wormwood and parfnips, cinnamon and nettles, raf-
. .berries and chalk, artichokes and alum, cloves and
•coffee, muftard-feed and black cherries, &c. Nor are
thefe incongruities to be laid always to the charge of
.the authors, the nature of the fyftem itfelf rendering
them often unavoidable; for the particular effedt which
intitles a medicine to a particular clafs, may be pro¬
duced by fubftances very diffimilar, and even oppofite,
.in their general powers: thus the alvine excretions are
reftrained by ftarch, wax, tormentil-root, opium; a-
mong the capital diuretics are cantharides, nitre, fait,
fixt alkaline falts, fquills. It fhould feem that the
method of arrangement cannot be a juft one which
requires fubftances fo difeordant to be ranked toge¬
ther, and which further requires each of thefe fub¬
ftances to be ranked over again, in other claffes, along
with other fubftances to which they are equally dif¬
eordant.
There is alfo a material imperfe&Ion in this fcheme,
even in the primary divifions. Steel and its pre¬
parations aft, in different circumftances, both as eva¬
cuants and reftoratives. Mercury and antimony af¬
ford, in their different preparations, both evacuants
and alteratives; and there are many other drugs which
are fometimes ufed as alteratives, and fometimes as
evacuants; indeed, all evacuants, in diminifhed dofes,
feem to aft merely as alteratives. It fhould feem
therefore, that “ the divifion of the whole materia me-
dica into alteratives, evacuants, and reftoratives,” is a
divifion not founded in nature, even if there was no
objeftion to .the vague meaning of the appellations
phemfelves.
Cartheufer has divided the materia medica on a
MEDICA.
plan which appears more rational. Inflead of the Acids.
operations of medicines in the human body, which are -““
precarious, complicated, and greatly diverfified ac¬
cording to the dofe, the preparation, and the circum¬
ftances of the patient, he takes for the bafis of his ar¬
rangement their more fimple, obvious, and conftant
properties, as bitternefs, fweetnefs, aftringency, aci¬
dity, &c. Having confidered the nature of bitter¬
nefs, for inftance, in general, he examines what ef-
fefts medicines poffeffed of this property are capable
of producing in the body, and in what circumftances
they may be expefted to be ferviceable, and then pro¬
ceeds to an account of the particular bitters.
This method is of real ufe, but its ufe is limited
to a fmall part of the materia medica. There are many
of the medicinal fimples, in which we can diftinguifh
no prevailing qualities of this kind ; there are many,
in which different qualities are blended together; and
many which, though fimilar in thefe kinds of quali¬
ties, are very diffimilar in their operations in the hu¬
man body : thus though gentian and aloes agree in
having a bitter tafte, and fugar and manna in being
fweet, their medicinal virtues are refpeftively very dif¬
ferent. Accordingly, the author is obliged in fome
cafes to depart from his general plan, and found the
divifion on the medicinal effefts: he makes one clafs
of purgatives and emetics, and another of vaporofe
inebriants and narcotics : this laft clafs confifts of to-
baccq, elder-flowers, faffron, opium, and poppy-feeds,
fubftances certainly very difeordant in all their qualities
that relate to medicinal intentions.
In this article, inftead of attempting a medicinal
diftiibution of the fimples, which we apprehend not to
be prafticable to any good purpofe, we fhall, after Dr
Lewis, adopt the alphabetical mode of arrangement,
as poffeffing upon the whole a decided fuperiority over
every other. We fhall, however, premife, from the
fame ingenious author, fome general obfervations on
certain claffes of medicines, in Cartheufer’s manner ;
and thus preferve the lefs exceptionable parts of his
plan, with fome amendments.
Art. I. Acids.
rnative; as forrel, wood-forrel, juice
I of lemon, oranges, barberries,
Clafs i. Vegetable { and other fruits.
j produced by fermentation ; as vine-
b gar and tartar.
Clafs 3. Mineral: the acids of vitriol, nitre, and com¬
mon fait.
The medical effefts of acids, duly diluted and gi¬
ven in proper dofes, are, to cool, quench thirft, cor-
reft a tendency to putrefaction, and allay inordinate
motions of the blood. By thefe qualities, in hot bi¬
lious temperaments and inflammatory diforders, they
frequently reftrain immoderate haemorrhages, and pro¬
mote the natural fecretions; in fome kinds of fever,
they excite a copious diaphorefis, where the warm me¬
dicines, called alexipharmic, tend rather to prevent thi*
falutary difeharge.
Vegetable acids, particularly the native juices of
certain plants and fruits, have fome degree of a fa-
ponaceous quality ; by means of which they attenuate
or
MATERIA
A!>forbenf?.or dxlTolve vifcld phlegm and deterge the veffels, and
-v thus prove ferviceable in futidry chronical diforders.
Inveterate fcurvies have fometimes yielded to their
continued ufe, efpecially when given in conjunction
with medicines of the acrid or pungent kind : experi¬
ence has fhown, that the acrid antifcorbutics have much
better effefts when thus managed than when exhibited
by themfelves ; hence in the facet fcorbutki of our dif-
penfatory, Seville orange juice is ufefully joined to that
of the C'jchlearia and naflurtium.
The mineral acids inftantly coagulate blood : the
vegetable dilute it, even when infpiffated or thick¬
ened by heat; in which ftate, watery liquors will not
-mingle with it. Hence, in fome fevers, where water
runs off by the kidneys almoft as pale and infipid as it
was drank, vegetable acids render the urine of the due
colour and quality. The mineral acids (the fpirit of
nitre in particular) combined with viqous fpirits, have
a like efFedf.
Acids are prejudicial in cold, pale, phlegmatic ha¬
bits, where the veffels are lax, the circulation languid,
bile deficient, and the power of digeftion weak. In
thefe cafes, an acid is often generated in the ftomach,
from milk and moft vegetable foods ; which, whilft it
continues in the firil paffages, occafions uneafinefs
about the ftomach, flatulencies, fometimes griping
pains of the bowels, and vomitings.
Art II. Insipid Earths ca/>a£/,g o/* Absorb¬
ing Acids.
M E D I C A.
647
Oyfter-fhells, Chalk,
Crabs claws and eyes fo called, Some marles.
Coral, red and white, Lime-ftones,
Pearls, Marbles,
Bezoar, Spars.
The virtues of thefe fubftances are, to abforb or
deftroy acidities in the firft paffages, and confequently
to remove fuch diforders *%s proceed from that caufe.
The cordial, alexipharmic, antifebrile, and other like
virtues attributed to thefe medicines, appear to have
little foundation; or at beft are only fecondary ones. .
When united with the acid, they form a neutral faline
compound, poffelfing fome degree of an aperient and
detergent quality, though too. inconfiderable to be in
general regarded.
The abforbent earths were all ftrangers to me¬
dicine in the earlier times; and their ufe does notfeenv
to have been eftablifhed before the laft century ; when
fome practitioners, from an opinion that moft kinds of
difeafes proceeded from a preternatural acid, introdu¬
ced a great vaiiety of antacid bones, both of the
earthy and faline kind,, and very liberally exhibited'
them on almoft every occafion..
It is certain, that in children, and adults of a
weak conftitution, and whafe food is chiefly of the
vegetable acefcent kind, .fundry diforders are occafion-
ed by acidities; thefe readily difeover themfelves by
four eructations, the pale colour of the face, and in
children by the four fmell and green colour of the ai-
vine faeces, which are fometimes fo manifeftly acid as
to raife a ftrong effervefcence with alkaline fits. In
thefe cafes, and thefe only, the ufe of abforbent earths Abf rbents.-
is indicated. ~ '*
If there are really no acid juices in the ventri¬
cle, thefe earths are apt to concrete with the mu¬
cous matter ufually lodged there, into hard indiffoluble
maffes; which have fometimes been thrown up by vo¬
mit, or found in the ftomach upon diffection. Hence
indigeftion, lofs of appetite, naufea, vomiting, ob-
ftru&ions of the bowels, and other diforders. Some--
times the ftomach and inteftines have been found lined
with a cruft, as it were, of thefe earthy bodies, which
muft not only have prevented the feparation of the ga-
ftric liquor, but likewife have clofed the orifices of the
lacteal . effels, fo as to obftruft the paffage of the chyle
into the mafs of blood.
Some fuppofe the earthy powders capable (with¬
out the concurrence of any acid) of palling the lac-
teals along with the chyle ; and allege, in fupport of
this opinion, that, when triturated with' water, they are
in part taken up and carried with it through a filter
of paper; the filtrated liquor leaving, upon evapora¬
tion, a portion of whitilh earthy matter. This expe¬
riment (allowing the confequence to be juftly drawn
from it) is itfelf erroneous : the refiduum proceeds
from the earth naturally contained in the water, not
from that employed in the experiment; for if pure
di(tilled water be made ufe of, it will leave no refi¬
duum, though long triturated or. digefted with the
earth.
All thefe bodies, particularly thofe of the animal
kind, contain, befides their purely alkaline earth, a
portion of glutinous matter. An inftance of this we
have in crabs-eyes, whichfif macerated in the weaker'
acids, or in the ftronger fufficiently diluted with water, -
the earthy part will be diffolved, and the animal-glue
remain in form of a foft tranfparent mucilage. The
glutinous fubftance increafes their tendency to con¬
crete in the ftomach; and thence thofe which contain
lead thereof (hould be preferred' to the others. The
mineral earths contain the lead of this kind of matter,
and fome of them are very eafy of folution; chalk, for
inftance, which may therefore be given with greater
fafety than the animal-abforbents. Thefe fubftances,
divefted of their conglutinating matter by means of
fire, are reduced into acrimonious calces or limes, and'
thus become medicines of a different clafs.
The teeth, bones, hoof;, and horns of animals
confift of the fame principles with the animal-abfor¬
bents above mentioned, but combined in different pro¬
portions: the quantity of gelatinous matter is fo large,
as to defend the earthy part from the adtion of weak'
acids ; whilft the earth, in its turn, protefts the glu-
. ten from being eaiily diffolved by watery liquors.
Hence thefe bodies in their crude ftate, though re¬
commended as poffeffing .Angular virtues, are not found'
to have any virtue at all.
Experiments have been made for determining
the degree of folubility, or comparative ftrength of
thefe earths;.the principal of which are arranged in
the two following tables, one taken from Langius*
and the other from Homberg.
TJbis.
MATERIA M E D I C A.
TdBLS of the quantity of Acid defrayed ly different
Abforlents.
grains
of
rSome kinds of Limcftonea *)
f Oyfter fhells
Chalk
Shells of Garden-fnails
Calcined Cray-filh
Pearls
Tooth of the Sea-horfe
Volatile Salts
Fixed Salts
Coral, red and white
Crabs-eyes
Egg-lhells
Mother-of-Pearl
Crabs-claws
Ijaw-bone of the Pike-fifh
>•5
120
Drops
of Spi¬
rit of
Salt.
'Table of the quantity of Alforlent Earths foluble in
Acids.
576 grains of
Spirit of Salt
-diffolved of
f Crabs-eyes
Mother-of-Pearl
Pearls
Oyfter-fhells
Hartfhorn
Coral
Oriental Bezoar
216
M4
128
*65
186
118
Occidental Bezoar 123
576 grains of
Spirit of Nitre <!
diffolved of C°ral
Quick Lime
LSlacked Lime
f Crabs-eyes
‘ Mother-of-Pearl
Pearls
Oyfter-ihells
Hartfhorn
199
>93
277
202
219
236
234
233
ic8
Oriental Bezoar
Occidental Bezoar 144
Quick Lime 180
Slacked Lime 216
Thefe experiments do not fufliciently afcertain
the point intended by them : in the firft fett, the
quantity of acid is too vague and indetermined; in
the fecond, we are not told whether the acid was
perfeftly faturated; and in both, the acids made ufe
of were fo very different from any that can be fup-
pofed ever to exift in the human body, that little can
be concluded from them with regard to the medical
-effe&s of thefe abforbents. Trial fhould have been
made with the mild vegetable acids, as the juices of
certain fruits, four fermented liquors, or rather with
four milk. Neverthelefs thefe tables, though not fo
perfedl as could be wiflied, have their ufe in the hands
of fuch as can make proper allowances.
.Art. Hi- Earths not dissoluble 772 Acids or
other liquors.
Thefe may be ranged in two claffes.
Clafs 1. Hard cryfattine earths: as the ruby, garnet,
emerald,fapphire, hyacinth, and other precious ftones;
cryftal, flint, &c.
'These kind of fubftances were introduced into me-
I97>
dicine, and many fabulous virtues attributed to them TndlfToluMa
by the fuperftition of the earlier ages. Some of them
are ftill preferved in foreign pharmacopoeias, but at 'r~~‘
length very juftly expunged from ours, notwithiland-
ing what fome late writers of repute fpeak of their me¬
dical virtue. Thefe indiffoluble hard bodies are not
capable of producing any other effeft, than by their ri¬
gid angular particles (which, though levigated with the
utmoft care, the microfcope ftill difcovers in them)
to offend or wound the inteftines. In levigation, they
wear off fo much from the hardeft marble inftruments,
as will equal or exceed their own weight: from this
circumftance we may account for their having fome-
times appeared to aft as abforbents. Some of thefe
ftones, expofed to a vehement fire, become in fome
meafure friable ; but neverthelefs remain indiffoluble.
Moll of the coloured ones by this treatment lofe their
colour; and in this ftate prove nearly of the fame qua¬
lity with common eryftal: fuch are, the fapphire, eme¬
rald, amethyft, and cornelian. Others melt into a
blackifh vitreous matter, from which a portion of iron
is obtainable by proper fluxes; as the hyacinth and
garnet. Geoffrey concludes from hence, that thefe
ftones really poffefs fome medical virtues, depending
upon their metallic part : but the quantity of metallic
matter, fuflicient to give them a confiderable tinft, is
fo exceedingly fmall, and fo inclofed in a ftony matter
not at all foluble by any of the known menllrua, as
fcarce to admit of any poflibility of its afting in the
human body.
Clafs 2. Softer earths ; the talky, gypfeous, and argil¬
laceous.
The talcs and gypfums have rarely been ufed as
medicines. Some of the former, from their unftu-
ous foftnefs and filver hue. Hand recommended ex¬
ternally as cofmetics ; and fome of the latter, on little
better foundation, internally as aftringents. But they
have long been deferyedly rejefted by the judicious
praftitioners. They feem to poffefs the ill qualities of
the alkaline earth (concreting with the mucus of the
ftomach, &c.), without any of their good ones.
Several of the clays, boles, and terrae figillata?,
were highly celebrated by the ancients as aftringents
and alexipharmics, and fome of them ftill continue in
efteem; though it is certain they have no great claim
to the virtues that have been attributed to them. Their
real effefts are, to give a greater degree of confiftency
to the fluids in the firft paffages, and in fome meafure
defend the folids from their acrimony.
Moll of thefe bodies, contain, befides the tena¬
cious indiffoluble earth, which is their principal cha-
rafteriftic, (1.) A portion of an earth foluble in acids
fimilar to thofe of the firft feftion. (2.) Of acid, fe-
parable by dillillation in a ftrong fire: this acid is al¬
ways of the fame nature with that obtained from vi¬
triol, fulphur, and alum. (3.) The coloured ones con¬
tain likewife fmall quantities of iron, reducible, by in¬
flammable fluxes, into its metallic form. In confequence
of the firft of thefe ingredients, thefe earths may be
looked upon in fome meafure as abforbent : the acid
appears to be united with a part of the abforbent
earth into a faline compound, approaching to an alu¬
minous nature; whence they have iboie degree of aftrin-
5 £ency:
MATERIA M E D I C A.
tSlutinem* jrency : whether they receive any peculiar virtue from
and Un&u-^g jr0nj jg greatly to be doubted; fin<;e it is in a very
0ftanf“i crude ftate, and in quantity extremely fmall.
« . Thefe earths unite with water into a turbid li¬
quor, flipp'cry and fmooth to the touch, and remain for
fome time fufpended ; the fand, grit, or other grofler
matters, which are often found naturally mingled with
them, fubfiding. They may be freed by means of acids
from their alkaline earth ; by coition in water, from
their faline matter; and the coloured ones from their
iron by digeftion in aqua-regis, the only menftruum we
are acquainted with that will extrait the ferrugineous
matter of argillaceous and bolar earths. This puri¬
fied, they have all nearly the fame appearance and qua¬
lities. Expofed to a ftrong lire, they lofe their foft
glutinous quality, and are reduced into hard mafles,
indiflbluble as at firft.
Art. IV. Glutinous Vegetable and Animal Sub-
Jlances.
Clafs I. Vegetable.
Pure gums : Vegetables abounding
Tragacanth, with mucilage:
Seneca, Orchis root,
The gums of cherry, plum. Althaea root,
and other European trees. Quince-feeds, &c.
■Gu m s and mucilages are glutinous vegetable pro-
duitions, of no particular tafte or fmell, foluble in
water, but not in vinous fpirits or in oils. They
differ from one another only in degree of tenacity ;
the more tenacious are called thofe which are
lefs [oy.mucilages. The'firll naturally exfude from cer¬
tain trees and fhrubs; the latter are extracted by art.
Almoft all vegetable fubllances contain fome portion
ef thefe, which, after the refinous part has been ex-
traffed by fpirit, may be feparated from the remain¬
ing matter by means of water.
The general virtues of thefe kinds of fubllances
are, to thicken the fluids, and defend the folids from
them when grown fliarp or corrofive. Hence their ufe
in a thin acrimonious ftate of the juices, and where
the natural mucus of the inteftines is abraded.
Clafs 2. Animal.
Most animal fubftances (the fat excepted) con¬
tain a vifeous matter, in many refpecls ftmilar to the
foregoing, and capable of being extra fled by ftrong
•coftion in water.
Animal glues and gellies have the general qua¬
lities of the vegetable gums and mucilages; with this
difference, that the former are more nutrimental, and
apt to run into a putrid ftate. Confidered as the fub-
jedls of chemiftry, the difference betwixt them is very
great: thofe of the animal kind are changed by lire
into a volatile alkaline fait, and a fetid oil; the vege¬
table into an acid liquor, and a very fmall portion of
oily matter, confiderabiy lefs fetid than the former.
Art. V. Soft unctuous Subjlances.
Clafs I. Infipid vegetable oils ; and fuljlances abounding
'with them ; as almonds, and the kernels of moft
fruits; linfced, and the medullary part of fundry
‘other feeds.
Clafs 2. Animal fats ; as fpermaceti.
Vol. X. Part II.
Unctuous vegetables unite with water, by tri¬
turation, into a milky liquor ; and give out their oil
upon exprefiion.—-Thefe kinds of oils and animal-fats
diffolve not in any menftruum except alkaline ones;
which change their quality, and reduce them into a
foap, diffoluble in water, but more perfe&ly in vinous
fpirits; from this compound, the oil may, by a fttil-
ful addition of acids, be'recovered in a purer ftate than
before, and rendered foluble, like effential oils, in fpi¬
rit of wine.
The medical virtues of thefe fubftances are, to
obtund acrimonious humours, and to foften and relax
the folids; hence their ufe internally in tickling coughs,
heat of urine, pains, and inflammations; and exter¬
nally in tenfion and rigidity of particular parts. The
milkyfolutions, commonly called emtujions, though much
lefs emollient than the oils themfelves or animal-fats,
have this advantage, that they may be given in acute
or inflammatory diftempers, without danger of the ill
coiifequences which the others might fometimes pro¬
duce : fats and oils, kept in a degree of heat no great¬
er than that of the human body, foon beaome rancid
and acrimonious; whilft emuliions tend rather to grow
four.
Art. Vl. Astringents.
Galls, Balauftines,
Tormentil-root, Terra Japonica,
Biftort-root, Acacia, &c.
Astringent fubftances are diftinguiflied by a
rough auftere tafte ; and changing folutions of iron,
efpecially thofe made in the vitriolic acid, of a dark
purple or black colour.
Aftringents yield their virtues by infufion both
to water and vinous fpirits, generally in greateft pei-
fe&ion to the former. Oils extract nothing from
them; nor do they give over any of their virtue in di-
11 illation : neyerthelefs their aftringency is confider¬
abiy abated by evaporating decoctions of them to the
confiltence of an extract, and totally deftro; ed by long
keeping.
The medical effefts of thefe kinds of fubftan¬
ces are, to conftringe the fibres, and incraffate or
lightly thicken the juices. Their more experienced
ufe is in diforders proceeding from a debility or flac¬
cid ftate of the folids; in hcemorrhages, from a thin-
nefs of the blood, laxity or rupture of the veffels; in
preternatural difcharges of other kinds, after the of¬
fending matter has been duly corre&ed or evacuated ;
and in external relaxations.
In fome cafes, they produce the effe&s of ape¬
rients; the veffels, conftringed and ftrengthened by
them, being enabled to protrude the circulating juices
with greater force.
A good deal of caution is requifite in the ufe
of thefe medicines, efpecially thofe of the more power¬
ful kind. In plethoric habits, inveterate obftru&ions,
critical evacuations, and in all kinds of fluxes in ge¬
neral before the morbific matter has been expelled, ^or
where there is any ftridure or fpafmodic contraction
of the veffels, aftringents prove eminently hurtful.
Where critical dyfenteries or diarrhccas are reftrained
by ftyptics, the acrimonious matter, now confined in
the inteftines, corrodes or enflames them; and fome¬
times occafions a gangrene of the parts.
6
Aftrin
g«ntsv
Art,
650
Sweet? and
Acrid*.
MATERIA M E D I C A.
Art. VII. Sweets.
Sugar Raifms,
Honey, Liquorice, &c.
The vegetable fvveets are a very numerous tribe ;
almoft every plant that has been examined, dif+
covering in fome of its parts-a faccharine juice. The
bottoms of flowers, and moft kinds of feeds and grain
when they begin to vegetate, are remarkably fweet..
Vegetable fweets are extracted both by water,
and vinous fpirits, moft readily by the firft, but in
greateft perfection by the latter. Nothing of their
tafte arifes in diftillation with either of thefe liquors
neverthelef-y by long boiling with water they become
fomewhat lefs agreeable ; but are not much injured,
by being treated in the fame manner with rectified fpirit.
The purer fweets, as fugar, promote the union
of diftilled oils with watery liquors,, and prevent the
feparatiou of the butyraceous part from milk: from
this quality, they are fuppofed to unite the unCtuous
part of the food with the animal juices. Hence fome
have concluded, that they increafe fat: others, that
they have a contrary effeCt, by preventing the repara¬
tion of the unCtuous matter which forms the fat from
the blood: and others, that they render the juices
thicker and more fi'uggifli, retard the circulation ahd
cuticular excretion, and thus bring on a variety of dif-
ovdersi But' fweets have not been found to produce
any of .thefe effeCis in any remarkable degree : com¬
mon experience fliows, that their moderate, and even
liberal, ufe is at leaft innocent; that they reconcile,
not only to the palate, but to the ftp,much alfo, fub-
ftances of themfelves difguftful to both; and thus render
falutary what would otherwife be injurious to the body.
The unCtuous and mucilaginous fweets, as the
impure fugars, liquorice, &c. have a confiderable de¬
gree of emollient and lubricating virtue.—-Thofe ac¬
companied' with a manifeft acid, as in the juices of
moft fweefc fruits, are remarkably relaxing; and if
taken immoderately, occafion diarrhoeas and dyfente-
ries, which fome times have proved fatal.
Art.VIII. Acrids.
Acrids are. fubftances of a penetrating pungen¬
cy. Applied, to the fldn, they inflame or exulce-
rate it : chewed, they. occafion a copious difeharge of
faliva: and ihuffed up the nofe, they provoke fneezing.
Thefe fubftances, confidered as the iubjeCts of phar¬
macy, may be divided into three clafles,
T. In diftillation with water:
as horfe-radifh, muftard,
feurvy-grafs, &c.
jl. By infufion only : as the'
greater celandine, pyre-
thrum, &c.
3
Yielding, their acrimony
Neither to , infufion, nor
diftillation : as arum and
dracunculus.
The general effefts of acrid medicines are, to fti-
mulate the veffels, and diffolve tenacious juices. In.
cold leucophlegmatic habits, ftagnations of the: fluids,,
and where the contraftile power of the folids is weak,
they prove powerful expectorants, deobftruents, diu¬
retics, and emmenagogues ; and if the patient is kept
warm, fudorifics. In hot bilious conttitutions, pletho¬
ric habits, inflammatory diftempers, where there is al¬
ready a degree of irritation, where the juices are too Aromatic#
thin or acrimonious, or the vifeera unfound, -thefean(*
ftimulating medicines prove, highly prejudicial, and T *
never fail to aggravate the difeafe.
Certain acrid fubftances* have been lately recom¬
mended in. dry convulfive afthmas : of the efficacy of
the fquill in particular, for the cure of this diforder,
feveral inftances are related in, the Commercium Litera-
rium of Norimberg for the years 1737 and 1739. Car-
theufer thinks, that not the afthma itfelf, but a parti¬
cular effedf of it, was removed by this medicine. He
obferves, that in all afthmas the free circulation of the
blood through the pulmonary veflels is impeded ; and
hence, during every paroxyfm, the lungs are in a kind
of cedematous ftate: that if this oedema, becoming ha-,
bitual, remains after the fit is over, it is either perpe¬
tually occafioning fre(h ones, or gives rife to a dropfy
of the breaft : that acrid medicines, by removing the
oedema, remove what was originally an effedt of the
afthma, and in time a caufe of its aggravation.
Art. IX. Aromatics.
Aromatics are fubftances of a warm, pungent
tafte, and a more or lefs fragrant fmell. Some of the
fpices are purely aromatic, as cubebs, pepper, cloves;
fome fubftances have a fweetnefs mixed with the aro¬
matic matter, as angelica-root, anifeed, fennel-feed j
fome an aftringency, as cinnamon; fome a ftrong mu¬
cilage, as cafia lignea; fome a bitternefs, as orange-
peel. The aromatic matter itfelf, contained in diffe¬
rent fubje&s, differs alfo not a little in its pharmaceu¬
tic properties. It is extrafted from all by reftified
fpirit of wine ; from fome in great part, from others
fcarcely at all, by water. The aromatic matter of
fome fubjedts, as of lemon-peel, rifes wholly in diftil¬
lation both with fpirit and water; that of others, as
cinnamon, rifes wholly with water, but fcarcely at all
with fpirit; while that of others, as pepper, is in part
left behind after the diftillation of water itfelf from the
fpice.
With regard’ to the general virtues of aromatics*
they warm the ftomach, and by degrees the whole?
habit ; raife the pulfe, and quicken the circulations
In eold languid* cafes,' phlegmatic habits, and a weak
flaccid ftate of the folids, they fupport the vis vitse,
and promote the falutary fecretions. In hot bilious
temperaments, plethoric habits, inflammatory indifpo-
fitions, drynefs and itri&ures of the fibres* they are ge¬
nerally hurtful.
Art. X. Bitters;.
Gentian root, Lefler centaury,
Hops, Carduus, &c.
Bitters for the moft part yield their virtue
both to watery and fpirituous menftrua; fome more
perfectly to one, and others to the other ^ None of
the fubftances of this clafs give* over any thing con¬
fiderable of their tafte in diftillation, either to water
or to fpirit; their bitternefe remaining entire, and fre¬
quently improved, in the extrafts. Such as are ac-
, companied with flavour, as wormwood, may by this
procefs be reduced into Ample flavourlefs bitters.
Thefe fubftances participate of the virtues of a-
ftringents and aromatics. Their general effefts are,
to conftringe the fibres of the ftomach and inteftines,
to warm the habit, attenuate the bile and juices in the
4 hrft
MATERIA
Emetic* firft parages, and promote the natural evacuations,
*nd9athar-particularly of fweat and Urine. In weaknefs of the
, " ftomach, lofs of appetite, indigeftion, and the like dif-
orders, proceeding from a laxity of the folids, or cold
fluggiih indifpofition of the juices, thefe kinds of me¬
dicines do good fervice. Where the fibres are already
too tenfe and rigid, where there is ahy immoderate
heat or inflammation, bitters very fenfibly increafe the
diftemper; and, if their ufe is continued, communicate
it to the kidneys: hence the urine becomes high-co¬
loured, fmall in quantity, and at length fupprefled ; a
dropfy foon fucceeding. If the kidneys were before
fo lax as to remain now uninjured, yet the other vif-
cera become ’ gradually more and more rigid, and a
tabes is at length brought on.
Bitter fubftances deftroy infe&s, and prevent pu-
trefaftion. Hence they are recommended as an¬
thelmintic, and externally as antifeptics.
Art. XI. Emetics and Cathartics.
Hellebore, Colocynth,
Julip, Scammony,
Ipecacuanha, Gamboge, &c.
These fubftances confift of a refmous part, in
which the purgative or emetic quality refides: and a
gummy faline one, which afts chiefly as a diuretic.
The firft is extradted or diflblved by vinous fpirits ;
the latter by water. Nothing arifes in diftillation from
either.
The acrid refms, exhibited by themfelves, tenaci-
oufly adhere to the coats of the inteftines, by their
ftimulating power irritate and inflame them, and
thus produce fundry violent diforders. Hoffman re¬
lates, that he has fometimes obferved convulfions, and
a paralyfis of both fides, from their ufe.
Thefe inconveniences may be avoided, by pre-
vioufly triturating them with fubftances capable of
dividing their tenacious texture, and preventing their
adhefion ; by this means they become mild and fafe,
operate without difturbance, and at the fame time
M E D I C A. 651
more effectually anfwer the purpofes intended by Emetic*
them. _ andCatbar-
Some have endeavoured to correct the ill qua- .
lity of the refinous purgatives, by the addition of
acids and aromatic oils. Acids weaken their power,
but have no other effeft than what a diminution of the
dofe would equally anfwer. The pungent effential
oils may ferve to warm the ftomach, make the me¬
dicine fit eafier, and thus prevent the naufea which
fometimes happens; but as foon as the refin begins
to exert itfelf in the inteftines, thefe oils, inftead of
corre&ing, increafe its virulence ; being themfelves
apt to occafion the inconveniences which they are
here intended to prevent, an irritation and inflamma¬
tion of the bowels. Alkaline falts or foaps have a
better effeft; as they difpofe the refin to folution, and
promote its operation.
The medicines of this clafs feem to aft by li¬
quefying the juices, and ftimulating the coats of the
ftomach and inteftines. If the irritation.is ftrong and
fudden, their aftion is quick and upwards : if flower,
downwards. Cathartics given in a liquid form, or in
very fenfible habits, often prove emetic ; and emetics,
where mucus abounds, cathartic. They operate more
violently in robuft conftitutions than in thofe of a
contrary temperament; theveffels being in the former
more tenfe and rigid, and confequently lefs capable of
of bearing an equal degree of irritation.
The aftion of thefe medicines is extended be¬
yond the primae viae : This appears evident from the
increafe of the pulfe which always accompanies their
operation ; and from the common obfervatkm of chil¬
dren being purged by the milk, if the nurfe has taken
a cathartic. Some of them, particularly hellebore, are
faid to purge, if only applied externally in iffue.—
Purgatives, even of the more powerful kind, exhibited
in fuitable fmall dofes, in conjunftion with the milder
aperients, may be introduced into the habit, fo as to
prove notable deobftruents, diuretics, and diaphoretics,
without afting fenfibly by ftool.
A CATALOGUE of the SIMPLES ufed in the MATERIA MEDICA, exhibiting at one view their
TECHNICAL NAMES, ENGLISH NAMES, PARTS USED IN MEDICINE, VIRTUES, and the diffe¬
rent preparations from them.—A particular account of the different articles of this lift is gi¬
ven in the courje of the alphabet, chiefly under the Linncean names : And the method of making the
preparations from them are Jhown under the article Pharmacy. The notes fubjoined at the bottom
of the following pages are intended to fupply fame particulars relating to a few of the detached ar¬
ticles already pajl.
parts used in
MEDICINE.
The wood, tops,
and cones.
The leaves.
TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
Abies ruber (Pi- The fir-tree.
nus alies, Lin.)
‘ Abrotanumfcemina Lavender cotton.
(Santolin chama-
cypar. Lin.)
Abrotanum mas Southernwood. The leaves,
(Artemjfia abro¬
tanum, Lin.)
Abfinthium mari- Sea wormwood. The tops,
timum (Artemi-
famaritimaftJin.)
Abfinthium vulgs
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Diuretic and dia- A decoftion. lhi of
phoretic. Simples.
Stimulant, deter- Decoftion, and ointment for ■*
gent, and anthel- cutaneous eruptions,
mintic.
Stimulant, deter- Decoftion and tinfture ; alfo
gent, aperient, lotion and ointment for cu-
and fudorific. taneous eruptions.
Stomachic.
(Artemifta abfin^
ibium, Lin.)
Common worm¬
wood.
Theleaves and flow- Stomachic,
ering tops.
An oil, extraft, conferve, and
feveral diftilled tinfture-
waters. They alfo enter the
common fomentation and
green oil.
4N 2
Acacia
MATERIA MEDIC A.
J TECHNICAL NAMES.
Acacia Germanisa
{Prunus fpinofay
Lin.)
Acacia vera (Mi-
mofa nilotica,H.m.)
Acetofa (Rumex
acetof. Lin.)
Acetofella (Oxalls
acetof el. Lin.)
Acetum.
. PARTS USED IN
ENGLISH NAMES. MEDICINE.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM,
Infpifiated juice. Aftringent.
Acacia.
Sorrel.
Wood forrel.
Vinegar.
Aconitum [A. na¬
pe Hits, Lin.)
Acorus. See Ca¬
lamus arom. in¬
fra.
Adianthum verurn ]
(Adianth. capill.
Fen. Lin.)
Infpiflated juice. Aftringent.
Leaves. Aftringent and an- An effential fait for taking
tifcorbutic. out fpots in clothes. A
decodtion.
The leaves. Aftringent and an- A conferve.
tifcorbutic.
Cordial,refrigerant, A diftilled fpirit.
fudorific, and
antifeptic.
Theherband leaves. Narcotic. Tin&ure.
The leaves.
Aer dephlogifticus.
Dephlogifticated
air.
Aer mephiticus. Fixed air.
Aer nitrofus.
JEs. See Cuprum.
Agaricus, (Boletus
pint laricis, Lin.)
Agaricus chirurgo-
rum (Boletus ig-
narius, Lin.)
Nitrous air.
Brafs. See Copper.
Agaric.
Female agaric, or
agaric of the oak,,
touchwood, or
fpunk.
The chafte tree. The feeds.
Agnus caftus (Vi-
tex agnus caftust
Lin.)
Agrimonia (A.Eu- Agrimony.
pator. Lin.)
Albumen ovi.
Alchemilla (A. vul¬
garis, JLin.)
Alkekengi, (Phy- Winter-cherry. The fruit.
fain alkakengif
Lin.)
Alliaria (Eryfimum
allaria, Lin.)
White of an egg.
Ladies-mantle. The leaves.
Allium (A. fati-
vum, Lin.)
Alnus (Betula al¬
ms, Lin.)
Aloes (Aloe perfo-
liata, Lin.)
Alftne (A. med.)
Lin,)
Sauce-aloije, or The leaves.
Jack-by-the-
hedge. *
Garlic.
The roots.
Leaves and bark.
Aloes. Infpiflated juice,
duckweed. The leaves.
Attenuating and a- Deco&ion and fyrup ; its vir-
penent.
Suppofed to be an¬
tifeptic and cor¬
roborative.
Antifeptic and li-
thontriptic.
Very antifeptic.
Cathartic.
tues beft obtained from a
infufion of the herb fweet-
ened with fugar and liquo¬
rice, and drank as tea.
An aqueous extraft, but now
much difufed.
Pieces applied externally.
Styptic.
Antaphrodifiac.
Attenuant and to- Digefted in whey, it forms
nic. a diet-drink ufed by fome
in the fpring.
Difcutient.
Aftringent.
Aperient and diu- Dried and powdered. Infpif-
retic. fated juice.
Sudorific and deob-
ftruent.
Stimulant, attenu- A fyrup and oxymel, oint.
ant, difcutient, ment and poultice,
and diuretic.
Aftringent. Decoftion. The leaves chopt
and heated, efficacious for
difperfing milk in the
breafts.
Cathartic. Ingredient in feveral tin&ures
and pills.
Refrigerant.
AHha&
MATERIA MEDIC A.
Lift of
t SimPie3- TJSCHNICAI. NAMS3)
Althcea (A.ojfictna- ]
lis, Lin.)
Alumen. .
BNGLISH NAMES.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The leaf and root. Emollient.
Lift of
•PREPARATIONS FROM THEM. , Sim^lg3',
A fyrup and ointment.
Ambragrifea.
Ammi vulgaris
Amomum verum.
Ambergrife.
Bilhop’s weed.
True amomum.
The whole.
The leaves.
The feeds.
Amomum vulgare Baftard Hone-par- The feeds.
(Sifon, Lin.) fley.
Ammoniacum. See
Gummi.
Amygdala {Am. Sweet and bitter al- The fruit.
con. Lin.) monds.
Amylum. Starch.
Anac&rdium occi- Cafhew-tree. The nuts,
dentale, (Lin.)
Strongly aftringent. A ftyptic powder, flyptic wa¬
ter, whey, &c.
A tincture or efience.
An ingredient in the theriaca.
An ingredient in the theriaca.
A high cordial.
Stimulant.
Aromatic.
Carminative and
diuretic.
Relaxing.
Aftringent.
Corrofive.
Expreffed oil and emulfion.
Anagallis (Arven- Pimpernel.
Js, Lin.) '
Ananas (Bromelia The pine-apple.
ananas, Lin.)
Anchufa (A. tine- Alkanet.
toria, Lin.)
Anethum (A. gra- Dill.
veolens, Lin.)
Angelica. (A. Arch- Angelica.
angelica, and fyl-
vejlris, Lin.)
Angufturae cor¬
tex, (a)
Anifum (PimpineU Anife.
la anifum, Lin.)
Antimoniura. Antimony.
The leaves.
The root.
Oil outfide, but the kernels
ufed as almonds ; the gum
inftead of gum arable.
Sudorific and ner- Extract, or infpiflated juice,
vine.
Refrigerant.
Only ufed .for its
colour.
•Carminative.
The roots, ftalks, Aromatic,
leaves, and feeds.
Diftilled oil, water, and fpi-
rituous extract.
Several compound waters.
Aromatic and to- An eflential oil, a fpiritiious
nic. compound water, &c.
Diaphoretic, ca- A number of chemical prepa-
thartic, emetic, <
cauftic.
Aparine (Gallium Goofegrafs, or cli- The leaves. Aperient.
aparine, Lin.) vers.
Apium (A. gra- Smallage. The roots, leaves. Carminative.
veol. Lin.) and feeds.
Aqua marina.
Aquae minerales.
Aquae fidphureae.
rations. See Chemistry-
Index, Kermes Mineral,
and Regulus of Antimony..
Sulphureous
ters.
Silver weed.
Argentina (Po-
tentill. argentin.
Lin.)
Argentum vivum. Quickfilver.
The leaves.
Cathartic and alte¬
rative.
Tonic and altera¬
tive.
Alterative and an¬
thelmintic.
Corroborant.
A moft powerful Several chemical prepara-
alterant. tion&j fee Chemistry-/«-
dex. An ingredient in fe-
veral other officinal prepa¬
rations.
Arifto-
(a) The Anguftura bark was firft imported from the Weft Indies in 1788 ; but it is a native of Africa.
Mr Bruce, who had been cured of a dyfentery in Abyffinia by the bark of a plant called there JVooginos,
brought the feeds from that country, and the plant is now cultivated in Kew garden and other places under
the name of Brucea antidyfenieria, or ferruginea. He fuppofed the bark of this was the fame with that of the
Anguftura; but Dr Duncan, in the Medical Commentaries for 1790, fays that they are totally different wheiu
compared together. For an account of the Anguftura ba'rk, fee Jew it’s Bark.
MATERIA MEDIC A.
6j4
Lift of
•-Simples, TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
Ariftolochia (A. Birthwort.
clematitis, Lin.)
Armeniaca (Pru- The plum-tree.
nus Armeniaca,
Lin.)
Arnica (A. man- German leopard's
tana, Lin.) bane.
Arfenicum. (b) Arfenic.
Artemifia f A. vul- Mugwort.
garis, Lin.)
ArUm (A. macula- Wake-robin.
turn, Lin.)
Afafetida. See
Gummi, infra.
Afarum f A. Euro- Afarabacca.
p/tum, Lin.)
AfparagUs {A.cjji- Alparagus.
cinalis, Lin.)
Afperula. Woodruff.
parts use6 in
MEDICINE.
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS FROM TH£M.
The roots. Attenuating, ftimn-
lant, and deter-
gent. _
The fruit and gum. The fruit refrige¬
rant, and the gum
demulcent.
The herb, flowers, Antifpafmodic; e« A warm infufion.
and roots. metic, cathartic.
Corrofive.
The leaves. Antifpafmodic. Infufion.
The root.
Stimulant. A compound powder an#
conferve(c).
Li(Uf
Simple*,
The leaves.
The roots.
The flowers.
Errhine, cathartic, A compound powder (o)
and emetic.
Suppofed diuretic,
but uncertain.
Attenuant and ape¬
rient.
Afphodelus,
(e) This pernicious mineral has fome time ago been introduced into medicine as a certain remedy for can¬
cers ; but Mr Juftamond, who publifhed a treatife on this fubjeft two Or three years ago, informs us, that
even the moft guarded ufe of it in the external way, while it produces the happieft effeds in healing can¬
cerous ulcers, yet occafions fuch difagreeable fymptoms of the paralytic kind, that it cannot be perfifted in.
The lateft trials in London are likewife faid to confirm this account; notwithftanding which, however, the in¬
ternal ufe of it has fince gained ground in a variety »f diforders, particularly in intermitting fevers, which are
faid to be readily cured by it fometimes after the bark and all other lemedies had failed. A folution of the
mineral is given by drops, from one fixteenth to a fixth part of a grain for a dofe, largely dilated in a warm
aqueous liquid Dr Aikin recommends oil and milk as a certain remedy againft this deftruftive poifon. He
quotes from Hoffman an in fiance where feveral perfons of diftin&ion had tafted food mixed with arfenic in-
ftead of fugar. All of them were feized with anxiety at the breaft, pain at the ftomach, tremor of the lips,
and reachings. Milk and oil were given in great plenty, and they continued ftrongly vomiting for half a
day. Some vomited no lefs than 100 times; but all of them recovered. Some inftances of a fimilar kind
have come within the Doftor’s own knowledge. Sage in his Mineralogy relates, that the regulus is much
lefs dangerous than the calx or glafs : he fays that on giving half an ounce to a cat, the animal only grew
meagre for fome time, but afterwards became fat again. He fays that acids, particularly vinegar, are the
antidotes to this poifon ; and that oils and emulfions do not fo effedually obtund this poifon as acids do. Of
this he has had experience in brutes. He adds, that the regulus is not foluble in water, and that the foun¬
ders are more afraid of fumes of lead than arfenic.
(c) Dr Aikin inform0 us, that the infupportable pungency on the tongue, which has hitherto prevented
it from being ufed in a frefh ftate fo as to exert its full virtues, is effeftUally covered by unftuous and gummy
materials. The frefh root beaten into a fmooth mafs, with the addition of a little teftaceous powder which
promotes the divifion of it, may be either mixed with about an equalquantity of powdered gum arabic, and three
or four times as much conferve, fo as to make them into an eleftuary ; or rubbed with a thick mixture of mu¬
cilage of gum arabic and fpermaceti, gradually adding any fuitable watery liquors, and a little fyrup in or¬
der to form an emulfion, two parts of the root, two of gum, and one of fpenrfaceti, make an emuliion, which
fcarce impreffes any degree of pungency upon the tongue though kept long in the mouth. In thefe forms our
author has given the frefh root from ten grains to more than a fcruple, three or four times a-day : it generally
occafioned a flight fenfation of warmth, firft about the ftomach and then in the remoter parts; manifeilly
promoted perfpiration, and frequently produced a plentiful fweat. Several obftinate rheumatic pains have
been removed by the ufe of this preparation, which our author therefore recommends to further trial.
(d) The leaves of this plant are by fome fuppofed to be more powerful than the roots as emetics and ca¬
thartics, but they are milder as errhines. Geoffroy relates, that a Angle dofe of the errhine of which
this root is an ingredient has occafioned a difeharge for three days; and that he has known a palfy of the mouth
and tongue cured by the fame means. He recommends it in ftubborn diforders of the head proceeding from
vifeid matters, in palfies, and lethargic diftempers. During its operation the patient muft carefully avoid cold;
■which is apt to produce puftules, inflammations, fwellings of the face, and fometimes worfe fymptoms than
even thefe. The empirical herb-fnuffs have the leaves of afarum for their bafis, but fometimes mixed with in¬
gredients of a more dangerous nature.
MATERIA MEDIC A.
TECHNICAL NAMES* ENGLISH NAMES.
PARTS USED IN,
MEDICINE.
Afj hcKkIus, (4. Afphodel, or king’s The roots.
vs, Lin.) fpear.
Atriplex (Cheno- Stinking orach. The leaves.
podium vulvar.
Lin.)
Avena fativafLin.) Oats.
Aura ele&rica. Electricity.
Aurantium (Citrus The. orange.
aumntt Lin.)
Auricula Judae, Jews-ears.
(Tremell. verruc.
Lin.)
Auripigmentum. Orpiment.
The gram.
The leaves, fruit,
and flowers.
The whole.
Axungia porcina.
Axungia viperina.
Balauitia (Pimica
granat. Lin.)
Balfamita - (Tana-
cetum balfatninum,
Lin;)
Balfamum Cana-
denfe (Pinus bal-
famea, Lih.)
Balfamum Copay-
vfe f Copaifera of-
fuinalis, Lin.)
Baliamum Gilea-
dtidnf Amyr'u Gi-
leadenjis, Lin.)
Balfamum Peruvia-
num (Myroxylon
peruiferum, Lin. )
Balfamum Toluta-
num (Poluifera
balfaminum, Lin;)
Bardana major,
.(Ardiium lappa,
Lin-.)
Barytes (f).
Hog’s lard 7
Viper’sLat. 5
Balauftine, or dou- The flowers,
ble-flowered po¬
megranate tree.
Coftmary. The leaves.
Balfam of Canada. The rofin.
Balfam of Copivi. The rofin.
Opobalfam, or balm The rofin.
of Gilead..
Balfam of Peru. The rofin.
Balfam-of. Tolu. The rofin.
Burdock. The roots and
feeds.
Lift of
PREPARATIONS PROM THEM. ’
Emollient and fup-
purative.
Antifpafmodic.
A fpirituous tinfture, decoc¬
tion, or conferve, recom¬
mended by Tournefort and
others.
Decodtion.
Emollient.
A violent ftimulant.
Cordial, ftomachic, An eflential oil, a diftilled wa-
and refrigerant. ter, and a conferve.
Purgative, or aftrin-
gent; uncertain.
Corrofive, but lefs
fo than arfenic.
Emollient.
Aftringent. Ingredient in a powdfcr.
Aromatic, antihy- Diftilled water and fpirituous
fteric. tin&ure.
Diuretic and tonic.
Diuretic and tonic. An empyreumatic oil, and an
ingredient in fome tinc¬
tures (e).
Said to be a mbft ex¬
traordinary vul*.
nerary.
A fine warm aro- An ingredient in many tine-,
made. tures* and fome ointments.
Aromatic and cor- An ingredient in feveral tine-.,
roborant. tures, elixirs, and a kind of-
pedloral pills.
Aperient, diuretic, Decodlion.
and fudorific.
Beccabunga,-,
(e) Balfam of Copivi has been employed empirically in hasmorrhoidal cafes; and Dr Cullen informs us,
that he has known it give relief in fuch cafes, inulofes from 20 ta 40 drops once or twice a day, mixed with
powdered fugar. Fuller recommends it in confumptiens ; but his pradice is cenfured by Dr Fothergill in the
4th volume of London Medical Obfervations.
(f) Barytes. The folution of the aerated barytes, or terra ponderofa, in fpirit of fait,, has been found,
capable of producing powerful effefts on the human fyftem. Several triais of it were made in the year 1789
by Dr Crawford, in St Thomas’s hofpital; and it was found to be very efficacious in fcrophulous complaints.—
In,fome cafes of fwelled glands, foul ulcers, enlarged joints,; and general cachexy; lingular relief was given*-
by the muriated barytes, either alone 01 joined with mercurials, antimonials, and the bark. The medicine in
a few cafes appeared to augment the cuticular feeretion ; in moft it.occafioned an..uncommon flow of urine*
and almoft univerfally improved the appetite and general health of the body. Few ftomachs, however, could”
bear more than from fix to ten drops of a faturated folution, nor did a continued ufe of the medicine recon¬
cile the ftbmach to it, but rather the contrary. Sometimes it produced a vertigo, which-probably arofe from,
its naufeating quality. Dr Crawford is of opinion, that this folution, when injudicioufly managed, is capable of .
producing deleterious efie&s, by. difordering the-nervous fyftem, and bringing on violent vomiting and purging..
From fome experiments made upon dogs, it appears that a large dofe would prove, fatal.'
MATERIA M E D I C A.
TECHNICAL NAMES. EN'pLlSH NAMES.
Beccabunga (Vero- Brooklime.
nica beccabunga.,
Lin.)
Bechen album,
(Centaurea be¬
chen, Lin.)
Bechen rubrum,
(Statlce limon.
Lin.)
Belladona (Atropa Deadly night*
belladonna, Lin.) (hade.
Beilis minor, (Bell. Common daify.
peren. Lin.)
Benzbe, (Termina- Benzoin.
lia ben%oin, Lin.)
Bc%heris (Berber. Barberry.
vulgar. Lin.)
Beta, (B. vulgaris, The beet.
Lin.)
Betonica (B. ojjici- Betony.
nails, Lin.)
Betula (B. alba, The birch-tree.
Lin.)
Bezoar. Bezoar-ftone.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
mot
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS FROM THEM,
The root.
Attenuating, and
antifcorbutie.
Stimulant.
Stimulant.
Narcotic.
The juice.
The leaves. Attenuant.
The refin. Pe&oral.
The bark and fruit. Aftringent.
The root and leaves.
and
An extra& of the juice, de-
coCtion, infufion, powders.
Ingredient in the paregoric
elixir.
A jelly.
The leaves
flowers.
The bark and fap.
Cathartic and er-
rhine.
Corroborant.
Bilis animalis. The gall or bile of
animals.
Biftorta (Polygonum Biftort or fnake- The roots.
bijlorta, Lin.) wort.
Boli. Boles.
Bonus Henricus, Englifli mercury. The leaves.
( Chenopidium bo- all-good, or good
nus Hen. Lin.) Henry.
Borax. Tincal, or borax. The whole.
Branca urfina, (A- Bear’s-breech. The root.
canthus mollis,
Lin.)
Braflica, (B. olera- Cabbage. The leaves.
cea, Lin.)
Brafilca 'marina, Sea-coleworts, or The leaves.
( Convolvulus fol- foldanella.
danella, Lin.)
Brucea antidyfen-
terica. See note
(a), fupra. _ '
Bryonia (B. alba. White briony, The root.
Lin.)
Burfa paftoris. Shepherd’s purfe. The leaves.
(Thlapfi burfa
p. Lin.)
Cacao (Theolroma Chocolate tree. The fruit.
cacao, Lin.)
Cajeput {Maleleuca Cajeput. The fruit.
leucadendron,
Lin.)
N° 197.
Antifcorbutic and
diuretic.
Many virtues falfe*
ly aferibed to it;
now found to be
only an abforb-
ent.
Cathartic.
Powerfully aftrin- An ingredient in a powder,
gent.
Aftringent and Ingredients in feveral pow-
flightly abforb- ders.
ent.
Laxative.
Diuretic and em- An ingredient in a powder,
menagogue. and a fait prepared from it.
See CHEMISTRY-/»d«C.
Emollient.
Refrigerant and
laxative.
A ftrong cathartic. Now rejeftedfrora pradicc.
Difcutient and vio*
lently cathartic.
Aftringent, but
very doubtful.
Analeptic. Chocolate.
Stimulant, healing, Diftillcd oil.
carminative.
4
Calaminam
MATERIA MEDIC A.
TECHNICAL N AMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
PARTS USED IN
MEDiClNE.
Virtues-.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Lift of
Simples.
Calahurraris lapis. Calamine Hone.
Calamintha (Melif- Calamint.
fa calamintha y
Lin.)
Calamus aromati- Sweet-flag,
cus i acorus cala¬
mus, Lin.)
Calendula (C. offici- Garden marigold.
nalis, Lin.)
Calx viva. Quicklime.
Camphor (Laurus Camphire tree.
camphor a, Lin.)
Canella alba (Lin.) White cinnamon.
Cannabis Hemp.
Lin.)
Cantharis (Meloe Spanifh fly.
veficatorius,lAa.)
Caparis (C.fpinofa, Caper-bufh.
Lin.)
Deficcative, heal- An ingredient in collyria,
ing. epulotic cerate, &c.
The leaves. Aromatic and fti-
mulant.
The roots. Aromatic and flo-
machic.
The flowers. Attenuating and fu •
dorific, but very
doubtful.
A violent corrofive, A medicated watm
and powerful al¬
terant and abfor*
bent.
The concreted ef- Refrigerant and di- Afolution in refilled fpirit, in
fential oil. aphoretic, ftimu- exprefled and effential oils.
lant, aatifpafmo- Ingredient in many other
die. compofltions.
The bark. Aromatic and fli- An ingredient in feveral tine-*,
mulatmg. tures.
The feeds. Aperient and re- Decodions and infuflons.
frigerant, but
doubtful.
Violently flimula- A fpirituaus tincture, a pla*
ting and vefica- fter, ointment, &c.
tory.
The bark of the Aperient and fto- Pickled,
root, and flower- machic.
Cardamines( C.pra- Cardamine. The flowers.
tenfis, Lin.)
Cardamomum ma- Greater cardamom. The feeds,
jus {slmom. car-
dam. Lin.)
Cardamomum mi- Leffer cardamom. The feeds,
nus {Amom. re¬
pens, Lin.)
Cardiaea (Leonurus Mother-wort.
cardiaca, Lin.)
Carduus benedictus Blefled-thiflle.
(Centaurea bene-
did a, Lin.)
Carica {Ficuscarica. The fig.
Lin.)
'Carlina (C. acaul. Carline-thiftle.
Lin.)
Carpobalfam {Amy- Carpobalfam.
ris Gikadenfis,
Lin.)
Carthamus ( C. tine- Baftard faffron.
torius, Lin.)
Carvi (Carumcarvi, Caraway.
Lin.)
Varyophy 11a rubra Clove july-fiower. The flowers,
X Dianthus carioph.
Lin.
Vol. X. Part II. 2
The leaves.
Thtleaves and feed.
The dried fruit.
The root.
The fruit.
The feeds.
The feeds.
Antifpafmodic. Powder.
Aromatic and fli- d
mulant.
Aromatic and fti-
mulant.
A fpirituous water and
tin&ure. Ingredient alia
in feveral officinal com-
pofitions.
Antifpafm-odic.
Stomachic. An ingredient in a flomachic
tinfture Infufions.
Emollient, fuppu- Ingredient in the p eft oral
rative. decoftion and lenitive elec¬
tuary.
Diaphoretic.
Aromatic. In fubftance applied warm
As a cataplafm.
Cathartic.
Aromatic. An eflential oil, a fpirituous
w'ater. Ingredient alfo in
fome officinal compofitions.
Cardiac and alexi- A fyrup.
pharmac.
4 O Caryophyllata
MATERIA MEDIC A.
6j8
Lift oi
^ Simples. TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
Avens, c
benet.
herb
Caryophyllata,
(Geum urban.
Lin.)
Caryophyllum (C. The clove-tree.
aromaticusy Lin.)
Cafcarilla (Croton Cafcarilla.
cafcary Lin. Cro¬
ton eleutheriay
Swartz Prodr.
Caflia fiftularis (C. CafTia.
Jiftulay Lin.)
Caffia lignea (Lau- Caflia.
rus cajfm, Lin.)
Caflumunar. Caflumar.
PARTS USED I!
MEDICINE.
The root.
The flower-cups.
The bark and
flower-buds.
The root.
VIRTUES.
Aromatic.
Lift of
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM. SlwPle8,J
An eflential oil.
Caftoreum (Cajlot
Jiber, Lin.)
Caftor.
S trongly aromatic. An eflential oil. Ingredient
alfo in many officinal com-
pofitions
Aromatic and fti- Infufions.
mulant.
Purgative. An ingredient in two electua¬
ries.
Aromatic. The bafis of a diftilled water.
Stomachic and car¬
minative.
Nervine and anti- A Ample water; a fpirituous
Catechu (Mimofa Catechu, vulgo Ja-
catechuy Lin.) pan earth.
Celeri (Aphim gra- Celery. The leaves.
’veoleris, Lin.)
Centaurium majus Greater centaury. The root.
( Centaureacentau-
rjum, Lin.)
Centaurium minus Lefler centaury. The tops.
( Gentiana centaur.
Lin.)
Cepa {Allium cep a. The onion.
Lin.)
Cera alba. White wax.
fpafmodic.
Aftringent.
water; a tindture. In¬
gredient in feveral officinal
compofitions.
A tinfture, troches, and con¬
fection, and an ingredient
in feveral officinal compo-
fitions.
Aftringent, aperi¬
ent, and vulne-
Tinfture and infufion.
Cerafus (Prunus ce- The cherry tree.
.rafus, Lin.)
Cerefolium [Sandix Chervil.
cerefol. Lin.)
Ceterach^^/rn.cr- Spleenwort.
terack. Lin.)
Cevadifla(Fmtfr«ffl Indian cauftic bar-
album, Lin. ?) ‘ ley.
Chamsedrys (Ten- Germander.
crium chtmadr.
Lin.)
The root. Attenuating and
diuretic.
Emollient. Ingredient in many plafters
and ointments.
Emollient. Ingredient in almoft all oint«
ments.
The fruit and gum. Refrigerant ; the
gum partaking of
the properties of
gum-arabic.
Aperient and diu¬
retic.
Diuretic (g).
The juice.
The leaves.
The feeds.
Virulently cauf¬
tic, (h).
The leaves and tops Sudorific, diuretic,
with the feed. &c.
Chamsemelura -
(g) M. Morand relates, that thefe leaves have lately been difeovered to have an admirable diuretic virtue;
that they were ufed with great, fuccefs by Count d’Auteuil, a Spaniih naval commander, for the gravel, with
which he was violently tormented ; and fince that time they have come greatly, into ufe at Paris, Verdun,
and Grenoble. From obfervations made in thofe places it appears, that they cany off fand, cleanfe the kid¬
neys, and mitigate pains in the urinary paffages; that the method of ufing them is to drink infufions of. the
leaves in the morning at tea, adding fuch other medicines as may be judged proper.
(h) Thefe feeds appear to be the ftrpngeft of all vegetable cauftics,. Monardes relates, that in putrid ver- -
ruinous.
MATERIA MEDIC A.
Lift of
Simples. TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
65 £
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
Lift of
PREPARATIONS PROM THEM. Simplea.^
Chamxmelum(^«- Camomile. The Angle flowers.
themis nobilis,
Lin.)
Chamaepithys (7V«- Ground-pine. The leaves.
trium chameplt.
Lin.)
Cheiri, feu Leuco- Wallflower. The flower.
jumluteum(C£«»
raniheheiri) Lin.)
Chelas crancrorum. Crab's claws.
Chelidoniummajus, Common celandine. The leaves and
(Lin.) roots.
Chelidonium minus Pilewort. Theleaves and root.
(Ranunculus fica-
riat, Lift )
China (Smilax Chi- China. The root.
na, Lin.)
Cicer (C. arietin. Redchices,or chick The feeds.
Lin.) peas.
Cichorium (C. in- Wild fuccory.
iyb. Lin.)
Cicuta major (Co- Hemlock (1).
nium maculat.
Lin.)
The roots and
leaves.
The leaves and
feeds.
4 O 2
Stomachic, carmi- An eifential oil, a Ample wa-
native, and emol- ter, an extradt, a decoc¬
lient. tibn.
Aperient and vul¬
nerary.
Aperient, cordial,
and attenuant.
Abforbent. Levigated.
Stimulating, diure- InfuAon. Dried root po1v-»
tic,andfudoriflc. dered.
Emollient.
Diaphoretic and
diuretic.
Lithontriptic and
diuretic, but very
doubtful.
Laxative and anti-
fcorbutic.
Refolvent and alte- Infpiffated juice of the leaved,
rant.. and an extract from the
feeds.
C-inara
minous ulcers and gangrenes, they have the fame effefts as cotrofive fublimate, or the aftual cautery; and
that the way of uflng them is to fprinkle a little of powdered feed upon the part; or, for the greater fafety,
to dilute it with watery liquors, and apply lint dipped in the mixture In the Am&nitates Academic# of Lin¬
naeus, they are faid to be the moft powerful of all medicines for deftroying cutaneous infefts in children.
(1) It is fuppofed that the juice of this plant was the poifon fo much ufed among the Athenians for putting
criminals tb death ; but from fome late experiments this feems to be doubtful; or at leaft that the remedy
is very eafy. Mr Haram, apothecary at Chartres, informs us, that a large fpoonful of the juice given to
a cat had no fenAble effect; a fecond produced a viAble embarras on the region of the reins: in a little time
the animal ftaggered, but did not fall. A quarter of an hour after, fhe was found ftretched out ihotionlefs, with
her paws rigid. Halt a drachm of theriaca, with two large fpobnfuls of wine, were given without effedt :
but no fooner was a large fpoonful of lemon-juice fwallowed than flie got up as if nothing had happened*
and continued afterwards in good health. Othei authors likewife inform us, that vinegar is an antidote
againft the poifonous effefts of this plant.
With regard to its medical virtues, Dr Monro, who has feen it tried in a great number of cafes, informs us,
that he never faw it cure a conflrmed cancer, whether ulcerated or not ; that in a few cafes of ulcerated can¬
cers it mended the difeharge, and changed it from a thin ichor to an appearance of laudable pus ; but, not*-
withftanding this favourable appearance, the diftemper at laft terminated fatally. — In fcrophulous cafes, fome
few fmall tumours were thought to be difeufled by it ; but large hard fwellings were never removed by it, tho’
the remedy was continued for weeks and months. The difeharge from fcrophulous fores of the extremities,
however, was often mended by it; and in many cafes, it was found to be of more fervice when joined with
the bark than when given alone: the aftion of the bark and mercury was thought to be rendered more pow¬
erful by it. In the chincough it did not produce any remarkable effefts. In fome few inftances, he imagined
that it hurt the health of the patients ; and in one or two, that it haitened death, In this lalt cafe, indeed,
the ufe of the cicuta had been laid afide for fome time, and the patients funk fo gradually, that our author was
in doubt what might have been the caufe of their death.
The roots of hemlock have been fuppofed to be more a&ive than the leaves, both when taken internally
and when outwardly applied. Dr Stork relates, that on being cut, it yields a bitter acrid milk, of which a
drop or two applied to the tip of the tongue occafloned a rigidity, pain, and fwelling of the part, fo as to de¬
prive him of the power of fpeech. Thefe fymptoms, however, difappeared on waffling the part with citron
juice. When dried, it lofes its virulence ; fo that Dr Storck fays, he has taken a grain or two of the powder
without injury. Other authors give inftances where 20 and 30 grains have been given with good effedl in
fchirroflties of the liver, quartan agues, on the approach of a At, and even in acute fevers. Dr Aikin informs
us, that the frelh root feems not to be at all times of equal virulence ; and that he has feen it chewed freely
without
4>6o
M A T E RIA MEDIC A.
Lift of
_ Simples. techNICALNAMES.
Cinara (Cynara fio-
lymus, Lin.)
Cinnamomum
(Laurus annum.
Lin.)
titrulkis (Cucurlita
citruHus, Lin.)
Coceinella (Coccus
caEii, Lin.)
CogcuIv’s Indicus,
( Menifperm. co-
cul. Lin.)
Cochlearia (C. of-
Jiclnalis, Lin.)
Coffea ( C. Aral tea,
Lin.)
Colchicum (C. au-
tumnale, Lin.)
Colocynthis [Cucu-
mis colocynthis,
Lin.)
Columbo (Ignatia
amara, Lin.)
PARTS USED IK
MEDICINE.
ENGLISH NAT
Artichoke. The leaves.
The cinnamon tree. The bark.
Citruls. The feeds.
Cochineal.
Indian berry. The fruit.
VIRTUES.
lift of
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM". Bimp’es.
Diuretic (k).
Aromatic and cor- An effential oil, a fimple and
Coneffi {Nerium Coneffi.
untidyfentericum,
Lin.)
Confolida major, Comfrey.
( Symphitum ojp-
cin. Lin.)
fpirituous diftilled water,
and an ingredient in a great
number of compofitions.
Scurvy-grafs.
The coffee-tree.
Meadow faffron.
Coloquintida, or
bitter-apple.
Columbo, or Co-
lomba.
The fruit.
The root.
roborant.
Refrigerant.
Sudorific, but chief¬
ly ufed for co¬
louring.
Narcotic.
Stimulating and A conferve andfpint. An in-
attenuant. gi t Jient in fome other offi¬
cinal preparations.
Stomachic and cor- A decodtion.
roborant.
Diuretic. A fyrup and oxymel.
The medullary part Violently cathartic. An ingredient in fome cathar¬
tic pills and extracts.
of the dried fruit.
The root.
The bark.
The root.
A moft excellent A vinous tin&ure.
antifeptie and
ftomachic.
Antifeptic and
tonic (l).
Emollient.
Contrayer
•without any other effeft than that fweetifhnefs obfervable in parfley roots or carrots. There are likewife in-
flances, where the cicuta roots have been taken to the quantity of fome drachms, or even ounces, without any
bad confequeirce.
The feeds have been recommended as demulcent, paregoric, and antaphrodifiac ; but little more (according
To Dr Aikin) is yet known about them, but that they are innocent to fome birds. Mr Ray fays, that he.
(found the crop of a thrufh full of them, and that at a feafon when the corn was in full growth.
In the firft volume of the Medical Commentaries, an extract prepared from hemlock-feeds is preferred to
that made from the leaves y and in the lafl Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, an extradl of this kind is ordered as
an officinal.
(k) Dr Aikin informs us, that the expreffed juice of the leaves has fometimes proved fuceefsful in dropfies,
•when other remedies had failed. For this purpofe it is not depurated, but only freed by palling through a
flrainer from the groffer feculencies, and mixed with an equal quantity of white wine; three or four fpoonfuls
to be taken every morning and evening.—The following decoftion (as we are informed by Dr Monro) was
long kept a fecret by a perron at Andover, and is faid to have carried off the water from feveral people la¬
bouring under a dropfy. Take of artichoke leaves and Italks three handfuls ; of bruifed juniper-berries one
quart; of feraped horfe-raddilh one handful; of green fir-tops two handfuls ; of bruifed white rauftard-feed
two table-fpoonfuls ; mix the whole, and boil them in. two gallons of water to one, and ftrain the whole thro’
a cloth. Half a pint to be taken by a grown perfon morning and evening, adding a little fyrup or fugar to
Snake it agreeable.
(l) This bark is reckoned a fpecific in diarrhoeas ; the fine powder being made ufe of in an eleftuary fornv-
sed with fyrup of oranges, and given to the quantity of half a drachm or more four times a day* after a vomit
has been given. The firft. day it is taken, the number of ftoois is generally increafed, without any increafe
cf the griping ; the fecond, the colour of the ftoois is meliorated ; and, on the third or fourth, the confiftence
approaches to the natural, when it makes a cure. It feldom fails in curing a recent diarrhoea, proceeding
from irregularities in diet without fever j and it is frequently of fervice in habitual diarrhoeas.
Lift of
§impk>. -rxcHNieALNAMES.
Contrayerva [Dor-
Jlenta contrayerva,
Lin.) _
Convallaria (C. Po-
lygonatum, Lin*)
Corallina ■ (Sertula-
ria, Lin?)
Coriandrum [G.fa-
tivum, Lin.)
Goriju cervi (Cer-
vuselephas, Lin.)
Coftus ( C. Arab.
Lin.)
Crafl'ula (ScJum te-
lephium, Lin.)
Greta alba.
Crithmum {C. ma-
ritimum, Utn.')
•Crocus.(C. Jatiws
offic. Lin.)
Croton. See Caf-
carilla fupra.
Gubebae [Piper cu-
bela, Lin.)
Cucumis hortenfis
[C.fativus, Lin.)
Gucumis agreftis
[Momordica ela-
terium, Lin. )
Gucurbita [C.pepo,
Lin.1)
Guminum [C.cymi-
num, Lin. )
Cupreflus.
Cuprurm
MATERIA M E D I C A.
PARTS USED1 IN
66£
ENGLISH NAMES.
Contrayerva.
MEDICINE..
The root.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Lift of
Simples.
Coralline.-
Coriander.
HartfHorn.
Goftus.
LefFer orpine.
White chalk.
Samphire.
The root..
The leaves.
The chives, or
flelhy capilla-
ments growing
at the end of
the flower.
The garden cucum- The feeds,,
ber.
Wild cucumber. The fruit;
The gourd and
pompion^
Cummin.
The feeds.
The feed.
The cyprefs.
Copper;
Aromatic and dia- Spirituous tin&ure, extract,
phoretic. powder.
Suppurative.
Abforbent.
Carminative and
ftomachic.
Emollient and nu¬
tritious.
Attenuant and diu¬
retic;
Emollient and af-
tringent,
Abforbent.
Aperient, ftoma¬
chic, and diu¬
retic.
Aromatic and cor;
dial.
Poultide,. decoction in milk
recommended in fome cafes
of hemorrhagy.
Eormerly an ingredient in
fome officinal compofitions.
Shavings, a jelly, a volatile al¬
kaline fait and fpirit, and
an empyreumatic oil.
A fpirituous tinfture ; a fy-
rup ; and an ingredient in »
feveral officinal compofi¬
tions.
Aromatic and fti- An ingredient in feveral oftL
mulant. cinal compofitiops.
Refrigerant.
Violently cathartic. The juice infpiffated.
Refrigerating.
An expreffed oil.
Curcuma-(G. langa. Turmeric.
Lin.)
Gurfuta (Gentiana
purpurea, Lin.;)
Gydonium [Pirns The quince.
cydonia, Lin.)
Cyminum. See Cu-
minum, fupra.-
Cynoglbflus [C. of- Hound’s tongue. The root.
ficinalis, Lin.)
Cynofbatum [Rofa
canina, Lin.)
Aromatic,. ftimu- An effential oil by diftilla--
liint; tion ; and giving name to at
plafter and cataplafm.
A ftrong aftrin-
gent.
A violent emetic, Calcined, and producing falls
diuretic, and al- by combination with feve¬
ral-acids, and with volatile
alkali. See Chemistry,
Index..
The root; Aromatic, aperi¬
ent, and emme-.
nagogue.
The root; Stomachic.
The,fruit and feeds. Stomachic and cor- A fyrup and jelly of the fruit, ,
roborative. and mucilage of the feeds.
The wild briar,
dog-rofe, or
-hip-tree,
Narcotic, but
doubtful.
The fruit and flow- Refrigerant and
ers. antifcorbutic.
A diftilled water and cohferve,
Cypcmr>
esa
Lift of
t SimPleFi Technical names.
Cypefus (C. longusy
Lin.)
Daftylus (Phoenix
dadylif. Lift.
MATERIA ME DIG A.
FARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
ENGLISH NAMES.
Long cyperus. The root.
The date-tree. The fruit.
The feeds.
Candy carrot.
, The garden carrot. The toots.
Wild carrot. The>feeds.
Daucus Creticus
(Athamanta Cre-
tenfis, Lin.)
Daucus fativus (Z).
carota, Lin.)
Daucus filveftris
(D. carota <
Lin.)
Dens leonis (Leon- Dandelion.
todon.tarax.Lin.)
Diftamnus Creti- Dittany of Crete. The leaves,
cus (Origanum
didamnus, Lin.)
Diftamnus albus Ballard dittany. The root.
(Lin.)
VIRTUES.
Aromatic and car*
minative.
Emollient and
llightly allriii*
gent..
Aromatic.
Lift of
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM. Simples. _
Powerfully anti-
feptic.
Aromatic.
Ingredient in mithridate ar4
theriaca.
A poultice from them for can*
cers, and a marmalade.
The root and herb. Attendant, but
doubtful.
Aromatic.
Digitalis (t). pur¬
purea f Lifti)
Dolichos (D. pru-
ricns, Lin.)
Doronicum. See
Arnica.
Dulcamara (Sola¬
tium dulcariiard,
Lin.)
Ebulus (Sambucus
elulus, Lin.)
Elaterium. See
Cucumis.
Elatine (Veronica
officinalist Lin.)
Elcampane. See
Pnula.
Elemi ( Amyris ele-
mfera, Lin.)
Eleutheria. See
Cafcarilla.
Endivia (Cichoreum
endivia, Lin.)
Enula (Inula hel-
lenium} Lin.)
Eox-glove.
Couhage, or co¬
witch.
Bitter-fweet, or
Woody night*
lhade.
Dwarf-elder, or
Danewort.
An eflential oil} and ingre*
dient in feveral officinal
powders.
Alexipharmac, to¬
nic, and anthel¬
mintic.
The leaves. Emetic, cathartic, The leaves in powder or in¬
ane! diuretic. fufion, ufed in droplies.
The hairy matter Anthelmintic,
of the pods.
The herb and root. Diaphoretic, atte- Watery infufions.
nuant, and ca-
.thartic.
The root, bark. Strongly cathartic. A rob from the berries.
leaves, and fruit.
Fluellin, or female The leaves,
fpeedwell.
Endive.
Elecampane.
Eruca (Sifymbrium Rocket.
amphibium, Lin.)
Eryngium (E.ma-
ritim. Lin.)
Eryfimum (E. offi¬
cinale ^ Lin.)
-Eupatorium cana-
binum, (Lin.)
Eryngo, or fea-
holly.
Hedge-muftard.
Euphorbium (Eu¬
phorbia officinalis y
Lin.)
Hemp-agrimony,
water-agrimony,
or water-hemp.
Euphorbiurr.
The leaVes and
roots.
The root.
The feeds.
The root.
The recent plant.
The leaves.
Diuretic and atte- Gives name to one of theofS*
nuarit. cinal honeys.
Gives name to an ointment*
Aperient and refri¬
gerant.
Expe&orant, fto- Spirituous and watery ei*
machic,attenu- trafls. A confedtion.
ating, and to¬
nic.
Stimulant.
Aperient and diu¬
retic.
Atteniiant and diu¬
retic.
Attenuant, corro¬
borant, and an-
tifcorbutic.
Sternutatory. Powder.
fdbi
3
MATERIA MEDICA
Lift of
SimPle8- TECHNICALNAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
VIRTUES.
Faba Indica, feu
San&i Ignatii,
(Ignatiaamara,
Lin.)
Faba vicia (Vicia
faba, Lin.)
Fagopyrum {Pa-
lyg- fagopyr.
Lin.)
Farina tritici vel
arenas.
Ferrurn.
St Ignatius’s bean.
The garden-bean.
Snakeweed.
Bran..
Iron.
The feeds; (th<
root, the co
lumbo.)
The feeds and
ers.
The feeds.
Antifpafmodic.
•- Nutritive and cof-
metic.
Refrigerant.
Difcutient.
Corroborative and
alterant.
Ficus. See Carica.
Filipendula (Spinta Common dropwort. The root. Aflringent and cor-
Jilipmd. Lin.) roborant.
Filix (Palypodtum The male fern; The leaves and root. Anthelmintic and
filix mas, Lin.) deobftruent.
FlammulaJovis(C/e- Upright virgin’s- The leaves and Very acrid.
matis jlammulat bower. flowers.
Lih.)
Fceniculum dulceet Sweet and common
vulgare ( Anethum fennel.
fanic. Lin.)
Foeniculum aquati- Waterwort.
cum (Phellandri-
umaquat. Lin.)
Fosnum Grascum Fenugreek.
(Trigonella fanum-
grtecum, Lin.)
Formica (F. rufa. The ant.
Lin.)
Fragaria (F. vefca, The flrawberry
Lin.) biiih.
Frangula (Alnus ni- Black alder.
gra, Lin.)
Fraxinella {Di8am- White or baftard
nus alius, Lin.) dittany.
Fraxinus {F. excel- The afh-tree.
Jlor, Lin.)
Fuligo ligni. fplen- Shining woodfoct.
dens
Fumaria( A officina- Fumitory.
Us, Lin.)
Fungus melitenfis
( Cynomorium coc—
cin. Lin.)
Galanga minor Galangai..
Kempferia Galan-
gal, Lin.)
Galbsnum {Bulan Galbanum.
galbanum, Lin.)
The feeds, roots, Aromatic, ftimu-
and leaves. lant, and carmi¬
native.
Theleavesandfeeds. Corroborant.
The whole infeft. Stimulant.
The leaves and Aftringent, corro-
fruit. borant, and refri¬
gerant.
The bark. Violently cathartic.
The root.
Diaphoretic.
The bark and feeds. Aftringent and fti-
mulant.
Antifpafmodic.
The leaves. Stimulating, atte-
nuant, and an-
tifcorbutic
The ilems and tops. Tonic and aftrin¬
gent.
The root.
The gum.
Stomachic.
Antihyfteric.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
A diftilled water from the
flowers.
Infufions in wine ; the metal
reduced to a calx by ruft*,
or by fire, and fome falls
produced from it by com¬
binations with different a-
cids. See Chemistry/«-
Jex.
Powder.
Powder for fprinkling on can¬
cerous and venereal ulceis;
infufion and extract for in¬
ternal ufe, in wallings, &c.
from lues venerea.
A Ample water; and an in¬
gredient in one or two
compofitions.
Chiefly ufed in cataplafnw,
fomentations, emollient gly-
fters,- &c.
An oil and acid fpirit.
A fpirituous tindurc*-. -
Deco&ion and tinfturc.
An ingredient in feveral offi»
cinal compofitions.
G«dcg3 *
MATERIA M E D I C A,
.C64
.Liroplc?. NAMtS. ENGLISH NAMES. ,>ARTS VSED W
 r— MEDICINE*
Lift of
FEEPARATIONS FROM THEM. Simples.
The hetb.
Galega f G. officinal Goat’s rue
YtSy Lin.)
Galls (ex Shtcrc. Galls.
cerr. Lin.
Gallium luteum (G. Yellow ladies bed- The tops.
•verum, Lin.) ftraw, or cheefe-
xennet.
Gambogia. See
Gumm 'i gambogiat
infra.
-Genifta (Spartium Broom. The leaves, Bowers,
fcoparium, Lin.) and feeds.
Gentiana {G.lutea^ Common gentian. The root.
Lin.)
Diaphoretic, but
very doubtful.
Aftringent. m).
Aftringent.
Geoffrasa (G. iner- Cabbage-bark, or The bark.
mis, .Lin.) worm-bark tree.
Geranium Rober- Herb Robert. The leaves,
tianum (Lin.)
Ginfeng (Panax Ginfeng. The root.
quinqvefoU Lin.)
Gladiolum luteum Yellow water-flag. The roots.
(Iris pfeudaccrus, baftard acorus,or
Lin.) water flower-de-
luce.
•Glycyrrhiza (G. Liquorice. The root.
glabra, Lin.)
Diuretic and ca¬
thartic
Stomachic and fti- A fpirituous tin&ure, and ate
mulant ingredient in many officinal
compofitions.
Anthelmintic and Powder,-decodtion, fyrup, ex¬
purgative. tradt.
Aftringent, but
very doubtful.
Stimulant and cor¬
roborant.
Strongly cathartic.
The roots.
Gramen caninum Quick-grafs.
(Triticum repens,
Lin.)
Grana paradifi [A- Grains of paradife. The feeds.
momum gr. par.
Lin.)
Granatum (Punka The pomegranate. The fruit and
grana turn, Lin.) flowers.
Gratiola (G.officina- Hedge-hyffop. The herb.
Its, Lin.)
Guajacum (G. offici- Lignum-vitae, or
nale, Lin.) guajacum.
Emollient and pec- An extraft and powder. An
toral. ' ingredient in many officinal
compofitions.
Aperient.
Aromatic and fli-
mulant.
Refrigerant and
. aftringent.
Emetic and cathar-
The wood and
bark.
Aperient, ftimn-
lant, and cor¬
roborative.
•Gummi arabicum Gum-arabic,
( Mimofa nilotica,
Lin.) t
Gum ammoniacum Gum-ammoniac.
(Ferula meoides,
Lin. ?)
Gum. afafcetida Afafoetida.
(Ferula afaf.
Lin.)
Gum. bdellium. Bdellium.
Aftringent and mu¬
cilaginous.
The concrete juice.
Aperient, antifpaf-
modic, and emol¬
lient.
Antihyftericandan-
thelmintic.
An extract, two tindlures,
and a gummy refin An
ingredient in many officinal
preparations.
An ingredient in a great num¬
ber of officinal compofi¬
tions.
A folution. An ingredient
in feveral pedloral comp oft .
tions.
Tindtures.
Gum benzoin (TV- Benzoin.
minalia bemzoin,
Lin. Sty rax len~
z&e, Lond. Ph.
Tranf.)
N° 197-
Sudorific, diuretic,
and emollient.
Cofmetic. An ingredient in feveral ano¬
dyne compofitions.
(m) Dr Cullen informs us, that an ointment compofed of one part of powdered galls and eight ofhogfc*
lard is a common remedy for the hamcrrhords, and has been found efficacious.
MATERIA MEDIC A,
of
f«mpks. ^CHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAME®.
Gum. elemi [Amy- Elemi.
ris elemifera, Lin.)
Gum. galbanum, Galbanum.
{Bubongalb Lin.)
Gum. gambogia Gamboge-.
(Gambogia gutta,
Lin. Stalagmites
gambogioides,
Murray.)
Gum kino. Kino.
Gum. labdanum Labdanum.
(Ci/lus ladanfera,
Lin.)
Gum. lacca (Coc- Gum lac.
cus lacca, Lin.
habitans in
cureligiofa, in Mi-
mo fa einerafiafSc
aliis.)
Gum. rnailic, (Pi- Maftich.
Jlachia lenlifcus,
Lin )
Gum. myrrha. Myrrfi.
Gummi olibanum, Olibanultt.
( jfuniperus Lycia,
Lin.)
Gummi opoponax OpoponaX.
(Pajlinaca ofopo-
nax, Lin.)
Gum. fanguis dra-
conis. Vid. San¬
guis, infra.
Gum.Senegal (Mi-
mofa Seneg Lin.)
Gum. ftyrax. See
Sty rax, infra.
Gum. thus. See
Thus, infra.
Gum. tragacanth Gum tragacanth,
{Ajlragalus trag. commonly gum-
Lin.) dragoh.
Hasmatites. Blood-ftone.
PARTS USEb IN
MEDICINE.
66s
Lift of
preparations from them. Simples‘.
Aromatic. An eflential oil, and gives
name to ointment.
Antifpafmodic. An ingredient in many anti-
hyfteric medicines.
.Emetic andcathaf- Gives name to a certain kind
tic. ©f pills.
A tin&Ure.
An ingredient in the ftoma*
chic pills and platters.
Aftringent.
Stomachic.
Aftringent.
Corroborant.
Antifpafmodic and A tinfture, and an ingredient
corroborant. in many officinal compofi-
tions.
Aftringent, but un- An ingredient in fome poW-
certain. ders, and other officinal
compofitions.
Attenuant and fti- An ingredient in fome offict*
mulant. nal compofitions.
Aftringent and mu¬
cilaginous.
Aftringent and cor¬
roborant.
Hedera arborea Ivy.
(Hedeta helix. Lin.)
Hedera terreftris, Ground-ivy. The leaves.
(Glechoma hede-
racea, Lih )
Helenium See E-
nula, fupra.
Helleborafter (Fa- Bear’s foot. The leaves.
tidus, Lin-)
Helleborus albus, White hellebore. The root.
( Veratrum alb.
Lin.)
Helleborus niger Black hellebore, or The toot.
(L'm.) Melampodium.
Vol. X. Part II. *
Aftringent and coin
roborative.
The leaves, berries, Diaphoretic,
and refin.
Aperient and cor¬
roborant.
Emetic, purgative, Syrup,
andanthelmintic.
Moft violently erne- A. tinfture and honey, tor^
tic and errhine. merly.
A powerful altera- A tin&ure and extradl.
tive and emme-
4P
Hepatic*
MATERIA MEDIC A.
m
Lift of
Simples. TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
Lift of
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS FROM THEM. Simples.
Hepatica nobilis
{jinemone hepatic.
Lin.)
Hermoda&ylus,
(Iris tuberofa,
Lin.)
Herniaria ( //. gla¬
ir a, Lin.)
Hippocaftanum
(JEfcul. hippocqft.
Lin.)
Hordeum (H. dijli- Barley.
chon, Lin.)
Horminum (Salvia Garden-clary.
horminum, Lin.)
Hydrargyrus. See
Argentum vivum,
fupra.
Hydrolapathum
(Rumen aquati-
cus, Lin.
Hyofciamus (//.
niger, Lin.)
Hypericum (H.
perforatum, Lin.;
Hypociftis (Cyti- Hypociftis.
fus hypoci/l. Lin.)
Hyffopus H. off- Hyffop.
cinalis, Lin.)
Jalappa (Convohu- Jalap.
lus jalappa, Lin.)
Japonica terra. See
Catechu, fupra.
Imperatoria (/. of- Mafter-wort.
truthium, Lin.)
Indian root. See
Radix Indica, in¬
fra.
Ipecacoanha {Pfy- Ipecacuanha.
chatria emetic a,
Lin.)
Noble liverwort. The leaves.
Hermoda&yl. The root.
Rupture-wort. The leaves.
Horfe-chefnut. The bark and fruit.
Cooling and corro¬
borant.
The leaves and
feeds.
Purgative, but
doubtful.
Aftringent.
Corroborant and
errhine.
Refrigerant.
Corroborative.
Great water-dock. The leaves and
roots.
Alterant and laxa¬
tive.
The common wild The leaves and Narcotic.
or black hen-bane. feeds.
St John’s wort. The leaves, flowers,
and feeds.
The juice.
The leaves.
The root.
The root (n.)
Cataplafm, plafter, powder,
ointment.
Diuretic, fudorific, Gives name to a coloured
and alterant. oil.
Aftringent. Juice infpiffated.
Aromatic and pec- A diftilled water,
toral
Cathartic. An extraff, a Ample tinfture,
a componnd tin dure, a re¬
fin, and powder.
Aromatic.
Emetic and cathar- A vinous tindure, and a pow-
tic. der.
(n) A root has been fometimes imported, under the name of white ipecacuanha {viola ipecacuanha, Lin.),
which has little or nothing of the virtues of the true kind. More dangerous abufes, however, have been
pradifed by the fubftitution or mixture of the roots of a kind of apocynum, which have been found to ope¬
rate with great violence both upwards and downwards, fo as to prove fatal in fome cafes. They may. how¬
ever, eafily be diftinguiflied by their colour, which is a deep reddifli yellow, while the true ipecacuanha is
pale coloured or greyifh : the poifonous roots are likewife larger, the fiffures more diftant, and the interme¬
diate fpaces fmoother, than in the true ipecacuanha. This root is found to. increafe the purgative virtue of
jalap remarkably. Dr Aikin informs us, that 15 grains of jalap, with two or three of ipecacuanha, purge
more than twice the quantity of jalap by itfelf-
“ Of late (fays Dr Monro), a notion has prevailed, that the keeping up a naufea by means of fmall dofes
«5>f ipecacuanha, or of watery folution of emetic tartar, was of great fervice in promoting the cure of fevers,
as well as of fluxes, from a belief that they affeded the nervous fyftem, and were capable of exciting the ac¬
tion-of the extreme vefiels, and of increafing the fecretions by the Hein, and of the internal organs. Hither-
%o 1 have not found this method to anfwer my expedations; and I have always obferved, that fuch a dofe of
an emetic as emptied the ftomach freely, and gave a lhake to the whole frame, had a much better effed than:
3 thofs
Lift of
. SimPle8~ TECHNICAIMAMES,
M r E R I A M E D I C A
ENGLISH NAMES.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
Iris Florentina, Florentine oris The root.
{Lin.)
Iris paluftris. See
Gladiolum, fupra.
Juglans Kj. regia. The walnut-tree. The fruit.
Lin.)
Jujuba, (Rkafnnus Jujubes. The fruit.
•zizyph. Lin.)
Juncus odoratus.
See Calamus, fu¬
pra.
Juniperus {J. com- Juniper.
munis, Lin.)
Kermes {Coccus Kermes.
querc. ilic. Lin.)
Kino. See Gum
Kino, fupra.
Lac. Milk.
Lacca. See Gum
Lacca, fupra.
Laftuca, (l.. fati- Garden lettuce.
•oa, Lin.)
Laftuca virofa, Wild lettuce.
{Lin.)
Ladanum {Cijlus Ladanum.
creticus, Lin.)
Lamium album White archangel,
{Lin.) or dead-nettle.
Lavendula {L. Spi- Greater, or broad-
ca, Lin.) leaved lavender.
Laurus {L. nolilis. The bay-tree.
Lin.)
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS TROM THEM.
Aromatic and ili- An ingredient in feveral pec>
mulant. toral medicines.
The kernel emol-
lient, the fliell
aftringent.
Emollient and bal-
famic.
The berries, wood, Carminative and AnefTential oil, and fpirituoui
and reiin. ftomachic. water. Ingre dient in feve*.
ral officinal co mpohtions.
Aftringent and cor- A confeftion.
roborant.
Analeptic and cor- A faccharine fait*
roborant.
The leaves and
feeds.
Juice.
The gum-refin.
The leaves and
flowers.
The flowers.
Suppofed narcotic.
Laxative, diuretic,
and diaphoretic.
The leaves and ber¬
ries.
Lentifcus [Pijlacia
lentifcus, Lin.)
Lepidium, \L.lati-
fol. Lin.)
Levifticum {Ligu-
Jlicum levifticum,
Lin.) _
Lichen cinereus ter-
reftris {L. cani-
nus, Lin.)
The lentifc or ma-
ftich tree.
Common broad dit-
tander, pepper-
wort, or poor
man’s pepper.
Lovage.
Afti-coloured
ground liver¬
wort.
The wood.
The leaves.
Suppofed corrobo¬
rant.
An excellent cor¬
dial and aroma¬
tic.
Carminative and
antifpafmodic.
Aftringent, tonic,
and diuretic.
Antifcorbutic and
diuretic.
Ingredient in the ftomachic'
plafter.
An eflential oil, a Ample and
compound fpirit, and a
conferve. An ingredient in
fome officinal preparations.
An exprefled oil. An ingre¬
dient in different compoA-
tions.
The root and feed. Aromatic.
Ingredients in fome compound
Liahen iflandicus Eatable liverwort.
\Lin.)
Recommended by Principal ingredient in the
Dr Mead as afpe- pulvis a ''' /r
ciftc againft the
bite of a mad dog,
but without foun¬
dation.
Nourifhing, antifep-
tic, and laxative.
4P2
Lignum
thofe frequently repeated fmall dofes, which kept the patient in a difagreeable uneafy Atuation for hours to¬
gether ; and I am perfuaded, that no pradtitioner of experience, who has attended large hofpitals, where he
has had an opportunity of trying and feeing the effedts of different medicines, will ever recommend this nau»
feating method for general practice in fevers, though it may be of ufe in fome particular cafes.”
668
MATERIA M
Lift of
Simples. TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
E D I C A.
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Lignum campe-
chenfe ('//<?-
matoxylum cnm-
pech. Lin.)
Lignum rhodium,
(Genijia canari-
enfiSy Lin.)
Ligufticum. See
JLeveJlicum,
fupra.
Lilium convallium,
(Conval. maial.
Lin.)
Lilium album, {L.
candidum, Lin.)
Limon, {Citrus me¬
dico, Lin.)
Linaria {Antirrhi¬
num linaria, Lin.)
Lingua cervina,
{Afplenium fcolo-
pend. Lin.)
Linum catharticum
( Euphorbia lathy-
rus, Lin.)
Linum Sativum
(L. ufttatijjimum,
Lin.)
Liquida ambra {a-
cernegundo, Lin.)
Lithofpermum {L.
officinale, Lin.)
Lobelia (L.fiphiliti-
ca, Lin.)
Lujula, or wood-
forrel. See Ace-
tofella, fupra.
Lumbrici etlimaces
terreftres.
Lupinus {L. alius,
Lin.)
Lupulus {Humul.
lup. Lin.)
Logwood. . The wood.
Rofe-wood. The wood.
Lilly of the valley. The root and flow¬
ers.
White lily. The root.
The lemon-tree. The fruit.
Toad-flax. The leaves.
Hart’s tongue. The leaves.
Purging flax. The leaves.
Flax. The feed.
Sweet gum, or fto- The refinous juice,
rax tree.
Gromwell. The feeds.
Blue cardinal The root (o).
flower.
Earth worms and
fnails
White lupines. The feeds.
Hops. The loofe leafy
heads which
grow upon the
topsoftheftalks.
Aftringent. An extraft.
Cordial. An eflential oil.
Cephalic and ner¬
vine.
Emollient. Poultice.
Aromatic, antifeor- An cflential oil ; an ingreefi-
butic, and cordial. ent in feveral. compofitions.
Diuretic and ca¬
thartic, but
doubtful.
Aperient.
Cathartic. Infufion in whey. Dried
powder.
Emollient. An exprefled oil. Cataplafm.
Aromatic and cor¬
dial.
Refolvent; lithon-
triptic.
Alterant, and deter- Decoclion.
gent.
Aperient and ana- Decoftion in milk,
leptic.
Anthelmintic.
Diuretic and ftoma-
chic.
Lycoperdoa
(o) This root was long a famous fecret among the North American Indians for curing the venereal difeafe.
The fecret was purchafed by Sir William Johnfon, and has been publilhed in the writings of Bartram, Kahn,
&c. The following method of ufing it is, by Dr Aikin, recommended as the beft: “ A deco&ion is made
of an handful of the roots in three meafures of water. Of this half a meafure is taken in the morning
falling, and repeated in the evening ; and the dofe is gradually increafed till ks purgative effeA becomes
'too violent, when the medicine is for a time to be intermitted, and then renewed till a perfedt cure is effected.
One dofe daily is fufficient during the latter part of the treatment; and the regimen, during the whole procefs,
is to be equally ftrift with that obferved in a courfe of mercurial falivation. From the third day, the ulcers
are to be well walhed twice daily with the deco&ion ; and it is faid, that when they are very deep and foul,
the Indians fprinkle them with powder of the internal bark of the fpruce tree. By this method we are allured
that inveterate venereal complaints are cured without the aid of mercury.’,
MATERIA M E D I C A.
Lift of
Simples. technICALNAMES.
ENGLISH NAMES.
66$)
Lift of
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM. ,
Puff ball, or dully The whole,
mufhroom.
Lycoperdon (Z,.
bovifta, Lin.)
Macis. See Nux
Mofchata, infra.
Majorana (On- Sweet marjoram,
ganum majorana,
Lin.)
Malabathrum (Lau- Indian leaf.
rus cajjia, Lin.)
Malva (M. fylvejl- The mallow.
ris, Lin.)
Mains {Pyrus ma- The apple-tree;
lus, Lin,)
Mandragora (^ro- The mandrake.
pa Mandrag.
Lin.)
Manna (Fraxinus The manna alh.
ornus, Lin.)
Styptic.
The leaves and flow- Aromatie and er- An effential oil.
ers.
The leaves and
flowers.
The fruit.
The leaves.
The concreted:
juice.
rhine.
Aromatic.
Emollient.
Refrigerant and
laxative.
Narcotic-
An ingredient in mithridate
and theriaca.
Ingredient in the deco&ion
for glyfters, ufed alfo in ca-
taplafms and fomentations:
formerly there was a con-
ferve of the flowers.
Marrubium (M.
vulgare, Lin.)
Marum Syriacum,
(Teucrlum mar.
Lin.)
Maftiche. See
Gum tnqjltc,
fupra.
Matricaria ( M. par-
'thenium, Lin.)
Mechoacanna,
( Convolvulus me-
choac. Lin.)
Mel.
Melampodium. See
Helleborus niger,
fupra.
Melilotus (Trifoli¬
um melilot. Lin.)
Meliffa (AT. officin.
Lin.)
Melo Y Cucumis
melo, Lin.)
Mentha crifpa
(Lin.)
White horehound. The leaves.
Syrian herb ma- The leaves.
Itich.
Laxative. Gives name to an officinal lo~
hoch, and enters feveral o-
ther, compofitions.
Stomachic and ape- An ingredient in theriaca ( p ).
rient.
Aromatic and er- An ingredient in fbme cepha*
rhine. lie Inuffs.
Feverfew. The leaves and Aperient and an-
flowers. tifpafmodic.
White jalap, or Me- The root. Cathartic,
choacan.
Honey.
Melilot;
Balm.
The melon.
The leaves and
flowers.
The leaves.
Danifh or German The herb,
curled mint.
Mentha vulgaris, Spearmint.
( M. viridis, Lin.)
Aperient and de¬
tergent.
Emollient and car- Gives name to a plaffer.
mi native.
Aromatic. An effential oil* and an in-
fufion.
Refrigerant and
emollient.
Aromatic and cor- A diililled water,' effential oil,.
diah and effence. An ingredient
in feveral officinal prepara¬
tions.
Aromatic and cor- A diftilled water, an effential
dial- oil, a fpirit, and effence.
An ingredient in fevera!
officinal preparations.
Mentha
(p) The juices of horehound and plantain mixed are remedies of great repute in America againll the bite
of the rattlefnake. They are given by fpoonfuls at Ihort intervals ; while-at the fame time the wounded part
is covered with a cataplafm of the fame herbs bruifed. The good effects are laid to be fpcedy, and the . recs" ’
very of the patient complete and certain.
MATERIA MEDIC A,
670
Liffi of
, StmPles- TECHNICALMAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
Mentha piperitis Pepper-mint.
(M. piperita,
Lin.)
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
The herb.
Lift at
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM. Simpk*.
Mercurialis ( 31. French mercury.
annua, Lin.)
Meum (JEthufa Spignel.
meum, Lin.)
Mezereon {Daphne Mezereon, or
me-zereum, Lin.) fpurge olive.
Millefolium {(A- Millefoil, or yar-
chillea millefol. row.
Lin.)
Millepedx [Onifcus Wood-lice, hog-
afellus, Lin.) lice, or Haters.
Minium. See
Plumbum, infra.
Morfus diaboli Devil’s bit.
Scabiofa fuccifa,
Lin.)
Morus nigra*(Z,/«.) The mulberry-tree.
Aromatic and cor- A dillilled water, effential oil,
dial. and effence. An ingredient
in feveral officinal prepara¬
tions.
The leaves. Emollient and laxa- A fyrup.
tive.
The root. Aromatic and car¬
minative.
The bark of the Violently cathartic. Deco&ion and powder,
root.
The leaves and Mildly aftringent An eflential oil.
flowers. and aromatic.
The leaves and
roots.
Diuretic.
Diaphoretic.
The infects dried and powder¬
ed ; an infufion in wine; ai-
fo an ingredient in feme
other officinal preparations.
The fruit and bark Refrigerant, aftrin- A fyrup from the juice of the
fruit.
Mofchus [M. mof- Muflc.
chiferus, Lin.)
Myriftica. See
Nux mofehata,
infra.
Myrobalani [Pru- Myrobalans. The fruit.
nus myrobalanus,
Lin.)
Myrrha. See Gum
myrrha, fupra.
Myrrhia (Sifon Sweet cicely. The leaves and
Canadenfe, Lin. ) feeds.
Myrtillus (Vacant- Whortle-berry. The leaves and
um myrtii. \^m.) berries.
Myrtus {M.commu- The myrtle. The berries.
nis, Lin.)
Napus (BraJJtca na- Sweet navew, or The feeds.
pus, Lin.) navew gentle.
Nardus Indica,
gent, and anthel¬
mintic.
Diaphoretic and A julep,
antifpafmodic.
Purgative.
Diuretic.
Aftringent.
Aftringent.
Aromatic.
An ingredient in the theriaca.
Indian nard.
dus, Lin.)
Nafturtium aquati- Water crefles. The leaves and
cum (Sifymbrium juice.
najlurtium, Lin.)
Nafturtium hor- Garden crefles. The leaves and
tenfe (Lepidium feeds.
fativum, Lin.)
Nepeta (IV. cataria, Nep, or catmint. The leaves.
Lin.)
Nephriticum lig- Nephritic wood. The wood in fub-
num (Guilandina ftance.
moringa, Lin.)
Nicotiana (Nicotia- Tobacco. The leaves.
na tabacum, Lin.)
Stomachic and car- Ingredient in the mithridate
minative. and theriaca.
Aperient and anti- An ingredient in the fuccl
fcorbutic. fcorbutici.
Aperient and anti-
fcorbutic, but
much weaker
than the former.
Aromatic and cor¬
dial.
Diuretic, but un¬
certain.
Violently emetic, An extraft recommended by
cathartic, and Stahl and other German
narcotic. phyficians.
Nigella
MATERIA MEDIC A,
Lift ef
Simples. TECHNZCAL NAMES.
Nigella {Nigella
fativa, Lin.)
ENGLISH NAMES.
Fennel-flower.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
6yx
Lift of
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM. simple*.
Nitre or falt-petre.
Moneywort, or
herb twopence.
The nutmeg-tree.
Nummularia (Ly
Jimachia nummu-
Idria, Lin.)
Nux mofchata
(Myriftica aro-
mafica, Lin. My-
riftica mofchata,
AQi. Holm.)
Nux pift^chia {Pi- The piftachia-tree.
Jlachiavera, Lin.)
Nux vomica Nux vomica.
{Strychnos nux
vom. Lin.)
Nymphaea alba White water-lily.
(Lin.)
Ochra Yellow ochre.
Oenanthe {Oe. cro- Hemlock drop-
cata, Lin.) wort.
Aperient and diu¬
retic, but uncer¬
tain.
Diaphoretic, diure- An acid fpirit and fixed alka
tic, and refrige- line fait, an aqueous decoc
rant. tion or folution, troches
An ingredient in many o
ther officinal preparations.
Antifcorbutic.
The fruit, and co- An excellent aro- An exprefled oil, falfely call-
vering called matic, cordial, ed oil of mace ; an effential
mace. and ftomachic. oil; a Ample water; a fpi-
rituous water; an ingredient
in many officinal compofi.
tions.
The fruit.
The fruit.
The roots and
flowers.
Leaves and root.
Olibanum. See Gam
olibanum, fupra.
Oliva {Olea Euro- The olive-tree. The fruit.
p<ea, Lin.)
Ononis (0. fpinofa,, Reft-harrow, cam- The root.
Lin.) mock, or petty-
whin.
Opium {Papaver The Afiatic poppy. The infpiflated
Orkntak, Lin.) juice.
Emollient and ana¬
leptic.
Narcotic.
Aftringent and
corroborative.
Aftringent, but
very weak.
A virulent poifon : But the juice of the root, or
the infufion of the leaf,
has been recommended in
chronic eruptions. The
latter has been alfo found
ufeful as an emmenagogue.
Anexpreflcdoil ufed in almoft
all ointments, plafters, &c.
Emollient.
Aperient and diu¬
retic.
A moft: excellent Purified by ftraining, called
anodyne andcor- the Thebaic extrad; a A-
nousandfpirituoustin&ure,,
called liquid laudanum. Alfo
acapital ingredient in mart)'
officinal preparations.^
©popanax. See Gum
opopanax, fupra.
Origanum (0. vulg. Wild marjoram,
Lin.)
©ryza (0. fativa. Rice.
Lin.)
Oxylapathum Sharp-pointed
{Rumex acutus, dock.
Lin.)
Paeonia (P. ojfcina- Male and female The roots, flowers,
Us, Lin,) peony. and feeds.
Palma {Cocos buty. The palm-tree. The kernels of the
racea, Lin.) fruit.
Palma Chrifti. See
Rkims, infra.
dial when pro¬
perly applied,
but a very fatal
poifon if taken in
too great quan¬
tity.
The leaves.
The grain.
The roots and
leaves.
An eflential oil.
Aromatic.
Emollient and re¬
frigerant.
Alterant and laxa-
tive.
Emollient and an- Ingredients in fome anti-epL
tifpafmodic. leptic powders.
Emollient and ano- An expreffed oil ufed in fto-
dyne. machic plafters.
Papavet.
MATERIA MEDIC A.
^>72'
Lift of
Simp'es.
TECHNICAL NAMES.
ENGLISH NAMES.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
Lift of j
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS PROM THEM. , Simple^j
Papaver album (P. The white poppy.
fomniferum, Lin.)
Papaver erraticum Red poppy, or
(P. rhceas, Lin.) corn-rofe.
Paralyfis (Primula Cowflip.
verts ojfic. Lin.)
'Pareira brava (Cif- Pareira brava.
fampelos pareira,
Lin.)
Parietaria (P. of- Pellitory of the
fcinalis, Lin.) wall.
Paftinaca (P. fail- Garden parfnip.
va, Lin.)
Patlinaca filveftris Wildxparfnip.
(^•)
Pentaphyllum Cinquefoil.
(Potentilla rep-
tans, Lin.)
Perficaria urens Bitter arfmart,
(Polygonum hy- lake-weed, or
dropiper, Lin.) water-pepper.
Perficaria mitis Spotted arfmart.
(Polygonum per-
ftc. Lin.)
Perfica (Amygdalus The peach-tree.
perftca, Lin.)
Peruvianus cortex The quinquina, or
(Cinchona ojfci- Jefuit’s-bark-
nalis, Lin.) tree.
The heads. Anodyne.
A fyrup.
The flowers.
The flowers.
The root.
The leaves.
The roots and
feeds.
The feeds.
Valued chiefly for A fyrup.
the colour they
communicate.
Corroborant and A fyrup.
antifpafmodic.
Attenuant, diure¬
tic, and lithon-
triptic.
Emollient and di- Ingredient in a nephritic de*
uretic. co&ion.
Emollient and aro¬
matic.
Aromatic.
The root.
Aftringent.
The leaves. * Diuretic and deter¬
gent when exter¬
nally applied.
The leaves. Antifeptic and a-
ftringent.
The leaves, flowers, Laxative, anthel-
and fruit. mintic, and re¬
frigerant.
The bark. A moft excellent
'Corroborative.
An extract, a refm, afpiritfeouB
tin&ure, a compound tinc¬
ture, a tin&ure in volatile
fpirit; alfo an ingredient in
the ftotnachic tincture.
.Petafites (Tujilago Butterbur. The root.
petafites, Lin.)
Petroleum. Rock oil.
Petroleum Barba- Barbadoes tar.
denfe (Bitumen
petroleum, Lin.)
Petrofelinum (A- Common parfley. The roots, leaves,
pium petrojelinum, and feeds.
Lin.)
Peucedanum (P. of- Hog’s-fennel, or The root.
female, Lin.) Tulphur-wort.
Pimenta (Myrtus Pimento, Jamaica The berry.
p.menia, Lin.) pepper, or all-
Cpice.
Pimpinella fangui- The greater wild The leaves,
foiba (Sanguifor- burnet.
ba officinalis,
Lin.)
Pimpinella faxifra- Burnet faxifrage. The root, leaves,
ga (Lin.) and feeds.
Pin us fylveftris The pine-tree.
(Lin.}
N0197-.
The kernels of its
fruit or cones,
and refin.
Aromatic, aperi¬
ent, and deob-
(iruent.
Anodyne and cor¬
roborative when
applied external-
fic, and corrobo¬
rative.
Aperientand fome- The feeds an ingredient in an
what aromatic. electuary.
Aperient, flimu-
lating, and er-
rhine.
Aromatic and fii- The bafis of a did died wa-
mulant. ter, a fpirit, and an effen-
tial oil.
Allringent.
Diaphoretic, diu¬
retic, and antii
fcorbutic.
The kernels emol¬
lient; for the re-
fin, fee Terebin-
thina, infra. riftf
J
MATERIA M E D I C A,
^73
•J TECHNICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
Piper longum {Lin.) Long pepper. ">
Piper nigrum {Lin.) Black pepper. 3
Piper Jamaicenfe.
See Pimenta, fu-
pra.
Piper Indicum Guinea pepper.
{Capficum an-
nuunty Lin.)
Pix liquida {Pi- Tar.
nus fylveftris,
Lin.)
Pix Burgundica Burgundy pitch.
{Pinus abies,
Lin.)
Plantago latifolia, Common broad-
P. major, Lin.) leaved plantane. '
Plumbum. Lead.
PARTS USED I
MEDICINE.
Lift Ot
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM., SlmPie8»t
Highly aromatic
and dimulant.
A powder called Cayenne pep*
per.
Attenuant and fti- An infufion in water,, and a
ingredient in a kind of pec¬
toral pills.
Ingredient in feveral plafters,
ointments, and cerates.
Polium montanum Poley-mountain.
{Teucrium poli¬
um, Lin.)
, Polygala ifmara Milkwort.
(£'>•)
Polygala fenega Rattlefnake root.
{Lin.)
Poly podium {P. Polypody.
vulgare, Lin.)
Pop ulus nigra. Black poplar.
{Lin.)
Porrum {slllium The leek.
porrum, Lin.}
Poitulaca {P. ole- Purflane.
racea, Lin.)
Primula veris {Lin.) Primrofe.
Prunella {P.vulga- Self-heal.
ris, Lin.)
Pruna Gallica (Pru- French or common
nusdomejlica, Lin.) prunes.
Prunus Sylveftris.
See Acacia Ger-
manica, fupra.
Pfyllium {Plant a- Flea wort.
go pfyll. Lin.) • ..
Ptarmica {Achillea Sneezewort, or ba-
ptarmica, Lin.) ftard pellitory.
Pulegium {Mentha Pennyroyal.
puleg. Lin.)
The tops.
The root.
The roots.
The root.
The buds.
The root.
The feeds.
The herb and root.
The leaves.
The fruit.
mulating.
A warm adhefive
relinous fub-
ftance.
Aftringent.
Aftringent and re- Several chemical preparations,
frigerating, but See Chemistry-/«//«i:. A
very dangerous. tincture and extradt, or fo-
lution in vegetable acids;
alfo an ingredient in feveral
ointments, &c.
Aromatic. Ingredient in the Mithridate
and theriaca.
Purgative.
Stimulating, atte¬
nuant, and diu¬
retic.
Laxative.
Aromatic.
Ufed only in an ointment, but
capable of being applied to
better purpofes.
A ftimulating diu¬
retic.
Refrigerant.
Aromatic and fto- An infufion and diftilled fpt-
machic. rit.
Attenuant and de¬
tergent.
Cooling and ape¬
rient.
The feeds.
The root.
The flower.
Pulmonariamaculo- Spotted lung-wort, The leaves,
fa (P, ojjicinalis, or fage of Jeru-
Lin ) falem.
Puffatilla nigricans Meadow anemone. The herb and
{Anemone pra- flower.
Unf. Lin.)
Emollient and laxa¬
tive.
Errhine and ftimu¬
lating.
A warm aromatic. A Ample water, a fpiritgous
water, an effential oil; and
an ingredient in fume other
officinal compofitions.
Said to be aperient
and analeptic.
Emetic, diuretic, An extradt and diftilledwater,
and cathartic. ufed in venereal complaints,
and certain diforders of the
eye;
Vol. X. Part II.
4 Q_
Pyrethrura
574
Lift of
TECHNICAL iUMES. ENOtlSH NAMES.
MATERIA MEDIC A.
PARTS USED Jf<
MEDICINE.
Pyrethrum (dnthe- Pellltory of Spain. The root.
mispyrethr. Lin.)
Quaffia (^. Sima- Simarouba. The bark.
rvbn, Lin.)
Quaffia (iP. amara, Quafly. - The wood,
Jhin.)
Quercus {^.rolur. Oak-tree. The bark.
Lin.)
Quercus marina Sea-wrack or Sea- Tire heib,
(Fucus veftcu- oak.
Iqfus, Lin.)
Radix Indica Lo- Indian or Lopez
peziana (Gaub. root.
AdverfS)
Raphanus ruftica- Horfe-radifh, The root,
nus {Cocblearia
armoracea, Lin.)
Rhabarbarum Rhubarb. The root,
(Rheum palmat.
Lin.)
.Rhamnus catharti-
cus. See Spina
cervina, infra.)
Rhaponticum Rhapontic. The roots.
(Rhteum rhapon.
Lin.)
Rhododendron Rhododendron. The herb,
chryfanthemum
(Lin.)
Ribesnigrum(Z./«.) The black-currant The fruit,
buffi.
Ribes rubnun The red-currant The fruit.
(Lin.) buffi.
Ricinus, (R. com- Palma Chrifti. The feed.
munis, Lin.)
Rofa damafcena Damalk rofe. The flower.
{R. centafolia,
Lin.)
Rofa rubra (R. The red rofe. The flower.
Galhca, Lin.)
Rofmarinushorten- Rofemary,
{is (R. officinalis^
Lin.)
The tops and
flowers.
Rubia tin&orum, Madder. The root.
(Lin.)
Rubus idaeus. The rafp'-berry The fruit.
(Lin.) buffi.
Rubus niger (R. The bramble. The leaves.
fruticof. Lin.)
Rufcus (R. aculea- Butcher’s-broom, The root.
tus, Lin.) or knee-holly.
Ruta (R- gravco- Broad-leaved rue. The leaves and
lens, Lin.) feeds.
Uft of
RTUES. PREPARATIONS PROM THEM, s*n>pJes.
Promotes the falivai
flux.
Antifeptic ; ufeful Sec Ed. Phil, Tranf. vot. K.
in dyfentery.
Stomachic and to- An extradt,
nic.
Strongly aftringent.
Aftringent and de- A powder of the burnt herb,
tergent.
Aftringent.
Stimulating and at- A compound water,
tehuant.
Cathartic and fto- Toafted; a watery infufion i
machic. vinous and fpirituous tinc¬
tures ; and an ingredient
in feveral officinal compoii*
tions.
Powerfully fedative. Decoction and powder; late¬
ly found ferviceable in the
gout and rheumatihn.
Refrigerant and j
[A^>"
Laxative, anthel- Expreffed oil.
mintic.
Aromatic and gent- A diftilled water and fyrupi
ly laxative.
Aftringent and cor- A conferve, honey, tinfture,
roborative. troches, vinegar, and fyrup.
An ingredient in feveral
officinal compofitions.
A fine aromatic and An effential oil; a diftilled
cordial. fpirit called Hungary water.
An ingredient in many cor¬
dial and antifpafmodic me¬
dicines.
Aperient and de¬
tergent.
Refrigerant. A fyrup.
Aftringent.
Aperient. Ingredient in diet-drinkg.
Powerfully ftimu- An extra6t; and an ingredi-
lating, attenua- ent in feveral compofnions.
ting, and deter¬
gent.
Sabadilla,
MATERIA MEDIC A.
Lift of
Simples. (TECHHfCAt HAMES,
EKSt-ISH NAMES.
PARTS USED |H
MEDICINE.
675
Lift of
PAEPAAATIOHS TROM THEM. Simplej.
Sabadilla. See Ce-
vadilla, fupra.
Sabina (‘Junlperus Savin.
fabina, Lin.)
The leaves or tops. A flimulaticg ape- An eflcntial oil; a watery' ex-
rient. traft; and an ingredient in
feveral officinaJ, compwfi.
tioas.
.Saccharum {Jlrun-
do faccharfera,
Lin.) purifica-
tum &non puri-
ficatum.
Saccharum cantum,
album & rubrum.
Sagapenum (Ferula
or lent alts ^ Lin.)
Sal alkali vegeta¬
ble.
Sugar, refined and" |
brown.
Sugar-candy,
white and
brown.
Gum fagapenum.
Vegetable alkaline
fait, or pearl-
afhes.
Sal alkali minerale. Mineral alkali, fait
of Soda, or bafis
of fea-falt.
Sal ammoniac. See
jimmoniac.
Sal catharticus a-
marus.
Sal commune.
Epfom fait.
Common fait*
Salicaria (Lythrum Purple loofe-ftrife. The herb.
Salicar, Lin.)
Salix (S. J’ragilis, The crack-willow. The bark.
Lin.)
Salvia (S. officinalis, Common fage. The leaves.
Lin.)
Sambucus (S. Common black- The leaves, bark,
nigra, Lin.) berried alder. flowers andber-
Sanguis draconi?. Dragon’s-blood.
( Calamus rctang,
Dracena draco,
Pterocarpus, dra¬
co, &c Lin.),
Sanicula (S. Euro- Sanicle.
paa, Lin. )
Santalum citrinum, Yellow fanders.
(S. album. Lin.)
Santalum rubrum Red fanders.
(Pterocarpus fan-
tolinus, Lin.)
Santonicum (Arte- Worm-feed,
mifia fantonica,
Lin.)
Emollient and laxa¬
tive.
Aperient and de- An ingredient in feveral an-
obftruent. tifpafmodic medicines.
Aperient, diuretic. The bafis of a great number
and caultic. of neutral falls.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Cathartic.
In fmall dots fti-
mulant, in large
ones cathartic.
Aftringent.
Corroborant.
Magnefia.
Moderately ftimu- Infufions.
lating and aftrin-
gent.
Cathartic, aroma- A rob for internal ufe horn
tic, and aperient. the berries, and an oint¬
ment and oil from the flow¬
ers and bark; theflowersare
alfo ingredients in fome
compound waters.
Aftringent. An ingredient in fome offici¬
nal compofitions.
Suppofed to be cor¬
roborant.
Greatly recom- Ellential oil; extract,
mended by Hoff¬
man as a reftora-
tive.
Ufed only for its
colour.
Anthelmintic.
SapQ
4 Q. a
MATERIA MEDIC A.
TECHNICAL NAMES.
ENGLISH. NAMES.
PARTS USED IN
MEDICINE.
VIRTUES.
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM.
Sapo durus.
Sapo mollis.
Sipo.-oiger.
Saponaria (^. offi¬
cinalis, Ion.)
Hard Spanifli foap. ~\
Common foft foap.
Black foap.
Soapwort or bruife- The herb and root,
wort.
Sarcocolla (Penaa Gum farcocol.
farcoc. L.in.)
Sarfaparilla { Smilax Sarfaparilla. The root.
' J'arfaP: Lin*) ^
Saffafras (Laurus Salfafras. The root.
Jaffafras, Lin.)
Satureia (5. horten- Sommer favory.
Jis,Un.) '
Satyrion mas (Or- Orchis.
chis mafcula,
Lin.)
Saxifraga alba (S. White-flowered
granulata, Lin.) faxifrage.
The leaves.
The root.
The roots and
leaves.
Saxifraga vulgaris, Meadow faxifrage. The leaves and
(Peucedanum ft- feeds.
laus, Lin.)
Scabiofa (S. arven- Scabious. The leaves.
A Lin.)
Scammonium (Cok- Scimmony. Foots. *
•volvulus fcam.
Liu.)
Scilla (S. maritima. The fquill, or fea- The root.
Lin.) onion.
Scolopendrium.
See Lingua cer-
vina, fupra.
Scordium (Teucri- Water germander. The leaves.
um fcordium,
Lin.)
Scorzonera (5. hif- Viper’s grafs. The root.
panica, Lin.)
Bcrophularia (S.no- Fig-wort. The leaves and
dofa, Lin.) root.
Sebeflen (Cordia Stbeften plum.
myxa, Lin.)
Sediim acre (Lin.) Wall ftone crop, or The frelh plant,
wall pepper.
Sedum majus (S. Greater houfeleek. The leaves.
album, Lin.)
Seneka. See Poly¬
galafeneka, fupra.
Senna (CaJJia Jenna, Senna. The leaves.
Lin.)
‘ (The firft gives, name to a
I platter, liniment, balfam,
Refolvent and fti- J and pills; the fecond is an
mulating. 1 ingredient in the milder
I cauftic ; and the third in
L an anodyne platter.
Aperient, corrobo- Tincture ; extradt.
• rant, and fudo-
rific.
Suppofed a vulne- Ingredient in. the pulvis e. ce-
rary. rufla.
Alterant,, and dia- Infufions and extradf.
phoretic.
Alterant, aperient, An eflential oil; an ingre-
and corroborant. ent in fome officinal pre¬
parations.
A very pungent
warm aromatic.
Coagulant and cor- Salep; fuppofed to be a pre-
roborative. paration from a root of this
kind.
1 Suppofed to be
I aperient, diure-
! tic, and lithon-
j triptic, but
I without juft
foundation.
Aperient, fudyn-
fic, and expecto¬
rant.
Strongly cathartic. Gives name to a powder, and
is an ingredient in fome
officinal preparations.
Powerfully diuretic, A fyrup, vinegar, oxymel,
ftimulant,andex- pills; the root dried, ba-
pedtorant. ked, and made into troches.
Deobftruent, diure- An ingredient in mithridate,
tic, and fudorific, theriaca, and feveial othee
but doubtful. preparations.
Cordial and ftimu-
lant, but doubt¬
ful.
Suppofed corrobo¬
rant, but doubt¬
ful.
Emollient.
Strongly purgative,
emetic, and diu¬
retic.
Refrigerant.
Cathartic. Infufion, fpirituous tindlures,
compound powders, and
an eledluary.
4
Serpentaria
MATERIA M E D I G A
TECHKICAL NAMES. ENGLISH NAMES.
Virginian fnake-
wecd.
PARTS USED IN
MEblCINE.
Serpentaria Yirgi-
niana (Arijlolo—
chid fsrpentar.
Lin.)
Serpyllum (Thy¬
mus ferpil. Lin.)
Seielis vulgaris,
(Tordyhum offi-
cin. Lin.)
Sefelis maffilienfis
(SefJi datum,
Lin.)
Sigillum Salomo-
nis (Convallaria
polygon. Lin.)
Simarouba. See
ShidffiaJimarouha,
fupra.
Sinapi (Sinapis al¬
ba & nigra, Lin.)
Sium (5. nocliflo-
rum, Liri.)
Mother of thyme. The herb.
Common hartwort. The feeds.
Hartwort of Mar- The feeds,
feilles.
Solomon’s teal. The root.
A warm diaphore¬
tic and diuretic.
j Agreeable aroma-
^ tics, but neglec-
Probably emollient.
677
Lift of
PREPARATIONS FROM THEM, ^
A fpirituous tinilure j and an
ingredient in a number of
tinctures.
Creeping Ikerrit,
or water parf-
nip.
The feeds, black.
and white.
The herb.
Solanum (S. nigr. Nightfhade.
Lin.)
Spermaceti (Phy- Spermaceti.
Jeter macrocepha-
ius, Lin. )
Spigelia (S. Mari- Indian pink.
landica, Lin )
Spina cervina. Buckthorn.
(Rhamnus cathar-
ticus, Lin.)
Spiritus vinoli,
The root.
The berries.
Vinous fpirits.-
Sponge.
Tin.
Stavefacre.
Spengia (5. ojjici-
nal. Lin.)
Stannum.
Staphiiagria (Z)e/-
pbiniim Jlaphifa-
griar Lin. )
Stoechas (Laven- Arabian ftoechas. The flowers
dula Jloechas, or French laven-
Lin.) der.
Stramonium (Da- Thorn-apple. The herb.
turajlramon.
Tin.)
Styraxcalamita (5. Storax.
officinalis, Lin.)
Styrax liquids (Li- Liquid ftorax.
quidamber jlyraci-
Jlua, Lin.)
Suber (^uercus The cork-tree. The bark.
Jub. Lin.)
Strongly pungent
and ftimulant.
The juice fervice-
able in fome cu¬
taneous difor-
ders.
Powerfully evacu-
ant.
A mild emollient.
An exprdfed oil:,
Gives name to a lohoch.
Anthelmintic.
Strongly cathartic. A fyrup.
Cordial and Simu¬
lant.
Ufed as menftruums for tins-
tures, &c. in almoft every
preparation of that kind.
Ufed as a tent for Burnt, recommended in fero
dilating ulcers, phulous affections.
&c.
Anthelmintic. Powdered.
A violent cathartic
taken internally,.
Its external ap¬
plication de-
ftroys lice and-
other infedts.
Aromatic. An ingredient in mithridate-
and theriaca.
Aromatic, ftimu¬
lant,, and ner¬
vine.
Ingredient in fome tindtures
and pills.
Ingredient in a mercurial
plafter.
Aftringent.
678
Juift Of
girnpies. TECHMICACNAMES. EKGLISH'NAMES,
MATERIA MEDIC A,
PARTS VSED I«
medicine.
PREPARATIOHS from them.
Succimim.
-Sulphur.
Amber.
Sulphur, and flow¬
ers of fulphur.
Aftringent and cor- A tinfture, balfam, eflential
rpborant. ‘ ' r
Laxative, diapho¬
retic, and alte¬
rant.
oil, and an ingredient in fe-
veral officinal preparations.
Solutions in different kinds of
oils called balfams,, and an
ingredient in fome oint¬
ments.
Sumach {Rlus co- Common fumach. The leaves and
riaria, Lin.) feeds.
Tacamahac (Popu- Tacamahac-tree. The refin.
lus lalfamifera,
Lin.)
Tamarindus (T. Tamarinds. The fruit.
Indie a, Lin.)
Tamarifcus (Ta- The tamarifle-tree. The leaves and
martx Gallicdy bark.
Lin.)
Tanacetum (T. Tanfy. The leaves, flowers,
vulgare, Lin.) and feeds.
Taraxacum [Leon- Dandelion. The leaves and
todnn tarax. root.
Lin.)
Tastarum. Tartar.
Terebinthina Ve- Venice turpentine,
neta (Pinus larix,
Lin.)
Terebinthina Ar- Straffiurgh turpen-
gentoratenfis. tine.
Terebinthina Chia. Chian, or Cyprus
turpentine.
Terebinthina com- Common turpen-
munis. tine.
Terra Japonica.
Seo Catechu,
fupra.
Thapfus barbatus Great white mul- The leaves and
(Verpafcum thap- lein. flowers.
fus, Lin.)
Thea bohea et vi- Bohea and green The leaves.
ridis [Lin.) tea. .
Thlafpi (T- ar- Treacle, or mithn- The feeds.
venfe, Lin.) date muftard.
Thus vulgare. Common frank-
incenfe.
Thymus citratus. Lemon thyme. The leaves.
Thymus vulgar!?. Common thyme. The leaves.
Tilia (T. Europaa, The lime or linden The flowers.
Lin.) tree.
Tithymalus [Eu- The fpurge. The juice of the
phorbia lathjrus, root.
Lin.)
Aftringent.
Difcutient, emolli- An ingredient in feveral pla-
ent, and fuppu- fters.
rative.
Refrigerant and Ingredients in fome laxative
laxative. eleduaries.
Aftringent.
Stimulating, anti-
fpafmodic, and
anthelmintic.
Attenuating and A diftilled fpirit, recoin*
refolvent. mended by profeflbr De¬
lius of England in afthma-
tic and hydropic affec¬
tions.
Refrigerant and ca- Purified from its earthy parts,,
thartic. and called cream of tartar,
the bafis of fome ufeful pur¬
ging falts. An alkali is al-
fo prepared from it by fire.
Warm ftimula-
> ting diuretics
and aperients.
.
Ufed chiefly in ex- An eflential oil. The reft-
ternal applica- duum forms the rejina alba
tions. Csf nigra, or white and black
rofin of the (hops, ufed in
almoft. every ointment.
Analeptic. A fpirituous extraft from the
flowers.
Cordial, diuretic,
and diaphoretic.
Aromatic and fti-
mulant.
Suppofed corrobo¬
rative.
An agreeable aro¬
matic.
An agreeable aro¬
matic.
Antifpafmodic.
An infufion.
Ingredient in theriaca.
Ingredient in fome warm pla¬
tters.
A diftilled water and effential
oil.
A diftilled water and effential
oil.
Infufion.
Violently cathartic.
Tormentilla
MATERIA MEDIC A,
^Simple?. TECHS,CAfc NAMES. ENGUSH NAMES. ^^Inir^NE ^
Tormentilla (T. Tormentil, or fept- The root.
eretta, Lin.) foil.
Trichomanes (sff- Maidenhair. The herb.
plenium trich. Lin.
Trifolium paludo* Marfh trefoil, or The leaves,
fum {Menyanthes buck bean.
trifoliata, Lin.)
Triticum (T,'hyber- Wheat. The grain
nurrlj Lin.) flour.
Turpethum. [Con- Turbith. ~ The root.
‘volvulus turpe¬
thum ■, Lin.)
Tuflilago I T* far- Coltsfoot. The leaves
far a, Lin.) flowers.
Tutia. Tutty.
<>7<5
Lil of
VIRTUES. PREPARATIONS PROM THEM. Simples.
Aftringent.
Peftoral.
Laxative and alte¬
rant.
Nutritive and glu- Starch,
tinous.
Violently cathartic. An extraft.
Valeriana fylveftris Wild valerian. The root.
( Val. officinalist
Lin.)
Veratrum. See
Helleborus albus%
fupra.
Verbafcum. See
Thapfus, fupra.
Veronica mas {V. Male fpeedwell. The leaves.
officinalisy Lin.)
Vinum. Wine.
Viola [V. odor at- The Angle March The flowers.
Lin.) violet.
Vipera (Coluber be- The viper. The flefli and fat.
rusy Lin.)
Vitis vinifera, The vine.
lin.)
The leaves, fap,
flowers, and
fruit.
XJlmus ( campe- The elm-tree.- The inner bark.
Jlrisy Lin.)
Winteranus cortex Winter’s bark.
(Wintera aroma-
tica, Lin.)
Urtica (U. dioica, The nettle. The herb.
Lin.)
Uva urfi [Arbutus Whortle-berry. The leaves.
uva urfy Lin.)
Zedoaria [Kampfe- Zedoary. The root.
riarotunddy Lin.)
Zincum. Zinc..
An ingredient in feveral offi¬
cinal compofitions.
Decoftion and fyrup.
and Emollient and mu- An ingredient in pe&oral dc»
3£inziber [Amomum Ginger.
ocinzib. Lin.)
The root.
cilaginous.
Ophthalmic.
Antifpafmodic.
codtions.
Ingredient in feveral oint¬
ments, and collyria.
A tin&ure in proof fpirit,and
iavolatile fpirit; alfo an in¬
gredient in feveral cephalic
and anti-epileptic medi»-
cines.-
Aperient and pec* Infufions.
toral.
Cordial and corro- A menftruum for a great nunr-
borant. ber of medicinal fubitances.
Laxative. A fyrup.
A vinous tindlure ; an ingre¬
dient in theriaca.
Wine. The dried fruit or
raifins are ingredients m
fame pe&oral and ftomachic
medicines.
A decoftion recommended by
Dr Letfom in obftinate
cutaneous eruptions.
Reftorative and
emollient.
Aftringent, diure¬
tic, aromatic,
and pe&oral.
Aftringent.
Aromatic.
Rubefacient.
Aftringent and li-
thontriptic.
Stomachic and cor- An ext raft: with proof-fpirit.
roborant.
Suppofed to be s
good antiepilep
tie.
Aromatic.
The metal reduced to a calx
by fire. Calamine and tutty
are a kind of ores of this
metal. Thefe laft are the
balls of two officinal oint¬
ments. A fait produced
by its combination with the
vitriolic acid. Scc Chemi-
TKY-/ndex.
A fyrup. Alfo an ingredient
in feveral officinal compofi¬
tions.
Ctnercd
M A T E R i
General Titles including feveral Simp lei.
The five opening roots :
r Smallage,
\ Afparagus,
«/ Fennel,
1 Parfley,
( Butchers broom.
'I'he five emollient herbs-:
f Marflimallows,
\ Mallows,
< Mercury,
J Pellitory of the '
(_ Violets,
/all.
r Borage,
The four cordial flowers :
Buglofs,
1 Rofes,
Violets.
T Anife,
The four greater hot feeds : \
L Fennel.
The four leffer hot feeds;:
rBifliopfeed,
\ Stone parfley,
J Smallage,
VWild carrot.
The four greater cold feeds ;
fWater melons,
) Cucumbers,
| Gourds,
(Melons.
The fourleffercoldfeeds.:
r Succory,
\ Endive,
"j Lettuce,
.(_P.urflane.
The four capillary herbs.
r Camomile*
T'hefourcarminativeflovvers:< ’
("Maidenhair,
J Englifh maindenhair,
i Wall rue,
LCeterach.
ec. ofl
mple*. 1
A MEDIC A,
out ftalks or flowers:, Biennial ones, chiefly in the CbHeftien
autumn of the fame year in which the feeds were fowu : .&Cj
1'he perennial, when the leaves fall off, and therefore , unp *
generally in the autumn. Being wafhed clean from dirt,
and freed from the rotten and’decayed fibres, they are
to be hung up in a warm, fhady, airy place, till fuffici-
ently dried. The thicker roots require to be flit longi¬
tudinally, or cut tranfverfely into thin flices. Such
roots as lofe their virt ues by exficcation, or are defired
to be preferved in a frefh ftate, for the greater conve-
niency of their ufe in certain forms, are to be kept
buried in dry fand.
There are two feafons in which the biennial and
perennial roots are reckoned the moft vigorous, the
autumn and fpring ; or rather the time when the ftalks
or leaves have fallen off, and that in which the vege¬
tation Is juft to begin again, or foon after it has be¬
gun ; which times are found to difl'er confiderably in
different plants.
Tie college of Edinburgh, in the two firft editions
of their pharmacopceia, directed them to be dug in
the fpring, after the leaves were formed; in the third
edition the autumn was preferred. The generality of
roots appear, indeed, to be moft efficacious in the
fpring: but as at this time they are alfo the rhoft juicy,
and confequently fhrivel much in drying, and are ra¬
ther more difficultly preferved, it is commonly thought
moft advifable to take them up in autumn. No rule,
however, can be given, that fliall obtain univerfally ;
arum root is taken even in the middle of fummer, with¬
out fufpicioii of its being lefs aftive than at other fea-,
fons ; while angelica root is inert during the fummer,
in comparifon of what it was in the autumn, fpring,
or winter. -
Herbs and Leaves.
£ Melilot.
The fimples of each of the above claffes have been - ach more ,
often employed together under the refpective general t]je is
appellations. This practice has entirely ceafed amongft
ns ; and accordingly thefe denominations are now ex¬
punged both from the London and Edinburgh phar¬
macopoeias, and they are now retained in very few of
Herbs are to be gathered when the leaves have
come to their full growth, before the flowers unfold ;
but of fome plants the flowery tops are preferred.
They are to be dried in the fame manner as roots.
For the gathering of leaves, there cannot perhaps
be any univerfal rule any more than for roots ; for
though moft herbs appear to be in their greateft vi¬
gour about the time of their flowering, or a little be'-
fore, there are fome in which the medicinal parts are
more abundant at an earlier period.
Thus mallow and marffimallow leaves are moft mu¬
cilaginous when young, and by the time of flowering
L - to a woody nature. A difference of
more remarkable in the leaves of cer¬
tain trees and flmibs : the young buds, or rudiment*
of the leaves, of the black poplar tree, have a ftrong
fragrant fmell, approaching to that of ftorax ; but by
macopceias, and they are now retainec. m very tew or ^ tjme tjiat the leaves have come to their full growth,
the foreign ones. , their fragrance is exhaufted.
entioned. under their general titles by writers of emi- ‘ Herb* are dire<ae‘d by the pharmaceutic
ence, it was imagined that the above enumeration of wriuT, to bc dried in the (hade; a rule which appears
mm might bc of fome ufe, t0 be very jud) though it has fometimes been mifuu-
derftood. They are net to be excluded from the fun’s
General Rules for, the Co/leflion and Prefer-
vation <f SiMples.
heat, but from the ftrong adtion of the folar light; by
which laft their colours are more liable to he altered or
deftroyed than thofe of roots. Slow drying of them'
in a cool place is far from being of any advantage :
Annual roots are to be-taken up before they ffioot both their colours and virtues are preferved in greateft
- N* 2 97' ' perfection
Roofs.
MATERIA MEDIC A.
681
perfection when they are dried haftily by the heat of
common fire as great as that which the fun can im¬
part : the juicy ones, in particular, require to be dried
by heat, being otherwife fubjeft to turn black. Odo¬
riferous herbs, dried by fire till they become friable,
difeover indeed, in this arid ftate, very little fmell;
not that the odorous matter is difiipated, but on ac¬
count of its not being communicated from the per-
feftly dry fubjedl to dry air; for as foon as a watery
vehicle is fupplied, whether by infufing the plant in
•water, or by expofing it for a little time to a moift
air, the odorous parts begin to be extracted by virtue
of the aqueous moifture, and difeover themfelves in
their full force.
Of the ufe of heat in the drying of plants, we have
an inftance in the treatment of tea among the Chinefe.
According to the accounts of travellers, the leaves, as
foon as gathered, are brought into an apartment fur-
niflied with a number of little furnaces or ftoves, each
of which is covered with a clean fmooth iron plate ;
the leaves are fpread on the plates, and kept rolling
with the hands till they begin to curl up about the
edges ; they are then immediately fwept off on tables,
on which one perfon continues to roll them, while
another fans them that they may cool haftily: this
procefs is repeated two or three times, or oftener, ac¬
cording as the leaves are difpofed to unbend on Hand¬
ing.
Exsiccation of Herbs and Flowers.
Herbs and flowers are to be dried by the gentle heat
of a ftove or common fire, and only in that quantity at
a time by which the exficcation may be very foon fi-
nifhed. By this means their ftrength is beft preferved;
and this is indicated in proportion as they retain their
•native colour.
But the leaves of hemlock, and fome other herbs
replete with a fubtile volatile matter, are to be pow¬
dered immediately after the exficcation, and preferved
in glafs veffels, well fhut.
Flowers.
Flowers are to be gathered when moderately ex¬
panded, on a clear dry day, before noon. Red rofes
are taken before they open, and the white heels clip¬
ped off and thrown away.
The quick drying, above' recommended for the
Reaves of plants, is more particularly proper for flow¬
ers; in moft of which both the colour and fmell are
more perifhable than in leaves, and more fubjebt to be
impaired by flowexficcation. Of the flowers which come
frefh into the apothecaries hands, the only ones em¬
ployed diy in the London pharmacopoeia are red ro¬
fes; and thefe, in all the compofitions in which they
are ufed in a dry ftate, are exprefsly ordered to be dri¬
ed haftily. One of the moft valuable aromatics of Eu¬
ropean growth, faffron, is part of a flower, dried on
paper on a kind of kiln, with a heat fufficient to make
it fweat, taking care only not to endanger the fcorch-
ing of it.
It may here be obferved, that ‘the virtues of flow¬
ers are confined to different parts of the flower in dif¬
ferent plants. Saffron is a Angular production growing
at the end of the ftyle or piftil. The aCtive part of ca-
Vol. X. Part -II.
momile flowers is the yellow difle, or button in the ColleCHon,
middle: that of lilies, rofes, clove-july-flowers, vio-
lets, and many others, the petala or flower-leaves ; . .
while rofemary has little virtue in any of thefe parts,
the fragrance admired in the flowers of this plant re-
fiding chiefly in the cups.
Seeds and Fruits.
Seeds fhould be collected when ripe, and beginning
to grow dry, before they fall off fpontaneoufly. Fruits
are alfo to be gathered when ripe, unlefs otherwife
ordered.
Of the fruits whofe collection comes under the no¬
tice of the apothecary, there are few which are ufed
in an unripe ftate ; the1 principal is the floe, whofe
virtue as a mild aftringent is much diminiflied by ma¬
turation. The fruit of the orange tree, raifed in our
gardens or green-houfes, is fometimes gathered in a
ftate of much greater immaturity, foon after it is form¬
ed on the tree, before it has acquired its acid juice ;
at this time it proves an elegant aromatic bitter, near¬
ly refembling what are called Curajfao oranges, which
appear to be no other than the fame fruit gathered at
the fame period in a warmer climate.
The rule for colleding feeds is more general than
any of the others, all the officinal feeds being in their
greateft perfection at the time of their maturity. As
feeds contain little watery moifture, they require no
other warmth for drying them than that of the tempe¬
rate air in autumn : fuch as abound with a grofs ex-
preffible oil, as thofe commonly called the cold feeds,
ffiould never be expofed to any confiderable heat; for
this would haften the rancidity, which, however care¬
fully kept, they are very liable to contraCl. Seeds
are beft preferved in their natural hulks or coverings,
which ffiould be feparated only at the time of ufing ;
the hulk, or cortical part, ferving to defend the feed
from being injured by the air.
Woods and Barks.
The moft proper feafon for the felling of woods,
or (having off their barks, is generally the winter.
No woods of our own growth are now retained by
the London or Edinburgh colleges. The only two
which had formerly a place in the catalogues of fim-
ples were the juniper and the box ; the firft of which
is never kept in the (hops, or employed in praCtice ;
the other may be procured from the turner ; and it is
indifferent at what feafon it has been cut down, being
at all times fufficiently fit for the only ufe to which it
was applied, the yielding an empyreumatic oil by di-
ftillation in a ftrong fire.
It maybe doubted, whether barks are not geneial-
ly more replete with medicinal matter in fummer and
fpring than in winter. The barks of many trees are
in fummer fo much loaded with refin and gum as to
burft fpontaneoufly, and difisharge the redundant quan¬
tity. It is faid that the bark of the oak anfwers beft
for the tanners at the time of the rifing of the fap in
fpring : and as its ufe in tanning depends on the fame
aftringent quality for which it is ufed in medicine, it
ffiould feem to be alfo fitteft for medicinal purpofes in
the fpring. It may be obferved likewife, that it is in
4 R this
682 MATERIA
C<>Ve<2ion, this la ft feafon that barks in general are moft conveni-
Siwpkp Pee^^ °ff-
Animal Substances.
Animal fubftances are to be chofen in their
M E D I C A.
moil perfeft ftate, unlefs they be ordered other-ColledtloJ
•wife. ^ _ sf£a
Whatever virtues thefe bodies may have, they a'-<* ■ F »
fuppofed to be bdl when they have attained to their
common full growth.
MAT
Material MATERIAL, denotes fomething compofed of
II matter. In which fenfe the word Hands oppofed to
Mathema- \mmatcrial. See Matter and Metaphysics.
i MATERIALISTS, a fe6l in the ancient church,
compofed of perfons who, being prepoffefled with
that maxim in the ancient philofophy, Ex nihilo nihil
Jit, “ Out of nothing nothing can arife,’, had reeourfe
to an internal matter, on which they fuppofed God
wrought in the creation ; inftead of admitting God
alone as the foie caufe of the exiftence of all things.
Tertullian vigoroufly oppofes the do&rine of the ma-
terialifts in his treatife agairrft Hermogenes, who was
one of their number.
Materialifts is alfo a name given to thofe who main¬
tain that the foul of man is material; or that the prin¬
ciple of perception and thought is not a fubftance di-
ftinft from the body, but the refult of corporeal or¬
ganization : See Metaphysics. There are others,
called by this name, who have maintained that there
is nothing but matter in the univerfe j and that the
Deity himfelf is material. See Spinosism.
MATHAM (Jaques), an engraver of confiderable
eminence, was born at Haeilem in 1571, and after the
death of his father,' Henry Goltzius, a celebrated
painter and engraver, married his mother. From his
father-in-law he learned the art of engraving. He
went to Italy, to complete his ftudies from the works
of the greateft mailers; and in that country he engra¬
ved a confiderable number of plates. At his return,
he worked under the eye of Goltzius, and produced
many very valuable prints. Following the example of
his father-in-law, he worked entirely with the graver,
in a clear, free ftyle ; and though he never equalled him
in point of tafte or correftnefs of drawing, efpecially
when confined to the naked parts of the human figure,
moft of his prints are greatly efteemed.
MATHEMATICS, the fcience of quantity; or
a feience that confiders magnitudes either as compu¬
table or meafurahle.
The word in its original, >e*8mr/c, fignifies diftip line,
or feience in the general; and feems to have been ap¬
plied to the doflrine of quantity, either by way of
eminence, or bccaufe, this having the ftart of all other
fciences, the reft took their common name therefrom,
See Science.
For the origin of the mathematics, Jofephus dates
it before the flood, and makes the fons of Seth obfer-
vers of the courfe and order of the heavenly bodies : he
adds, that, to perpetuate their difeoveries, and fecure
them from the injuries either of a deluge or a confla¬
gration, they had them engraven on two pillars, the
one of flone, the other of brick ; the former of which
he fays was Handing in Syria in his days. See Astro¬
nomy.
The fir ft who cultivated mathematics after the flood
5
MAT
were the Aflyrians and Chaldeans; from whom, the Mathetna
fame Jofephus adds, they were carried by Abraham to t,C9, |
the Egyptians ; who proved fuch notable proficients, "v
that Ariftotle makes no fcruple to fix the firft rife of
mathematics among them. From Egypt, 584 years
before Chrift, they palled into Greece through the
hands of Thales ; who having learned geometry of the
Egyptian priefts, taught it in his own country. Af¬
ter Thales, comes Pythagoras; wh‘o, among other
mathematical arts, paid a particular regard to arith¬
metic ; fetching the greateft part of his philofophy
from numbers : he was the firft, as Laertius tells usr
who abftrafted geometry from matter; and to him we
owe the doftrine of incommenfurable magnitude, and
the five regular bodies, befides the ftrft principles of
mufie and aftronomy. Pythagoras was feconded by-
Anaxagoras, CEnopides, Brifo, Antipho, and Hip¬
pocrates of Scio ; who all applied themfeives particu¬
larly to the quadrature of the circle, the duplicature
of the cube, &c. but the laft with moft fuccefs : this
laft is alfo mentioned by Proclus, as the firft who com¬
piled elements of mathematics,
Democritus excelled in mathematics as well as phy-
fics ; though none of his works in either kind are ex¬
tant, the deftru&ion of which fome authors lay at
Ariftotle’s door. The next in order is Plato, who not
only improved geometry, but introduced it .into phy-
fics, and fo laid the foundation of a folid philofophy.
Out of his fchool proceeded a crowd of mathemati¬
cians. Proclus mentions 13 of note; among whom
was Leodamus, who improved the analyiis ftrft invent¬
ed by Plato; Theaetetus, who wrote elements; and
Arehiates, who has the credit of being the firft who
applied mathematics to ufe in life. Thele were
fucceeded by Neocles and Theon, the laft of whom
contributed to the dements. Eudoxus excelled in
arithmetic and geometry, and was the firft founder
of a fyilem of aftronomy. Menechmus invented the
conic feritions, and Theudius and Hermotimus impro¬
ved the elements.
For Ariftotle, his works are fo ftored with mathe¬
matics, that Blancanus compiled a whole book of
them : out of his fehool came Eudemus and Theo-
phraftus ; the firft of whom wrote of numbers, geo¬
metry, and invifible lines ; the latter, a mathematical
biliary. To Arifteus, llidorus, and Hypiieles, wc
owe the books of folids; which, with the other books
of elements, were improved, colleded, and metho-
difed by Euclid, who died 284 years before Chrift.
An hundred years after Euclid, came Eratofthenes
and Archimedes. Cotemporary with the latter was
Canon, a geometrician and ailronomer. Soon after
came Apollonius Pergaeus ; whofe conics are Hill ex¬
tant. To him are likewife aferibed the 14th and 15th
books of Euclid, which are Lid to have been contrac¬
ted
MAT [ 683 ] MAT
schema- ted by Hypficles. Hipparchus and Menelaus wrote on
t,C8 the fubtenfes in a circle, the latter alfo on fpherical
triangles: Theodofius’s three books of fpherics are
Hill extant. And all thefe, Menelaus excepted, lived
before Chrift.
A. D. 70. Ptolemy of Alexandria was born ; the
prince o£ attronomers, and no mean geometrician : he
was fucceeded by the philofopher Plutarch, of whom
we have ftill extant fome mathematical problems. Af¬
ter him came Jiutocius, who commented on Archi¬
medes, and occafionally mentions the inventions of
Philo, Diodes, Nicomedes, Sporus, and Heron, on
the duplicature of the cube. To Ctefebes of A-
lexandrta we owe our pumps; and Geminus, who
came foon after, is preferred by Proclus to Euclid
himfelf.
Diophantus of Alexandria was a great mafter of
numbers, and the firft inventor of algebra : among
others of the ancients, Nicomachus is celebrated for
his arithmetical, geometrical, and mulical works ; Se¬
renas, for his books on the feCtions of the cylinder;
Proclus, for his comments on Euclid ; and Theon has
the credit, among feme, of being author of the books
of elements aferibed to Euclid. The laft to be named
among the ancients, is Pappus of Alexandria, who
Houridied A. D. 400, and is celebrated for his books
of mathematical colleftions ftill extant.
Mathematics are commonly diftinguifhed into pure
and fpeculative, which confider quantity abftra&edly ;
and mixed, which treat of magnitude as fubfifting in
material bodies, and confequently are interwoven every
where with ph vfical confiderations.
Mixed mathematics are very comprehenfive; flnce to
them may be referred aftronomy, optics, geography,
hydroftatics, mechanics, fortification, navigation, &c.
£>ee the articles Astronomy, Optics, &c.
Pure mathematics have one peculiar advantage, that
they occafion no difputes among wrangling difputants,
as in other branches of knowledge ; and the reafon is,
becaufe the definitions of the terms are premifed, and
every body that reads a prapofition has the fame idea
of every part of it. Hence it is eafy to put an end to
all mathematical controverfies, by fhowing, either that
our adverfary has not ftuck to his definitions, or has
not laid down true pr'emifles, or elfe that he has drawn
falfe conclufions from true principles ; and in cafe we
are able to do neither of thefe, we muft acknowledge
the truth of what he has proved.
It is true, that in mixed mathematics* where we
reafon mathematically upon phyfical fubjetSts, we can¬
not give fuch juft definitions as the geometricians : we
muft therefore reft content with deferiptions ; and they
will be of the fame ufe as definitions, provided we are
confident with ourfelves, and always mean the fame
thing by thofe terms we have once explained.
Dr Barrow gives a moft elegant defeription of the
exceUence and ufefulnefs of mathematical knowledge,
in his inaugural oration, upon being appointed pro-
feflbr of mathematics at Cambridge.
The mathematics, he obferves, effedtually exercife,
Inot vainly delude, nor vexatioufly torment, ftudious
minds with obfeure fubtikles; but plainly demonftrate
every thing within their reach, draw certain conclu¬
fions, inflruft by profitable rules, and unfold pleafant
queftions. Thefe difciplines likewife enure and corro¬
borate the mind to a conftant diligence in ftudy; they Mathem-
wholly deliver us from a credulous fimplicity, moft
ftrongly fortify us againft the vanity of feepticifm, ef- j^at]oct,
fe&ually reftrain us from a rath prefumption, moft ea-  y—^
fily incline u? to a due afient, and perfeftly fubjeft us
to .the government of right reafon. While the mind is
abftradted and elevated from fenfible matter, diftinftly
views pure forms, conceives the beauty of ideas, and
inveftigates the harmony of proportions; the manners
themfelves are fenfibly correfted and improved, the af¬
fections compofed and rectified, the fancy calmed and
fettled, and the underftanding raifed and excited to
more divine contemplations.
MATHEMATICAL, any thing belonging to the
fcience of mathematics.
Mathematical Injlruments, fuch inftruments as
are ufuallyemployed by mathematicians, as compaffcs,
feales, quadrants, &c.
Machine for dividing Mathematical InJlrutnenU.
See Ramsden’s Machine.
MATHER (Dr Cotton), an eminent American
divine, born at Bofton in New England in the year
1663. He was educated in Harward college, and in
1684 became minifter of Botton ; in the diligent dil-
charge of which office he fpent his life, and promoted
feveral excellent focieticsfor the public good: particu¬
larly one for fuppreffing diforders, one for reforming
manners, and a fociety of peace-makers, whofe pro-
fefied bufinefs it was to compofe differences and prevent .
law-fuits. His reputation was not confined to his own
country: for in 1710, the univerfity of Glafgow fent
him a diploma for the degree of doftor in divinity ;
and, in 1714, the Royal Society of London chofe
him one of their fellows. He died in 1728 ; and is
find to have publiftied in his life-time 382 pieces, in¬
cluding lingle fermons, effays, &c. yet feveral were of
a larger iize, among which was Magnolia Chrijli A-
tnericana, or an Eccleftaftical Hiftory of New-Eng-
land, from its firft planting in 1620 to 1698, folio.
But the moft remarkable of all his works was that in
which, like Glanville, he defended the do&rine of
witchcraft. We fiiall content ourfelves with giving
the title at large, which is as follows: “ The won¬
ders of the invifible world ; being an account of the
trials of feveral witches lately executed in New-Eng-.
land, and of feveral remarkable curxofities therein oc¬
curring. Together with, 1. Obfervations on the
nature, the number, and the operations of the devils.
2. A (hort narrative of a late.-outrage committed by a
knot of witches in Swedeland ; very much refembling,
and fo far explaining that under which New-EnglanJ
has laboured. 3. Some counfels dire&ing a due im¬
provement of the terrible things lately done by the un-
ufual and amazing range of evil fpirits in Nevv-Eng-
land. 4. A brief difeourfe upon the temptations
which are the more ordinary devices of Satan. By Cot¬
ton Mather; publilhed by the fpecial command of his
excellency the governor of the province of Maffachu-
fet’s Bay in New-England.” Printed firft at Bofton
in New-England, and reprinted at London, in 1736,
4to.
MATLOCK, a town or village of Derby (hire, near
Wickfworth, fituated on the very edge of the Der¬
went ; noted for its bath, the water of which is milk-
warm ; and remarkable for the huge rocks in its en-
4 R 2 virons,
MAT [ O84 ] MAT
Matrafs virorts, particularly thofe called the Torr, on the eaft
H. lide of the Derwent, over againft it, which feem to be
1 a nce' piled one upon another. • It is an extenfive draggling
village, built in a very romantic ityle, on the deep fide
of a mountain, riling irregularly from the bottom to
nearly the fummit. Nearthebath arefeveralfmall houfcs,
whofe fituation is on the little natural horizontal parts
of the mountain, a few yards above the road, and in
fome places the roofs of fome almod touch the floors
of others. There are excellent accommodations for
company who rcfort to the bath ; and the poorer in¬
habitants are fupported by the fale of petrifactions,
crydals, &c. and notwithdanding the rockinefs of the
foil, the cliffs produce ah immenfe number of trees,
whofe foliage adds greatly to the beauty ©f the
place.
MATRASS, Cucurbit, or Bolt-head, among
chemids. See Chemistry, nr> 579.
MATRICARIA, Feverfew, in botany: A ge¬
nus of the polygamia fuperflua order, belonging to
the fyngenefia clafs of plants ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 49th order, Comp'jfite.
The receptacle is naked; there is no pappus; the
calyx hemifpherical and imbricated, with the mar¬
ginal leafets folid, and fomething (harp. There
are five fpecies, but the only remarkable, one is the
parenthium or common feverfew. This hath very
fibrous cludering roots, crowned with numerous com-
. pound leaves; upright dalks branching on every
fide two or three feet high; garnilhed with com¬
pound plain leaves of feven oval folioles, cut into
many parts; and all the branches terminated by many
compound radiated white flowers having a yellow dilk.
There are varieties with double flowers, with femi-
double flowers, with double fidular flowers, with a
filtular dife and plain radius, with fhort-rayed flowers,
with raylefs flowers, with raylefs fulphur-coloured
heads, and with finely curled leaves.—All thefe varie¬
ties flower abundantly in June, each flower being
compofed of numerous hermaphrodite and female flo¬
rets ; the former compofe the dilk, the latter the
radius or border, and which, in the double and fiilu-
lous kinds, are very ornamental in gardens, but of a
difagreeable odour; and are all fucceeded by plenty’
of feed in autumn, by which they are eafily propagated,
as well as by parting the roots and cuttings.
Medical ufeu This plant has received a moft
extraordinary charafter in hyfteric and other affections
©f the nerves, as well as for being a carminative or
warm (limulating bitter. Dr Lewns, however, thinks
it inferior to camomile ; with which he fays it agrees
in all its fenfible qualities, only being fomewhat weaker.
MATRICE, or Matrix. See Matrix.
Matrice, or matrix, in dyeing, is applied to the
five Ample colours, whence all the reft are derived or
compofed. Thefe are, the black, white, blue, red,
and yellow or root colour.
Matrice, or matrices, ufed by the letter-founders,
are thofe little pieces of copper or brafs, at one end
whereof are engraven, dent-wife, or en creux, the feve-
ral chai afters ufed in the compofing of books. Each
charafter, virgula, and even each point in a difeourfe,
has its feveral matrix and of confequence^ its feveral
puncheon to ftrike it. They are the engravers on
metal that cut or grave the matrices.
When types are to be caff, the matrice is faffened Matr’ci
to the end of a mould, fo difpofed as that when the II
metal is poured on it, it may fall into the creux or
cavity of the matrice, and take the figure and impref- „ ..
fion thereof. See /.fitter-Foutenekt.
Matrices, ufed in coining, are pieces of fteel in
form of dyes, whereon are engraven the feveral figures,
arms, charafters, legends, &c. wherewith the fpecies
are to be ilamped. The engraving is performed with
feveral puncheons, which being formed in relievo, or
prominent, wdien ftruck on the metal, make an in¬
dented impreflion, which the French call en creux.
MATRICULA, a regifter kept of the admifllon
of officers and perfons entered into any body or fociety
whereof a lift is made. Hence thofe who are admitted
into our univerfities are faid to be matriculated. A-
mong ecclefiaftical authors, we find mention made of
two kinds of matriculse ; the one containing a lift of
the ecclefiaftics called matricula cltricorum ; the ether of
the poor fubfifted at the expence of the church, called
matricula pauperum.
Matricula was alfo applied to a kind of alms-
houfe, where the poor were provided for. It had cer¬
tain revenues appropriated to it, and was ufually built
near the church ; w’hence the name was alfo frequent¬
ly given to the church itfi lf.
MATRIMONY. See Marriage.
MATRIX, in anatomy, the womb, or that part of
the female of any kind, wherein the foetus is conceived
and nouriffied till the time of its delivery. - See Ana¬
tomy, n° ic8.
Matrix is alfo applied to places proper for the ge¬
neration of vegetables, minerals, and metals. Thus
the earth is the matrix wherein feeds fprout; and
marcafttes are by many confidered as the matrices of
metals.
The matrix of ores is the earthy and ftony fubftan-
ces in which thefe metallic matters are inveloped :
thefe are very various, frequently fpar, quartz, fiuors,
or horn-blend.
MATRON, an elderly married woman.
"Jury of Matrons. When a widow feigns herfelf
with child in order to exclude the next heir, and a
fuppofititious birth is fufpefted to be intended, then,
upon the writ de ventre itifpiciendo, a jury of jWomen
is to be impanelled to try the queftion whether the
woman is with child or not. So, if a woman is
convifted of a capital offence, and, being condemned
to fuffer death, pleads in flay of execution, that fhe
is pregnant, a jury of matrons is impanelled to in¬
quire into the truth of the allegation ; and, if they
find it true, the convift is refpited till after her deli¬
very.
MATRONA, (anc. geog.), a river feparating GaL
lia Celtica from the Belgica (Cefar.) Now the Marne j
which, rifing in Champaign near Langres, runs north-
weft, md then weft, and paffing by Meaux falls into ]
the Siene at Charentort, two leagues to the eaft of
Paris.
MATRONALIA, a Roman feftival inftkuted by
Romulus,, and celebrated on the kalends of March, ia
honour of Mars. It was kept by matrons, in particu¬
lar, and bachelors were entirely excluded from any
(hare in the folemnity. The men during this feaft
feat preTents. to the women, for which a return was
’ made, ’
MAT [ 685 ] MAT
MatrolTes made by them at the Saturnalia,: And the women
Ij gave the fame indulgence to their fervanfs now which
Matter the men gave to theirs at the feaft of Saturn, ferving
them at table, and treating them as fuperiors.
MATROSSES, are foldiers in the train of artil¬
lery, who are next to the gunners, and affift them in
loading, firing, and fpunging the great guns. They
carfy firelocks, and march along with the ftore-wag-
gons, both as a guard, and to give their affiitance in
cafe a waggon flxould break, down.
MATSYS (Quintin), painter of hiftory and por¬
traits, was born at Antwerp in 14.60, and for feveral
years followed the trade of a blackfmith or farrier, at
leait till he was in his 2cth year. Authors vary in their
accounts of the caufe of his quitting his firft occupa¬
tion, and attaching himfelf to the art of painting.
Some affirm, that the firft unfolding of his genius was
occafioned by the fight of a print which accidentally
was fliown to him by a friend who came to pay him a
vifit while lit was in a declining ftate of health from
the labour of his former employment, and that by his
copying the print with fome degree of fuccefs, he was
animated with a defire to learn the art of painting.
Others fay, he fell in love with a young woman of
great beauty, the daughter of a painter, and they' al¬
lege that love alone wrought the miracle, as he could
have no profpeft of obtaining her except by a diftin-
guiffied merit in the profeffion of painting : for which
reafon he applied himfelf with inceffant labour to lludy
and pracfife the_art, till he became fo eminent as to,
be intitled to demand her in marriage* and he fucceed-
ed. Whatever truth may be in either of thefe ac¬
counts, it is certain that he appeared to have an un¬
common genius ; his manner was Angular, not refem-
bling the manner of any other mafter, and his pkftures
were ftrongly coloured and carefully finiihed, but yet
they have fomewhat dry and hard. By many compe¬
tent judges it was believed, when they obferved the.
ftrength of expreffion in fome of his compofitions, that
it he had ftudied in Italy to acquire fome knowledge
of the antiques and the great mafters of the Roman
fchool, he would have proved one of the moft eminent
painters of the Low Countries. But he only imitated
ordinary life ; and feemed more inclined, or at lead
more qualified, to imitate the defeats than the beauties
of nature. Some hiftorical componjiions of this mafter
deferve commendation ; particularly a defcent from the
crofs, which is in the cathedral at Antwerp; and it'is
juftly admired for the fpirit, Ikill, and delicacy of the
whole. But the moft remarkable and bell known
picture of Matfys, is that of the two mifers in the. gal¬
lery at Windfor. He died in 1529. He had a Ion,
'John j who painted in the fame ityle and manner, but
not \with a reputation equal to his father; tjiough
many of his pictures are fold to unlkilful purchafers
for the paintings of Quintin. His moft frequent fub-
jpdt was the reprefentation of mifers counting their
gold, or bankers examining and weighing it.
MATT, in a (hip, is a name given to rope-yarn,
junk, &c. beat flat and interwoven ; ufed in order
to preferve the yards from galling or rubbing in
hoilling or loweiing them.
MATTER, in common language, is a word of the
fame import with IcJ, and denotes that which is tan¬
gible,, vifible, and extended ; but among philofophers Matihew*
it fignifies that fubftance of which all bodies are com- 1 ^
pofed; and in this fenfe it is fynonymous with the word
Element.
It is only by the fenfes that we have any communi¬
cation with the external world ; but the immediate ob¬
jects of fenfe, philofophers have in general agreed to
term qualities, which they conceive as inhering in
fomething which is called their fuljed or fubjlratum.
It is this fubftratum of fenfible qualities which, in the
language of philofophy, is denominated matter; fo
that matter is not that which we immediately fee or
handle, but the concealedfuhject Or fupport of vifible and
tangible qualities. What the moderns term qualities, was
by Ariftotle and his followers called form ; but fo far
as the two dodtrines are intelligible, there appears to
be no effential difference between them. From the
moderns we learn, that body confifts of matter and
qualities ; and the Peripatetics taught the fame thing,
when they faid that body is compofed of matter and
form.
How philofophers were led to analyfe body into
matter and form, or,, to ufe modern language, into
matter and qualities ; what kind of existence they at¬
tribute to each; and whether maWer muff be conceived
as felf-exiftent or created—are quefiions which ffiall be
confidered afterwards (See Metaphysics). It is.
fufficient here to have defined the term.
MATTHEW, or Gofpel of Si Matt hew, a cano¬
nical book of the New Teftament.
St Matthew wrote his gofpel in Judaea, at the
requeft of thofe he had converted ; and it is thought '
he began in the year 41, eight years after Chrift’s
refurredtion. It was written, according to the tefti-
mony of all the ancients, in the Hebrew or Syriac,
language; but the Greek verfion, which now paffes.
for the original, is as cild as the apoftolical times.
St Matthew the Evangclift’s Day, a feftival of the-
Chriftian church, obferved on September 21ft.
St Matthew, the fen of Alpheus, was alfo called
Levi. He was of Jewiih original; as both his names
difeoyer, and probably a Galilean. Before his call to
the apofiolate, he was a publican or toll-gatherer to
the Romans: an office of bad repute among the
Jews, on account of the covetoufriefs and exa&ion of
thofe who unanaged it ; St Matthew’s office parti¬
cularly confifting in gathering the cuftoms of all
merchandize that came by the tea of Galilee, and the
tribute that paffengers were to pay who went by
water. And here it was that Matthew fat at the re¬
ceipt of cufforo, when our Saviour called him to be a
difciple. It is probable, that, living at Capernaum,
the place of Chrift’s ufual refidence, he might have
fome knowledge of him before he was called- Mat¬
thew immediately expreffed his fatisfaflion in being
called to this high dignity, by entertaining our Sa¬
viour and his difdples at a great dinner at his own houfc,
whither he invited all his friends, efpecially thofe of his
own profeffion, hoping, .probably, that they might be
influenced by.the company and converfation of Chrift.
St Matthew continued, with the reft of the apoftles
till after our Lord’s afeenfion. For the firft eight
jears afterwards, he preached in Judtea. Then he
betook himfelf to propagating the gofpel among the
i, Gentiles^.-
MAT T 686 1 MAT
Matthew Gentiles, and chofe Ethiopia as the fce'ne of his apof-
) tolical miniftry ; where it is faid he fuffered martyr-
Mattiacnm. jonij wjiat 0£ death is altogether uncer¬
tain. It is pretended, but without any foundation,
that Hyrtacus, king of Ethiopia, defiring to marry
Iphigenia, the daughter of his brother and predecefibr
jEghppus, and the apoftle having reprefented to him
that he could not lawfully do it, the enraged prince
ordered his head immediately to be cut off. Baronins
tells us, the body of St Matthew was tranfported
from Ethiopia to Bithynia, and from thence was
carried to Salernum in the kingdom of Naples in
the year 954, where it was found in 1080, and where
duke Robert built a church bearing his name.
St Matthew, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Arragon, feated in a pleafant plain, and in a very
fertile country watered with many fprings. W. Long,
o. 1 c. N. Lat. 40. 22.
Matthew of Pans. See Paris.
Matthew of JVeJltiiinfter, a Benediftine monk and
aecompliihed fcholar, who wrote a hiltory from the
beginning of the world to the end of the reign of Ed¬
ward I. under the title of Flores Hi/loriafut; ,• which
was afterwards continued by other hands. He died
in 1380.
St MATTHIAS, an apoflle, was chofen inilead
of Judas. He preached in Judcea and part of .(Ethi¬
opia, and fuffered martyrdom. See the Jets of the
Jlpojlks, chap. i. There was a gofpel publiftted
under Matthias’s name, but rejected as fpurious; as
hkewife fome traditions, which met with the fame
fate.
St Matthias's Day ; a feilival of the Chriftian
church, obferved on the 24th of February. St Mat¬
thias was an apoftle of Jtfus thrift, but not of the
number of the twelve chofen, by Chrift himfelf. He
obtained this high honour upon a vacancy made in
the college of the apoftles by the treafon and death
of Judas Ifcariot. The choice fell on Matthias by
lot; his competitor being Jofeph called Bar/abas, and
firnamed ftijlus. Matthias was qualified for the apoftle-
ftup_» by having been a conftant attendant upon our
Saviour all the time of his miniftry. He was, probably,
one of the 70 difciples. After our Lord’s refurree-
tion, he preached the gofpel firft in Judaea. After¬
wards it is probable he travelled eaftwards, his refi-
dence being principally near the irruption of the river
Apfarus and the haven Hyffus. The barbarous peo¬
ple treated him with great rudenefs and inhumanity ;
and, after many labours and fufferings in converting
great numbers to Chriftianity, he obtained the crown
of martyrdom ; but by what kind of death, is un-
• certain.—They pretend to Ihow the relics of St Mat¬
thias at Rome ; and the famous abbey of St Mat¬
thias near Treves boafts of the fame advantage ; but
doubtlefs both without any foundation. There was a
gofpel aferibed to St Matthias; but it was univerfally
rejefted as fpurious.
MATT1AC-E Aquas, or Mattiaci Fontes,
(anc. geog.), now Wiibaden, oppofite to Mentz, in
the Weteravia. E. Long. 8. N. Lat. 50. 6.
MATTIACUM, or Mattium, (anc. geog.), a
town of the Mattiaci, a branch of the Catti in Ger¬
many. Now Marpurg in Htffe. E. Long. 8. 40. N.
Lat. 50. 40.
MATTINS, the firft canonical hour, or the firft Msttin*
part of the daily fervice, in the Romifn church. il
MATTHIOLUS (Peter Andrew), an eminent Mat?- ,
phyfician in the 16th centufy, born at Sienna, was well
Ikilled in the Greek and Latin tongues. Ide wrote
learned commentaries on Diofcorides, and other works
which are efteemed ; and died in 1577.
MATURANTS, in pharmacy, medicines which
promote the fuppuration of tumors.
MATY (Matthew), M. D. an eminent phyfician
and polite writer, was born in Holland in the year
171S. He Was the fon of a clergyman, and was ori¬
ginally intended for the church; but in confequence
of fome mortifications his father met with from the
fynod, on account of fome particular fentiments he
entertained about the do&rine of the Trinity, turned
his thoughts to phyfic. He took his degree of M. D.
at Leyden ; and in 1740 came to fettle in England,
his father having determined to quit Holland for ever.
In order to make himfelf known, in 1749 he began to
publifh in French an account of the produdtions of the
Englifti prefs, printed at the Hague under the name of
the Journal Britanttique. This journal, which conti¬
nues to hold its rank amongft the beft of thofe which
have appeared fince the time of Bayle, anfwered the
chief end he intended by it, and introduced him to
the acquaintance of fome of the molt refpedtable lite¬
rary charadlers of the country he had made his own.
It -was to their adtive and uninterrupted friendftiip he
owed the places he afterwards poffefted. In 17,"8 he
was chofen fellow; and in 1765, on the refignation of
Dr Birch, who died a few months after and made him
his executor, fecretary to the royal fociety. He had
been appointed one of the under librarians of the Bri-
ti(h mufeum at its firft inftitution in 1753, an(^ ke'
came principal librarian at the death of Dr Knight in
1772. Ufeful in all thefe polls, he promifed to be
eminently fo in the lall, when he was feized with a
languiIhing difordet, which in 1776 put an end to a
life which had been uniformly devoted to the purfuiti
of fc.ence and the offices of humanity. He was an
early and adtive advocate for inoculation ; and when
there was a doubt entertained that one might have the
fmall-pox this way a feeond time, tried it upon him-
fclf unknown to his family. He was a member of
the medical club (with the Drs Parfons, Templeman,
Fothergill, Watfon, and others'), which met every
fortnight in St Paul’s churchyard. He was twice
married, vi-z. the firft time to Mrs Elizabeth Boifra-
gon ; and the fecond to Mrs Maiy Deners. He left
a fon and three daughters. He had nearly finilhed
the Memoirs of the Earl of Chefterfield; which were
completed by his fon-in law Mr Jullamond, and pre¬
fixed to that nobleman’s Mifcellaneous Works, 1777,
2 vols qto.
Maty (Paul Henry), M.A.F. R. S. fon of the
former, was educated at Wefttninfter and Trinity col¬
lege Cambridge, and had their travelling fcllowfiiip for
three years. He was afterwards chaplain to Lord
Stormont at Paris in 17 .., and foon after vacated his
next fellowfliiji by marrying one of the three daughters
of Jofeph Clark, Efq; filler of the late Captain Charles
Clark (who fucceeded to the command on the death
of Captain Cook). On his father’s death in 1776, he
fucceeded to the office of one of the under librarians
of
M A U l 687 ] M A U
MVy of the Britlfh mufeutn, and was afterwards preferred
II to a fuperior department, having the care of the anti-
Mauper- qU{ties, for which he was eminently well qualified.
, tU18' , In 1776 he alfo fucceeded his father in the office of
fecretary to the royal fociety. On the difputes re-
fpefting the reinftatement of Dr Hutton in the de¬
partment of fecretary for foreign correfpondence 1784,
Mr Maty took a warm and diftinguifhed part, and re-
figned the office of fecretary; after which he under¬
took to affift gentlemen or ladies in perfecting their
knowledge of the Greek, Latin, French, and Italian
daffies. Mr Maty was a thinking confcientious man;
and having conceived fome doubts about the articles
he had fubferibed in early life, he never could be pre¬
vailed upon to place himfelf in the way of ecclefiaftical
preferment, though his connexions were amongfl thofe
who could have ferved him effentially in this point;
and foon after his father’s death he withdrew himfelf
from miniliering in the efi ablifhed church, his reafons
for which he publilhed in the 47th volume of the Gent.
Magazine, p. 466. His whole life was thenceforwards
taken up in literary .purfuits. He received 100I. from
the duke of Marlborough, with a copy of that beauti¬
ful work the Gemma Marlburienfes, of which only 100
copies were worked off for prefents ; and of which
Mr Maty wrote the French account, as Mr Bryant did
die Latin. In January 1782 hefet on foot a Review
of publications, principally foreign, which he carried
on, with great credit to himfelf and fatisfaXion to the
public, for near five years, when he was obliged to
difcontinue it from ill health. He had long laboured
under an afthmatie complaint, which at times made
great ravages in his conftitution, and at lad put a pe¬
riod to his life in Jan. 1787, at the age of 42; leaving
behind him one fon.—Mr Maty enjoyed a refpeXabie
rank in the republic of letters, and by his talents and
attainments was fully intitled to it. He was eminently
acquainted with ancient and modem literature, and
particularly converfant in critical refearches. The
purity and probity of his nature were unqueftionable;
and his humanity was asexquilke as it would have
been extendve, had it been feconded by his fortune;
MAUCAUCO, Macaco, or Maki, in aaology.
See Lemur, n'1 4.
MAVIS, in ornithology, a fpecies of turdus. See
Turdus.
MAUBEUGE, a town of the Netherlands, in Hai-
nault, with an illudrious abbey of canoneffes, who
-mud be noble both by the father and mother’s fide.
This place was ceded to France in 1678; ^nd fortified
after the manner of Vauban. It is feated on the river
Sambre, in E. Long. 5. c. N. Lat. 50. 15.
MAUNCH, in heraldry, the figure of an ancient
coat fleeve, borne in many gentlemens efcutcheons. ■
MAUNDY Thursday, is the Thurfday in Paf-
hon week; which was called Maundy or Mandate
Thurfday, from the command which our Saviour gave
hisapodles to commemorate him in the Lord’s fupper,
which he this day indituted ; .or from the new com¬
mandment which he gave them to love one another,
after he had wafoed their feet as a token of his love
to them.'
MAUPERTUIS (Peter Louis Morceaude), a ce¬
lebrated French academician, was born at St Malo in
1698; and was there privately educated till he arrived
at his 16th year, when he was placed under the cele- Mmper-
brated profeffor of philofophy M. le Blond, in the tuls' ,
college of la Marche, at Paris. He foon difcovered a ' v
paffion for mathematical dudies, and particularly for
geometry. He likewife praXifed indrumental mufic
in his early years with great fuccefs ; but fixed on no
profeffion till he was 20, when he entered into the ar¬
my. He fird ferved in the Grey Mufqueteers; but in
the year 1720, his father purchafed him a company of
cavalry in the regiment of La Rocheguyon. He re¬
mained but five years in the army, during which time
he purfued his mathematical dudies with great vigour;
and it was foon remarked by M- Freret and other aca¬
demicians, that nothing but geometry could fatisfy
his aXive foul and unbounded third for knowledge.
In’the year 1723, he was received into the Royal
Academy of Sciences, and read his fird performance,
which was a memoir upon the condruXion and form
of mufical inllruments, November 15. 1724. During
the fird years of his admiffion he did not wholly con¬
fine his attention to mathematics; he dipt into natu¬
ral philofophy, and difcovered great knowledge and
dexterity in obfervations and experiments upon animals.
If the cudom of travelling into remote climates, like
the fages of antiquity, in order to be initiated into
the learned myderies of thofe times, had dill fubfided,
no one would have conformed to it with greater ea-
gernefs than M. de Maupertuis. His fird gratifica¬
tion of this paffion was to vifit the country which had
fiven birth to Newton; and during his refidence at
.ondon he became as zealous an admirer and fol¬
lower of that philofopher as of any one of his own
countrymen. His next excurfion was to Bafil in
Switzerland, where he formed a friend (Id p with the fa¬
mous John Bernouilli 2nd his family, which continue'd
to his death. At his return to Paris, lie applied him-
felf to his favourite dudies with greater zeal .than ever;
—Andhowwdl he fulfilled the duties of an academi¬
cian, may be gathered by running over the memoirs of
-tlic academy from the year 1724 to 1736; where it ap¬
pears that he was neither idle nor occupied by objects
of fmall importance^ The mod fublnne que(lions in
geometry and the relative fcitnces received from his
hands that elegance, clearnefs, and precifipn, fo remark¬
able in all his writings. In the .year 173.6, he was
Cent by the king of France to the polar circle, to mea-
fure a degree in order to afcertain the figure of the
earth, accompanisd by Meffrs Clairault, Camus, Le
Monnier, 1’Abbe Outlaw, and Celfi.us the celebrated
profeffor of aflronoray at Upfal. This dulinXion ren¬
dered him fo famous, that, at his return, he was ad¬
mitted a member of alma ft every academy in Eu¬
rope.
In the year 1740 Maupertuis had an invitation from
.the king of Pruffia to go to Beilin; which was too
flattering to be irefufed. Hie rank among men of let¬
ters had not wholly effaced his love for his firft prq-
feffion, namely, that of arms. He followed his Pruf-
•fian majefty into the field, and was a witnefs of the
difpofitions and operations that preceded the battle of
Mclwitzbut was deprived of the glory of being pre-
feut; when viXory /declared in favour of his royal pa¬
tron, by a Angular kind of adventure. His horfe, du.
ring the heat of the aXion, running away with him,
he fell into the hands of the enemy; and was at firil
M A U r 688 1 M A U
Mauper- but roughly treated by the Auftrian foldiers, to whom
tu:?;' , he could not make himfelf known for want of language;
but-being carried p.rifoner to Vienna, he received fuch
honours from their imperial majefties as were never
effaced from his memory. From Vienna he returned
to Berlin; but as the reform of the academy which
the king of Pruffia then meditated was not yet ma¬
ture, he went again to Paris, where his affairs called
him, and was chofen in 1742 direttor of the academy
•of fciences. In 1743 he was received into the French
academy^; which was the firft. inftance of the fame
perfon being a member of both the academies at Paris
at the fame time. M. de Maupertuis again affumed
the foldier at the fiege of Fribourg, and was pitched
upon by marfhal Cogny and the count d’Argenfon to
cany the news to the French king of the furrender of
that citadel.
He returned to Berlin in the year 1744, when a
marriage was negotiated and brought about, by the
good offices of the queen-mother, between our author
and mademoifelle de Borck, a lady of great beauty and
merit, and nearly related to M. de Borck at that time
minifter of flate. This determined him to fettle at
Berlin, as he was extremely attached to his new fpoufe,
and regarded this alliance as the moft fortunate cir-
cumftance of his life.
In the year 1746, M. de Maupertuis was declared
by' his Pruffian majefty prefident of the royal academy
of fciences at Berlin, and foon after by the fame prince
was honoured with the order of Merit: However, all
thefe accumulated honours and advantages, fo far from
leffening his ardour for the fciences, feemed to furniffi
new allurements to labour and application. Not a day
puffed but he produced fome new project or effay for
the advancement of knowledge. Nor did Jie confine
himfelf to mathematical fludies only : metaphyfics,
chemiftry, botany, polite literature, all fhared his at¬
tention, and contributed to his fame. At' the fame
time, he had, it feems, a ftrange inquietude of fpi-
rit, with a dark atrabilaire humour, which ren¬
dered him miferable amidft honours and pleafures.
Such a temperament did not promife a very pacific
life; and he was engaged in feveral quarrels. He
had a quarrel with Koenig the profeffor of philofophy
at Franeker, and another more terrible with Voltaire.
Maupertuis had inferted into the volume of Memoirs
of the Academy of Berlin for 1746, a difcourfe upon
the laws of motion; which Koenig was not content
with attacking, but attributed to Leibnitz. Mauper¬
tuis, ftung with the imputation of plagiarifm, engaged
the academy of Berlin to calf upon him for his proof;
which Koenig failing to produce, he was ftruck out of
the academy, of which he was a member. Several
pamphlets were the confequence of this ; and Voltaire,
for fome reafon or other, engaged againft Maupeftuis.
We fay, for fome reafon or other: becaufe.Mauper¬
tuis and Voltaire were apparently upon the moft ami¬
cable terms; and the latter refpected the former as
his mafter in the mathematics. Voltaire, however, ex¬
erted all his wit and fatire againft him ; and on the
whole was fo much tranfported beyond what was
thought right, that he found it expedient in 1753 to
quit the court of Pruffia.
Cur philofopher’s conftitution had long been con-
-iiderably impaired by the great fatigues of various kinds
in which his a&ive mind had involved him; though Mauper-
from the amazing hardffiips he had undergone in his tu'9-
northern expedition, moft of his future bodily fuffer- ——v—““
ings may be traced. The intenfe fharpnefs of the air
could only be fupported by means of ftrong liquors ;
which helped but to lacerate his lungs, and bring on a
fpitting of blood, which began at leaft 12 years before
he died. Yet ftill his mind feemed to enjoy the
greateft vigour ; for the beft of his writings were pro¬
duced, and moft fublime ideas developed, during the
time of his confinement by ficknefs, when he was un¬
able to occupy his prefidial chair at the academy. He
took feveral journeys to St Malo, during the laft years
of his life, for the recovery of his health: And though
he always received benefit by breathing his native air,
yet ftill, upon his return to Berlin, his diforder like-
w'ife returned with greater violence.—His laft journey
into France was undertaken in the year 1757; when
he was obliged, foon after his arrival there, to quit
his favourite retreat at St Malo, bn account of the
danger and confufion which that town was thrown in¬
to by the arrival of the Englifti in its neighbourhood.
From thence he went to Bourdeaux, hoping there to
meet with a neutral ftiip to carry him to Hamburgh,
in his way back to Berlin; but being difappointed in
that hope, he went to Touloufe, where he remained fe-
ven months. He had then thoughts of going to Italy,
in hopes a milder climate would reftore him to health;
but finding himfelf grow worfe, he rather inclined to¬
wards Germany, and went to Neufchatel, where for
three months he enjoyed the converfation of Lord
Marifchal, with whom he had formerly been much
conne&ed.. At length he arrived at Bafil, Odfober
16. 1758, where he was received by his friend Ber-
nouilli and his family with the utmoft tendernefs and
.affection. He at firft found himfelf much better here
than he had been at Neufchatel: but this amendment
was of Ihort duration; for as the winter approached,
his diforder returned, accompanied by new' and more
alarming fymptoms. He languiffied here many months,
during which he was attended by M. de la Condamine;
and died in I759-
He wrote in French, 1. The figure of the earth de¬
termined. 2. The meafure of a degree of the meridian.
.3.: A difcourfe on the parallax of the moon. -4. A
difcourfe on the figure of the ftars. 5. The elements
of geography. 6. Nautical aftronomy. 7. Elements
of aftronomy. 8. A phyfical differtation on a white
inhabitant of Africa. 9. An eftay on cofmography.
to. Reflections on the origin of languages. 11. An
effay on moral philofophy. 12. A letter on the pro-
grefs of the fciences. 13. An eflay on the formation
of bodies. 14. An eulogium on M. de Montefquieu.
15- Letters, and other works.
MAUR (St), was a celebrated difcipleof St Bene-
dift. If we can believe a life of St Maur afcribed to
Fauftus his companion, he was fent by Benedict on a
miffion to France. But this life is eonfidered as apo¬
cryphal. In rejecting it, however, as well as the cir-
cumftances of the miffion, we muft beware of denying
•the miffion itfelf. It is certain that it was believed in
France as early as the 9th century ; and notwithftand-
ing the filence of Bede, Gregory of Tours, and others,
there are feveral documents which prove this, or at
leaft render it extremely probable, A celebrated fo-
M A U t 689 ] M A U
Mauriceau clety of benedi&ines took the name of St Maur in
.Maunce- the beginning of the laft century, and received the
1,1 ^ fanftion of Pope Gregory XV. in 1621. This fo-
ciety was early diftinguiihed by the virtue and the
knowledge of its members, and it ftill fupports the
character. There are perhaps fewer eminent men in
it than formerly; but this mull be afcribed to the le¬
vity of the age, and partly to the little encouragement
for the refearches of learned men The chief perfons
of ingenuity which this fociety has produced are, the-
Fathers Menard, d’Acheri, Mabillon, Ruinart, Ger¬
main, Lami, Montfaucon, Martin, Valifette, le Nourri,
Martianay, Martenne, Maifuet, &c. &c. See L'HU
jloire Letteraire de le Congregation de St Maur, publifhed
at Paris under the title of Brujfels, in 410, 1770, by
Dorn. Tallin.
MAURICEAU (Francis), a French furgeon, who
applied himfelf with great fuccefs -and reputation to
the theory and pradiice of his art for feveral years at
Paris. Afterwards he confined himfelf to, the difor-
ders of pregnant and lying-in women, and was at the
bead of all the operators in this way. His Obfervatiom
fur la grojfejfe and fur /’ accouchement des femmes, fur leurs
maladies, et cedes des enfans nouveaux, 1694, 'n 4to>
is reckoned an excellent work, and has been tranfiated
into feveral languages; German, Flemilh, Italian,
Englilh ; and the author himfelf tranfiated it into La¬
tin. It is illuftrated with cuts. He publifhed an¬
other piece or two, by way of fupplement, on the fame
fubjedl; and died at Paris in 1709.
MAURICE (St) commander of the Theban le-
- gion, was a Chriltian, together with the officers and
foldiers of that legion, amounting to 6600 men.—
This legion received its name from the city Thebes
in Egypt, where it was raifed. It was fent by Dio-
clefian to check the Bagaudac, who had excited fome
difturbances in Gaul. Maurice having carried his
troops over the Alps, the emperor Maximinian com¬
manded him to employ his utmoft exertions to extir¬
pate Chriftianity. This propofal was received with
horror both by the commander and by the foldiers.—
The emperor, enraged at their oppofition, command¬
ed the legion to be decimated; and when they ftill
declared that they would fooner die than do any thing
prejudicial to the Chriftian faith, every tenth man of
thofe who remained was put to death. Their perfe-
verance excited the emperor to ftill greater cruelty ;
for when he faw that nothing could make them
relinquilh their religion, he commanded his troops
to furround them, and cut them to pieces. Mau¬
rice, the commander of thefe Chriftian heroes,
and Exuperus and Candidus, officers of the legion,
who had chiefly inftigated the foldiers to this noble
refiftance, fignalized themfelves by their patience and
their attachment to the dodlrines of the Chriftian re¬
ligion. They were maflacred, it is believed, at A-
gaune, in Chablais, the 22d of September 286.—
Notwithftanding many proofs which fupport this tranf-
aftion, Dubordier, Hettinger, Moyle, Burnet, and
Molheim, are difpofed to deny the fadl. It is de¬
fended, on the other hand, by Hickes an Englifh
writer, and by Dom Jofeph de Lille a b^nedidtine
monk de la congregation de Saint Vannes, in a work of
his, intitled, Defence de la Verite du Marty re de la Legion
Thebenne, 1737. In defence of the fame fadl, the
Vol. X. Part II,
reader may dohfult Hifloria di S. Mauritie, by P. Rof- Maurice,
fignole a Jefuit, and the A8a SanBorum for the month ~
of September. The martyrdom of this legion, writ¬
ten by St Eucherius bifliop of Lyons, was tranfmit-
ted to pofterity in a very imperfeft manner by Surius.
P. Chifflet a Jefuit, difeovered, and gave to the pub*
lie, an exadl copy of this work. Don Ruinart main¬
tains, that it has every mark of authenticity. ■ St
Maurice is the patron of a celebrated order in the king
of Sardinia’s dominions, created by Emmanuel Phili¬
bert duke of Savoy, to reward military merit, and ap¬
proved by Gregory XIII. in 1572. The commander
of the Theban legion mull not be confounded with
another St Maurice, mentioned by Theodoret, who
fuffered martyrdom at Apamea, in Syria.
Maurice (Mauritius Tiberius), was bom at Ara-
biflus in Cappadocia, A. D. ^39. He was defeend-
ed from an ancient and honourable Roman family.—»
After he had filled feveral offices in the court of Tibe¬
rius Conftantine, he obtained the command of his ar¬
mies again!! the Perfians. His gallantry was fo con-
fpicuous, that the emperor gave him his daugh¬
ter Conftantina in marriage, and invefted him with
the purple the 13th Auguft 582. The Perfians
ftill continued to make inroads on the Roman territo¬
ries, and Maurice fent Philippicus, his brother-in-law,
againft them. This general conduced the war with
various fuccefs. At firft he gained feveral fplendid
vi £tories, but he did not continue to have a decided .
fuperiority. As there was great ufe for foldiers in
. thefe unfortunate times, the emperor ilfued a man¬
date in eg 2, forbidding any foldierto become a monk
till he had accomplilhed the term of his military fer-
vice. Maurice acquired much glory in reftoring Chof-
roes II. king of Perfia, to the throne, after he had
been depofed by his fubjefts. The empire was in his
reign haralfed by the frequent inroads of the Anlbian
tribes. He purchafed peace from them by granting
them a penfion nearly equal to 100,oco crowns ; but
thefe barbarians took frequent opportunities to renew
the war. In different engagements the Romans de-
ftroyed 50,000, and took 17,000 prifoners. Thefe
were reftored,on condition that the king of the .\baii
Ihould return all the Roman captives in his dominions.
Regardlefs of his promife, he demanded a ranfom of
10,000 crowns. Maurice, full of indignation, refufed
the fum ; and the barbarian, equally enraged, put the
captives to the fword. While the emperor, to revenge
this cruelty, was making preparations againft the A-
bari, Phocas, who from the rank of a centurion had
attained the higheft military preferment, affumed tire
purple, and was declared emperor. He purfued Mau¬
rice to Chalcedon, took him prifoner, and condemned
him to die. The five fons of this unfortunate prince
were maffacred before his eyes; and Maurice, humbling
himfelf under the hand of God, was heard to ex¬
claim, Thou art jujl, 0 Lord, and thy judgments are
•without partiality,.- He was beheaded on the 26th No¬
vember 602, in the 63d year of his age and 20th of
his reign. Many writers have eftimated the charac-,
ter of this prince by his misfortunes inftead of his
actions. They believed him guilty without evidence,
and condemned him without reafon. It cannot be de¬
nied, however, that he allowed Italy to be haraffed,
but he was a father to the reft of the empire. He re-
4 S ftor-ed
M A U [ 690 ] M A U
Maurice, ftored the military difcipline, humbled the pride of
]jjs enemies, fupported the Chriftian religion by his
laws, and piety by his example. He loved the fciences,
and was the patron of learned men.
Maurice, ele&or of Saxony, fon of Henry le
Pieux, was born A. D. 1521. He was early remark¬
able for his courage, and during his whole life he was
engaged in warlike purfuits. He ferved under the
emperor Charles V. in the campaign of 1544 againll
Prance ; and in the year following againft the league
of Smalkalde ; with which, although a Proteftant, he
would have no manner of conne&ion. The emperor,
as a reward for his fervices, in the year 1547, made
him ele&or of Saxony, having deprived his coulin
John Frederick of that ele&orate. Ambition had
led him to fecond the views of Charles, in the hope of
being eleftor, and ambition again detached him from
that prince. In 1551 he entered into a league a-
gainft the emperor, together with the eleftor of Bran-
denburgh, the Cotfnt Palatine, the duke of Wirtem-
burg, and many other princes. This league, encou¬
raged by the young and enterprifmg Henry II. of
France, was more dangerous than that of Smalkalde.
The pretext for the aflbciation was the deliverance of
the Landgrave of HefTe, whom the emperor kept pri-
foner. Maurice and the confederates marched, in
1552, to the defiles of Tirol, and put to flight the
Imperial troops who guarded them. The emperor
and his brother Ferdinand narrowly efcaped, and fled
from the conquerors in great diforder. Charles ha¬
ving retired into Paflau, where he had collefted an
army, brought the princes of the league to terms of
accommodation. By the famous peace of Paflau,
which was finally ratified the 12th of Auguft 1552,
the emperor granted an amnefty without exception to
all thofe who had carried arms againft him from the
year 1546. The Proteftants not only obtained the free
exercife of their religion, but they were admitted
into the imperial chamber, from which they
had been excluded fince the viftory of Mulberg -
Maurice foon after united himfelf with the emperor
againll the Margrave of Brandenburg, who laid walte
the German provinces. He engaged him in 1553,
gained the battle of Siverlhaufen, and died of the
wounds he had received in the engagement two days
after. He was one of the greateft proteftors of the
Lutherans in Germany, and a prince equally brave
and politic. After he had profited by the fpoils of
John Frederick, the chief of the Proteftants, he be¬
came himfelf the leader of the party, and by thefe
means maintained the balance of power againft; the
emperor in Germany.
Maurice de NaJJau, prince of Orange, fucceeded
to the government of the Low Countries after the
death of his father William, who was killed in 1584
by the fanatic Gerard. The young prince was then
only eighteen years of age, but his courage and abi¬
lities were above his years. He was appointed cap¬
tain general of the United Provin ces, and he reared
that edifice of liberty of which his father had laid the
Foundation. Breda fubmitted to him in 1590 ; Zut-
phen, Deventer, Hulft, Nimeguen, in 1591. He
■gained feveral important advantages in 1592, and in
the year following he made himfelf mailer of Gertriv
demburg. When he had performed thefe fplendid
iervices, he returned to the Low Countries by the way
of Zealand. His fleet was attacked by 3 dreadful Maurice-.
tempeft, in which he loft forty velfels, and he him-
felf had very nearly perilhed. His death would have
been confidered by the Hollanders as a much greater
calamity than the lofs of their veffels. They watched
over his fafety with exceeding care. In 1594, one of
his guards was accufed of an intention to take away his
life ; and it was generally believed that he was bribed
to this fervice by the enemies of the republic. He
fell a facrifice at Bruges, either to his own fajiaticifm
or to the jealous anxiety of the friends of Maurice.
The prince of Orange, iucreafing in reputation, de¬
feated the troops of the archduke Albert in 1597, and
drove the Spaniards entirely out of Holland. In 1600
he was obliged to raife the liege of Dunkirk; but he
took ample vengeance on Albert, whom he again de¬
feated in a pitched battle near Newport. Before the
aftion, this great general fent back the fhips which
had brought his troops into Flanders: Mj brethren
(faid he to his army), we mu/1 conquer the enemy w
drink up the waters of the fea. Determine for yourfelves ;
I have determined I jhall either conquer by your bravery,
or I (ball never furvive the difgrace of being conquered by¬
men in every refpecl our inferiors. This fpeech elevated
the foldiers to the higheift pitch of enthufiafm, and the
viftory was complete. Rhinberg, Grave, and Eclufe,
cities in Flanders, fubmitted to the conqueror the fol¬
lowing year. Maurice, however, not only laboured,
for the commonwealth, but alfo for himfelf. He co¬
veted the fovereignty of Holland, and was oppofed in
the profecution of his defign by the penfioner Barne-
veldt. The zeal and aftivity of this wife republican
coll him his life. He was an Arminian ; and at this
time Maurice defended Gomar againll Arminius.—
Taking advantage of the general odium under which
the Arminians lay, he found means to get Barneveldt
condemned in 1619. His death, wholly owing to
the cruel ambition'of the prince of Orange, made a
deep impreflion on the minds of the Hollanders. The
truce with Spain being expired, Spinola laid fiege to
Breda in 1624, and in fix months, by the proper di-
reftion of his great talents, though with great /laugh¬
ter of his troops, he took the place. The prince of
Orange, unfuccefsfnl in every attempt to raife the
fiege, died of vexation in 1625, aged 55 years, with
the reputation of the greateft warrior of his time—-
“ The life of this Stadtholder (fays the Abbe Ray-
nal) was almoft an uninterrupted feries of battles,
of lieges, and of viftories. Of moderate abilities in
every thing elfe, he Ihone confpicuous in his military
capacity. His camp was the fchool of Europe, and
thofe who received their military education in his ar¬
mies augmented, perhaps, the glory of their mailer.;—
Like Montecuculi, he difeovered inimitable Ikill in
his marches and encampments ; like Vauban, he pof-
fefied the talent of fortifying places, and of rendering
them impregnable; like Eugene, the addrefs of find¬
ing fubfiftence for great armies, in countries barren by
nature, or. ravaged by war ; like Vendome, the happy
talent of calling forth, in the moment they became
necelfary, greater exertions from his foldiers than could
reafonably be expefted ; like Conde, that infallible
quicknefs of eye which decides the fortune of battles ;
like Charles XII.. the art of rendering his troops ah
moll invincible to cold, hunger, and fatigue ; like
Turenne, the fecret of making war with the leaft pof-
M A U [ 691 ] M A U
Matir'tama fttlc expence of human blood.” The Chevalier Folard The Mauritanians, according to PtoTeiny, were^l*ur>tan>^
■it.r ■v—- maintains, that Maurice was the greateft commander divided into feveral cantons or tribes. The Metagonitx "" » ’ ~li
of infantry fmce the time of the Romans. He ftudied Were feated near the ilraits of Hercules, now thofe
the military art of the artcients, and applied their rules of Gibraltar. The Saccoft':, or Cocofti, occupied the
with great exa&nefs in the various occurrences of war. coail of the Iberian fea. Under thefb two petty na-
He not only took advantage of the inventions of o- tions the Mafic a, Virties, and VerKiat or Vervic/r, were
thers, but he enriched the fcience of war with feveral fettled. The or Salinftc^ were fituated lower,
improvements. Telefcopes were fir ft ufed by him for towards the ocean ; and, ftill more to the fotith, the
a militafy pUrpofe j and, befides a kind of gallery in Volubiliaru. The Maurenfu and Herpiditani poffeifed
conducing a fiege, and the plan of blockading a the eaftern part of this country, which was terminated
ftrong place, which were of his invention, he greatly by the Mulucha. The Angaucani or Jangacaucani,
improved the whole art by his method of pufhing an Nediberes, ZagrcrJU, Buniuba, and Vcicunt<e, extended
attack with great, vigour, and of defending, for the themfelves from the fouthern foot of Ptolemy’s Atlas
greateft length of time, and in the beft manner, a Minor to his Atlas Major. Pliny mentions the Ba~
place befieged. In ftiort, the many ufeful things nlurte, whom Father Hardouin takes to he Ptolemy’s
which he praftifed or invented, placed him in the Baniubse ; and Mela the Atlantes, whom he repre-
higheft rank among men of a military character. On fents as poflefled of the weftern parts of this diftridl.
one occafion, a lady of quality alked him, •who •was The earlieit prince of Mauritania mentioned in
the f.rjl general of the age ? Spinola (replied he) is the hiftory is Neptune 5 and next to him were Atlas and
fecond. It was his conftant pra&ice, during deep, to AntEeus his two fons, both famous in the Grecian
have two guards placed by his bedfide, not only to de- fables on account of their Wars with Hercules. An-
fend him in cafe of danger, but to awake him if there taeus, in his contention with that hero, feems to have
Should be the teaft occafion. The war betwixt Spain behaved with great bravery and refolution. Having
and Holland was never carried on with greater keen- received large reinforcements of Libyan troops, he
jiefs and animofity than during his adminiftration.— cut off great numbers of Hercules’s men. But that
The Grand Signior, hearing of the vaft torrents of celebrated commander, having at laft intercepted a
blood died in this conteft, thought that a great em- ftrong body of Libyans fent to the relief of Antams,
piie muft depend on the deciiion. The objedt of gave him a total overthrow, wherein both he and-the
fo many battles was pointed out to him on a map, and beft part of his forces were put to the fword. This
he faid coldly, If it were my bufinefs<, I would fend my
pioneers, and order them to cajl this little corner of earth in¬
to the fea. Maurice, like many great men, was im.
patient under contradi&ion, and too much deVoted
to women. He was fucceeded by Frederic Henry
his brother.
MAURITANIA, an ancient kingdom of Africa,
bounded on the weft by the Atlantic ocean, on the
decifive adlion put Hercules in poffedion of Libya
and Mauritania, and confequently of the riches of all
thefe kingdoms. Hence came the fable, that Her¬
cules, finding Antreus, a giant of an enormous fize
with whom he was engaged in fingle combat, to
receive frefti ftrength as often as he touched his mo¬
ther earth when thrown Upon her, at laft lifted him.
up in the air and fqueezed him to death. Hence
fouth by Getulia or Lybia Interior, and on the north likewife may be deduced the fable intimating that
by the Mediterranean, and comprehending the greater
part of the kingdoms of Fez andMorocco*^—Its ancient
limits are not exa&ly mentioned by any hiftorian ;
neither can they now be afeertained by any modern
obfervations, thefe kingdoms being but little known to
Europeans.
This country was originally inhabited by a people call¬
ed Mauri, concerning the etymology of which name au-i
Hercules took the globe from Atlas upon his own
fhoulders, overcame the dragon that guarded the
orchards of the Hefperides, and made himfelf mafter
of all the golden fruit there. Bochart thinks that the
fable alluded chiefly to naval engagements, wherein
Hercules, for the moft part, was victorious ; though
Antaeus from time to time received fuccours by fea.
But at laft Hercules, coming up with one of his
thors are not agreed. It is probable, however, that this fquadrons which had a ftrong reinforcement on board.
country, or at leaft a great part of it, was firft called
Phut, fince it appears from Pliny, Ptolemy, and St Je-
made himfelf master of it, and thus rendered AntEeus
incapable for the future of making head againft him.
rom, that a river and territory not far fromMoUnt Atlas The fame author likewife infinuates, that the notion of
went by that name. From the Jerufalem Targum it Antaeus’s gigantic ftature prevailing for fo many cen-
1,'kewife appears, that part of the Mauri may be deem- turies among!! the Tingitanians, pointed out the fize
ed the offspring of Lud the fon of Mifraim, fince his of the veffels of which his fleets and fquadrons were
defcCnde'nts, mentioned Genefis x. are thdre called'Nianb, compofed. As for the golden apples fo frequently
Mauri, ox Mauritani. It is certain, that this region, mentioned by the old mythologifts, they were the
as well as the others to the eaftward of it, had many treafures that fell into Hercules’s hands upon the
colonies planted in it by the Phoenicians. Procopius defeat of Antaus; the Greeks giving the oriental
tells us, that in his time two pillars of White ftone word riches, the fignification affixed to their own
were to be feen there, with the following infeription term apples.
in the Phoenician language and charafter, upon them: With regard to the age in which Atlas and An-
“ We are the Canaanites, that fled from JoJhua the tseus lived, the moft probable fuppofition feems to be
fon of Nun, that notorious robber.” Ibnu Rachic, that of Sir Ifaac Newton. According to that illu-
or Ibnu Raquig, an African writer cited by Leo, to- ftrious author, Ammon the father of Sefac was the
gether with Evagrius and Nicephorus Calliftus, afiert firft king of Libya, or that vaft tradt extending from
the fame thing. the borders of Egypt to the Atlantic ocean; the con-
482 quefl;
M A U [ 692 ] M A U
Mauritania queft of which country was effe&ed by Sefac in his
^ v father’s life-time. Neptune afterwards excited the
Libyans to a rebellion againft Sefac, and flew him; and
then invaded Egypt under the command of Atlas or
Antxus, the fon of Neptune, Sefac’s brother and ad¬
miral. Not long after, Hercules, the general of The-
bais and Ethiopia for the gods or great men of Egypt,
redwced a fecond time the whole continent of Libya,
having overthrown and flain Antxus near a town in
Thebais, from that event called Anttea or Antaopolis ;
this, we fay, is the notion advanced by Sir Ifaac New¬
ton, who endeavours to prove, that the firft redudlion
of Libya, by Sefac, happened a little above a thou-
fand years before the birth of Chrift, as the laft, by
Hercules, did fome few years after. Now, though
we do not pretend to adopt every particular circum-
ftance of Sir Ifaac Newton’s fyflem, yet we cannot
forbear obferving, that it appears undeniably plain
from fcripture, that neither the weftern extremity of
Libya, nor even the other parts of that region, could
poflibly have been fo well peopled before the time of
David or Solomon, as to have fent a numerous army
to invade Egypt. For Egypt and Phoenicia, from
whence the greateft part of the anceftors of the Li¬
byans came, and which were much nearer the place
from whence the firft difperfion of mankind was
made, could not themfelves have been greatly over-
flocked with inhabitants any confiderable time before
the reign of Saul. And that fuch an invafion happen¬
ed in the reign of Neptune, or at leaft of his fon An¬
txus, has been moft fully evinced by this moft excellent
chronologer.
From the defeat of Antxus, nothing remark¬
able occurs in the hiftory of Mauritania till the
times of the Romans, who at laft brought the whole
kingdom under their jurifdi&ion ; for which fee the
article Rome. With regard to the cuftoms, &c. of
" this people, it would feem, from what Hyginus inli-
nuates, that they fought only with clubs, till one Be-
lus, the fon of Neptune, as that author calls him,
taught them the ufe of the fword. Sir Ifaac Newton
makes this Belus to have been the fame perfon with
Sefoftris king of Egypt, who over-ran a great part of
the then known world. 2. All perfons of diftinftion
in Mauritania went richly attired, wearing much gold
and filver in their clothes. They took great pains in
cleanfmg their teeth, and curled their hair in a curious
and elegant manner. They combed their beards,
which were very long, and always had their nails
pared extremely clofe. When they walked out in any
numbers, they never touched one another, for fear of
difconcerting the curls into which their hair had been
formed. 3. The Mauritanian infantry, in time of ac¬
tion, ufed fhields made of elephants fliins, being clad
in thofe of lions, leopards, and bears, which they
kept on both night and day. 4. The cavalry of this
nation was armed with broad Ihort lances, and carried
targets or bucklers, made likewife of the (kins of wild
beafts. They ufed no faddles. Their horfes were
fmall and fwift, had wooden collars about their necks,
and were fo much under the command of their riders,
that they would follow them like dogs. The ,habit of
thefe horfemen was not much different from that of
the foot above-mentioned, they conftantly wearing a
large tunic of the Ikins of wild beafts. The Phutxi,.
of whom the Mauritanians were a branch, were emi- Mauritania
nent for their ftiields, and the excellent ufe they made MauritI**
of them, as we learn from Homer, Xenophon, Hero- -“-v*-
dotus, and fcripture. Nay, Herodotus feems to in¬
timate, that the fhield and helmet came from them to
the Greeks. 5. Notwithftanding the fertility of their
foil, the poorer fort of the Mauritanians never took
care to manure the ground, being ftrangers to the art
of hulbandry ; but roved about the country in a wild
favage manner, like the ancient Scythians or Arabes
Sceriitx. They had tents, or mapalia, fo extremely
fmall, that they could fcarce breathe in them. Their
food was corn, herbage, &c. which they frequently
did eat green, without any manner of preparation ;
being deftitute of wine, oil, and all the elegancies as,
well as many neceffaries of life. Their habit w^as the
fame both in fummer and winter, confifting chiefly of
an old tattered, though thick garment, and over it a
coarfe rough tunic ; which anfwered probably to that
of their neighbours the Numidians. Moft of them lay
every night upon the bare ground; though fome of
them ftrewed their garments thereon, not unlike the
prefent African Kabyles and Arabs, who, according
to Dr Shaw, ufe their hykes for a bed and covering in
the night. 6. If the moft approved reading of Ho¬
race may be admitted, the Mauritanians ftiot'poifoned
arrow's ; _which clearly intimates, that they had fome
fldll in the art of preparing poifons, and were excellent
dartmen. This laft obfervation is countenanced by
Herodiah and vEHan, who entirely come into it, affirm¬
ing them to have been in fuch continual danger of being
devoured by wild beafts, that they durft not ftir out of
their tents or mapalia without their darts. Such
perpetual exercife muft render them exceedingly fkil-
ful in hurling that weapon. 7. The Mauritanians
facrificed human victims to their deities, as the Phoe¬
nicians, Carthaginians, &c. did.
The country people were extremely rude and barba¬
rous ; but thofe inhabiting cities muft undoubtedly
have had at leaft fome fmattering in the literature of the
feveral nations they deduced their origin from. That
the Mauritanians had fome knowledge in naval affairs,
feems probable, not only from the intercourfe they
had with the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, as well
as the fituation of their country ; but likewife from
Orpheus, or Onomacritus, who afferts them to have
made a fettlement at the entrance into Colchis, to which
place they came by fea. Magic, forcery, divination,.
&c. they apipear to have applied themfelves to in very
early times. Cicero and Pliny fay, that Atlas was the
inventor of aftrology and the doftrine of the fphere,
i. e. he firft introduced them Into Mauritania. This,
according to Diodorus Siculus, gave rife to the fable
of Atlas’s bearing the heavens upon his fhoulders. The
fame author relates, that Atlas inftrufted Hercules in
the doftrine of the fphere and aftrology, or rather
aftronomy, who afterwards brought thofe fciences In¬
to Greece.
MAURITIA, the Ginkgo, or Maiden-hair tree
A genus of plants belonging to the natural order of
Palmx. The calyx of the male is monophyllous ; the
corolla monopetalous ; with fix ftamina. It is a na¬
tive of Japan, where it is alfo known by the names ■
of Ginan and Itfio. It rifes with a long, ereft, thick
and branched ftem, to the fize of a walnut-tree. The
bark
M A U f 693 1 M A U
bark is afli-coloured, the wood brittle and fmooth,
the pith foft and fungous. The leaves are large, ex¬
panded from a narrow bottom into the figure of a
maiden-hair leaf, unequally parted, ftreaked, with¬
out fibres or nerves; both furfaces having the fame
appearance, and fupported upon footftalks, which are
compreffed upon the upperfurface, andextended into the
fubftanceof the leaf. Fromtheuppermoftlhootshangthe
flowers in long catkins that are filled with the fertilizing
powder; and to which fucceeds the fruit, adhering to a
thick flefhy pedicle, which proceeds from the bofom
of the leaves. This fruit is either exactly or nearly
round, and of the appearance and fize of a damafk
plum. The fubftance furrounding the fruit is flefhy,
juicy, white, very harfh, and adheres fo firmly to the
inclofed nut, as not to be feparated from it, except by
putrefa&ion. The nut, properly termed Gineau, re-
fembles the piftachia nut, efpecially a Perfian fpecies
named bergjes pijlai; but is almoft double in fize,
and of the figure of an apricot ftone. The fhell is
fomewhat white, woody, and brittle ; and inciofes a
white loofe kernel, having the fweetnefs of an almond,
along with a degree of harfhnefs. Thefe kernels taken
after dinner are faid to promote digeftion, and to give
relief in furfeits; whence they never fail to make part
of the defert in great feafts and anniverfary entertain¬
ments.—Many of thefe plants have been reared by Mr
James Gordon at his nurfery near Mile-end. They
feem to be very hardy, and thrive in this country in
the open air.
MAURITIUS, or Maurice, an ifland of Africa,
about 400 miles eaft of Madagafcar, lying in the
latitude of 20 and 21 degrees fouth. In the beginning
of the 16th century it was difcovered by the Portuguefe,
who, knowing that Pliny and other nncient writers
had mentioned the ifland of Cerne in thefe feas, took
it for granted that this mull be it; and accordingly
we find it ftyled Cerne or Sirr.e, in their maps : but,
notwithflanding this, they did not think fit to fettle
it; and indeed their force was fo fmall, in comparifon
of the vafl: dominions they grafped, that it was very
excufable. However, according to their laudable cu-
ftom, they put fome hogs, goats, and other cattle up¬
on it, that in cafe any of their fhips either going to
the Indies, or returning to Portugal, fhould be obli¬
ged to touch there, they might meet with refrefh-
ments. The Dutch, in the fecond voyage they made
to the Eaft; Indies under their admiral James Cornelius
Vanneck, came together with five fhips on the 15 th
©f September T56&; anchored in a commodious port,
to which they gave the name of Warwick Haven ; and
gave a very good account of the place in their jour¬
nals. Captain Samuel _Caftleton, in the Pearl, an
Englifh Eaft India fhip, arrived there on the 27th of
March 1612; and taking it to be an ifland undifcover*
ed before, bellowed upon it the name ol England’s Fo-
rejl, though others of his crew called it Pearl-IJland,
and in the account of their voyage, written by John
Tatton the mailer of the fhip, celebrated it as a place
very convenient for fhipping, either outward or home¬
ward bound, to refrefh at. This they fometimes ac¬
cordingly did, and brought Tome cargoes of ebony and
rich wood from thence, but without fixing any fettle-
Eient.
At length, in 1638, the Dutch feated themfelves
here ; and it is highly remarkable, that at the very Mauri
time ‘they were employed in making their firft fettle- ^
ment, the French fent a veffel to take poffeffion of it,
who found the Dutch before-hand with them, and re-
fufed the afliftance of an Englifh Indiaman, wooding
and watering in another port of the ifland, who very
frankly offered it, to drive the Dutch from their half-
fettled polls. They continued for fome time in quiet
poffefiion of the places they fortified in this ifland, to
which they gave the name of Mauritius. But having
engaged the French, who were fettled on Madagaf¬
car, to Heal 50 of the natives, and fell them for Haves,
for the improvement of the Dutch fettlements here,
this proved the ruin of both colonies : for the negroes
furprifed and maffacred the French in Madagafcar;
and the Haves in Mauritius fled into the centre of the
ifland ; from whence they fo much and fo inceffantly
molefted thofe who had been formerly their mailers,
that they chofe to quit a country where they could no
longer remain in any tolerable degree of fafety. The
Eaft India company, however, from motives of con-
veniency, and a very imperfeft notion of its value, dif-
approved this meafure, and therefore ordered it to be
refettled; which was accordingly done, and three forts
erected at the principal havens. Things now went on
fomewhat .better than they did before ; but they were
Hill very much difturbed by the revolted ilegroes in
the heart of the ifle, whom they could never fubdue.
One principal ufe that the company made of this
place, was to fend thither ftate-prifoners, who, as
they were not men of the bell morals, quickly cor¬
rupted the reft of the inhabitants, and rendered them
fuch a race of outrageous fmugglers, the fituation of
the place concurring with their bad difpofitions, that,
after various ineffectual attempts made to reform them,
orders were at length given to abandon Mauritius a fe¬
cond time, which, after fome delays, were put in exe-
cutioivin the year 1710.
Two years after this, the French took poffeffion of
it, and named it the IJle de France. This name has-
obtained among themfelves, but the Europeans in ge¬
neral continue to call it Mauritius. It lies in S.
Lat. 20. 15. E. Lon. 15. The inconveniences ari-
ftng from the want of a port at the ifland of Bourbon,
induced the French to take poffeffibn of Mauritius, it
having two very good harbours, to fortify which no
expence has been fpared, That on the north-well is
called Port Louis, that on the fouth-eaft fide of the
illand is called Port Bourbon. The trade*wind from •
the fouth-eaft in thefe latitudes blows all the year
round, excepting for a few days at the fummer fol-
ftice, when it is interrupted by hard gale.s and hurri¬
canes from the north. The eafe with which this wind '
enables Ihips to enter the port of Bourbon, caufed the
French, when they firft took poffeffion of this fpot, to
efteem it the bell port in the ifland ; but experience
pointing out to them, that the fame wind often ren- -
dered the paffage out of the harbour fo difficult, that a
fhip was fometimes obliged to wait a confiderable time
before the weather admitted of her putting to fea, this
harbour is in a great meafure abandoned, and the prin¬
cipal town and feat of government is now fixed at port -
Louis, which is nearly in the middle of the north fide
of the ifland, and its entrance is through, a channel
formed by twoIhoals, which advance abouttwo miles into
th£-
m a tr i 694 1 m a tr
MmjrWua. the fea. When a fhip arrives oppofite to this channel,
v ' the fouth-eaft wind hinders her from entering the port
under fall, and fhe muft either warp in with cables or
be towed in with boats. The neceffity of this opera¬
tion, joined to the extreme narrownefsof the channel,
which does not admit of two {hips abreaft of each other
entering at the fame time, is one of the belt defences
the harbour has againll an attack by fea; for, from
thefe obftacles, an enemy would find it a matter of the
greateft difficulty to force the port; and in addition
to this natural ftrength, they have built two forts and
as many batteries, which are mounted with heavy can¬
non, and entirely command the approach to fhe har¬
bour, ffiould {hips prefume to force an entry under
fail. This poft is capable of containing 100 fail of
fhips, and is well provided with every requifite for
repairing and even building of {hips. This port has
proved of the greateft advantage to France in the fe-
veral wars which have been carried on between Great
-Britain and her $ and has proved of great utility to the
French Eaft India company’s commerce ; for here
their {hips and creWs were fure to meet with all necef-
fary refreffiment after a long voyage. The port of
Bourbon is alfo fortified; and an army landed here
would find it an extreme difficult taflt to pafs the
mountains to the different parts of the ifiand. There
"are feveral places between the north-eaft extremity and
rport Louis where boats may land, but all thefe are de¬
fended by batteries ; and the country behind them is
a continued thicket: The reft of the coaft is inaccef-
•fible. In the north-eaftern quarter is a plain extending
about to miles from eaft to weft, and in fome places
five miles inland from the northern coaft. All the
reft of the ifland is full of high and fteep mountains,
lying fo near to one another, and the intervals between
them fo narrow, that, inftead of valleys, they rather
refemble the beds of torrents; and thefe are choaked
with huge fragments of rocks which have fallen from
the fteep fides of the impending mountains. On the
fummits of the mountains ice is frequently to be found,
and they are covered with forefts of ebony and other
large trees. The ground they {hade produces her¬
bage, ffirubs^ and plants of various forts, from the
common grafsto the ftrongeft thorn, and that in fuch
profufion, that they form a thicket fo clofely inter¬
woven, that no progrefs Can be made but by means of
a hatchet. Notwithftanding thefe difficulties, planta-
. tions have been formed on thefe mountains, and very
confiderable progrefs has been made in the plains ;
but the productions, although moftly of the fame
kind, are not only in lefs quantity, but of an inferior
quality to thofe produced at Bourbon ifland.
In a courfe of years, however, this fettlement coft fo
much, and was confidered in every, light worth fo
little, that it had been more than once under deli¬
beration, whether, after the example of the Dutch,
they fliould not leave it again to its old negro in¬
habitants ; which fooner or later in all likelihood
would have been its fate, if, in 1735, the fa¬
mous M. de la Bourdonnais had not been fent thi¬
ther, with the title of governor-general of the French
jjlands.
He found this ifle in the worft ftate poffible, thinly
inhabited by a fet of lazy people, who equally hated
induftry and peace, and who were continually flatter-Maaritl
ing this man to his face, and belying him wherever -~—r*
and as far as they durft. He gave hiinfelf no trouble
about this, having once found the means toittiake him-
felf obeyed ; he faw the vaft importance ox the ifland;
he conceived that it might be fettled to great advan¬
tage ; and, without fo much as expeCting the thanks
of thofe for whom he laboured, he began to execute
this great defign. His firft ftep was to bring over
black boys from Madagafcar, whom he carefully
trained up in good principles, and in continual exer-
cife ; by which he rendered them fo good foldiers, that
he very quickly obliged the Marones, or wild negroes,
either to fuhmit or to quit the ifland : he taught th£
planters to cultivate their !ands to advantage ; he, by
an aqueduCt, brought freflx water to the fea-fide ; and
whereas they had not fo much as a boat at his coming
thither, he made a very fine dock, where he not only
built Hoops and larger veffels, but even a ffiip of the
burden of 500 ton. However incredible it may feem,
yet it is certainly faft, that in the fpace of five years
he converted this country into a paxadife, that had
been a mere wildernefs for 5000; and this in fpite of
the inhabitants, and of the company, who being ori¬
ginally prejudiced by them, behaved ill to Rim at his
return. He foon made the cardinal de Fleury, how¬
ever, fenfible of the true ftate of things ; and compel¬
led the company to acknowledge, though they did not
reward, his fervices. He afterwards returned into the
Indies, and perfected the work he had begun, and to
him it is owing that the ifle of France was rendered
one of the fineft and raoft important fpots upon the
globe. Here no coffee is raifed ; but by the indefa¬
tigable induftry of M. de Bourdonnais, fugar, indigo,
pepper, and cotton (which are not at Bourbon), came
to be cultivated with fuccefs. Since the departure of
that moft excellent governor, the plantations have been
neglefted, and are fallen off; but if a proper fpirit of
a&ivity was raifed among the inhabitants, they might
foon be made to refume their flourifliing appearance.
Mines of iron have been difeovered in the mountains
near the great plain, in the north-eaft part of the
ifland ; and thefe mountains affording in great abun¬
dance the neceffary fuel, forges have been ere&ed :
but the iron produced is of a very inferior quality, it
being brittle, and only fit for making cannon-balls and
bomb-fhells. Black cattle, fheep, and goats, are pre-
ferved with difficulty; the firft generally die before
they have been a year in the ifland, and this occafions
frequent importations of them from Madagafcar and
other parts. Common domeftic poultry breed in great
plenty; and, with fifli and turtle, furnffh a great part
of the food of the European inhabitants.
The approach to the ifland is extremely dangerous*
it being furrounded with ledges of rocks, and many
of them covered by the fea. The fliore abounds with
coral and {hells. This ifland is faid to contain 60 ri¬
vers : fome are confiderable ftreams, and moft of them
have their fources from lakes, of which there are feve¬
ral in the middle part of the ifland. The rivers afford
plenty of various kinds of fifli, particularly eels. Thefe
are of an enormous fize, fome having been found that
were fix feet long, and fix inches in circumference*
and fo extremely {voracious, that it is dangerous to
bathe.
MAX
mrua bathe in thoCe parts of the rive* where they lie, as they
It will feize a man without fear, and have ftrength fuf-
entius ficient to keep him under water till he is drowned.
v  Here is a great variety of birds, and bats as large as
a young kitten : the inhabitants efteem them a deli¬
cate morfel. The air is both hot and moift, but not
tmwholefome. The place abounds with infefts, which
are very troublefome ; but there are no ferpents. It
has been difcovered, that off Port Louis the fouth-
eaft wind generally blows with lead; ftrength about
fun-rife ; and it alfo happens, on four or five days, at
intervals, in the courfe of a month, that early in the
morning the wind ceafes in the northern, part of the-
ifland fpr an hour or two, when.a breeze rifes, al¬
though but faintly, from the north-weft ; during
I • which, a ftiip ftationed at the entrance of tlje channel
to avail herfelf of this breeze, may enter the harbour
and attack the forts.
MAURUA, one of the Society-Iflands in the
South Sea. It is a fmall ifland, entirely furrounded
with a ridge of rocks, and without any harbour for
1 fhipping. It is inhabited t and its productions are the
fame with thofe of the neighbouring iflands. A high,
round hill rifes in the middle of it,'which may be feen
at the diftance of i o or 12 leagues.
MAUSOLEUM, a magnificent tomlx or funeral
monument. The word is derived from Maufolus
king of Caria, to whom Artemifia his widow erec¬
ted a. moft ftately monument, efteemed one of the
wonders of the world, and called it, from his own
1 name, Maufoleum.
St MAWES, a town of Cornwall, in England,
I feated on the eaft fide of Falmouth haven, in W. Long.
5. 26. N. Lat. .50. 30. Though but a hamlet of the
parifti of St Juft, two miles off, without a minifter, .
or either church, chapel, or meeting-houfe, it has
fent members to parliament ever fince 1362, who are
returned by its mayor or portreve. It confifts but of
one ftreet, under a hill, and fronting the fea, and its
I inhabitants fubfift purely by fifhing. King Henry VI1L
built a caftle here, over againft- Pendennis, for the bet¬
ter fecurity of Falmouth haven. It has a governor,
a deputy, and two gunners* with a platform of guns.
Here is a fair the Friday after St Luke’s days
MAXENTIUS (Marcus Aurelius Valerius), a fon.
I of the emperor Maximianus Hercules, was, by the vo¬
luntary abdication of Dioclefian, and of his. father,
I raifed to the empire, A. H. 306. He- afterwards in¬
cited his father to re-affume his imperial authority;
[ and in a -perfidious manner deftroyed Severus, who
had delivered himfelf into his hands, and relied upon
his honour for the fafety of his life- H'S viftories
and fucceffes were -impeded by Galerius Maximianus,
| who oppofed him with, a powerful force. . The defeat
and voluntary death of Galerius foon reftored peace
to Italy ; and Maxentius paffed- into Africa, - where
he rendered himfelf odious by his cruelty and oppref-
fion. He foon after returned to Rome, r^l was in¬
formed that Conftantine was come to, dethrone him.
! He gave his adverfary battle near Rome, and,., after
he had loft the victory, he fled back to the city. The
bridge over which he crofted, the Tiber was in a de¬
cayed fituation, and he fell into the river, and was
p| browned, A. J). 312. The cowardice and luxuries of
! Ifclaxeatius were as confpicuous as his. cruelties. _ He
MAX
oppreffed his fubjedls with heavy taxes, to gratify the Maxll!^ -
cravings of his pleafures, or the avarice of his fa- lj
vourites. He was debauched in his manners, and nei- Maximus'.
ther virtue nor innocence were fafe whenever he was ' ^
inclined to voluptuous purfuits. His body was de¬
formed, and unwieldy. To vifit a pleafure ground,
or to exercife himfelf under a marble portico, or walk
on a ftiady terrace, was to him a Herculean labour,
which required the greateft exertions of ftrength and
refolution.
MAXILLA, the Jaw. See Anatomy, n° 20
—26.
MAXIM, an eftablifhed propofition or principle ;
in which fenfe it denotes much the fame with axiom.
MAXIMILIAN I. emperor of Germany, figna-
lized himfelf againft the French while he was king of
the Romans, and after he was emperor entered into
the army of Henry VIII. of England as a volunteer
againft that nation : he was a proteftor of learned
men, and abolifhed an iniquitous tribunal, ftyled Ju¬
dicium oculum Wejiphalia: he compofed fome poems*
and the memoirs of his own life. He died in 1519,
aged 60.
MAXIMUM, in mathematics, denotes the greateft.
quantity attainable in any given cafe.
If a quantity conceived to be generated by motion
increafes or decreafes till it arrives at a certain magni¬
tude or pofition, and then, on the contrary^ grows
greater or leffer, and it be required to determine the
faid magnitude or pofition, the queftion is called zpro¬
blem de maximis et minimis,
MAXIMUS, a-celebrated Cynic philofopher, and
magician of Ephefus. He inftrufted the emperor
Julian in magic ; and, according to the opinion ot fome
hiftorians, it was in the converfation and company of
Maximus that the apoftacy of Julian originated. The
emperor not only vifited the philofopher, but he even
fubmitted his writings to his infpe&ion and cenfure.
Maximus refufed to live in the court of Julian, and
the emperor, not diffatisfied with the refufal, appoint ¬
ed him high pontiff in the province of Lydia, an of¬
fice which he difcharged with the greateft moderation
and juftice. When Julian went into, the eaft, the phi-
lofopher promifed him fuccefs, and even faid that his
conquefts would be more numerous and extenfive than
thofe. of the fon of Philip. He .perfuaded his impe-
. rial pupil, that, according to the doftrine of Metemp-
fychofis, his body was animated by the foul which
once aniftiated the hero whofe greatnefs and vi&ories
he was going to eclipfe. After, the death of Julian,
Maximus was almoft facrificed to the fury of the fol-
diers ; but the interpofition of hia friends faved bis
life, and he retired to Conftantinople. He was foon
after aceufed of magical practices, before -the emperor
Valens, and beheaded at Ephefus, A. D. 366. He
wrote fome philofophical and rhetorical treatifes, fome
of which were dedicated to Julian, They are all now
loft.
Maximus of Tyre, a Platonic philofopher, went ■
to Rome in 146, and acquired fuch reputation there,
that the emperor Marcus Aurelius became his fcholar, ...
and gave him frequent proofs of his efteem. 1 hia phi¬
lofopher is thought to have lived till the reign of the
emperor Commodus. There are ftill extant 41 of his
•differtations $ a good edition of which was printed by
Daniel
[ 69 s 1
' May.
MAY f 696 1 MAY
Maximus, Daniel Heinfxus, in 1624, In Greek and Latin, with afterwards removed to London, where he contra&ed a
notes. friendfhip with feveral eminent perfons, and partied- Maye:
Maximus Marius. Set Marius* larly with Endymion Porter, Efq; one of the gentle-
Maximus (St), an abbot and confeflbr of the 7th men of the bed-chamber to king Charles I. While he
Century, was of a noble family of Conftantinople, and refided at court, he wrote the five plays now extant
diftinguifhed himfelf by his zeal againft the Monothe- under his name. In 1622, he publiihed a tranflation
lites, for which he was thrown into prifon, and died of Virgil’s Georgies, with annotations; and in 1635
there on the 13th of Aiiguft 1662. He wrote a Com- a poem on king Edward III. and a tranflation of Lu-
mentary on the books attributed to Dionyfius the A- can’s Pharfalia, which poem he continued down to the
reopagite, and feveral other works, of which an edi- death of Julius Caefar, both in Latin and Englifh
tion has been publiined by father Combefis. verfe. Upon the breaking out of the civil wars he ad«
MAY, the fifth month in the year, reckoning from hered to the parliament; and in 1647, he publilh-
our firft, or January; and the third, counting the ed, “ The hiftory of the parliament of England;
year to begin with March, as the Romans anciently which began November the third MDCXL. With
did. It was called Maius by Romulus, in refpeft to a Ihort and accefiary view of. fome precedent years.”
•the fenators and nobles of his city, who were named In 1649, he publifhed, Hiflor'ue parliamenti An-
majores ; as the following month was called Junius, in glia Breviarlum, in three parts ; which he after¬
honour of the youth of Rome, in honorem juniorum, wards tranflated into Englifh. He wrote the Hi-
who ferved him in tlie war; though fome will have it ftory of Henry II. in Englifh verfe. He died in
-.to have been thus called from Maia, the mother of Mer- 16,-2. He went well to reft over-night, after a cheer-
cury, to whom they offered facrifice on the firft day of ful bottle as ufual, and died in his fleep before morn-
it; and Papias derives it from Madius, eo quod tunc terra ing : upon Which his death was imputed to his tying
madeat. In this month the fun enters Gemini, and his night-cap too clofe under his fat cheeks and chin,
the plants of the earth in general begin to flower.— which caufed his fuffocation ; but the facetious An-
The month of May has ever been efteemed favourable drew Marvel has written a poem of < 00 lines, to make
to love ; and yet the ancients, as well as many of the him a martyr of Bacchus, and die by the foxxe of good
irioderns, look on it as an unhappy month for mar- wine. He was interred near Camden, in Weftminfter-
riage. The original reafon may perhaps be referred to Abbey ; which caufed Dr Fuller to fay, that “ if he
the feaft of-the Lemures, which was held in it. Ovid were a biaffed and partial writer, yet he lieth buried
.alludes to this in the fifth of his Fafti, when he fays, near a good and true hiftorian indeed.” Soon after
Nec vidua tadis eadem, nec virginis apta
Tempora; quae nupfit, non diuturna fuit;
Hoc quoque de caufa, ft te proverbia tangunt,
Menfe malum Maio nulere vulgus ait.
Max-denu. -See Dew.
MAr-duh, a fpecies of cherry. See Prunus.
the reftoration, his body, with thofe of feveral others,
was dug up, and buried in a pit in St Margaret’s
church-yard; and his monument, which was erefted
by the appointment of Parliament, was taken down
and thrown afide.
MAYER (Tobias'), one of the greateft aftronomers
May (Ifle of), a fmall ifland at the mouth of the and mechanics this century has produced, was born at
Trith of Forth, in Scotland, about a mile and an half Mafpach, in the duchy of Wirtemberg 1723. He
in circumference, and feven miles from the coaft of taught himfelf mathematics, and at the age of four-
Fife, almoft oppofite to the rock called the Bafs. It teen deligned machines and inftruments with the great-
formerly belonged to the priory of Pittenweem ; and eft dexterity and juftnefs. Thefe purfuits did not hin-
was dedicated to St Adrian, fuppofed to have been der him from cultivating the belles lettres. He ac-
martyred in this place by the Danes ; and hither, in quired the Latin tongue, and wrote it with elegance,
times of Popilh fuperftition, barren women ufed to In 1750, the univerfity of Gottingen chofe him for
come and worfhip at his fhrine, in hopes of being cu- their mathematical profeflbr ; and every year of his
red of their fterility. Here is a tower and light- fhort life was thenceforward marked with fome confi-
houfe built by Mr Cunningham of Barns, to whom derable difeoveries in geometry and aftronomy. He
king Charles I. granted the ifland in fee, with power publifhed feveral works in this way, which are all rec¬
to exaft two-pence per ton from every fhip that pafles, koned excellent; and fome are inferted in the fecond
for the maintenance of a light-hoiife. In the middle volume of the “ Memoirs of the univerfity of Got-
of it there is a frefh-water fpring, and a fmall lake, tingen.” His labours feem to have exhaufted him;
The foil produces pafturage for 100 fheep and 20 for he died worn out in 1762.
black cattle. On the weft fide the fteep rocks render MAYERNE (Sir Theodore de), baron of Aul-
it inacceffible ; but to the eaft there are four landing- bone, was the fon of Lewis de Mayerne, the celebrated
places and good riding. It was here that the French author of The general hiftory of Spain, -and of the
fquadron, having the chevalier de St George on Monarchic ariflo-democratique, dedicated to the ftates-
board, anchored in the year 1708, when the vigilance general. He was born in 1573, and had for his god-
of Sir George Byng obliged him to relinquifh his de- father Theodore Beza. He ftudied phyfic at Mont-
jign, and bear away for Dunkirk. The fhores all pelier, and was made phyfician in ordinary to Hen-
round the ifland abound with fifh, and the cliffs with ry IV. who promifed to do great things for him pro¬
water-fowl. vided he would change his religion. James I. of Eng-
MAY (Thomas), an eminent. Englifh poet and hi- land invited him over, and made him firft phyfi-
ilorian in the 17th century, was born of an ancient but cian to himfelf and his queen, in which office he fer-
-decayed family in Suffex, educated at Cambridge, and ved the whole royal family to the time of his death ip
N° 198. 16554
3
MAY [ 697 ] MAY
MayVem 1655. His works were printed at London in 1700,
II ^ and make a large folio, divided into two books; the
■ ay°0f t firll containing his Confilia, Epi/iola, Obfervationes }
the fecond his Pharmacopeia variaque medtcamento-
rum formula.
MAYHEM. See Maim.
MAYNE (Jafper), an eminent Englilh poet and
I divine in the 17th century, who was bred at Oxford,
and entered mto holy orders. While his majefty re-
fided at Oxford, he was one of the divines appointed
to preach before him. He publifhed in 1647 a
piece intitled, OXAOMAXIA, or, The people’s war ex¬
amined according to the principles of reafon and
Jcripturcy by Jafper Maync. In 1648 he was de¬
prived of his ftuden.tfhip at Chrift-church, and two
livings he had ; but was reftored [with the king, who
made him his chaplain and archdeacon of Chichefter;
all which he held till he died. Dr Mayne was held
I • in very high etteem both for his natural parts and his
acquired accomplifliments. He was an orthodox
preacher, and a man of fevere virtue and exemplary
behaviour; yet of a ready and facetious wit, and
■a very lingular turn of humour. From fume ftories
that are related of him, he feems to have borne fome
degree of refemblance in his manner to the cele¬
brated Dr Swift; but if he did not poffefs thofe very
brilliant parts that diltinguilhed the Dean, he pro¬
bably was lefs fubjedf to that capricious and thofe un¬
accountable whimfies which at times fo greatly eclip-
fed the abilities of the latter. Yet there is one anec¬
dote related of him, which, although it refle&s no
great honour on his memory, as it feems to carry fome
degree of cruelty with it, yet is it a ftrong mark of
his refemblance to the Dean, and a proof that his pro-
penfity for drollery and joke did not quit him even in
his lateft moments. The Itory is this : The doctor
had an old fervant, who had lived with him fome years,
to whom he had bequeathed an old trunk, in which
I he told him he would find fomething that would make
him drink after his death. The fervant, full of ex¬
pectation that his mafter, under this familiar expref-
fion, had left him fomewhat that would be a reward
for the affiduity of his pait fervices, as foot! as decency
would permit flew to the trunk ; when behold, to his
great difappointment, the boafted legacy proved to be
a red herring. The doCtor, however, bequeathed many
legacies by will to pious ufes; particularly 50 pounds
towards the rebuilding of St Paul’s cathedral, and 200
pounds to be diftributed to the poor of the parifhes
of Caffington and Pyrton; near Wattington, of both
which places he had beeft vicar. In his younger years
he had an attachment to poetry ; and wrote two plays,
the latter of which may be feen in the tenth volume
of Dodfiey’s collection, viz. 1. Amorous war, a tragi¬
comedy. 2. The city-match, a comedy. He publifhed
a poem upon the naval victory by the duke of York
over the Dutch, printed in 1665. He alfo tranflated
into Englifh from the Greek part of Lucian’s Dia¬
logues.
MAYNOOTH, or. Manooth, a poll town in
the county of Kildare, and province of Leinfter, in
Ireland, near i'2 miles from Dublin. Though not
very large, it is regularly laid out, and confilts of
good houfes. Here is a charter-fehool, which was
opened 27th July 1759.
Vol.X. Part II.
MAYNWARING (Arthur), an eminent political Maynwa-
writer in the beginning of the 18th century, Itaid fe-
veral years at Oxford, and then went to Chefhire,.  
where he lived fome time with his uncle Mr Francis
Cholmondley, averyhoneft gentleman, but extreme¬
ly averfe to the government of king William III. to
whom he refufed the oaths. Here he profecuted his
ftudies in polite literature with great vigour ; and co¬
ming up to London, applied to the ftudy of the law.
He was hitherto very zealous in anti-revolutional
principles, and wrote feveral pieces in- favour of king
James II. ; but upon being introduced to the duke of
Somerfet and the earls of Dorfet and Burlington, be¬
gan to entertain very different notions in politics. His
father left him an eilate of near 8001. a-year, but fi»
incumbered, that the interefl money amounted to al-
moll as much as the revenue. Upon the conclufion
of the peace he went to Paris, where he became ac¬
quainted with Mr Boileau. After his return he was
made one of the commilfioners of the cuftoms, in
which poll he diltinguifhed himfelf by his fkill and m-
duftry. He was a member of the kit-cat-club, and
was looked upon as one of the chief fupports of it by
his plcafantry and wit. In the beginning of queen
Anne’s reign, the lord treafurer Godofphin engaged
Mr Done to quit the office of auditor of the impreits,
and made Maynwaring a prefent of a patent for that
office worth about 20001. a-year in a time of bufinefs.
He had a confiderable fhare in the Medley, and was
author of feveral other pieces. The Examiner, his an-
tagonill in politics, allowed that he wrote wirh tole¬
rable fpirit, and in a mafterly ftyle. Sir Richard Steele
dedicated the firft volume of the Tatler to- him.
MAYO, one of the Cape de Verd iilands, lying in
the Atlantic ocean, near 300 miles from Cape Verd
in Africa, about 17 miles in circumference. The foil
in general is very barren, and water fcarce ; however,
they have fome corn, yams, potatoes, and plantains,
with plenty of beeves, goats, and aflVs. What trees
there are, grow on the lides of the hills, and they
have fome figs and water-melons. The fea round
about the ifiand abounds with fiffi. The chief com¬
modity is fait, with which many Engliffi ihips are
loaded in the fummer-time. The principal town is
Pinofa, inhabited by negroes, who fpeak the Portu-
guefe language, and are flout, luily, and flelhy. They
are not above 200 in number, and many of them go
quite naked. W. Long. 21. 25. N. Lat. 15. 5.
Mayo, a county of Ireland, in the province of Con¬
naught, having Sligo and the fea on the north, Rof-
common on the fouth, Leitrim and Rofcommon on
the call, and the Atlantic ocean on the well. It
contains 724,640 Irifh plantation acres, 73 parilhes,
9 bai&nies, and one borough; and fends four mem¬
bers to parliament. It gives title of earl to the
family of Bourke. This county takes its name from
an gneient city, built in 664 ; the ruins of the cathe¬
dral, and fome traces of the Hone walls which encom-
paffed the city, yet remain on the plains of Mayo.
It was a univeriity, founded for the education of fuch
of the Saxon youths as were converted to the Chriilian
faith : it was fituafed a little to the fouth of Lough
Conn; and is to this day frequently called Mayo of
the Saxons, being celebrated for giving education to
Alfred the great king of England. As this town has
4 T gone
M A
X [ 698
gone to decay, Balinrobe is reckoned the chief town.
The county by the fea is mountainous j but inland has
good paftures, lakes, and rivers. It is about 57 miles
long, and 48 broad. Caftlebar is the afiizes town.—
Mayo was formerly a bifliop’s fee, which is novfr uni*
ted to Tuam.
MAYOR, the chief magiftrate of a city or town,
chofen annually out of the aldermen. The word, an¬
ciently wrote meyr, comes from the Britifh mirct, i. e.
cujlodire, or from the old Englilh mater, viz. potejlas,
and not from the Latin major. King Richard I. in
, changed the bailiff of London into a mayor.
] M A Z
couit, where every thing relating to the rents and reve- Mn?#
nues of the city, as alfo the affairs of fervants, &c. are II _
tranfa&ed. Laftly, to the lord mayor belong the Mazar*ne<
courts of coroner and pf efcheator ; another court
for the confervation of the river Thames ; another of
gaobdelivery, held ufually eight times a year, at the
Old Bailey, for the trial of criminals, whereof the
lord mayor is himfelf the chief judge. There are other
courts called wardmotes or meetings of the wardsand
courts of halymote or affemblies of the feveral guilds
and fraternities.
MAZA, among the Athenians, was a fort of cake
and from that example king John made the bailiff of made of flour boiled with water and oil, and fet, as
King’s Lynn a mayor anno 1204: Though the fa¬
mous city of Norfolk obtained not this title for its
chief magiftrate till the feventh year of king Hen¬
ry V. anno 1419; fince which there are few towns
of note but have had a mayor appointed for govern¬
ment.
Mayors of corporations are juftices of peace pro
the common fare, before fuch as were entertained atr
the public expence in the common hall or prytaneum.
MAZAGAN, a ftrong place of Africa, in the
kingdom of Morocco, and on the frontiers of the pro¬
vince of Duguela. It was fortified by the Portuguefe,
and befieged by the king of Morocco with 200,000
men in 1562, but to no purpofe. It is fituated near
tempore, and they are [mentioned in feveral flatutes ; the fea. W. Long. 7. 45. N. Lat. 33. 5.
but no perfon fhall bear any office of magiftracy con¬
cerning the government of any town, corporation, &c»
who hath not received the facrament according to the
church of England within one year before his elec¬
tion, and who fhall not take the oaths of fupremacy,
&c.
If any perfon intrudes into the office of mayor, a
quo warranto lies againft him, upon which he fhall
not only be oufted, but fined. And no mayor, or
perfon holding an annual office in a corporation for one
MAZARA, an ancient town of Sicily, and capi¬
tal of a confiderable valley of the fame name, which is
very fertile, and watered with feveral ri'vers^ The
town is a bifhop’s fee, and has a good harbour; is
feated on the fea coaft, in E. Long. 12. 39. N. Lat-
37- 42-
MAZARINE (Julius), a famous, cardinal and
prime minifter of France, was born at Pifcina in the
province of Abruzzo, in Naples, in 1602- After
having finiflied his ftudies in Italy and Spain, he en-
year, is to be ele&ed into the fame office for the next; tered into the fervice of cardinal Sachetts, and became
in this cafe, perfons obftruiting the choice of a fuccef- well flailed in politics, and in the- interefts of the
for are fubjeft to tool, penalty. Where the mayor princes at war in Italy ; by which means he was.
©f a corporation is not chofen on the day appointed enabled to bring affairs to an accommodation, and the
by charter, the next office in place fhall the day af- peace of Queiras was fhortly concluded. Cardinal
ter hold a court and eleft one ; and if there be a de- Richelieu being taken with his coaduft, did from,
fault or omiffion that way, the ele<5tors may be com- thenceforward highly efteem him ; as did alfo cardinal
pelled to choofe a mayor, by a writ of mandamus out Antonio, and Louis XIII. who procured him. a car-
of the king’s bench. Mayors, or other magiftrates dinal’s hat in 1641. Richelieu made him one of the
©f a corporation, who fhall voluntarily abfent them-
Lives on the day of cleft ion, are liable to be imprifon-
«d, and difqualiiied from holding any office in the cor¬
poration.
MAron's Courts. To the lord mayor and city of
London belong feveral courts of judicature. The
higheft and moft ancient is that called the huflings, de-
ftined to fecure the laws, rights, franchifes, and cuftoms
executors of his will; and during the minority of
Louis XIV. he had the charge of affairs. At lath
he became the envy of the nobility, which occafioned
a civil war; whereupon Mazarine was forced to retire,
a price was fet on his head, and his library fold.
Notwithftanding he afterwards returned to the court
in more glory than ever; concluded a peace with-Spain,
and a marriage treaty betwixt the king and the in-
©f the city. The feepnd is a court of requejl, or of fanta. This treaty of peace paffes for the mafter-
CQnft ience ; of which before. The third is the court of piece of cardinal de Mazarine’s politics, and procured
the lord mayor and aldermen, where alfo the fheriffs him the French king’s moft intimate confidence : but
fit: to which may be added two courts of fheriffs and at laft his continual-application to bufmefs threw him
the court of the city orphans, whereof the lord may* into a difeafe, of which he died at Vinciennes is
or and aldermen have the cuftody. Alfo the court 1661.—Cardinal Mazarine was of a mild and affable
©f common council, which is a court or affembly, temper. One of his greateft talents was his knowing
■wherein are made all by-laws which bind the citizens mankind,, and his being able to adapt himfelf, and to
©f London. It confifts, like the parliament, of two affume a charafter conformable to the eircumftances
houfes: an upper, confifting of the lord mayor and of affairs. He poffeffed at one and the fame time the
aldermen j and a lower, of a number of common bifhopric of Metz, and the abbeys of St Arnauld,
council men, chofe by the feveral wards, as reprefen- St Clement, and St Vincent, in the fame city ; that of
tatives of the body of the citizens. In the court of St Dennis, Clugny, and Viftor, of Marfcilles } of St
common council are made laws for the advancement of Michael at Soiffons, and a great number of others,
trade, and committees yearly appointed, &c. Butafts He founded Mazarine-college at Paris* which is
jnade by them are to have the affent of the lord mayor alfo called the college of the four nations. There has
ftodaldcrmcnjby ftat. nGco.I. AUbthechamberlaia’s been publilhed a eolleftion of his letters, the moR
copious
M E A [ 699 ] M E A
«aM*zzuoi;, copious edition of which is that of I745» in t vols
^ duodecimo.
- MAZZUOLI. See ParmigiAno.
MEAD, a wholefome, agreeable liquor, prepared
of honey and water.
One of the belt methods of preparing mead is as
follows : Into twelve gallons of water flip the whites
tof fix eggs; mixing thefe well together, and to the
mixture adding twenty pounds of honey. Let the
liquor boil an hour, and when boiled add cinnamon,
ginger, cloves, mace, and a rofemary. As foon as it
is cold, put a fpoonful of yeft to it, and tun it up,
keeping the veffel filled as it works ; when it has done
working, Hop it up clofe ; and, when fine, bottle it
off for ufe.
Thorley fays, that mead not inferior to the beft of
foreign wines may be made in the following manner:
Put three pounds of the fineft honey to one gallon of
water, and two lemon peels to each gallon; boil it
half an hour, well fcummed ; then put in,- while boil¬
ing, lemon peel: work it with yeft ; then put it in your
veffel with the peel, to ftand five or fix months, and
bottle it off for ufe. If it is to be kept for feveral
years, put four pounds to a gallon of water.
The author of the Didtionary of Chemiftry direfts
to ehoofe the whiteft, pureft, and beft-tafted honey,
and to put it into a kettle with more than its weight
of water : a part of this liquor muft be evaporated by
boiling, and the liquor fcummed, till its confiftence is
fuch, that a frelh egg fhall be fupported on its furface.
without finking more than half its thicknefs into the
liquor; then the liquor is to be ftrained, and poured
through a funnel into a barrel; this barrel, which
ought to be nearly full, muft be expofed to a heat as
-equable as_poflible, from 20 to 27 or 28 degrees of
Mr Reaumur’s thermometer, taking care that the
bung-hole be flightly covered, but not doled. The
phenomena of the fpirituous fermentation will appear
in this liquor, and will fubfift during two or three
months, according to the degree of heat; after which
they will diminifli and ceafe. During this fermenta¬
tion, the barrel muft be filled up occafionally with
I more of the fame kind of liquor of honey, feme of
which ought to be kept a part, on purpofe to replace the
liquor which flows out of the barrel in froth. When
the fermentation ceafes, and the liquor has become
very vinous,.the barrel is then to be put into a cellar,
and well clofed ; a year afterwards the mead will be fit
to be put into bottles.
Mead is a liquor of very ancient ufe in Britain. See
the article Feast, p. 182, col. x.
Mead (Dr Richard), a celebrated Englilh phyfi-
cian, was born at Stepney near London, where his
father, the Reverend Mr Matthpv Mead, had been
one of the two minifters of that parilh ; but in 1662
was ejedted for nonconformity, but continued to
preach at Stepney till his death. As Mr Mead had
a handfome fortune, he beftowed a liberal education
upon 13 children, of whom Richard was the eleventh;
and for that purpofe kept a private tutor in his houfe,
who taught him the Latin tongue. At 16 years of
age Richard was fent to Utrecht, where he ftudied
three years under the famous Gnevius; and then
choofing the profeflion of phyfic, he went to Leyden,
where he attended the ledturts of the famous Pitcairn
on the theory and practice of medicine, and Her- Mead
mon’a botanical courfes. Having al£o fpent three
years in thefe ftudfes, he went with his brother and
two other gentlemen to vifit Italy, and at Padua took
his degree of d oft or of philofophy and phyfic in
1695. Afterwards he fpent fome time at Naples and
at Rome ; and returning home the next year, fettled
at Stepney, where he married, and praftifed phyfic,
with a fuccefs that laid the foundation of his future
greatnefs.
In 1703, Dr Mead having communicated, to the
Royal Society an analyfis of Dr Bonomo’s difcoveries
relating to the cutaneous worms that generate the
itch, which they inferted in the Philofophical Tran-
faftions; this, with his account of poifons, procured
him a place in the Royal Society, of which Sir Ifaac
Newton was then prefident. The fame year he was
elefted phyfician of St Thomas’s hofpital, and was al-
fo employed by the furgeons to read anatomical lec¬
tures in their hall, which obliged him to remove into
the city. In 1707 his Paduan diploma for doftor of
phyfic was confirmed by the univerfity of Oxford ;
and being patronized by Dr Radcliffe, on the death
of that famous phyfician he fucceeded him in his houfe
at Bloomftmry-fquare, and in the greateft part of his
bufinefs. In 1727 he was made phyfician to Ring
George II. whom he had alfo ferved in that capacity
while he was prince of Wales ; and he had afterwards
the pleafure of feeing his two fons-in-law, Dr Nichols
and Dr Wilmot, his coadjutors in that eminent fta-
tion.
Dr Mead was not more to be admired for the qua¬
lities of the head than he was to be loved for thofe of
his heart. Though he was himfelfa hearty whig, yet,
uninfluenced by party-principles, he was a friend to all
men of merit, by whatever denomination they might
happen to be diftinguifhed. Thus he was intimate
with Garth, with Arbuthnot, and with Freind; and
long kept up a conftant correfpondence with the great
Boerhaave, who had been his fellow-ftudent at Ley¬
den : they communicated to each other their obferva-
tions and projefts, and never loved each other the lefs
for bring of different fentiments. In the mean time,
intent as Dr Mead was on the duties of his profefiion,
he had a greatnefs of mind that extended itfelf to all
kinds of literature, which he fpared neither pains nor
money to promote. He caufed the beautiful and fplen-
did edition of Thuanus’s hiftory to be publiflied in
1713, in feven volumes folio : and by his interpofition
and affxduity, Mr Sutton’s invention of drawing foul
air from fhips and other clofe places was carried into
execution, and all the ihips in his majefty’s navy pro¬
vided with this ufeful machine. Nothing pleafed him
more than to call hidden talents into light; to give
encouragement to the greateft; projefts, and to fee
them executed under his own eye. During almoft
half a century he was at the head of his bufinefs,
which brought him one year above feven thoufand
pounds, and for feveral years between five and fix
thoufand : yet clergymen, and in general all men yf
learning, were welcome to his advice. His library
confifted of 10,000 volumes, of which his Latin, Greek,
and oriental manuferipts, made no inconfiderable part.
He had a gallery for his piftures and antiquities, which
coft him great fums. His reputation, not only as a
4 T 3 phy-
M E A [ 700 ] M E A
Meatew. pliyfician, but as a fcholar, vvis fo univerfally efta-
blifned, that he correfponded with all the principal li¬
terati in Europe: even the king of Naples fent to de¬
fire a complete colkdtion of his works ; and in return
made him a prefent of the two firft volumes of Signior
Bajardi, which may be eonfidered as an introdudlion
to the collection of the antiquities of Herculaneum.
At the fame time that prince invited him to his pa¬
lace, that he might have an opportunity of fhowing
him thofe valuable monuments of antiquity; and no¬
thing but his great age prevented his undertaking a
journey fo fuited to his tafte. No foreigner of learn¬
ing ever came to London without being intTbduced to
Dr Mead; and on thefe occafions his tabi ' was always
open, and the magnificence of princes was united with
the pleafures of philofophers. It was principally to
him that the feveral counties of England and our co¬
lonies abroad applied for the choice of their phyfi
tians, and he was likewife confuked by foreign phyfi-
cians from Ruffia, Pruffia, Denmark, &c. He wrote,
befides the above works, 1. A Treatife on the Scurvy.
2. De •variolis et morbillis differtatlo. 3. Medica facra :
Jive de Morbis injignioribut, qui in Bibliis memorantur,
Commcntarius. 4. Monita et Pracepta medica. 5* A
Difcourfe concerning peftilential contagion, and the
methods to be ufed to prevent it. The works he
wrote and publilhed in Latin were tranflated into
Englilh, under the do&or’s infpedion, by Thomas
Stack, M. D. and F. R. S. This great phyfician,
naturalift, and antiquarian, died on the 16th of Fe¬
bruary 1754.
MEADOW, in its general fignification, means pa-
fture or grafs-land, annually mown for hay : but it is
more particularly applied to lands that are fo low as to
be too moift for cattle to graze upon them in winter
without fpoiling the fward.
An improvement in agriculture by watering of
! meadows has of late come into much ufe, and been
When the found of very confiderable importance. In the Month-
water,ng of jy Review for OCtober 1788, the editors acknowledge
was firft* favour a correfpondent, who informed them, that
rradtifed in watering of meadows was praCtifed during the reigns
England, of Queen Elizabeth and James I. A book was writ¬
ten upon the fubjeCt by one Rowland Vaughan, who
feems to have been the inventor of thisart, and who prac-
tifed it on a very exteniive plan in the Golden Valley in
Herefordfhire. Till this note to the Reviewers appeared,
thj inhabitants of a village called South-Cerneyin Glou-
csfterfiiire had affumed the honour of the invention to
themfelves, as we are informed in a treatife'upon the
fubjeCt by the reverend Mr Wright curate of the
place. According to a received tradition in that vil¬
lage, watering of meadows has been praCtifed there for
about a century, and was introduced by one Welladvife,
a wealthy farmer in South-Cerney. His firft experi¬
ment was by cutting a large ditch in the middle of his
ground, from which he threw the water over fome parts,
and allowed it to ftagnate in others: but finding this
not to anfwer his expectations, he improved his me¬
thod by cutting drains and filling up the hollows;
and thus he fucceeded fo well, that his neighbours,
who at firft had called him a madman, foon changed
their opinion, and began to imitate his example.
The advantages which attend the watering of mea¬
dows are many and great; not only as excellent crops
of grafs are thus raifed, but as they appear fo e irly. Meadow. :
that they are of- infinite fervice to the farmers for food  r—*
to their cattle in the fpring before the natural grafs , , 2
rifes. By watering we have plenty of grafs in the be- ,jf water^
ginning of March, and even earlier when the feafon isang.
mild. The good effects of this kind of grafs upon all
forts of cattle are likewife altonilhing, efpecially upon
fuch as have been hardly wintered ; and Mr Wright
informs us, that the farmers in his neighbourhood, by
means of watering their lands, are enabled to begin
the making of cheefe at leaft a month fooner than their
neighbours who have not the fame advantage. Grafs
raifed by watering is fouqd to be admirable for the
nurture of lambs; not only thofe defigned for fatten¬
ing, but fuch as are to be kept for ftore: For if
lambs when very young are flopped and Hinted in their
growth, they not only become contracted for life them¬
felves, but in fome meafure communicate the fame di¬
minutive fize to their young. The bell remedy for
preventing this evil is the fpring feed from watered
meadows ; and Mr Wright is of opinion, that if the
young of all kinds of farmer’s ftock were immediately
encouraged by plenty of food, and kept continually
in a growing Hate, there would in a few years be a
notable change both in the f>ze and fhape of cattle in
general. Such indeed is the forwardnefs of grafs from
watered meadows, that the feed between March and
May is worth a guinea per acre ; and in June an acre
will yield two tons of hay, and the after-math is al¬
ways worth twenty Ihillings; and nearly the fame
quantity is conllantly obtained whether the fummer be
dry or wet. In dry fummers alfo, fuch farmers as
water their meadows have an opportunity of felling
their hay almoft at any price to their neighbours.
Land treated in this manner is continually impro-Land^con-
ving in quality, even though it be mown every year r ftantly im-
the herbage, if coarfe at firft, becomes finer; the foil, Proves by
if fwampy, becomes found ; the depth of its mould ;s waterinS-
augmented, and its quality meliorated every year.
“ To thefe advantages (fays Mr Bofweli in his trea¬
tife upon this fubjed.) another may be addreffed to the
gentleman who willies,to improve his eftate, andwhofe
benevolent heart prompts him to extend a charitable
hand to the relief of the induftrious poor, and not
to idlenefs and vice: almoft the whole of the ex¬
pence in this mode of cultivation is the aCtual ma¬
nual labour of a clafs of people who have no genius to
employ their bodily ftrength otherwife for their own
fupport and that of their families; confequently, when
viewed in this light, the expence can be but compa¬
ratively fmall, the improvement great and valuable.”
As a proof of the above doctrine, Mr Wright ad- Example of!
duces an inllance of one year’s produce of a meadow the produce1
in his neighbourhood. It had been watered longer0/ a water-
than the eldeft perfon in the neighbourhood could re-
member; but was by no means the bell meadow upon a°W'
the itream, nor was the preceding winter favourable for
watering. It contains fix acres and an half. The fpring*
feed was let for feven guineas, and fupported near 200
Iheep from the ill of March till the beginning of May:
the hay being fold for 30guineas, and the after-math for
fix. Another and Hill more remarkable proof of the effi¬
cacy of watering, is, that two of the moll Ikilful water¬
men of that place were fent to lay out a meadow of feven
acres, the whole crop of which was that year fold for
4 two
more gene-
.jally ex
tended.
M E A [70
Meadow, two pounds. Though it was thought by many im-
*! 1 - poflible to throw the water over it, yet the fltill of the
workmen foon overcame all difficulties; and ever lince
that time the meadow has been let at the rent of three
pounds per acre. From manilold experience, our au¬
thor informs us, that the people in that part of the
country are fo much attached to the pratfice of water¬
ing, that they never fuffer the fmalleft fpring or rivu¬
let to be unemployed. Even thofe temporary floods
occafioned by hidden fhowers are received into proper
ditches, and fpread equally over the lands until its fer¬
tilizing property be totally exhaufted. “ Neceffity
(fays he) indeed compels us to make the moft. of.every
drop; for we have near 300 acres in this pariih, that
mult all, if poffible, be watered ; and the ftream that
affords the water feldom exceeds five yards in breadth •
and one in depth : therefore we may fay, that a fcar-
city of water is almoft as much dreaded by us as by
^ the celebrated inhabitants- of the banks of the Nile.”
The prac- Confidering the great advantages to be derived from
ticeofwa- the pra&ice of watering meadows, and the many un-
o^'htt b ^ou^te^ teftimonies in its favour, Mr Wright exprefl'es
more1 gene6 ^JS furPr^e that it has not come into more general
as there is not a ftream of water upon which a
mill can be ere died but what may be made fubfervient
to the enriching of fomeland, perhaps to a great quan¬
tity. “ I am confident (fays he), that there are in
each county of England and Wales 2000 acres upon
an average which might be thus treated, and every acre
increafed at leaff one pound in annual value. The ge¬
neral adoption therefore of watering is capable of be¬
ing made a national advantage of more than ioo,ocol.
■ per annum, befides the great improvement of other land
arifing from the produce of the meadows and the em¬
ployment of the induftrious poor. Such an improve¬
ment, one would think, is not unworthy of public no¬
tice ; but if I had doubled the fum, I believe I (hould
not have exceeded the truth, though I might have
gone beyond the bounds of general credibility. In
this one pariffi where I refide there are about 300 acres
now watered ;.and it may be eafily proved that the pro¬
prietors of the land reap from thence 1000L yearly
profit.”
In Mr Bofwell’s treatife upon this fubjeft,. publiflied
iu 1790, the author complains of the negledl of the
practice of improving the wet, boggy, and rufliy lands,
which,lie at the banks of rivers, and might be melio¬
rated at a very, fmall expence,, when much larger fums.
are expended ia the improvement of* barren uplands-
and large trails of heath in various parts of the king¬
dom ; and he complains likewife of the little informa¬
tion that is to be had ia books concerning the method,
of performing this operation. The only author from,
whom he acknowledges to have received any informa¬
tion is Blythgand even his method of Watering'’is very
different from that praitifed in modern times ; for
which reafon he propofes to furnifh an original trea¬
tife upon the fubjeft ; and of this we ihall now give
6 the fubftance.
1 ^ Cf" "I be firft thing to be confidered‘is, what lands are
being wa» being watered. Thefe, according to Mr
urea. Bofvvell, are all fuch as lie low, near the banks of ri¬
vulets and fprings, efpecially where the water-courfe
is higher than the lands, and kept within its’ bounds,
by banks. If the rivulet has a quick defcent, the im-
i ] M E A
provement by watering will be very great, and the ex- Meadow^
pences moderate. On level lands the water runs but'--"“v J
flov/ly, which is alfo the cafe with large rivers ; and
therefore only a fmall quantity of ground can be over¬
flowed by them in comparifon of what can be done in
other cafes : but the water of large rivers is generally
poffeffed of more fertilizing properties than that of ri¬
vulets. In many cafes, however, the rivers are navi¬
gable, or have mills upon them ; both of which are
ffrong objections to the perfect, improvement of lands
adjacent to them. From thefe confiderations, our au¬
thor concludes, that the watering of lands may be per¬
formed in the belt, and leaft expenfive manner by finall
rivulets and fprings.
There are three kinds of foils commonly found near
the banks of rivers and rivulets, the melioration of
which may be attempted by watering. 1. A’ gravelly
or£oundwarm firm foil, ora mixture of the two to¬
gether. This receives an almoft jnftantaneous im¬
provement; and the falter the water runs over it the
better. 2. Boggy, miry, and rulhy foils, which are
always found by the banks of rivers where the land is
nearly level. Thefe alfo are greatly improved by wa¬
tering ; perhaps equally fo with thofe already deferi-
bed, if we compare the value of both in their unim¬
proved Hate, this kind of ground being fcarce worth*
any thing in its unimproved ftate. By proper water¬
ing, however, it may be made to produce large crops
of hay, by which horned cattle may be kept through
the winter and greatly forwarded ; though, in its un¬
cultivated ftate, it would fcarce produce any thing to
maintain ftock in the winter, and very little even in
fummer. Much more (kill, as well as expence, how¬
ever, is requifite to bring this kind of land into culture
than the former. 3. The foils moft difficult to be
improved are ftrong, wet, and clay foils; and this dif¬
ficulty is occafioned both by their being commonly on
a dead level, which will not admit of the water run¬
ning over them; and by their tenacity, which will not
admit of draining. Even.when the. utmoft care is ta¬
ken, unlefs a ftrong body of water is thrown over
them, and that front a river the water of which has a
very fertilizing property, little advantage will be gain-,
ed ; but .wherever, fuch advantages can be had in the
winter, and a warm'fpririg fuccteds, thefe lands will
produce very large crops of grafs. y
The advantage of ufing fprings and rivulets for wa-Springs and
tering inftead of large rivers is, that the expence of.r!vlllets
railing wares.acrots them. will not.be great;. nor are rl-
they liable to the other objections which attend the.vers> “
ufe of large rivers. When they run through a culti¬
vated country alfo, the kind floods occafioned by vio¬
lent rains frequently bring with them fuch quantities
of manure as contribute greatly to fertilize the lands,
and which, are totally lo.ft where. the practice of wa¬
tering is not in ufe..
Springs may be uleful' to the coarfe lands that lie
near them, provided the water can be had in fufficient
quantity to overflow the lands. “ By fprings (fays
our author), are, not here meant fuch as rife out of
poor heath or.boggy lands (for the water iffuing from
them is generally fo fmall in quantity, and always fo
very lean and hungry in quality, that little if any ad¬
vantage can be derived from it); but rather the head.,
of rivulets and brOoks rifing out of a chalky and
gravelly;
M E A [ 702 1 M E A
Meadow. ^ gravelly found firm foil, in a cultivated country. Thefe The length and breadth are various as circumflances Meadow,
" > ' aie invaluable 5 and every poflible advantage ftiould be determine. u—y—4
taken to improve the ground near them. The author 4. A Carriage is made of timber or of brick. If
knows a confiderable traft of meadow-land under this of timber, oak is the belt; if of brick, an arch ought
predicament; and one meadow in particular that is to be thrown over the ftrcam that runs under it, and
watered by fprings iffuing immediately out of fuch a the fides bricked up : But when made of timber,
foil, without any advantage from great towns, &c. which is the molt common material, it is conftrudted
being fituated but a fmall diitartce below the head of with a bottom and fides as wide and high as the main
the rivulet, and the rivulet itfelf is fed all the way by in which it lies. It mull be made very ftrong, clofe,
fprings riling out of its bed as clear as cryltal. The and well-jointed. Its ufe is to convey the water in one
foil of the meadow is a good loam fome inches deep, main over another, which runs at right angles to it ;
tipon a fine fpringy gravel. Whether it is from the the depth and breadth are the fame with thofe of the
heat of the fprings, or whether the friction by the main to which it belongs ; and the length is detcr-
water running over the foil raifes a certain degree of mined by that which it croffes. The carriage is
warmth favourable to vegetation, or from whatever the molt expenfive inllrument belonging to water-
caufe it arifes, the fecundity of this water is beyond ing.
conception; for when the meadow has been properly 5. A Drain-Sluice, or Drain-Trunk, is always
Watered and well drained, in a warm fpring, the grafs placed inthe lower part of fome main, as near tothe head
1 as been frequently cut for hay within five weeks from as a drain can be found ; that is, fituated low enough to
the time the Itock was taken out of it, having eat it
bare to the earth : almoft every year it is cut in fix
weeks, and the produce from one to three waggon
loads to an acre. In land thus fituated, in the morn¬
ings and evenings in the months of April, May, and
June, the whole meadow will appear like a large fur¬
nace ; fo confiderable is the fleam or vapour which
arifes from the warmth of the fprings afted upon by
the fun-beams: and although the water is fo exceeding
•clear, yet upon its being thrown over the land only a
draw the main, &c. It is made of timber, of a fquare
figure like a trunk, only much fmaller. It is placed
with its mouth at the bottom of the main, and let
down into the bank; and from its other end a drain is
cut to communicate with fome trench drain that is
neareft. The dimenfions are various, and determined
by circumftances. The ufe of it is, when the water
is turned fome other way, to convey the leaking wa¬
ter that oozes through the hatches, &c. into the drain,
that otherwife would run down into the tails of thofe
and the whole load fometimes flicks fall for hours to¬
gether. On the other hand, when the drain-trunks
are properly placed, the ground becomes firm and
dry, and the hay is fpeedily and eafily removed.
7. Hatches are beft made of oak, elm, or deal;
the ufe of them is to fit the openings of wares, trunks.
few days in warm weather, by dribbling through the trenches which lie loweft, and there poach' and rot
grafs, fo thick a feum will arife and adhere to the the ground, and probably contribute not a little to
blades of the grafs, as will be equal to a confiderable the making it more unfound for fheep. This opera-
cjuantity of manure fpread over the land, and (it tion is of the utmoft confequence in watering; for if
may be prefumed from the good sffe&s) Hill more en- the water be not thoroughly drained off the land, the
riching. foil is rotted ; and when the hay comes to be removed,
“ It is inconceivable what 24 hours water properly the wheels of the carriages fink, the horfes are mired,
conveyed over the lands will do in fufh a feafon : a ""J —1-~1- ,-J r  A--4— r*J1 c— x-~ 
beautiful verdure will arife in a few days where a parch¬
ed nifty foil could only be feen; and one acre will
then be found to maintain more flock than ten could
g do before.”
Explana- Mr Bofwell next proceeds' to an explanation of the
tiun of the terms ufed in this art; of the inftruments neceftary to or fluices ; and to keep back the water when neceffa-
teimsufed perform it; and of the principles on which it is found- iy* from palling one way, to turn it another. They
ed. The terms ufed are : ought to be made to fit as clofe as poflible. When
x. A Ware. This is an ereftion acrofs a brook, hatches belong to wares that are erefted acrofs large
rivulet, or river, frequently conftrudled of timber, but ftreams, or where the ftreams fwell quickly with heavy
more commonly of bricks or ftones and timber, with rains, when the hatches are in their places to water the
openings to let the water pafs, from two to ten in num- meadows ; they are fometimes made fo, that a foot or
her according to the breadth of the ftream; the height more of the upper part can be taken off, fo that vent
being always equal to the depth of the ftream compa- may be given to the fuperfluous water, and yet
red with the adjacent land. The ufe of this is occa- enough retained for the purpofe of watering the mea-
fionally to flop the current, and to turn it afide into dows. In this cafe, they are called flood-hatches: but
the adjacent lands. Mr Bofwell entirely difaproves of this conftruftion,
2. A Sluice is conftrufted in the fame manner as and recommends them to be made entire, though they
a ware ; only that it has but a Angle paffage for the fhould be ever fo heavy, and require the afliftance of a
water, and is put acrofs fmall ftreams for the fame pur- lever to raife them up. For when the water is very
pofes as a ware. high, and the hatches are fuddenly drawn up, the wa-
3. A Trunk is defigned to anfwer the fame pur- ter falls with great force upon the bed of the ware,
pofes as a fiuice ; but being placed acrofs fuch ftreams and in time greatly injures it: but when the whole
as either cattle or teams are to pafs over, or where it hatch is drawn up a little way, the water runs off at
is neceffary to carry a fmall llream at right angles to a the bottom, and does no injury.
large one to water fome lands lower down, is for thefe 8. A Head-Main, is a ditch drawn from the ri-
reafons made of timber, and is of a’ fquare figure, ver, rivulet, &c. to convey the water out of its ufual
current.
M E A t 703 ] M E A
Mfacfow. current, to water the lands laid out for that purpofe,
v—’■v—— by means of leffer mains and trenches. The head-
main is made of various dimenfions according to the
quantity of land to be watered, the length or defceut
of it, &c. Smaller mains are frequently taken out of
the head one ; and the only difference is in point of
fize, the fecondary mains being much fmaller than the
other. They are generally cut at right angles, or
nearly fo with the other, though not invariably. The
ufe of the the mains, whether great or fmall, is to feed
the trenches with water, which branch out into all parts
of the meadow, and convey the water to float the
land. By fome, thefe fmaller mains are improperly
called Carriages,
9. A Trench is a fmall ditch made to convey the
water out of the mains for the immediate purpofe of
watering the land. It ought always to be drawn in
a flraight line from angle to angle, with as few turn¬
ings as poflible. It is never deep, but the width is in
proportion to the length it runs, and the breadth of
the plane between that and the trench-drain. The
breadth tapers gradually to the lower end.
xo. A Trench-Drain is always cut parallel to
the trench, and as deep as the tail-drain water will ad¬
mit, when neceflary. It ought always, if poflible, to
be cut down to a ftratum of fand, gravel, or clay. If
into the latter, a fpade’s depth into it will be of great
advantage. The ufe of it is to carry away the water
immediately after it has run over the panes from the
trench. It need not be drawn up to the head of the
land by five, fix, or more yards, according to the na¬
ture of the foil. Its form is dire&ly the reverfe of the
trench ; being narrower at the head, and growing gra¬
dually wider and wider until it empties itfelf into the
tail-drain.
ti. The Tail-Drain is defigned as a receptacle
for all the water that flows out of the other drains,
which are fo fituated that they cannot empty them-
felves into the river. It Ihould run, therefore, nearly
at right angles with the trenches, though generally it
is thought moll eligible to draw it in the lowed part
of the ground, and to ufe it to convey the water out
of the meadows at the place where there is the great-
eft defeent; which is ufually in one of the fence-
ditches : and hence a fence-ditch is ufuafly made ufe
of inftead of a tail-drain, and anfwers the double pur¬
pofe of fencing a meadow and draining it at the
lame time.
12. A Pane of ground, is that part of the meadow
which lies between the trench and the trench-drain ;
and in which the grafs grows for hay. It is watered
by the trenches, and drained by the trench-drains ;
whence there is a pane on each fide of every trench.
13. A Way-Pane is that part of the ground which
lies in a properly watered meadow, on the fide of the
main where no trenches are taken out, bat is watered
the whole length of the main over its banks. A diiain
for carrying off" the water from this pane runs parallel
to the main. The ufe is to convey the hay out of
the meadows, inftead of the teams having to crofs all
the trenches.
14. A Bend is made in various parts of thofe
trenches which have a quick defeent, to obftruft the
water. It is made, by leaving a narrow ftrip of green
fward acrols the trench where live bend is intended to
6
be left; cutting occafiopally a piece of the fliape of a Meadow.
wedge out of the middle of it. The ufe is to check
the water, and force it over the trench into the panes;
which, were it not for thefe bends, would run rapidly
on in the trench, and not flow over the land as it paf-
fes along. The great art in watering confifts in gi¬
ving to each part of the pane an equal proportion of
water.
15. A Gutter is a fmall groove cut out from the
tails of thefe trenches where the panes run longer at
one corner than the other. The ufe is to carry the
water to the extreme point of the pane. Thofe panes
which are interfered by the trench and tail-drains,
meeting in an obtufe angle, require the afliftance of
gutters to convey the water to the longeft fide. They
are likewife ufeful, when the land has not been fo well
levelled, but fome parts of the panes lie higher than
they ought: in which cafe, a gutter is drawn from
the trench over that high ground, which otherwife
Would not be overflowed. Without this precaution,
unlefs the flats be filled up (which ought always to be
done when materials can be had to. do it) the water
will not rife upon it; and after the watering feafon isr
paft, thofe places would appear nifty and brown, while
the reft is covered with beautiful verdure. Our au¬
thor, however, is of opinion, that this method of treat¬
ing water-meadows ought never to be followed; but
that every inequality in water-meadows ihould either
be levelled or filled up. Hence the waterman's*
/kill is ihown in bringing the water over thofe places
to which it could not naturally rife, and in car¬
rying it off from thofe where it would naturally flag-
nate.
16. A Catch-Drain is fbmetimes made ufe of
when water is fcarce. When a meadow is pretty long,.,
and has a quick defeent, and the water runs quickly
down the drains, it is cuftomary to flop one or more
of them at a proper place, till the water flowing thi¬
ther rifes fo high as to ftrike back either into the
tail-drains fo as to ftagnate upon the fides of the
panes, or till it flows over the banks of the drains and;
waters the grounds below, or upon each fide*. It
is then to be conveyed over the laud in fuch quantity
as is thought proper, either by a fmall main,, out of
which trenches are to be cut with their proper drains,
or by trenches taken properly out of it. In cafe of a
ftagnation, the defign will not fucceed; and it will'
then be neceflary to cut a paffage to let the ftagnating
water run off. Even when the method fucceeds heft,
Mr Bofwell is of opinion,, that it is not by any means
eligible ; the water having been fo lately ftrained over
the ground, that it is fuppofed by the water-men not to
be endowed with fuch' fertilizing qualities as. at firft 5,
whence nothing but abfolute neceffity can juttify the
pra&ice.
17* A Pond is any quantity of water ftagnating
upon the ground, or in the tail-drain,,trench-drains,
&c. fo as to annoy the ground near them. It is oc-
cafioned fometimes by the flats not having been pro¬
perly filled up; at others, when the ware not being
clofe flint, in order to water fome grounds higher up,
the water is thereby thrown back upon the ground
adjacent.
18. A Turn of water figniftes as much ground as
can be watered at once, it is done by {hutting down
the
M E A
I 7°4 1
M E A
Meadow, the hatches in all thofe wares where the water
’“"“'V ' tended to be kept out, and opening thofe that are to
let the water through them. The quantity of land to
be watered at once mull vary according to circum-
ftances; but Mr Bofwell lays down one general rule
in this cafe, viz. that^no more land ought to be kept
under water at one time than the ftream can fupply
regularly with a fufficient quantity of water ; and if
this can be procured, water as much ground as pof-
-fible.
19. The Head of the meadow, is that part of it
into which the river, main, &c. firft enter.
20. The Tail is that part out of which the river,
&c. laft paffes.
21. The Upper Side of a main or trench, is that
fide which (when the main or trench is drawn
at right angles, or nearly fo, with the river) fronts
the part where the river entered. The lower fide is
the oppofite.
22. The Upper Pane in a meadow, is that which
lies on the upper fide of the main ©r trench that is
moved during the time that the meadow is under Meadow,
water. 1
5. Three-ivheeled carts are neceffary when large
quantities of earth are to be removed; particularly
when they are to be carried to fome diftance.
6. Short and narrow Scythes are made ufe of to
mow the weeds and grafs, when the water is running
in the trenches, drains, and mains.
7. Forks, and long Crooks with four or five tines,
are ufed for pulling out the roots of fedge, nifhes,
reeds, &c. which grow in the large mains and drains.
The crooks fliould be made light, and have long
ftems to reach wherever the water is fo deep that the
workmen cannot work in it.
8. Strong Water-hoots, the tops of which will draw
up half the length of the thigh, are indifpenfably ne-
cdfary. They muft alfo be large enough to admit a
quantity of hay to be fluffed down all round the legs,
and be kept well tallowed to refift the running water
for many hours together. 9
The principles on which the pra&ice of watering Principles
• drawn at right angles with the river : where the river meadows depend are few and eafy.
runs north and fouth, it enters -in the former direc¬
tion, .and runs out in the fouthern, the main and
.trenches running eaft and weft. Then all thofe panes
which lie on the north. fide of the mains are called
upper panes; and thofe on the fouth fide the/ewer
-panes. But when the mains, trenches, &c. run pa¬
rallel to the river,-there is no diftin&ion of panes into
-upper and lower.
The inftruments ufed in watering meadows are :
I. A Water-Level. The ufe of this is to take the
level of the land at a diftance, and compare it with
■ that of the river, in order to know whether the ground
can be overflowed by it or not. This inftrument,
however, is ufeful only in large undertakings; for
■fuch as are on a fmaller fcale, the workmen difpenfe
with it in the following manner : In drawing a main,
.they begin at the head, and work deep enough to have
the water follow them. In drawing a tail-drain, they
begin at the lower end of it and work upwards, to let
the tail-water come after them. By this method we
obtain the moft exa& level.
2. The Line, Reel, and Breaft-P/o^/>, are abfolute- rufhes, flags, and other weeds.
. Water will always rife to the level of the recep-
tacle out of which it is originally brought. tenng de-
2. There is in all ftreams a defeent greater or fmal* pends,
ler; the quantity of which is in fome meafure fhown
by the running of the ftream itfelf. If it runs fmooth
and flow, the defeent is fmall; but if rapidly and with ,
noife, the defeent is coniiderable.
3. Hence if a main be taken out of the river high
enough up the ftream, water may be brought from
that river to flow over the land by the fide of the ri¬
ver, to a certain diftance below the head of the main,
although the river from whence it is taken ftiould,
oppofite to that very place, be greatly under it.
4. Water, funk under a carriage which conveys ano¬
ther ftream at right angles over it, one, two, or
"more feet below its own bed, will, when it has paf-
fed the carriage, rife again to the level it had be¬
fore.
* 5. Water conveyed upon any land, and there left
ftagnant for any length of time, does it an injury ; de-
ftroying the good herbage, and filling the place with
ly neceffary. The line ought to be larger and ftrong-
er than that ufed by gardeners.
3. Spades. Thofe ufed in watering-meadows are made
of a particular form, on purpofe for the work ; having
a ftem confiderably more crooked than thofe of any
other kind The bit is iron, about a foot wide in the
middle, and terminating in a point: a thick ridge runs
6. Hence it is abfolutely neceflary, before the work
is undertaken, to be certain that the water can be tho¬
roughly dramed off. J9
In Mr Wright’s treatife upon this fubjeft, the au* Wright’s
thor confiders a folution of the three following que- method,
ftions as a neceffary preliminary to the operation of wa¬
tering. 1. Whether the ftream of water will admit of
perpendicularly down the middle, from the ftem al- a temporary dam or ware acrofs it ? 2. Can the far-
‘ ’ mer raife the water by this means a few inches above its
level, without injuring his neighbour’s land ? 3. Can
the water be drawn off from the meadow as quick as
it is brought on ?—If a fatisfa&ory anfwer can be gi¬
ven to all thefe queftions, he directs to proceed in the
following manner.
Having taken the level of the ground, and compa¬
red it with the river, as directed by Mr Bofwell, cut
a deep wide ditch, as near the dam as poflible, and by
it convey the water dire&ly to the higheft part of the
meadow ; keeping the fides or banks of the ditch of
an equal height, and about three inches higher than
the general furfacq of the meadow. Where the mea¬
dow
moft to the point. TLt edges on both fides are drawn
very thin, and being frequently ground and whetted,
the whole foon becomes narrow; after which the
fpades are ufed for trenches and drains ; new ones be¬
ing procured for other purpofes. The ftems being
made crooked, the workmen ftanditig in the trench or
drain are enabled to make the bottoms quite fmooth
and even.
4. Wheel and Hand harrows. The former are ufed
for removing the clods to the flat places, and are quite
open, without any fides or hinder part. The latter are
of fervice where the ground is too foft to admit the
pfe of wheel-barrows, and when clods are to be re-
.N° 198.
M E A [70s 1 M E A
Meadow, dow is large, and has an uneven furface, it will fome-
— ' times be neceflary to have three works in different di-
reftions, each five feet wide, if the meadow contains
15 acre*, and if the high ell part be farthell from the
flream. A ditch of 1 o feet wide and three deep will
commonly water 10 acres of land. When there are
three works in a meadow, and flood-hatches at the
mouth of each, when the water is not fufficient to co¬
ver the whole completely at once, it may be watered
at three different times, by taking out one of the
hatches, and keeping the other two in. In this cafe,
when the water has run over one divifion of the land
for 10 days, it may then be taken off that and tumbled
over to another, by taking up another hatch and let¬
ting down the former ; by which means the three divi-
fions will have a proper Ihare of the water alternately,
and each reap equal benefit. The bottom of the firll
work ought to be as deep as the bottom of the river,
when the fall in the meadow will admit of it; for the
deeper the water is drawn, the more mud it carries
along with it. From the works, cut, at right angles,
fmaller ditches or troughs, having a breadth propor¬
tioned to the diftance to which fome part of the water
is to be carried, their diltance from each other being
about 12 yards. A trough two feet wide and one
foot deep, will water a furface 12 yards wide and 40
feet long. In each trough as well as ditch place fre¬
quent flops and obftrudlions, efpecially when the wa¬
ter is rapid, to keep it high enough to flow through
the notches or over the fides. Each ditch and trough
is gradually contracted in width, as the quantity of
water conflantly decreafes the farther they proceed.
Between every two troughs, and at an equal diftance
from both, cut a drain as deep as you pleafe parallel
to them, and wide enough to receive all the water that
runs over the adjacent lands, and to carry it off into"
the mafter-drain with fuch rapidity as to keep the
whole fheet of water in conftant motion ; and if pof-
fible, not to fuffer a drop to ftagnate upon the whole
meadow. “ For a ftagnation, fays he, (though it is
recommended by a Mr D. Young for the improve¬
ment of arable land), is what we never admit in our
fyftem of watering ; for we find that it rots the turf,
foaks and ftarves the land, and produces nothing but
coarfe grafs and aquatic weeds.
“ When a meadow lies cold, flat, and fwampy, the Meadow,
width of the bed, or the diftance between the trough
and drain, ought to be very fmall, never exceeding fix
yards: indeed, in this cafe, you can fcarcely cut your
land too much, provided the water be plentiful; for
the more you cut, the more water you require.. The
fall of the bed in every meadow fttould be half an inch
in a foot: lefs will do, but more is defirable ; for when
the draught is quick, the herbage is always fine and
fweet. The water ought never to flow more than
two inches deep, nor lefs than one inch, except in the
warm months.’’,
Mr Wright proceeds now to anfwer fome objec-...,T.
tions made by the Reviewers in their account of the ° ^
firft edition of his work. 1. That the Gloucefterfhire thod an-
farmers ufe more water for their lands than is necef-fwered.
fary. To this it is anfwCred, That where water is plen¬
tiful, they find it advantageous to ufe even more water
than he recommends ; and when water is fcarce, they
choofe rather to water only one half, or even a fmaller
portion of a meadow at a time, and to give that a
plentiful covering, than to give a fcanty one to the
whole. 2. The Reviewers likewife recommend a re- **
peated ufe of the fame water upon different and lower
parts of the fame meadow, or to make each drain ferve fa„ie w^cr
as a trough to the bed which is below it. But tho’K not cligi-
this method is in fome degree recommended by the hie.
celebrated Mr Bakewell, and taught by a fyftematic
waterer in Staffordfhire, he entirely difapproves of it;
excepting where the great declivity of the land will
not admit of any other plan. “ This cannot (fays he)
be a proper mode of watering grafs-land in the win¬
ter-time ; for it can be of no fervice to the loweft
parts of the meadow, unlefs as a wetting in fpring or
fummer. The firft or higheft part of a meadow laid
out according to this plan will indeed be much im¬
proved ; the fecond may reap fome benefit; but the
third, which receives the exhaufted thin cold water, will
produce a very unprofitable crop. Our farmers never
choofe more than a fecond ufe in the fame meadow, and
that very feldom ; they call even the fecond running
by the fignificant name offmall-beer ; which, they fay,
may poflibly fatisfy thirft, but can give very little life
or ftrength to land (a). It is a much better method
to have a meadow laid out fo as to be watered at fe-
4 U veral
(a) As by the concurrence of Mr Bofwell with this author, and likewife by the agreement of fo many prac¬
tical farmers, it feems eftablilhed as a fadt, that water does really lofe its fertilizing properties by running over
grafs, it may not here be amifs to explain the principle on which it does fo.
Under the article Agriculture, we have (hown at fome length, that the true food of plants is the parts
of animal and vegetable fubftances difiblved and volatilized by putrefaction, in fuch a manner that they can be
abforbed by the veffels of other plants, and thus become part of their fubftance. There are two ways in which
thefe effluvia may be difiblved, viz. in air and in water; of confequence, air and water are the two media by
which the food of plants is applied to them, and by means of which they are augmented, in bulk. From the
analyfis of thefe two elements, it is known that both of them, at leaft in their ordinary ftate, contain a great
quantity of volatilized earthy matter, which fometimes ftrikes our fenfes very forcibly when firft emitted by pu¬
trefying bodies; but on being thoroughly diflblved by the atmofphere, it totally eludes them, and becomes the
Phlogiston concerning which fuch violent difputes have arifen. This fine volatilized matter is abforbed
from the atmofphere by the leaves of the plants, and from the water by their roots. Hence both elements,
when loaded with vapours of this kind, are more favourable to vegetation than when in their pure ftate.
Thus plants will thrive very well in putrid air, while they languilh and die in the pure dephlogifticated kind.
Juft fo it is with the element of water. When this i« loaded with a great quantity of putrid matter, it
sreadily parts with it not only to the roots of plants, but to the atmofphere alfo; whence fuch vegetables as it
M E A
t 7°6 1
M E A
Mea^W. Wral time*, and to be at the expence of feteral fmall
flood-hatches, than to water the whole of it at once by
means of catch-drains.
“ Sometimes it is neceffary, in a large meadow, to
convey the water that has been ufed under the works
and troughs ; and then the water above is fupported
by means of boards and planks, which we call a carry-
bridge. Sometimes, the better to regulate the courfe
that “ after the firft wafliing of farm yards, various MeirW,
finks, ditches, and the furface of all the adjoining
fields, which have lain dry for fome time, the com¬
mon ftream fhould then contain much more fatnefs
than when the fame premifles have been repeatedly
wafhed.” This is confirmed by the experience of the
Gloucefterfhire farmers ; who, if they can at this fea-
fon of the year procure plenty of muddy water to
of the water on the furface, efpecially in the fpring, overflow their grounds for one week, look upon it to
narrow trenches air dug, and the mould laid by the be equally valuable with what is procured during all
fide of them, in 'order to be rellored to its former the reft of the winter. In fupport of this, he quotes
place when the watering is finilhed. The earth and
mud thrown out in cleanfing and paring the ditches
fliould be carried to fill up the low hollow parts of the
meadow, and be trodden down with an even furface;
which will eafily be done when the water is on, the
waterman being always provided with a ftrong pair of
water-proof boots. If the mould thus ufed has upon
it a turf that is tolerably fine, place it uppermoft ;
but if it is fedgy and coarfe, turn it under, and the
water if it runs quick will foon produce a fine her¬
bage upon it.
“ The grounds that are watered in the eafieft and
moft effe&ual manner, are fuch as have been ploughed
and ridged up in lands about twelve yards wide. Here
the water is eafily carried along the ridge by means of
a fmall ditch or trough cut along its fummit, and then,
by means of the flops in it, is made to run down the
fides or beds into the furrows, by which it is carried
the following words of Mr Forbes, in a treatife on
watering: “ The water fhould be let in upon the
meadow in November, when tne firft great rains make
it muddy, for then it is full of a rich fediment. brought
down from the lands of the country through which it
runs, and is wafhed into it by the rain ; and as the fedi»
ment brought by the firft floods is the richeft, the car¬
riages and drains of the meadow fhould all be fcoured
clean and in order, before thefe floods come.’,
“ In oppofition (adds Mr Wright) to the opinion
of praftical waterers. that the muddinefs of the water
is of little confequence. I hefitate not to affirm, that
the mud is of as much confequence in winter-watering,
as dung is in the improvement of a poor upland field.
For each meadow in this neighbourhood is fruitful in
proportion to the quantity of mud that it collects from
the water. And, indeed, what can be conceived more
enriching than the abundant particles of putrid mat-
into the mafter drain, which empties itfelf into the ri- ter which float in the water, and are diftributed over
Every meadow, before it is well watered, muft
be brought into a form fomething like a field that has
been thus left by the plough in a ridged ftate. Each
fide of the ridge fhould be as nearly as poffible an exadl
inclined plane, that the water may flow over it as
equally as may be.” Mr Wright does not, like Mr.
Bofwell, difapprove of the ufe of flood-hatches; he
only gives the following hint, viz. that their bafis
the furface of the land, and applied home to the roots
of the grafis. It is true, that any the moft Ample
water thrown over a meadow in proper quantity, and
not fuffered to ftagnate, will flicker it in winter and
in the warmth of fpring will force a crop ; but this
unufual force muft exhauft the ftrength of the land,
which will require an annual fupply of manure in fub-
ftance, or. in a courfe of years, the foil will be im-
fhould be deep and firmly fixed, well fecured with paired rather than improved. The meadows in this
ftone and clay, that it be not blown up. The follow- county, which lie next below a market-town or vil-
ing diredtions are given for each month of watering :
In the beginning of Nbvember, all the ditches.
lage are invariably the beft; and thofe which receive
.. . .... .... —6. 6 w.   „„ .... the water after it has been two or three times ufed,
and reoair^ troughs, and drains, are to be thoroughly cleanfed by reap proportionably lefs benefit from it: For every
meadow that is well laid out, and has any quantity of
grafs upon its furface, will a<ft as a fine fieve upon the
and repair¬
ing the
works.
the fpade and breaft-plough, from weeds, grafs, and
mud ; and well repaired, if they have received any in-
jury from cattle. After a fhovver, when the water is water, which, though it flow in ever fo muddy, will
mudl an< thick and muddy, turn over the meadow as much vva- be teturned back to the ftream as clear as it came from
ter to be u- ter as you can without injuring the banks of the the fountain. This circumftance, when there is a
fed when it works, efpecially if the land be poor; as in this month, range of meadows to be watered, the property of dif-
according to our author, the water contains many more
fertilizing particles, which he calls falls and richnefsy
than later in the winter. In defence of this polition,
of which it feems the Monthly Reviewers have doubt¬
ed, our author urges, that though he is not able to
prove it by any chemical analyfis, yet it feems evident.
ferent perfons, when water is fcarce, creates vehement
contentions and ftruggles for the firft ufe of it. The
proprietors are therefore compelled to agree among
themfelves, either to have the firft ufe alternately, or
for the higher meadows to dam up, and ufe only one
half or a lefs portion of the river. Our farmers
know
has acceft to, arrive at the utmoft luxuriance of growth. If the water is more pure, ftill they will thrive very
well; but the luxuriance of vegetation is lefs than in the former cafe. At laft, however, when the water has
parted with a certain quantity of phlogiftic matter, the procefs of vegetation is incapable of feparating any
more ; and therefore fuch water, though applied to the roots of vegetables, cannot communicate to them any
remarkable increafe. Nay, it is by no means improbable, that after water has arrived at this ftate, it will, in-
ftead of giving any frefh nourifliment to the plants, again deprive them of the nourilhment which they have
already received ; and this is probably what Mr Bofwdl means, when, in the paffage formerly quoted, he
tgalls the water hungry.
is
Inftanee of
the good
tffe£U of
muddy wa
tsr.
16
Mr Wim-
Je<a.
^onfirn-ed
by Mr bor-
fces.
M E A [ 7°7 1 M E A
know the mud to be of fo much eonfequsnee in wa- Mr Bofwell, though quoted by Mr Wright as an Meadow,
tering, that whenever they find it collected at the advocate for the doftrine juft now laid down, feems, v J
bottom of the river or the ditches, they hire men in one part of his work at leaft, to be of *a contrary
whole days to difturb and raife it with rakes made for opinion. This is in the 14th chapter of his book, w |ps 0p;_
the pnrpofe, that it may be carried down by the wa- where he remarks upon another publication on the .1101,.
ter, and fpread upon their meadows. One meadow in fame fubjedf, the name of which he does not
South Cerney, I think, is an inconteftible proof of mention : “ In page 4th of that pamphlet (fays Mr
the confequence of muddy water. It is watered by Bofwell), the writer informs us, ‘ if the water ufed
a branch of the common ftream that runs for about be always pure and fimple, the effe& will by no means
half a mile down a public road. This water, by the be equal to the above ; that is, of a ftream that is
mud on the road being continually difturbed by car- fometimes thick and muddy. We have a ftriking
riages and the feet of cattle, becomes very thick, and inftance of this in two of our meadows, which arc
when it enters the meadow is almoft as white as milk, watered immediately from fprings that arife in the
This field, which confifts of feven acres, was a few grounds themfelves. Their crops are early and plenti-
years ago let for 10 s. an acre, but is already become ful, but not of a good quality, and the land remains
the richeft land in the parifti, and has produced at one unimproved after many years watering.’
crop eighteen loads of hay, and each load more than “ The writer of this treatife (Mr Bofwell), in a
25 hundred weight.” former edition, had aflerted, and in this repeated, the
In further confirmation of what our author aflerts, contrary effefts from a ftream very near the fpring-
he quotes, from the Annals of Agriculture, the fol- head, as clear as cryftal.
lowing words of Mr Wimpey: “As to the forts of “ The gentleman (Mr Beverly of Keld) whom
water, little is to be found, I believe, which does that writer mentions in his preface, made a ftiort viiit
not encourage and promote vegetation, even the moft laft fpring into Dorfetftnre, to fatisfy himfelf of the
fimple, elementary, and uncompounded fluid : heat faft. The editor had the pleafure to fhovv him the
and moifture, as well as air, are the Jine qua non of ftream alluded to, which he traced almoft to the foun-
vegetatian as well as animal life. Different plants re- tain-head. It was perfeftly clear, and the water was
quire different proportions of each to live and flou- then immediately conveyed out of the ftream upon the1
rifh; but fome of each is abfolutely neceffary to all. lands adjoining, fome of which it was then running
However, experience as well as reafon univerfally over ; others it had been upon, and the verdure was
ftiows, that the more turbid, feculent, and replete then appearing. The gentleman expreffed himfelf
with putrefeent matter the water is, the more rich perfe&ly fatisfied with the fa£l. To him the editor
and fertilr/.ing it proves. Hafty and impetuous rains, wifties to refer, &c. Mr George Gulley of Fenton
of continuance fufficient to produce a flood, not only near Wooller in Northumberland, with a truly noble
diffolve the falls, but wafh the manure in fubftance off and public fpirit that does him great honour as a
the circumjacent land into the rapid current. Such friend to his country, fent a very fenfible young man
turbid water is both meat and drink to the land ; and, from thence into Dorfetftnre, to learn the art of wa-
by the un&uous fediment and mud it depofits, the tering meadows, and to work the whole feafon in thofe
foil is amazingly improved and enriched. The virtue meadows under different watermen. This man was
of water from a fpring, if at all fuperior to pure elemen- often over thofe meadows, and worked in fome juft
tary water,is derived from thefeveral ftrata or beds of below that were watered by the fame ftream. Might
earth it paffes through, that, according to the nature the editor prefrime to offer his opinion upon this
of fuch ftrata. it may be friendly or otherwife to ve- feeming contradiction, it is very probable that the
getation. If it paffes through chalk, marie, foflil foils, both the upper and under ftrata, are very differ-
Ihells, or any t> ing of a calcareous nature, it would in ent, as well aS thofe through which the different
moft foils promote the growth of plants; but if fprings run.”
through metallic ores, or earth impregnated with the From this paffage, the latter part of which is not
vitriolic acid, it would render the land unfertile, if very intelligible, we might conclude that Mr Bofwell
not wholly barren. In general the water that has prefers clear to muddy water for overflowing mea-
run far is fuperior to that which immediately flows dows. In his chapter on land-floods, however, he ex-
from the fpring, and more efpecially that which is fe- preffes himfelf as follows: “ They will (fays he) al- if
culent and muddy, conlifting chiefly of putrid animal ways be found of great ufe where the fweepings of Advantage*
fubftanccs walhed down the ftream.” towns, farm-yards, &c. are carried down by them ; g00jnd~
To the fame purpofe alfo fays Mr ForbesThere feldom any other ereftion is wanting befides a fluice 0 3"
is great difference in the quality of water, arifing or fmall ware to divert and convey them over the
from the particles of different kinds of matter mixed lands. If the fituation of the land happens to be on
with them. Thofe rivers that have a long courfe the fide of a hill, catch-drains are abfolutely neceffary
through good land are full of fine particles, that are for watering the lower part of the hill, after the wa-
highly fertilizing to fuch meadows as are ufually over- ter has been ufed upon the upper. In many parts of
flowed by them ; and this chiefly in floods, when the the kingdom, vhere there are large hills or exteniive
water is fulleft of a rich fediment: for when the wa- rifing lands, great quantities of water run from them
ter is clear, though it may be raifed by art high e- into the valleys after heavy rains : Thefe might with
nough to overflow the adjoining lands, and be of fome proper attention be colledled together before they get
fervice to them, the improvement thus made is far to the bottom or flat ground, and from thence be di-
fhort of what is obtained from the fame water when verted to the purpofe of watering thofe lands that lie
it is thick and muddy.” below, with great advantage to the occupier, and at
* 4 U 3 a fmall
M E A [ 708
Moadow. a fmall expence. And fliould the land thus fituated be
arable, yet it would be found a bendicial exchange
Of convert-t0 conver* it into pafture ; particularly if pafture-
uig arabl
land int
failure.
ground fhould be a defirable object to the ocoupier.
The method of performing it is thus recommended.
Obferve the piece of land or field beft adapted to the
purpofe, both for fituation and foil. If it fhould be
arable, make it firft very level; and with the crop of
corn fow all forts of hay feeds; and as foon as it has
got a green fward it may be laid out. In the lowell
part of the ground draw a deep ditch for the current
to run in through it; and continue it into fome ditch
or low part in the lands below, that the water may
be freely carried off, after it has been and while it is
in ufe. Draw ditches above the field intended to be
watered aflant the fides of the hill, in fuch a man¬
ner that they may all. empu/ themfdves into the
head of the ditch above-mentioned, juft where it
enters the field to be watered : then ere fling a ware
acrofs this ditch, the field will be capable" of being
watered, according to the fituation of'the ditch in the
middle or on the fide of the field. It muft then be
conveyed by fmall mains or trenches, and fubdivided
] M e A
move all obftruflions arifing from the continual influx Meadow,
of weeds, leaves, flicks, and the like. In February,
a great deal depends upon care and caution. If you
now fuffer the water to remain on the meadow for
many days without intermiffion, a white fcum is raifed,
very deftruflive to the grafs ; and if you take oft’ the
water, and expofe the land to a fevere frofty night,
without its being previoufly dried for a whole day, the
greateft part of the tender grafs will be cut off. The
only ways to avoid both thefe injuries are, either to
take the water off by day to prevent the fcum, and
to turn it over again at night to guard againft the
froft; or, if this praflice be too troublefome, both
may be prevented by taking the water entirely off for
a few days and nights, provided the firft day of taking
off be a dry one ; for if the grafs experience one fine
drying day, the froft at night can do little or no in¬
jury. The fcum is generated chiefly by the warmth
of the fun, when the water is thin and ufed too plen¬
tifully. Towards the middle of this month we vary
our praftice in watering, by ufing only about half the
quantity of water which is made ufe of earlier in the
winter, all that is now required being to keep the
again by branch-trenches, according to the iite of the ground in a warm moift ftate, and to force vegetation.
field and the quantity of water that can be collected ;
trench drains muft be drawn, and the water conveyed
into the ditch by means of tail-drains. A perfon un¬
acquainted with water-meadows cannot conceive the
advantage arifing from water thus collefted and con¬
veyed over this fpecies of water-meadow (if it may be
fo called), being generally a firm good foil; for the
water running down from rich cultivated hills, emi¬
nences, &c. fweeps away with it, when the rain falls
very heavy, vaft quantities of dung dropped by fheep
and other cattle, and the manure carried upon arable
lands; all which being now diverted, and carried over
the meadow with an eafy defcent, gives time for the
particles of manure to fubfideupon the ground at one
feafon, or of being filtered from it as it dribbles
. through the grafs at another; after which the warm
weather pufhes on vegetation amazingly. Meadows
At the beginning of March, the crop of'grafs in
the meadows is generally fufficient to afford an abun¬
dant pafturage for all kinds of ftock, and the water is
taken off for near a week, that the land may become
dry and firm before the heavy cattle are turned in.—
It is proper, the firft week of eating off the fpring-
feed, if the feafon be cold, to give the cattle a little
hay each night.”
“ It is a cuftom (fays Mr Wright) with fome
farmers in Hampftiire, to eat off the fpring-grafs of ^
their meadows with ewes and lambs, in the fame man- f| r ng grafs
ner that we do a field of turnips, by inclofing a cer- with ewes,
tain portion each day with hurdles or ftakes, and gi-aud lambs,
ving them hay at the fame time. This is certainly
making the moft of the grafs, and an excellent me¬
thod to fine and fweeten the future herbage. In this
month and April, you may eat the grafs as fhort and
thus fituated would be vaftly fuperior to any other, if clofe as you pleafe, but never later; for if you trefpafs
they had the advantage of a conftant, ftream ; but only one week on the month of May, the hay-crop
even as they are, taking the opportunity of watering will be very much impaired, the grafs will become foft
them by every heavy rain or flood that happens, they and woolly, and have more the appearance and qua-
will be found to be very valuable. The occupier of lity of an after-math than a crop. At the beginning
fuch lands is ftrenuoully advifed to let no time be loft of May, or when the fpring feeding is finilhed, the
in appropriating them to this ufe; becaufe thefe lands
are healthy for all kinds of cattle at almoft all feafons ;
and the expence of converting them into this kind of
water-meadow is exceeding fmall, the annual charges
afterwards quite trifling, and the produce very confi-
derable.”
as Mr Wright, having difcuffed the fubjeft of the qua-
^r. , lity of the water, proceeds to give dire&ions for wa-
{lire fro ns luring through the different months of the year:—
for wa'er- “ I» December and January, the chief care confifts
irgthrough in keeping the land fheltered by the water from the
the (hff f- ^verity of frofty nights. It is neceffary, however,
IgTihiT^tar through the whole winter, every ten days or fortnight
viej tor. ^ gjYe jancj ajr> ^ taking the water off entirely,
other wife it would rot and deltroy the roots of the
grafs. It is neceffary, likewife, that a proper perfon
fhould go over every meadow at leaft twice every week,
to fee that the water is equally diftributed, and to re¬
water is again ufed for a few days by way of wetting.
“ It is rather remarkable, that watering in autumn, 43
winter, or fpring, will not produce that kind of her- How wa"
bage which is the caufe of the rot in fheep; but has
been known to remove the caufe from meadows, which the rot in
before had that baneful effedt. If, however, you ufe (beep,
the water only a few days in any of the fummer
months, all the lands thus watered will be rendered
unfafe for the pafturage of fheep. Of this I was
lately convinced from an experiment made by a friend.
At the beginning of July, when the hay was carried
off, and the water rendered extremely muddy and
abundant by feveral days rain, he thought proper to
throw it over his meadows for ten days; in which '
time a> large colledlion of extremely rich manure was
made upon the land. In about a month the mea- §
dow. was covered with uncommon luxuriancy and
blacknefs of herbage. Into this grafs were turned
eight
M E A C 7©9 1 M E A
Mealow. eight found ewes and two lambs. In fix weeks time
-v  the lambs were killed, and difcovered ftrong fymp-
toms of rottennefs; and in about a month afterwards
one of the ewes was killed, and though it proved very
fat, the liver was putrid and'replete with the infea:
called the jlulr pr weevil; the other ewes were fold to
a butcher, and all proved unfound. This experiment,
however, convinces me, by the very extraordinary
improvement made thereby in the meadow, that mud¬
dy water in the fummer is much more enriching than
it is in autumn or winter; and ought, therefore, to
be ufed for a week at leaft every wet fummer, notwith-
ftanding its inconveniences to flieep, the molt profit¬
able fpecies of ihock.”
Mr Bofwell, befides his general directions for wa¬
tering, gives many plans of the ditches, drains, &c.
for particular meadows, fome of them done from an
adtual furvey. But thefe being confined to particu¬
lar fituations, we fhall here only fpeak of his method
24 in general. In his third chapter, intitled A general
--- Defcription of Heater-meadows, he obferves, that “lands
Deral'drrec- caPable of being watered, lie fometimes only on one
tions for fide and fometimes on both fides of the itream de¬
watering. figned to fupply them with water. In the former cafe,
when they have a pretty quick defeent, the land may
be often watered by a main drawn out of the ftieam
itfelf, without any ware ; though he acknowledges that
it is by far the beft way to ereft a ware, and to draw
mains on each fide, to difpofe of the water to the beft
advantage.
Boggy lands require more and longer continued
watering than fuch as are fandy or gravelly ; and the
larger the body of rvater that can be brought upon
them, the better. The weight and ftrength of the
water will greatly affift in compreffing the foil, and
deftroying the roots, of the weeds that grow upon it;
nor can the water be kept too long upon it, particularly
in the winter feafon ; and the cloferit is fed, the better.
To improve ftrong clay foils, we muft endeavour to
the utmoft to procure the greateft ppffibk defeent
from the trench to the trench drain ; which is beft
done by making the trench-drains as deep as poffible,
an.d applying the materials drawn out of them to raife
the trenches. Then, with a ftrong body of water,
taking the advantage of the autumnal floods, and
keeping the water fome time upon them at that fea¬
fon, and as often as convenient during the winter, the
greateft improvement on this fort of foils may be made.
Warm fand or gravelly foils are the moft profitable
under the watering fyftem, provided the water can be
brought over them at pleafure. In foils of this kind*
the water muft not be kept long at a time, but often
fhifted, thoroughly drained, and'the land frequently
refrelhed with it: under which circumftances the profit
is immenfe. A fpring-feeding, a- crop of hay,, and
two aftermaths, may be obtained in a year; and this,
probably, where in a dry fummer fcarce grafs enough
could be found to keep a Iheep alive. If the ftream
be large, almoft any quantity of, land may be watered
from it ; and though the expence of. a ware over it
is great, it will foon be repaid by the additional crop.
If the ftream is fmall, the expence will be fo in pro¬
portion.
The following method of improving a. water-mea¬
dow that was fpringy has been tried by Mr Bolwell Meadirw.
with fuccefs. The meadow had been many years v—
watered by a fpring rifing juft above it from a barren *5
fandy heath; the foil near the furface was in fome Method of
places a gravelly fand, in others a fpongy cork, both
upon a ftrong clay and fand mixture, which retained Wi4ter-mea-
the draining of the lands above it. Whenever it haddow.
been watered, and left to drain itfelf dry, a yellowifti-
red water ftood in many parts, and ooz«d out of others;
the herbage being no other than a poor, miferablc,
hairy grafs and fmall fedge. Chalk and allies had
been thrown over it to very little purpofe. It was
then drained underground aftant all the different de-
feents, and all thefe drains carried into one large drain,
which had been already cut for the purpofe of carry¬
ing off the water when the meadow was overflowed.
Thefe drains were cut quite through the mixture ef
clay and fand, and as much deeper as the fall of the
ground below would admit of; then, with chalk cut
for the purpofe, fmall hollow drains were formed at the
bottom of thefe; the drains were then filled up with
the materials that came out.
Thi^ was done in the beginning of fummer, and
the work frequently examined through the feafon ;
the foil was found firmer than before, and none of
that nafty red water to be met with upon the furface,
though it continually oozed into the drains. In au¬
tumn the meadow was again prepared for waterings,
by repairing thofe trenches and drains that were pro¬
perly fituated j cutting others where wanted, for the
purpofe of watering meadows. The water being then
brought over it from the fame fpring as before, the
event anfwered the moft fanguine .wifties of the pro¬
prietor ; the effefts were viiible the firft year, and the
ground has been conftantly improving ever fince.
Mr Bofwell alfo informs us, that a gentleman in 26
Scotland had applied to. him for directions to water ,of ,wa,t°r'
fome lands lying on the fides of hills, where the de-
feent is quick; and of which there are many in this hills,
country, as well as in the north of England. It would
be difficult to water fuch lands by means of drains and
trenches according to the directions already given ;
becaufe the bends in> the trenches- muft be very near
together and- large, as the water muft flow out of the
trench above the bend to-flow over the pane below it;
the number and fize would likewife be inconvenient,
and greatly offend the eye.
Lands of this fort are generally capable of being;
ploughed; in which cafe our author directs them to
be once ploughed in the fpring; and fewn with oats
or any other kind of grain that will rot the fward.
When the grain.is harvefted,. plough the land acrofs ;
the laft ploughing with the -Kentifh plough,, which has
a moveable mold-board, and'iscalled a tum-wrijl plough-.- ,
This turns the furrows down the fide of the hill, the-
horfes going forwards and backwards-in the fame fur¬
rows. By this means the land is laid flat without any
open furrows-in it :■ drefs it down in the fpring very
fine,, and fow it with oats, and mix with fome kinds
of grafs feeds very thick. Thus the ground will have
but few irregularities ; and as foon as the corn is car¬
ried off, or .the following fpring at fartheft, the mains
and drains may be cut out.
For watering coarfe lands that are firm enough to
beiu’
M E A [71
Meadaw. tear the plough, and fituated near a flream, our au-
thor gives the following direftions.
^7 “ Let the land thus fituated be ploughed once in
in^ Tea Ye ^ie ^Pr‘nS’ anc^ fown with any grain that will rot
landi^1 £ fward. As foon as the crop is off, plough it again,
and leave it rough through the winter. Work it down
early in the fpring, and plough it in the dire&ion the
trenches are to lie, making the ridges of a proper lize
for watering, ten or twelve yards wide for initance ;
work it fine ; then gather the ridges up again in the
fame manner, making the laft furrows of each ridge
as deep as pofiible. If the land be not fine, dreis it
down again, and gather it up a fecond time if necef-
fary ; and with a Ihovel throw the earth from the
edges of the furrows to the tops of the ridges, to give
the greateft poflible defeent from the trench to the
drain. Sow it with oats and grafs feeds very thick ;
and after the corn is carried off, the trenches may be
formed upon the top of each ridge, difperfing the fur¬
rows with a fpade as much as the fall of the land will
admit of for the drains; taking care to procure iuffi-
cient fall at all events, to drain the lands after they
have been watered. By this method the crops of corn
■will nearly pay all the expence, and the land will be
in excellent order.
28 After the work of watering a meadow is totally fi-
©f the ma- j^ed, and the hay carried off, cattle may be let in to
©fYnea- eat the after-math. When this is done, it will then
dows after be neceffary to examine whether or not the mains have
watering. fuffered any injury from their feet; whether there be
quantities of mud or fand colle&ed at the angles, &c.
all of which muff be thrown out and the breaches re¬
paired ; by which means the trenches, drains, &c. will
laft three years, but otherwife not more than two.
The roots, mud, &c. may be ufed in repairing the
breaches, but never left upon the fides of the trenches
©ut of which they are taken. The tail-drains require
to be cleanfed oftener than any of the other works, for
this obvious reafon, that the mud, &c. is carried down
from all the others into them ; where if it be allowed
to accumulate, it occafions a ftagnation of water upon
the meadow itfelf. In repairing the trenches, parti¬
cular care ought to be taken that the workmen do not
make them any wider than before, which they are
very apt to do; neither are they to be allowed to
throw the materials which they dig out in a ridge be¬
hind the edge of the trench, which both widens it and
promotes weeds.
Of ^thc During the time of watering, it will be neceffary to
times the examine the meadow every two or three days in order
water to remove obflrudtions, &c. If the drains iliould be
fhould con- flUe(j with water and run over, they ought to be made
thTmea?” deePer5 or tlli8 cannot be done, they flrould be
,dows. widened. In the winter time a regular itrong water
fhould be kept, avoiding very ftrong great floods. In
this feafon the water may be kept on the ground with
fafety for a month or even fix weeks if "the foil
be corky or boggy or a ftrong clay ; but not
quite fo long if it be gravel or fand. At the fecond
watering a fortnight or three weeks will be fufficient;
and after Candlemas a fortnight will be rather too
long. At the third watering a week will be fufficient,
which will bring it to about the middle of March; by
which time, if the weather be tolerably mild, the grais
will be long enough for the ewes and lambs, or fatting
o ] M E A
lambs; which may then be turned into the meadow Meadow,
with great advantage. Even in the end of February, \r—<
if the winter has been very mild, the grafs will be
long enough for them. Here they may be permitted
to teed till the beginning of May, changing them into
difterent meadows. As foon as they are taken out,
the water mull be turned in for a week, carefully ex¬
amining every trench and drain for the reafons already
given. The water is then to be fhifted into others,
alternately watering and draining, leffening the time
the water remains upon it as the weather grows
warmer; and in five, fix, or feven weeks, the graii
will be fit to be mown for hay, and produce from one
to two tons, or even more, aa acre upon good
ground.
Mr Bofwell diredls, that about a week before the
grafs is to be mown the water fliould be let into the
meadow for 24 hours ; which, he fays, will make the
ground moift at the bottom, the feythe will go thro’
it the more eafily, and the grafs w ill be mown clofer
to the ground. This pra&ice, however, is entirely-
difapproved of by Mr Vv'right. “ Though it may
prevail in Dorfetfhire (fays he), it is very feldom ad-
vifable, for the following reafons: Water made to
run through a thick crop of grafs, though it may ap¬
pear ever fo pure, will leave a certain quantity of ad¬
herent feum or fediment, which can never be leparated
from the hay, but will render it unpalatable, if not pre¬
judicial, to the cattle that eat it. And this wetting
of the land and grafs will impede the drying or making
of the hay perhaps fome days, which in difficult lea-
fons is of very great confequence; and it will like-
wife make the turf too foft and tender to fupport the
w heels of a loaded waggon in carrying oft' the hay. Be-
fides, there is reafon to believe that one day ’s wetting
in the fummer will, upon moft meadows, endanger the
foundnefs of every ftieep that feeds upon the after-
math.”
The fpring-feeding ought never to be done by hea- 30 I
vier cattle than ftieep or calves ; for larger cattle do Of ring, j
much hurt by poaching the ground with their feet, ee • 1
deftroying the trenches, and ipoiling the grafs. Mr
Bofwell likewife greatly recommends a proper ufe of
fpring floods, from which he fays much benefit may be
derived; but if there is any quantity of grais in the
meadows not eaten, thefe floods mull be kept out,
otherwife the grais will be fpoiled; for they bring
with them fuch quantities of fand and mud, which
flick to the grafs, that the cattle will lather ftarve
than tafte it. Great quantities of egrafs or aftermath
are frequently fpoiled in flat countries by the floods
which take place in the fall. In the winter-time,
however, when the ground is bare, the fand and mud
brought down by the floods is foon incorporated with
the loil, and becomes an excellent manure. The cer¬
tain rule with regard to this matter is, " Make ule of
the floods when the grafs cannot be uled; avoid them
when the grafs is long or foon to be cut.” |
“ It has often been a fubjedl of difpute (fays Mr of water- M
Bofwell), whether, from the latter end of autumn to i„g fr0m .!
Candlemas, the throwing a very itrong body of water, the 1 ntl of 1
where it can be done, over the meadows, is of any ef- oYndtemajJ
fential fervice or not ? Thofe who confider it as ad¬
vantageous, affert, that when the waters run rude and
ftrong over the ground, they beat down and rot the
tufts
K Meadow.
M E A
tufts of foggy or rough grafs, fcdgc, ke. that are al¬
ways to be found in many parts of coarfe meadow-
ground ; and therefore are of peculiar fervice to them.
On the other fide it is alleged, that by coming in fo
large a body, it beats the ground (in the weak places
particularly) fo bare, that the fward is ddtroyed; and
alfo brings with it fuch quantities of feeds of weeds,
that at the next hay feafon the land in all thofe bare
places bears a large burden of weeds, but little grafs.
“ The general opinion of the watermen upon this
point is, that in water meadows which are upon a
warm, fandy, or gravelly foil, with no great depth of
loam upon them, rude llreng watering, even in winter,
always does harm without any pofiible effential fervice.
On the contrary, cold itrong clay land will bear a great
deal of water a long time without injury; and boggy,
corky, or fpongy foil, will alfo admit of a very large
and itrong body of water upon it; provided the drains
are made wide and deep enough to carry it off, with¬
out forcing back upon the end of the panes, with great
advantage for almoll any length of time at that feafon.
The weight and force of the water valtly affilts in
compreifing thofe foils, which only want folidity and
tenacity to make them produce great burthens of hay:
r 7” i
M E A
“ Hence we fee why every perfon (hould if pofiible Meidew»
have three or four meadows that can be watered; Mga1,
for here. While the cattle are eating the firft, the lecond v
is growing, the third draining, See. and the fourth
under water. In this manner the after-math will in a
mild feafon laft. till Chrillmas. A reafon was given
why the fpring-grafs Ihould be fed only by fheep or
calves ; a reafon equally cogent may be given, why
the after-grafs ougiit not to be fed by them, becaufe
it will infallibly rot them. “ No fheep (fays our au¬
thor), except thofe which are jult fat, mult ever be fuf-
fered even for an hour in water- meadows except in the
fpring of the year; and even then care mult be taken
that every part of the meadows have been well water¬
ed, and that they are not longer kept in them than
the beginning of May. Although at prefent it is
unknown what is the occafion of the rot, yet certain
it is that even half an hour’s feeding in unhealthy
ground has often proved fatal. After a fhort time
they begin to lofe their flefh, grow weaker and weak¬
er : the bell feeding in the kingdom cannot improve
them after they once fall away; and when they die,
animalcula like plaice are found in the livers. Scarce¬
ly any ever recover from a flight attack; but when
nothing, in their opinion, corrects and improves thofe farther advanced, it is always fatal. Guard by all
foils fo much as a very ftrong body of water, kept a
confiderable time upon them at that feafon/*
means again It keeping the water too long upon the^^"^
meadow in warm weather; it will very foon produce 5e\ept t#(
Notwithllanding the above reafons, however, Mr a white fubltance like cream, which is prejudicial to.ongupon
the grafs, and ftiows that it has been too long upon meadows*
the ground already. If it be permitted to remain a
little longer, a thick feum will fettle upon the grafs
to underttand only rather a larger quantity of water of the confidence of glue, and as tough as leather,
conveyed over the land at this early feafon than ought which will quite deilroy it wherever it is fullered to
to be ufed in the fpring or fummer: unmanageable be produced. The fame bad effects feem to arife from
waters he believes always hurtful. rude waters ; neither can the feum ealily be got off. 33
“ It may be proper juft to add (continues he), that “ Rolling meadows in the fpring of the year is an Advinugs
ts foon as the hay is carried off the meadows, cattle of excellent method. It Ihould be done after Candle-of
mas, when the meadow has been laid dry a week. Itmea 0Wi*
fhould be always rolled leugthwife of the panes, up
Bofwell informs us, That he has doubts upon the
fubjeft; nor can he by any means acquiefce in this
opinion, unlefs by rude ftrong waters he is permitted
any fort except (heep may be put to eat the grafs out
of the trenches, and what may be left by the mowers.
This perhaps will laft them a week ; when the water one fide of the trench and down the other. Rolling
may be put into the meadows in the manner already
deferibed, taking care to mow the long grafs which
©bftrucls the water in the trenches; and this mowing
is belt done when the water is in them. Let the weeds,
leaves, &c. be taken out and put in heaps, to be car¬
ried away into the farm-yards; examine the trenches,
make up the breaches, &c. take particular cave that
the water only dribbles over every part of the panes
alfo contributes much to the grafs being cut clofe to
the furface when mown, which is no fmall advantage;
for the little hillocks, fpewings of worms, ant-hills,
&c. are by this means prefl'ed clofe to the ground,
which would otherwife obftruct the feythe and take
off its edge; and to avoid that inconvenience, the
workmen always mow over them.’'
MEAL, the flour of grain. The meal or flour of
as thin as pofiible, this being the warmeft feafon of Britain is the fineft and whiteft in the world. The
the year. The firft watering fliOuld not be fuffered
to laft longer than two or three days before it is fhift-
ed off (and it the leafon be wet, perhaps not fo long,
French is ufually browner, and the German browner than
that. Our flour keeps well with us, but in carrying
abroad it often contracts damp, and becomes bad. All
as warmth feems to be the greateft requifite after the flour is fubjeft to breed worms; thefe are white in the
land is once wet to aflift vegetation) to another part
or meadow beat out by the cattle, by this time fit to
white flour, and brown in that which is brown : they
are therefore not always diftinguilhable to the eye;
take it. Do by this meadow exactly the fame, and fo but when the flour feels damp, and fmells rank and
by a third and fourth, if as many meadows belong to multy, it may be conjectured that they are there in
the occupier. Obferve at all times, when the water is great abundance.
taken out of a meadow, to draw up the drain-fluice
hatches; as, without doing that, watering is an injury.
By the time that three or four parts are thus regularly
watered, the firft will have an after-math, with fuch
rich and beautiful verdure as will be aftomfliing ; and
both quantity and quality will be beyond conception
better than if the lands had not been watered.
The colour and the weight are the two things
which denote the value of meal or flour; the whiter
and the heavier it is, other things being alike, the
better it always is. Pliny mentions thele two cha-.
rafters as. the marks of good flour; and tells us, that
Italy in his time produced the fineft in the world-
This country indeed was famous before his time for
5 tbit
M E A [ 71
Meal, this produce ; and the Greeks have celebrated it j and
“'“’V”—' Sophocles in particular fays, that no flour is fo white
or fo good as that of Italy. The corn of this coun¬
try has, however, loft much of its. reputation fince that
time ; and the reafon of this feems to be, that the
whole country being full of fulphur, alum, vitriol,
marcafites, and bitumens, the air may have in time af-
fefted them fo far as to make them diffufe themfelves
through the earth, and render it lefs fit for vegetation;
and the taking fire of fome of thefe inflammable mi¬
nerals, as has fometimes happened, is alone fufficient
to alter the nature of all the land about the places
where they are.
The flour of Britain, though it pleafes by its white-
nefs, yet wants fome of the other qualities valuable
in flour; the bread that is made of it is brittle and
does not hold together, but after keeping a few days
becomes hard and dry as if made of chalk, and is full
of cracks in all parts; and this muft be a great difad-
vantage in it when intended for the fervice of an army
or the like occafions, where there is na baking every
day, but the bread of one making muft neceflarily be
kept a long time.
The flour of Picardy is very like that of Britain ;
and after it has been kept fome time, is found improper
for making into pafte or dough. The French are
forced either to ufe it immediately on the grinding, or
elfe to mix it with an equal quantity of the flour of
Brittanny, which is coarfer but more uncluous and
fatty; but neither of thefe kinds of flour keep well.
The flour -f almoft any country will do for the
home confumption of the place, as it may be always
frelh ground ; but the great care to be ufed in feledt-
ing it is in order to the fending it abroad, or furnifhing
fhips for their own ufe. The faline humidity of the
fea-air rufts metals, and fouls every thing on board, if
great care be not taken in the preferring them. This
alfo makes the flour damp and mouldy, and is often
the occafion of its breeding infedls, and being wholly
fpoiled.
The flour of fome places is conftantly found to keep
better at fea than that of others; and when that is
once found out, the whole caution needs only be to
carrv the flour of thofe places. Thus the French find
that the flour of Poitou, Normandy, and Guienne, all
bear the fea-carriage extremely well; and they make a
confiderable advantage by carrying them to their A-
merican colonies.
The choice of flour for exportation being thus made,
the next care is to preferve it in the fliips: the keep¬
ing it dry is the grand confideration in regard to this;
the barrels in which it is put up ought to be made of
dry and well-feafoned oak, and not to be larger than
to hold two bundled weight at the moft. If the wood
of the barrels have any fap remaining in it, it will moi-
ften and fpoil the flour; and no wood is fo proper
as oak for this purpofe, or for making the bins and
other veffels for keeping flour in at home, fince when
once well dried and feafoned it will not contraA hu¬
midity afterwards. The beech-wood, of which fome
make their bins for flour, is never thoroughly dry, but
always retains fome fap. The fir will give the flour a
tafte of turpentine; and the afh is always fubjedt to be
eaten by worms. 1 he oak is preferable, becaufe of its
being free from thefe faults; andjvhen the jfeveral
2 ] M E A
kinds of wood have been examined in a proper manner, Mean,
there may be others found as fit, or poffibly more fo, Meamt. ^
than this for the purpofe. The great teft is their ’ *
having more or lefs fap. See Flour and Wood.
MEAN, in general, denotes the middle between
two extremes: thus we fay the .mean diftance, mean
proportion, &c.
MEARNS, or Kincardinshire, a county of
Scotland, bounded on the north by Aberdeenfhire, on
the caft by the Britilh Ocean, and on the fouth-weft by
Angusfhire. In form it refembles a harp, having the
lower point towards the fouth. Its length alongft the
coaft is fcarce 30 miles; its greateft breadth about 20.
Some derive the firft name from Mearns a valiant
nobleman, who, fubduing the country, received it in-
reward from his prince Kenneth II. Camden, with
much probability, fuppofes it to retain part of the
name of the old inhabitants, the Vernicones of Ptole¬
my, it being common for the Britons in difeourfe to
change the V into M. The other name is taken from
its ancient capital Kincardine, now an inconfiderablc
village. The tract of country through which the Dee
paffes, and the plain along the fea-coaft, are well cul¬
tivated, and produce much corn and flax. The fields
are in many places fkreened by woods; and the heaths
afford Iheep-walks and much good pafture for cattle.
Near Stonehaven, to the fouth, are the ruins of Dun-
otter caftle, the ancient feat of the earls Mariflial of
Scotland, fituated on a high perpendicular rock, al¬
moft furrounded by the fea. In this neighbourhood
is a precipitous cliff over-hanging the fea, called Fowl’s
Cleugh; noted as the refort of kittiwakes, the young
of which are much fought after in the hatching fea-
fon, being efteemed a great delicacy.—At a little
diftance from Stonehaven, up the river, ftands Urie,
the birth-place of Barclay the famous apologift for
the Quakers. The Quakers have here a burying
ground ; and in the vicinity are feen the traces of a
Roman ftation. The great valley called Strathmore ,
commences here, and extends in a fouth-weft direftion
nearly as far as Benlomond in Stirlinglhire, bounded
all along to the north-.weft by the Grampian mountains.
—The village of Fordun, a little fouth from the centre
of the country, is fuppofed to be the birth-place of
the celebrated author of the Scotichronicon. St Pa-
dy’s church, or Paldy kirk in this neighbourhood, is
famous for being the burial-place and refidence of St
Palladius ; whofe chapel is ftill to be feen on the fouth
fide of it, 40 feet by 18, now the burial-place of the
Halkerton-family. Near the village, and along the river
Bervie, the country is flat and well cultivated. The
fmall town of Inverbervie was made a royal borough
by David Bruce, who landed there with his queen at
Craig David after his long retreat into France. Near |
the village of Fettercairn was Den Finnel, the refidence
of Finella, daughter of a nobleman of large poffeflions
in this country, or, as Major calls her, countes of An¬
gus, who was 'acceffary to the murder of Keneth II.
About two miles from this place, on the road-fide, is
a cairn of a ftupendous fize and uncommon form,
which probably might give name to the parilh. A-
bout fix miles weft from Bervie, is fituated Laurence¬
kirk, which fome years back was only an infignificant
village of fix or feven houfes; but by the judicious and
liberal exertions of its proprietor Lord Gardenftone,
1 has
M E A r ?fj ] M E A
Mcifles, has become a handfome little town, with a right to
Meaf.re. ele£ magiftrates, and to hold an annual fair and a
weekly market. He has eftablilhed here a flourifhing
and eKteftlive mannfadture of lawn, cambric, linen, and
various other articles. He has alfo freely renounced
all the oppreffive fendces due by his tenants ; fervices
which have been fo lortg and fo juftly complained of
as a check to agriculture in many parts of Scotland.
.—The north-weft part of the (hire, being mountain¬
ous, is more employed in pafture than in cultiva¬
tion.
MEASLES, a cutaneous difeafe attended with a
fever, in which there is an appearance of eruptions
that do not tend to a fuppuration. See (the Index
fubjoined to) Medicine.
ME ASURE, in geometry, denotes any quantity
Uflumed as one, or unity, to which the ratio of the
other homogeneous or fimilar quantities is exprefled.
Measure, in a legal and commercial fenfe, denotes
a certain quantity or proportion of any thing, bought,
fold, valued, or the like.
It is neceflary, for the convenience of commerce,
that an uniformity (hould be obferved in weight-' and
iheafures, and regulated by proper ftandards. A foot-
rule may be ufed as a ftandard for meafures of length,
a bufhel for meafures of capacity, and a pound for
weights. There (hould be only one authentic ftan¬
dard of each kind, formed of the moft durable ma¬
terials, and kept with all poffible care. A fufficient
number of copies, exaftly correfponding to the prin¬
cipal ftandard, may be diftributed for adjufting the
weights and meafures that are made for common
ufe. There are feveral ftandards of this kind both in
England and Scotland. See the article IVsights
and Meafurcs*
If any one of the ftandards above-mentioned be
.juftly preferved, it will ferve as a foundation for the
others, by which they may be corrected if inaccurate,
or reftored if entirely loft. For inftance, if we have a
ftandard foot, we can eaftly obtain an inch, and can
make a box which (hall contain a cubical inch, and
may ferve as a ftandard for meafures of capacity. If
it be known that a pint contains 100 cubical inches,
we may make a veffel five inches fquare, and four in¬
ches deep, which will contain a pint. If the ftandard
fee required in any other form, we may fill this veflel
with water, and regulate another to contain an equal
^quantity. Standards for weights may be obtained
from the fame foundation ; for if we know how many,
inches of water It takes to weigh a pound, we have
only to meafure that quantity, and the Weight which
balances it may be a (Turned as the ftandard of a
pound.
Again, if the ftandard of a pound be given, the
meafure of an inch may be obtained from it \ for we
may weigh a cubical inch of water, and pour it into a
tegular veflel; and having noticed how far it is filled,
we may make another veftel of like capacity in the
form of a cube. The fide of this veflel may be af-
fumed as the ftandard for an inch ; and ftandards for
a fo t, a pint, or a buftiel, may be obtained from it.
Water is the moft proper fubftance for regulating
ftandards; for all other bodies differ in weight from
others of the fame kind ; whereas it is found by expe¬
dience that fpring and river water, rain, and melted
Vot. X. Part 41.
fnow, and all other kinds, have the fame weight ; and
this uniformly holds in all countries when the water
is pure, alike warm, arid free from fait and minerals
Thus, any one ftandard is fufficiertt for reftoring all
the reft. It may further be defired to hit on fome ex¬
pedient, if poffible, for reftoring the ftandards, in cafe
that all of them (hould ever fall into diforder, or (hould
be forgotten, through the length of time, and the vif-
ciffitudes of human affairs. This feems difficult, as no
Words can convey a precife idea of a foot-rule, or a
pound weight. Meafures, affumed from the dimen-
fions of the human body, as a foot, a hand-breadth,
of a pace, muft nearly be the fame in all ages, unlefs
the fize of the human race undergo fome change; and
therefore, if we know how many fquare feet a Roman
acre contained, we may form fome judgment of the
nature of the law which re drifted the property of a
Roman citizen to feven acfes 5 and this is fufficient to
render hiftory intelligible ; but it is too inaccurate to
regulate meafures for commercial purpofes. The fame
may be faid of ftandards, deduced from the meaftu e of
a barley-corn, or the weight of a grain of wheat. If
the diftance of two mountains be accurately meafured
and recorded, the nature of the meafure ufed will be
preferved in a more permanent manner than by any
ftandard ; for if ever that meafure fall into difufe and
another be fubftituted in its place, the diftance may
be meafurid again, and the proportion of the ftan¬
dards may be afcertained by comparing the new and
ancient diftances.
But the moft accurate and unchangeable manner of
eftablifhing ftandards is, by comparing them with the
length of pendulums. The longer a pendulum is, it
vibrates the (lower; and it muft have.one precife length
in order to vibrate in a fecond. The (lighteft differ¬
ence in length will occafion a difference in the time ;
which will become abundantly fenfible after a number
of vibrations, and will be eafily obferved if the pendu¬
lum be applied to regulate the motion of a clock. The
length of a pendulum which vibrates feconds in Lon¬
don is about 39 j inches, is conftantly the fame at the
fame place; but it varies a little with the latitude of
the place, being (hotter as the latitude is lefs. There¬
fore, though all ftandards of weights and meafures
were loft, the length of a fecond pendulum might be
found by repeated trials : and if the pendulum be pro¬
perly divided, the juft meafure of an inch will be ob¬
tained ; and from this all other ftartdafds may be re¬
ftored. See Whitehurjl on Invariable Measures.
Meafures are various, according to the various
kinds and dimenfions of the things rteafured.  
Hence arife lineal or longitudinal meafures, for
lines or lengths ; fquare meafures, for areas or fu-
perfices; and folid or cubic meafures, for bodies and
their capacities: all which again are very different in
different countries and in different ages, and even
many of them for different commodities. Whence
arife other dtvilions of ancient and modern meafures,
domeftic and foreign ones, dry meafures, liquid mea¬
fures, &e»
L Long Meafures, or Meafures of Application.
1.] The Engti/h and Scotch Standards.
The Engliffi lineal ftandard is the yard, containin'*-
Engliffi feet { equal ta 3 Paris feet 1 inch and A-
4 X of4
M E A [ 714 ] M E A
of an inch, or J of a Paris ell. The ufe of this mea-
fure was eifabliflied by Henry I. of England, and the
ftandard taken from the length of his own arm. It
is divided into 36 inches, and each inch is fuppofed
equal to 3 barley-corns. When ufed for meafuring
cloth, it is divided into four quarters, and each quar¬
ter fubdivided into 4 nails. The Englifh ell is equal
to a yard and a quarter, or 4; inches, and is ufed in
meafuring linens imported from Germany and the
.Low-Countries.
The Scots eliuand was eftablifhed by king David I.
and divided into 37 inches. The flandard is kept in
the couneil-ehamber of Edinburgh, and being compa¬
red with the Englilh yard, is found to meafure jyf
inches; and therefore the Scots inch and foot are lar¬
ger than the Engliih, in the proportion of 180 to 185;
but this difference being fo inconfiderable, is feldom
attended to in practice. The Scots ell, though for¬
bidden by law, is ftill ufed for meafuring fome coarfe
commodities, and is the foundation of the land-meafure
of Scotland.
Itinerary meafure is the fame both in England'and
Scotland. The length of the chain is 4 poles, or 22
yards ; 80 chains make a mile. The old Scots com¬
puted miles were generally about a mile and a half
each.
The reel for yarn is 2 '; yards, or 10 quarters, in
circuit; 120 threads make a cut, j 2 cuts make a hafp
or hank, and 4 hanks make a fpindle:
2.] The French Standard is the aune or ell, con¬
taining 3 Paris feet 7 inches 8 lines, or i^yard 4 En¬
glifh ; the Paris foot-royal exceeding the Englifh by
rllo parts, as in one of the following tables. This
ell is divided two ways, viz. into halves, thirds, fixths,
and twelfths; and into quarters, half-quarters, and fix-
teenths.
This ell holds throughout the greateft part of France;
excepting at Troyes in Champagne, at Arc in the
Barrois, and in fome parts of Picardy and Burgundy,
where the ell contains only 2 feet 5 inches 1 line ; in
Bretagne, where it contains 4 feet 2 inches 11 lines;
and at St Genoux in Berry, where it exceeds the Pa¬
ris ell by 8 lines. See Ell. But in Languedoc, par¬
ticularly at Marfeilles, Montpelier, Thouloufe in Pro¬
vence, and in Guienne, they meafure by the canna,
which at Thouloufe and in Guienne contains 5 Paris
feet 5 inches and 6 lines; or one Paris ell and a half.
But at Montpelier, and throughout the Lower Lan¬
guedoc, as alfo in Provence and Avignon, and even
Dauphine, the canna is 6 feet and 9 lii^s, or 1 Paris
ell and ■}. See Canna.
We have lately had fome accurate comparifons be¬
tween fome of the French weights and meafures and
thofe of England, the refult of which is, (1.) The Pa¬
ris half toife, as fet off on the ftandard kept in the
Royal Society ; contains of Englifh inches by the
tame ftandard 38.355, whence it appears, that the En¬
glifh yard and foot is, to the Paris half toife and foot,
nearly as 107 to 114 ; for as 107 to 114, fo is 36 to
38-35H4. „ . , . ,
(2.) The Paris 2 marc, or 1.6 ounce weight, weighs
Englifh Troy grains 7560; whence it appears, that
the Englifh Troy pound of 12 ounces, or 5760 grains,
i? to the Paris 2 marc, or 16 ounce weight, as 16 to
z\ ; that the Paris ounce weighs Englifh Troy grains
3
472.5, and that confequently, the Engliih Troy ounce
is to the Paris ounce as 64 is to 63.
(3). The Englilh Avsirdupois pound weighs Troy
grains 7004 ; whence the Avoirdupois ounce, where¬
of 16 make a pound, is found equal to 437.75 Troy
grains.—And it follows, that the Troy pound is to
the Avoirdupois pound as 88 to 107 nearly; for as
88 to 107, fo is 5760 to 7003.636 : that the Troy
ounce is to the Avoirdupois ounce, as 80 to 73 near¬
ly ; for as 80 to 73, fo is 480 to 438. And, laftly,
that the Avoirdupois pound and ounce is to the Pa¬
ris two marc weight and ounce, as 63 to 68 nearly ;
for as 63 to 68, fo is 700410 7559.873. See Weight.
(4.) The Paris foot expreffed in decimals, is equal to
1.0654 of the Englifh foot, or contains 12.785 En¬
glifh inches. See Foot.
3. ] The ftandard in Holland, Flanders, Sweden, a
good part of Germany, many of the Hans-towns, as
Dantzlcl, and Hamburgh, and at Geneva, Franckfort,
&c. is likewife the ell: but the ell, in all thefe places,
differs from the Paris ell. In Holland, it contains
one Paris foot eleven lines, or four fevenths of the
Paris ell. The Flanders ell contains two feet one
inch five lines and half a line ; or feven-twelfths of the
Paris ell. The ell of Germany, Brabant, &c. is equal
to that of Flanders.
4. ] The Italian meafure is the bracchio, brace, or
fathom. This obtains in the ftates of Modena, Ve¬
nice, Florence, Liicca, Milan, Mantua, Bologna,
&c. but is of different lengths. At Venice, it con¬
tains one Paris foot eleven inches three lines, or eight
fifteenths of the Paris ell. At Boulogna, Modena,
and Mantua, the brace is the fame as at Venice. At
Lucca it contains one Paris foot nine inches ten lines,
or half a Paris ell. At Florence, it contains one foot
nine inches four lines, or forty-nine hundredths of a
Paris ell. At Milan, the brace for meafuring of filks
is one Paris foot feven inches four lines, or four-ninths
of a Paris ell: that for woollen cloths is the fame
wjth the ell of- Holland. Laftly, at Bergama, the
brace is one foot feven inches fix lines, or five-ninths
of a Paris ell. The ufual meafure at Naples, however,
is the canna, containing fix feet ten inches and two
lines, or one Paris ell and fifteen feventeenths,
5.3 The Spanlfh meafure is the vara or yard, in
fome places called the barra; containing feventeen.
twenty-fourths of the Paris ell. But the meafure in
Caftile and Valencia is the pan, fpan, or palm ; which
is ufed, together with the canna, at Genoa. In Ar-
ragon, the vara is equal to a Paris ell and a half, or
five feet five inches fix lines.
6.3 The Porluguefe meafure is the cavedos, contain¬
ing two feet, eleven lines, or four-fevenths of a Paris
ell; and the varra, a hundred and fix whereof make a'
hundred Paris ells.
7.3 The Piedmontefe meafure is the ras, containing
one Paris foot nine inches ten lines, or half a Paris
ell. In Sicily, their meafure is the canna, the fame
with that of Naples.
8.3 The Mufcovitc meafures are the cubit, equal t©
one Paris foot four inches two lines; and the arcin,
two whereof are equal to three cubits.
9.3 The Turh’Jh and Levant meafures are the picq,
containing two feet two inches and two lines, or three
fifths of the Paris ell. The Chinefe meafure, the
cobre 3
M E A [ 715 ] M E A
Mcafure. cobfe; ten whereof are equal to three Paris ells. In the ell of Venice. At Goa, and other parts, they Meafure.
‘'“■"'v™—-' Perfia, and fome parts of the Indies, the gueze, they ufe a larger cando, equal to feventeen Dutch 1 v—1
whereof there are two kinds ; the royal gueze, called ells ; exceeding that of Babel and Balfora by per
alfo the^aez*; monkelfer, containing two Paris feet ten centum, and rhe vera by 64. In Siam, they ufe the
inches eleven lines, or four-fifths of the Paris ell; and ken, fliort of three Paris feet by one inch. The ken
the fiiorter gueze, called fimply gueze, only two thirds contains two foks, the fok two keubs, the keub twelve
of the former. At Goa and Ormuz, the meafure is niousor inches, the niou to be equal to eight grains of
the vara, the fame with that of the Portuguefe, ha- rice, i. e. to about nine lines. At Camboia, they ufe
ving been introduced by them. In Pegu, and fome the halier; in Japan, thetatam; and the fpan on fome
other parts of the Indies, the cando or candi, equal to of the coafts of Guinea.
Barley-corn
31 Inch
Tables of Long Meafure.
1 English.
36
198
7920
66
2640
23760
1900806336021120'
Span
880
!704°
16 f
660
5280
440
3520
1760
3x’o
Fathona
2 i Pole
132
1056
40
32°
Furlong
8 | Mile.
. Scripture Meafures reduced into Englifh.
Digit
24
96
144
192
1920
3 Span
480
Fathom —
EzechiePs reed
Arabian pole
io[Schcenus, or meafuring line
O 0.912
o 3.648
O IO.944
I 9.888
7 3-5 5 2
10 11.328
7.104
11.04
*45
3. The Scripture Itinerary Meafures.
Eng. Miles. Paces. Feet.
— — — 00 1.824
Cubit — —
400^Stadium —  
Sab. day’s journey —
2 Ealtern mile
6 ’ 3 [Parafan —
48 24 81 a day’s journey
4000
12000
'96000
° I45
o 729
2 403
4 IJ3
33 172
4 X a
4.6
3.000
I.OOQ
3000
4.OOO
4. Ghecjas
Meafure.
M E A
M E A
[ 716 ]
6. Proportions of fevered Long Meafures to each other, ly
M. Picard.
The Rhinland or Leyden foot (12 whereof
make the Rhinland perch) fuppofed, $96
The Englifll foot - - - 675!
The Paris foot - - 720
The Amfterdom foot, front that of Leydea,
by Snellius - - 629
The Daniih foot (two whereof make the Da-
nilh ell) • - 70it^s
The Swedifh foot - - 65 8$
The Bruflels foot - - fiopf
The Dantzie foot, from Hevelius’s Seleno-
graphia' ... $36
The Lyons foot, by M. Auzout - 757-r
The Bologna foot, by the time - 843
The braccio of. Florence, by the fame, and
Father Merfenne - . 1290
The palm of the architefts at Rome, accord¬
ing to the obfervations of Meffrs Picard and
Auzout -- - - 494i
The Roman foot in the Capitol, examined by
Meflrs Picard and Auzout - 653 or 653f-
The fame from the Greek foot * 652
From the vineyard Mattel - - ^S7i
From the palm - - 658^
From the pavement of the pantheon, fuppofed
to cqptain ten Roman feet - 653
From a flip of marble in the fame pavement,
fuppofed to contain three Roman feet 650
From the pyramid of Ceftius, fuppofed to con-
taj# $5 Roman &et » • 653*:
From
M E A [ '
.jMtafure. From the diameters of the columns in the arch
n'* of Septimius Severus - - 6J3t
From a flip of porphyry in the pavement of
the pantheon - - 653 f
See on this fubjeft Phil. Tranf. VoL LI. art. 69.
P- 774-
7. Proportions of the Long Meafures of federal nations to
the Englijh foot, talen from Mr Greaves, Auxout, Pi¬
card, and Eijenchmid. See Foot.
The Englifli ftandard foot being divided into 1006
equal parts* the other meafures. will have the propor¬
tions to it, which follojv :
Englifli foot
Paris foot
Venetian foot
Rhinland foot
Strafburgh foot
Norimbergh foot
Dantzick foot
Lanifli foot
Swedilh foot
Derahor cubit of Cairo
Perfian arifli
Greater Turkifli pike
Leflfer Turkifli pike
. Braccio at Florence
Braccio for woollen at Siena
Braccio for linen at Siena
Canna at Naples
Vera at Almaria and Gibraltar
Palmo di Archtetti at Rome
Canna di Archtetti
Palmo di braccio di mercantia
Genoa palm
Bolognian foot
Antwerp ell
Amfterdam ell - -
Leyden ell
Paris draper’s elt
Paris mercer’s ell
Feet
xooo 12
i.c68 12,816
1162 13,944
103$ 12,396
952 11,424
IOCQ 12'
944 11,328
1042 1:2*504
9771 n,733
1824 21,888
3I97 38,364
2200 26,4
2131 .25,572
ipi'S 22,956
1242 14,904
1974 23,688
6880 82,56
2760 33,12
732 87,84
7320 87,84
695i 8,346-
815; 9,78
1250 15
2283 27,396
2268 27,216
2260 27,12
3929 47,248
3.937 47,244
8. Different Itinerary-, Meafures.
A French league.is about 2^ Englifh miles
A German mile 4 ditto
A Dutch mile 3^ ditto
An Italian mile ditto
A Spanifh league 3^ ditto
A Ruffian verft d:
II.- Square, .SuFERPicui,,or Land Meafure,
T.] Englijh fquare meafures are railed from the yard
of 36 inches multiplied into itfelf, and thus produ¬
cing 1296 fquare inches in the fquare yard ; the divi-
fions of this are fquare feet and inches; and the mul¬
tiples, poles, roods, and acres. Becaufe the length
of a pole is yf- yards'* the .fquare of the fame contains
30^ fquare yards. A fquare mile contains 640 fquare
acres. In meafuring fens and woodlands* 18 feet are
generally allowed to the pole, and 21 feet in foreft'
lands.
A hide of land, frequently mentioned in the earlier
part of the Englifh luftory, contained about 100 arable
acres; and 5 hides were dteemed a knight’s fee. At
,17 1 M E A
the time of the Norman conqueft, there were 243,600 Meafure.
hides in England. —
2.3 Scotch fquare or land mtafure is regulated by
the Scotch ell: 36 fquare ells = 1 fall, 40 falls = 1
rood, 4 roods = 1 acre.—The proportion between
the Scotch and Englifli acre, fuppoiing the feet in
both meafures alike, is as 1369 to 1089, or nearly as
5 to 4. If the difference of the feet be regarded, the
proportion is as 10,000 to 7869. The length of the
chain for meafuring land in Scotland is 24 ells, or 74
feet. —A hulband-land contains 6 acres of fock and
feythe land, that is, of land that may be tilled with a
plough or mown with a feythe: 13 acres of arable land,
make one ox-gang, and 4 ox-gangs make a pound-
land of old extent.
3.3 French fquare meafures are regulated by 12
fquare lines in the inch fquare; 12 inches in the foot,.
22 feet in the perch* and x 00 perches in the arpest
or acre.
Tables of Square Meafure.
1. English.
144 Feet
1296
3600
39204
568160
6272640
10890
4356o
4840
xo.i^Poles
""It*
435.6! 40'Rood *
__j _ r
1'“-[.3.6.160) 4 lAcre
2. Grecian Cquare meafures were the plethron or acre,' ■
by fome faid to contain 1444, by others 10,000 fquare
feet; and aroura the half of the plethron. The arou-
ra of the Egyptians was the fquare 100 cubits.
3. Roman fquare meafure reduced to Englifli. The
integer was the jugerum or acre, which the Romans
divided like the libra or as: thus the jugerum con—
tained
fquare 2
feet. ^
As
Deun*
Dextans
Dodrans
Bes
Septunx
Semis
Quincunx
Triens
Quadrans
Sextans
Uncia
28800 288
26400 264
24000 240
216001216
192001x92
i63ooii68
14400! 1 q4
I2000120
9600
72COJ 72
4800
24OO
9(>
§
Square
feet.
8 250.05
0183.85
2 117.64,
34 5Ii42
25257.4b
17191.25
9125.03
458.82
32264.85
24)198.64
16)13 2-43
3} 66.2
Note, A&us major w'as 14,400 fquare feet, equal t<J
a femis; clima, 3600 fquare feet, equal to fefcuncia i
and aftus minimus equal to a fextana.
a lllf
MAR [ 71S J MAR
III, Cubical Meufurcs, or Meafurea of Capacity, for
Liquids.
1.3 The Englifh meafuren were originally railed from
troy-weight : it being enacted by feveral llatutes, that
eight pounds troy of wheat, gathered from the rtiiddle
of the ear, and well dried, Ihould weigh a gallon of
wine meafure, the diviilons and multiples whereof were
to form the other meafures ; at the fame time it was
alfo ordered, that there fhould be but one liquid mea¬
fure in the kingdom : yet cuftom has prevailed, and
there having been introduced a new weight, viz. the
avoirdupois, we have now' a fecond ftandard gallon ad-
juiled thereto, and therefore exceeding the former in
the proportion of the avoirdupois weight to troy
weight. From this latter ftandard are raifed two fe¬
veral meafures, the one for ale, the other for beer.
The fealed gallon at Guildhall, which is the ftandard
for wines, fpirits, oils, &c. is fuppofed to contain 231
cubic inches; and on this fuppofition the other mea¬
fures railed therefrom, wall contain as in the table un¬
derneath : yet, by adtual experiment, made in 1688,
before the lord-mayor and the commifiioners of excife,
this gallon was found to contain only 224 cubic inches :
it was however agreed to continue the common fup¬
pofed contents of 231 cubic inches; fo that all com¬
putations Hand on their old footing. Hence, as 12 is
to 231, fo is 14^ t0 2814 the cubic inches in the ale-
gallon : but in effect the ale-quart contains 704- cubic
inches, on w'hich principle the ale and beer gallon wull
be 282 cubic inches. The feveral divifion and mul¬
tiples of thefe meafures, and their pVoportions, are ex¬
hibited in the tables underneath.
The barrel for ale in London is 32 gallons,, and the
barrel for beer 36 gallons. In all other places of
England, the barrel, both for ale and beer, is 34
gallons.
2.] Scotc/i liquid meafure is founded on the pint.
The Scotch pint was formerly regulated by a ftandard
jug of caft metal,' the cuftody of which was committed
to the borough of Stirling. This jug was fuppofed
to contain 105'cubic inches ; and though, after feveral
careful trials, it has been found to contain only about
J03i inches; yet, in compliance with eftabliftred cu-
ftem, founded on that opinion, the pint Jlouf>s are ftill
regulated to contain 105 inches, and the cuftomary
ale meafures are about Y'rf above that ftandard. It was
enafted by James I. of Scotland, that the pint ftrould
contain 41 ounces Trone weight of the clear water of
Tay, and, by James VI. that it ftrould contain 55
Scots Troy ounces of the clear water of Leith. This
affords another method of regulating the pint, and al¬
fo afeertains the ancient ftandard of the Trone weight.
As the water of Tay and Leith are alike, the Trone
weight muft have been to the Scots Tro^weight as
55 to 41 ; and therefore, the pound Trone muft have
Contained about 2if ounces Scots Troy.
4 gills = 1 mutchkin.
2 mutchkins = 1 chopin.
2 chopins = 1 pint.
2 pints = 1 quart.
4 quarts = 1 gallon. x
^ The Scotch quart contains 210 inches; and is,
therefore, about lefs than the Engliftr wine gallon,
and about f lefs than the ale-gallon.
3]. As to the liquid meafures of foreign nations, it
is to be obferved, that their feveral veffels for wine, vi¬
negar; &c. have alfo various denominations accord^
ing to their different fizes and the places wherein
they are ufed. The woeders of Germany, for hold¬
ing Rheniff and Mofelle wines, are different in their
gauges; fome containing 14 aumes of Amfterdam-
meafure, and others more or lefs. Theaume is reckon¬
ed at Amfterdam for 8 fteckans, or 20 verges, or for
of a ton of 2 pipes ; or 4 barrels of French or Bour-
deaux, which f at this latter place is called t'urcon,
becaufe 3 of them make a pipe or 2 barrels, and 6 the
faid ton. The fteckan is 16 mingles, or 32 pints;
and the verge is, in refpedf of the faid Rhenifh and
Mofelle, and fome other forts of wine, 6 mingles;
but, in meafuring brandy, it confifts of mingles.
The aume is divided into 4 anckers, and the ancker
into 2 fteckans, or 32 mingles. The ancker is taken
fometimea for 2~ of a ton, or 4 barrels; on which
footing the Bourdeaux-barrel ought to contain at
Amfterdam (when the calk is made according to the
juft gauge) I2f fteckans, or 200 mingles wine and
lees; or 12 fteckans, or 192 mingles racked wine;
fo that the Bourdeaux-ton of wine contains 50 fteckans,
or 800 mingles, wine and lees; and 48 fteckans, or
7: 8 mingles of pure wine. The barrels or poinjons
of Nantes and other places on the river Loire, con¬
tain only 12 fteckans Amfterftam meafure. The
wine-ton of Rochelle, Cognac, Charente, and the
Me of Rhe, differs very little from the ton of Bour-
deaux, and confequently from the barrels and pipes.
A ton of wine of Chaloffe, Bayonne, and the neigh¬
bouring places, is reckoned 60 fteckons, and the bar¬
rel 15, Amfterdam-meafure.
The muid of Paris contains 150 quarts, or 300
pints, wine and lees; or 280 pints clear wine; of
which muids 3 make a ton, and the fra&ions are
f36 fetiers
I g 4 quarts
^ ] 2 pints
The muid
The fetier
The quart
The pint f 5'j 2 chopins
1 he chopin j tfq | 2 demi-fetiers
The demi-fetier J L 2 poiffons.
The muid is alfo compofed of pipes, or poin^ons,
quarteaux, queves, and demiqueves: thofe poingons
of Paris and Orleans contain about 15 fteckans Am¬
fterdam meafure, and ought to weigh with the calk
666 lb. a little more or lefs. In Provence they reckon
by milleroles, and the millerole of Toulon contains 66
Paris pints, or ii.o pints of Amfterdam, nearly; and
the Paris pint is nearly equal to the Englilh wine-
quart.
The butts or pipes from Cadiz, Malaga, Alicant,
Benecarlo, Saloe, and Mataro, and from the Canaries,
from Lilbon, Oporto, and Fayal, are very different
in their gauges, though in affreightments they are all
reckoned two to the ton.
Vinegar is meafured in the lame manner as wine;
but the meafures for brandies are different : thefc
fpirits from France, Spain, Portugal, See. are gene¬
rally Ihipped in large calks called pipes, butts, and
pieces according to the places from whence they are
reported, &c. In France, brandy L Ihipped in calks
called pian at Bourdeaux, and pipes at Rochelle,
Cognac, the ille of Rhe, and other neighbouring
places.
MeaCun
M E A [ y
[eafure. places, which contain fome more and Tome lefs, even
''T"’’ from 60 to go Amfterdam verges or veertels, accord-
' ing to the capacity of the veffels, and the places they
come from, which being reduced into barrels will
ftand as follows, viz.
At Rochelle, Cognac, the Me of Rhe, •)
and the country of Aunis 27 Veertels
At Nants, and feveral places of Bre¬
tagne and Anjon - 29 Veertels
At Bourdcaux, and different parts of
Guienne - - 32 Verges ^
At Amfterdam, and other cities of
Holland - " 30 Veertels
At Hamburgh and Lubeck 30 Verges
At Embden - - 27 Verges
In Provence and Languedoc, brandy is fold by the
quintal, the calks included ; and at Bruges in Flan¬
ders, the verges are called fejlers of 16 flops each,
and the fpirit is fold at fo much per flop.
Olive oil is alfo fhipped in cafks of various fizes,
according to the cuftom of the places where it is em¬
barked and the conveniency of ftowage. In England
it is fold by the ton of 2.6 gallons ; and at Amfter¬
dam by the ton of 717 mingles, or 1434 pints. In
Provence it is fold by milleroles of 66 Paris-pints;
from Spain and Portugal it is brought in pipes or
butts, of different gauges ; at the firft place it is fold
by roves, whereof 4c go to the butt; and at the lat¬
ter place by almoudas, whereof 26 makes a pine.
Train oil is fold in England by the ton, at Amfterdam
by the barrel.
19 ] M E A
Tables of Liquid Meafure.
1. English.
Solid inches.
living •
28-^
4i58
7276;
4553
Pint
19279
29136 1008
58212 2016252
Gallon
Rundlet
Barrel
if Tierce
2 |if Hogfhead
2 fj2 I if Puncheon
' i.
il±
Butt or pipe
z I Tun.
Pints
8 Gallon
_4
128
256
5»-2
Barrel
Jldog..
Pints
8 Gallon
72j 9 Firkin
144'!8;2 Kilderkin
_-l-L L,
28S!36I4!2 Barrel
 iiAl
57j6!72j8j4l2|Hog.
Caph
Log
2. Jewish reduced.to Englifh Wine-meafure.
Hin
Seah
3 Bath, or Epha
3olio Coron, or Chomer.
3 Solid’
Gall. 5 inches. .
O Of 0.177-
O of. 0.211
o 3f 0.844
1 - 2-533
2. 4 5*o67^
7 4 15-2
75 5 7-625:
3.. Attic
Afeafnce.
M E A
[ 7^0 ]
M E A
3. Attic reduced to Englifh Wine-meafure.
Gal. Pints. 2- Dec.
0 t4t5- 0.0356*
o * 0.0712 £
D * o.oSgtfJ
- o * 0.1784^
O TT 0.35614
0 t °-J35 I
o 4 2.141 4
o 1 4.283
o 62 5.698
10 2 19.629
4. Roman reduced to Engllih Wine-meafure.
Ligula
4
6
Cyathus
288
1152
Acetabulum
2 Quartarius
288
2304 576
46080 11520 768013840 1920 960 i6o‘4c acjCuleus
Sextarlus
6 Congius
24 4Urna
48 8. 2 Amphora
Gal. Pints Dec.
•BT
o o* 0.117*
o 0* 0.469 4
004 0.704 f
004 1.409
o 04 2.818
o 7
3 4
7
143
5.636
4.942
5-33
10.66
11.095
IV. Meafures of Capacity for things Dry.
l.] Englijh dry or corn meafure. The ftandard for
meafuring corn, fait, coals, and other diy goods, in
.England, is the Winchefter gallon, which contains
2724 cubic inches. The bufhel contains 8 gallons, or
2178 inches. A cylindrical-veflel, 184 inches diame¬
ter, and 8 inches deep, is appointed to be ufed as a
bufhel in levying the malt-tax. A veflel of thefe di-
menfions is rather lefs than the Winchefter bufhel of
8 gallons, for k contains only 2150 inches ; though
probably there was no difference intended. The deno¬
minations of dry meafure commonly ufed, are given
in the firft of the fubjoined tables. Four quarters corn
make a chaldron, 5 quarters make a wey or load, and 10
quarters make a ton. In meafuring fea-coal, 5 pecks
N° 198.
make a bufhel, 9 bufhels make a quarter or vatt, 4
quarters make a chaldron, and 21 chaldrons make a
fcore.
40 feet hewn timber make a load.
50 feet unhewn timber make a load.
32 gallons make a herring barrel.
42 gallons make a falmon barrel.
1 cwt. gun-powder makes a barrel.
256 lb. foap make a barrel.
10 dozen candles make a barrel.
12 barrels make a laft.
2.] Scotch dry meafure. There Was formerly only-
one meafure of capacity in Scotland ; and foftie com¬
modities were heaped, others f railed, or meaftired eX-
aftly to the capacity of the ftandard. The method of
heaping was afterwards forbidden as unequal, and a
larger
M E A [ ] M E A
Iffeafaps. larger meafure appointed for fuch commodities as Uiat
  euftom had been extended to.
T’he wheat-firlot, ufed alfo for rye, peafe, beans,
fait, and grafs-feeds, contains 2-1 pints i mirtchkin,
meafured by the Stirling jug. The barley firlot, ufed
alfo for oats, fruit, and potatoes, contains 31 pints.
A different method of regulating the firlot was ap¬
pointed, from the dimenfions of a cylindrical veffel.
The diameter for both meafures was fixed at 193-
inches, the depth 7 j- inches for the wheat-firlot, and
lot- for the barley-firlot. A ftandard conftructed by
thefe meafures is rather lefs than when regulated by
the pint; and as it is difficult to. make veffels exa&ly
cylindrical, the regulation by the pint has prevailed,
and the other method gone into difufe.
If the Stirling jug contain 1034- inches, the wheat-
firlot will contain 2109 inches ; which is more than 2
per cent, larger than the legal malt-bufhel of England,
and about 1 per cent, larger than the Winchefter bu-
fhel: and the barlfey-firlot will contain 3 208 inches.
The barley-boll is nearly equal to fix legal malt bufhels.
In Stirlingfhire, 1 7 pecks are reckoned to the boll:
in Invernefsfhire, 18 pecks: in Ayrfhire, the boll is
the fame as the Englifh quarter. And the firlots, in
many places, are larger than the Linlithgow ftandard.
3.] French dry, are, the litron, bufhel, minot, mine,
feptier, muid, and tun. The litron is divided into two
demilitrons, and four quarter-litrons, and contains 36
cubic inches of Paris. By ordonnance, the litron is
to be three inches and a dialf high, and three inches
lo lines broad. Tire litron for fait is larger, and is
divided into two halves, four quarters, eight demi-
quarters, and 16 mefurettes. The French bufiiel is
different in different jurifdiftions. At Paris it is di¬
vided into demi-bufhels; each demi-bufhel into two
quarts ; the quart into two half-quarts ; and the half¬
quart into two litrons: fo that the bulhel contains 16
litrons. By ordonnance the Paris bufhel is to be eight
inches two lines and a half high, and ten inches
broad, or in diameter within-fide. The minot con-
fifts of three bufhels, the mine of two minots or fix
bufhels, the feptier of two mines or 12 bufhels, and
the muid-of 12 feptiers, or an 144 bufhels. The bu¬
fhel of oats is eftimated double that of any other grain;
fo that there go 24 bufhels to make the feptier, and
288 to make the muid. It is divided into four pico-
rins, the picotin containing two quarts, or four litrons.
The bufhel for fait is divided into two half-bufhels, four
quarters, eight half-quarters, and 16 litrons; four bu¬
fhels make a minot, 16 a feptier, and 192 a muid.
The bufhel for wood is divided into halves, quarters,
and half-quarters. Eight bufhels make the minot, 16
a mine ; 20 mines, or 320 bufhels, the' muid. For
plafter, 12 bufhels make a fack, and 36 facks a mtrid.
For lime, three br.fhels make a minot, and 48 minots
a muid. The minot is by ordonnance to be 11 inches
9 lines high, and 14 inches 8 lines in diameter. The
minot is compofed of three bufhels, or 16 litrons ;
four minots make a feptier, and 48 a muid. The
French mine is no real veffel, but an eftnnation of fe-
veral others. At Paris the mine contains fix bufhels,
and 24 make the muid ; at Rouen the mine is four bu-
Ihels ; and at Dieppe, 18 mines make a Paris muid.
The feptier differs in different places : at Paris it con-,
tains two mines, or eight bufhels, and 12 feptiers the
Vol.X. Partll. c
muid. At Rouen the feptier contains two mines or Meafl
12 bufhels. Twelve feptiers make a muid at Rouen  
as well as at Paris; but 12 of the latter are equal to
14 of the former. At Toulon the feptier contains a
mine and a half; three of which mines make the feptier
of Paris. The muid .or muy of Paris confifts of 12 fep¬
tiers ; and is divided into mines, minots, bufhels, &c.
That for oats is double that for other grain, i. e. con¬
tains twice the number of bufhels. At Orleans the
muid is divided into mines, but thofe mines only con¬
tain two Paris feptiers and a half. In fome places
they ufe the tun in lieu of the muid ; particularly at
Nantes, where it contains 16 feptiers of 16 bufhels
each, and weighs between 2200 and 2250 pounds.
Three of thefe tuns make 28 Paris feptiers. At Ro¬
chelle, &c. the tun contains 42 bufhels, and weighs two-
per cent, lefs than that of Nantes. At Breft it con¬
tains 20 bufhels, is equal to 10 Paris feptiers, an<L.
weighs about 2240 pounds. See Tun.
4.] Dutch, Swedijh, Poltjh, PruJJian, and Mufcovlte.
In thefe places, they ettimate their dry things-on the
foot of the lafi, leji, leth, or lecht; fo called according ,
to the various pronunciations, of the people who ufe
it. In Holland, the laft is equal to 19 Paris feptiers,.
or 38 Bourdeaux bufhels,, and weighs about 4560
pounds; the laft they divide into 27 mudes, and the.
mude into four fchepels. In Poland, the lafi is 40
Bourdeaux bufhels, and weighs about 4800 Paris
pounds. In Pruffia, the laft is 133 Paris feptiers. In
Sweden and Mufcovy, they meafure by the great and
little laft ; the firft containing 12 barrels, and the fe-
cond half as many. “ See Last. In Mufcovy, they
likewife ufe the chefford, which is different in various
places: that of Archangel isequal tothree Rouenbufhels.
5.3 Italian. At Venice, Leghorn, and Lucca,
they eftimate their dry things on the foot of the ftaro
or ftaio; the ftaro of Leghorn weighs 54 pounds:
112 ftaros and feven-eighths are equal to the Amfter-
dam laft. At Lucca, 119 ftaros make the laft of
Amfterdam. The Venetian ftaro weigh? 128 Paris,
pounds: the ftaro is divided into four quarters.
Thirty-five ftaros and one-fifth, or 140 quarters and
four-fifths, make the laft of Amfterdam. At Naples
and other parts, they ufe the tomolo or tomalo, equal
to one-third of the Paris feptier. Thirty-fix tomoli
and a half make the carro : and a carro and a half, or
54 tomoli, make the laft of Amfterdam. At Palermo,,
16 tomoli make the talma, and four mondili the to¬
molo. Ten falmas and three-fevenths, or 1-71 to¬
moli and three-fevenths, make the lafi of Amfterdam,
6-3 Fletnjh. At Antwerp, &c. they meafure by
the viertel; 32 and one-half whereof make 19 Paris
feptiers. At Hamburgh, the fchepel; 90 whereof
make 19 Paris feptiers.
7.3 Spanijh and Portvguefe. At Cadiz, Bilboa, and
St Sebaftian, they ufe the fanega ; 23 whereof make
the Nantes or Rochelle tun, or nine Paris feptiers and
a half: though the Bilboa fanega is lomewhat larger,
infomuch that 21 fanegas ma^e a Nantes tun. At.
Seville,. &c. they ufe the anagoras, containing a little
more than the Paris mine ; 36 anagoras make 19 Pa¬
ris feptiers. At Bayonne, &c. the concha; 30 where¬
of are equal to nine Paris feptiers and an half. At
Lifbon, the alquiver, a very fmall meafure, 240 where¬
of make 19 Pari? feptiers, 60 the Lifbon muid.
4 Y Tables'
M E A
[ 722 ]
Tables of Dry Meafure*
1. Engush.
Solid inches
33.6 Pint
M E A
268.8
537-6
2150.4
17203-2
Gallon
Peck
Bulhel
8. 4
64I32
81 Quarter,
2. Scripture Dry, reduced to Englidu.
Gachal
0 Cab
36
I2Q
360
l800
3600
Gomor
180
3t
30
Epha
j'Leteeh
10I 2 |Chomer, c
O O 5.
3 o 3,
16 o o
32 O. I
3. Attic Meafures of Capacity for Things dry, reduced to Englifh Corn $03
Meafure.
Cochliarion
xo Cyathos
It
6
12
18
8640864
Oxybaphon
Cotyle
Xeftes
3
5761144
i^lChoenix
'2 ^glMedimnos
4. Roman Meafures of Capacity for Things dry, reduced to Englifh $ q
Corn Meafure. fr ~
Ligula -- . 1
4 Cyathus ~ . 1
6 14: Acetabulum •- <
0.034
0.073
1.21 x
4.03(3
12.107
26.500
18.969
oa
r: o
S'
0.276^
2-763 . T
4-144 i
16'S19
33-I58
1.5.705 l
3.501
CO
b;
24
48
3S4
.!768
Hemina
2!sextarius
Semimodius
alModiuj
i6j 8
3*1i6
O^V 0.02'
Qit O.04.'.
O -J- 0.06
8 T 0.24
I- 0.4S
o 3.84
o 7.6S
MeasvkQ
M E A E 723 1 M E A
Meafure. Mrawkv, of IVood for Firing, Is ufually the cord }
—   four feet high, and as many broad, and eight long }
this is divided into two half-cords, called ways, and
by the French membrures, from the pieces ftuck up¬
right to bound them; or voyes, as being fuppofed half
a waggon-load.
Measure for Horfes, is the hand, which by ftatufe
contains four inches.
Measure, amongbotanifts. In defcribingthe parts
of plants, Tournefort introduced a geometrical fcale,
which many of his followers have retained They mea-
fured every part of the plant; and the effence of the
defcription confided in an accurate menfuration of the
whole.
As the parts of plants, however, are liable to va¬
riation in no circumftance To much as that of dimen-
fion, Linnseus very rarely admits any other menfura¬
tion than that arifing from the refpeftive length and
breadth of the parts compared together. In cafes
that require aftual menfuration, the fame author re¬
commends, in lieu of Tournefort’s artificial fcale, the
following natural fcale of the human body, which
he thinks is much more convenient, and equally ac¬
curate.
The fcale in queftion confifts of 11 degrees, which
are as follows: 1. A hair's-breadth, or the diameter
of a hair, (capillus.) 2. A line, (Unea), the breadth
of the crefcent or white appearance at the root of the
finger, (not thumb), meafured from the ikin towards
the body of the nail ; a line is equal to 12 hair¬
breadths, and is the 12th part of a Parifian inch. 3. A
nail, [unguis), the length of a finger-nail ; equal to
fix lines, or half a Parifian inch. 4, A thumb, {pol-
lex), the length of the firft or outermoft joint of the
thumb ; equal to a Parifian inch. 5. A palm, (pa/-
mus), the breadth of the palm exclufive of the thumb;
equal to three Parifian inches. 6. A fpan, ( fpithuma,)
the diftance between the extremity of the thumb and
that of the firft finger when extended ; equal to feven
Parifian inches. 7. A great fpan, [dodrans), the di¬
ftance between the extremity of the thumb and that
-of the little finger, when extended; equal to nine
inches. 8. A foot, (pes), meafuring from the elbow
to the balls of the thumb; equal to 12 Parifian inches.
9. A cubit, [cubitus), from the elbow to the extre¬
mity of the middle finger; equal to 17 inches. 10. An
arm-length, (brachhm), from the arm-pit to the ex¬
tremity of the middle-finger; equal to 24 Parifian
inches, or two feet- 11. A fathom, (orgya), the mea-
fure of the human ftature ; the diftance between the
extremities of the two middle fingers, when the arms
are extended ; equal, where greateit, to fix feet.
Measure is alfo ufed to fignily the cadence and
time obferved in poetry, dancing, and mufic, to render
them regular and agreeable.
The different meafures or metres in poetry, are the
different manners of ordering and combining the quan¬
tities, or the long and Ihort fyllables. Thus, hexa¬
meter, pentameter, iambic, fapphie verfes, &c. confift
of different meafures.
In Englilh verfes, the meafures are extremely vari¬
ous and arbitrary, every poet being at liberty to intro¬
duce any new form that he pleafes. The moft ufual
are the heroic, generally confifting of five long and
five Ihort, fyllables s and verfes of four feet; and of
three feet and a ctefura, or fingle fyllabje. McaUe
The ancients, by varioufly combining and tranfpo-
fing their quantities, made a vaft variety of different
meafures. Of words, or rather feet of two fyllables,
they formed a fpondee, confifting of two long fvl-
lables; a pytrhic, of two Ihort fyliables ; a trochee, of
a long and a fhort fyllable ; and an iambic, of a Ihort
and a long fyllable.
Of their feet of three fyllables they formed a mo-
loffirs, confifting of three long fyllables; a tibracb, of
three ftiort fyllables; a da&yl, of one long and two
fhort fyllables ; and an anepasft, of two fhort and one
long fyllable. The Greek poets contrived 124 dif¬
ferent combinations or meafures, under as many dif¬
ferent names, from feet of two fyllables to thofe of
fix.
Measure in Muftc, the interval or fpace of time
which the perfon who beats time, takes between the
raifing and falling of his hand or foot, in order to con-
dudt the-movement, fometimes quicker, and fometimes
flower, according to the kind of mufic, or the fubjedt
that is fung or played.
The meafure is that which regulates the time we
are to dw'ell on each note. See Time.
The ordinary or common meafure is one fecond, or
60th part of a minute, which is nearly the fpace be¬
tween the beats of the pulfe or heart ; the fyllole, or
contradlion of the heart, anfwering to the elevation of
the hand ; and its diaftole, or dilatation, to the letting
it fall. The meafure ufually takes up the fpace that
a pendulum of two feet and an half long employs in
making a fwing or vibration. The meafure is regu¬
lated according to the different quality or value of
the notes in the piece ; by which the time that each
note is to take up is expreffed. The femibreve,
for inftance, holds one rife, and one fall; and this
is called the meafure, or whole meafure; fometimts
the meafure-note, or time-note; the minim, one rife,
or one fall ; and the crotchet, half a rife, or half a
fall, there being four crotchets in a full meafure.
Measure Binary or Double, is that wherein the rife
and fall of the hand are equal.
Measure Ternary or Triple, is that wherein the fall
is double to the rife; or where two minims are played
during a fall, and but one in the rife. To this pur-
pofe, the number 3 is placed at the beginning of
the lines, when the meafure is intended to be triple;
and a C, when the meafure is to be common or
double. This rifing and falling of the hands was
called by the Greeks and St Auguftine
calls itplaufus, and the Spaniards compas. See Arsis
and Thesis.
Powder Measures in Artillery, are made of copper,
and contain from an ounce to 12 pounds: thefe are
very convenient in a fiege, when guns or mortars are
loaded with loofe powder, efpecially in ricochet fi¬
ring, &c.
MEASURING, or Mensuration, is the ufing
a certain known meafure, and determining thereby
the precife extent, quantity, or capacity of any
thing.
Measuring, in the general, makes the praftical
part of geometry. From the various fubje&s whereon
4 Y 2 it
M E A
[ 724 ]
M E A
it is employed, it acquires various names, and confli-
tutes various arts. See Geometry, Levelling,
Trigonometry, See.
MEAT. See Foo®, Diet, Drink, &c.
Amongft the Jews, feveral kinds of animals were
forbidden to be nfed as food- The flefh with the
blood, and the blood without the flelh, were prohibit¬
ed ; the fat aJfo of facriliced animals was not to be
ea en. Roalt meat, boiled meat, and ragouts, were in
ufe among® the Hebrews, but we meet with no kind
of feaConing except fait, bitter herbs, and honey.—
They never mingled milk in any ragout or hafh, and
never eat at the fame meal both meat and milk, butter
or cheefe. The daily provifion for Solomon’s table
was 30 meafures of fine wheat flour, 60 of common
flour, 23 flails of oxen, 20 pafture oxen, 100 flieep,
befides venifon and wild-fowl. See Luxury.
The principal and moil neceflary food among the
ancient Greeks was bread, which they called “fKu
and produced in a wicker bafket called Their
loaves were fometimes baked under the afaes, and
fometimes in an oven. They alfo ufed a fort of bread
called Maza. Barley meal was ufed amongft the
Greeks, which they called They had a fre¬
quent difh called Vp , which was a compofition of
rice, cheefe, eggs, and honey, wrapped in fig-leaves.
The Muttw/ov vvas made of cheefe, garlic, and eggs,
beaten and mixed together. Their bread, and other
fubftitutes for bread, were baked in the form of hol¬
low plates, into which they poured a fauce. Garlic,
onions, and figs, feem.to have been a very common
food amongft the poorer Athenians. The Greeks,
efpecially in the heroical times, ate fldh roafted ; boil-
all in long fllces, and let it lie for 24 hours in a
pickle, 't hey then remove it out of thofe jars or tubs '”
into others with water j^and when it has lain a night,
they take it out, and put it on ropes in the fun and air
to dry. When it is thoroughly dried and hard, they
cut it into pieces of two or three inches h>ng, and
throw it into a pan or caldron, which is ready with
boiling oil and fuet fufficient to hold it, where it boils
till it be very clear and red when cut. After this they
take it out, and fet it to drain ; and when all is thus
done it ftands to cool, and jars are prepared to put it
up in, pouting upon it the liquor in which it was fried;
and as foon as it is thoroughly cold, they ftop it up
clofe. It will keep two years ; will be hard, and the
hardeft they look upon to be the beftdone. This they
difh up cold, fometimes fried with eggs and garlic,,
fometimes ilewed, and lemon fqueezed on it. It is
very good any way, either hot or-cold
MEATH, commonly fo called, or otherwife Eajl
Meath, to diftinguifh it from the county called Weji
Meath : A county of Ireland, in the province of
Leinfter, bounded by the counties of Cavan and Louth,
on the north, the Irifh channel on the eaft, Kildare
and Dublin on the fouth, and Weft Meath and Long¬
ford on the weft. It is a fine champaign country, a-
bounding with corn, and well inhabited. It returns
14 members to parliament; and gives title of earl to
the family of Brabazan. It contains 326,480 Irilh
plantation acres, 139 parifhes, 12 baronies, and fixt
boroughs ; chief town Trim. This diftrict being the
moft ancient fettlemeut of the Belgians in Ireland, the-
inhabitants were efteemed the eldert and moil honour¬
able tribe : from which feniority their chieftains were
ed meat feldom was ufed. Fifh feems not to have elected monarchs of all the Belgse; a dignity that was
been ufed for food in the early ages of Greece. The continued in the Hy-n-Faillian without intermiflion,.
young people only, amongft the Lacedemonians, ate until the arrival of the Caledonian colonies, under the
animal food ; the men and the old men were fupport- name of Tuath de Danan, when Conor-Mor, chief-
edby a black foup called which to people of tain of thefe people, obtained, or rather ufurped, .the
other nations was always a difagreeable mefs. Grafs- monarchial throne, obliged Eochy Failloeh, with fe-
hoppers and the extremities or tender fhoots of trees veral of his people, to crofs the Shannon, and eftabliih
were frequently eaten by the poor among the Greeks, themfelves in the prefent county of Rofeommon, where
Eels dreffed with beet root was efteemed a delicate Crothar founded the palace of Atha er Croghan, a
difh, and they were fond of the jowl and belly of fait- circumftance which brought on a long and bloody war
fifh. Neither were they without their fweet-meats : between the Belgian and Caledonian races, which was.
the defert confifted frequently of fruits,, almonds, nuts, not finally terminated until the clofe of the 4th cen-
figs, peaches, &c. In every kind of food we find ■ tury, when the Belgian line was reftored in the perfon
fait to have been. ufed.
The diet of the firft Romans confifted wholly of
milk, herbs, and roots, which they cultivated and
drefled with their own hands 4 they alfb had a kind of
gruel, or coarfe grofs pap, compofed of meal and
boiling water; this ferved for bread : And when they
began to ufe bread, they had none for a great while
but of unmixed rye. Barley-meal was eaten by them,
which they called Polenta. When they began to eat
animal food, it was efteemed a piece of luxury, and
an indulgence not to be juftified but by fome particu-
of G’Nial the great, and continued until Briam Bo-
romh ufutped the monarchial dignity, by depofing
Malachy O’Malachlin, about the year 1001 Tuathal
Tet&homar, by a decree of the Tarah aftembly, fepa-
rated certain large tra&s of land from each of the four
provinces, where the borders joined together; whence,
under the notion of adopting this fpot for demeine
lands to fupport the royal houfehold, he formed the
county or kingdom of Meath, which afterwards be¬
came the peculiar inheritance of the monarchs of Ire¬
land. In each of the portions thus feparated from
lar occafion. After animal food had grown into com- the four provinces, Tuathal caufed palaces to be eredl-
mon ufe, the meat which they molt frequently pro- ed, which might adorn them, and commemorate the
duced upon their tables was pork. name in which they had been added to the royal do-
Method of Preferring FleJh-MEAT 'without \picesy main. In the track taken out of Munfter, he built
and with very little Salt. Jones, in his Mifcellanea the palace called Flachtaga, where the facred fire, fo-
Curiofa, gives us the following defeription of . the called, was kindled, and where all the priefts and druids.
Ulooxifti Elcholle, which is made of beef, mutton, Or annually met on the laft day of October ; on the evening
camel’s fielh, but chiefly beef, and »which they cut of which day it was enabled, that no other fire fhould
be
be ufed throughout the kingdom, in order that all the
fires might be derived from this,- which being lighted
up as a fire of facrifke, their fupeyftition led them to
believe would render all the re it propitious and holy ;
and for this privilege every family was to pay three¬
pence, by way or acknowledgment to the king of
Munfter. The fecond royal palace was eredted in the
proportion taken out of Connaught, and was built for
the affembly called the convocation of Vifneach, at
which all £he inhabitants were fnmmoned to appear on
the lit day of May, to oifer facrifice to Beal, or Bel,
the god of fire, in whofe honour two large fires being
kindled, the natives ufed to drive their cattle between
them, which was fuppofed to be a prefervative for
them againit accidents and diitempers, and this was
called Beal-Time, or Bel-Twe, or the feilival of the
god of fire. The king of Connaught at this meeting
claimed a horfe and arms from every-lord of a manor
or chieftain, as an acknowledgement for the lands ta¬
ken from that province, to add to the. territory of
Meath. The third was that which Tailtearyere&ed in
the part taken from Uliler, where tie fair of that name
Was held, which was remarkable for this particular
circumitance, that the inhabitants brought their chil¬
dren thither, males and females, and contracted them
in marriage, where the parents- having agreed upon
articles, the young people were joined accordingly ;
every couple contracted at this meeting, paid the king
of JJllter an ounce of lilver by way of acknowledge¬
ment. The royal manfion of Tarah, formerly deltroy-
ed by fire, being re-built by Tuathal, on the lands
originally belonging to the king of JL,einlter, was rec¬
koned as the fourth of thefe palaces ; but as a fabric
of that name had itood there before, we do not find
that any acknowledgment was made for it to the king
of Leinfter.
Meath, with Clonmacnpis, is a bilhop’s fee, valued in
the king’s books at L. 373 : 7 : o4s Sterling, by an
extent returned anno 28th Elizabeth ; but, by a former
extent taken anno 30th Henry VIII. the valuation a-
mounts to L. 373, 12 s. which being the largeft and
. molt profitable for the king, is the meafure of the firft
fruits at this day. This fee is reputed to be worth
annually L. 3400. There were formerly many Epif-
copal fees in Meath, as Clonard, Duleek, Kells,
Trim, Ardbraccan, Donlhaghlin, Slaine, and Foure,
befides others of lefs note; all thefe, except Duleek
and Kells, were confolidated, and their common fee
was fixed at Clonard, before the year 1152; at.which
time the divifions of the bilhoprics in Ireland was made
by John Paparo, cardinal-prieft, entitled cardinal of
St Lawrence in Damafo, then legate from Pope Eu¬
gene III. to the Irifh. This divifion was made in a
Synod held on the 6th of March in the abbey of Mel-
lifont, or, as feme fay, at Kells ; and the two fees of
Duleek and Kells afterwards fubmitted to the fame
fate. The conftitution of this diocefe is Angular, ha¬
ving no dean nor chapter, cathedral, or economy.—
Under the bilhop, the archdeacon is the head officer, to
whom, and to the clergy in general, the conge d'elire
ilfued while biflxops were elective. The affairs of the
diocefe are tranfadted by a fynod,' in. the nature of a
chapter, who have a common feal, which is annually
lodged in the hands qf one of the body, by the ap¬
pointment and vote of the 'majority. The dioctfe
is divided into twelve rural deaneries.
Of Cloh macnois, now annexed to Meath: Therein
no valuation of this fee in the king’s books; but it
is fuppofed to be included in the extent of the fee of
Meath, taken anno 30th Henry VIII. The chapter
of this fee confided anciently of dean, chanter, chan¬
cellor, treafurer, archdeacon, and twelve prebendaries,
but mod; of the pofftffions of them have fallen into
lay-hands. At prefent the deaneiy is the only part
of the chapter which fubfids, to which the prebend of
Cloghran is annexed, and he hath a feal of office,
which appears to. have been the ancient Epifcopal feal
of this fee. This fee was founded by St Kiaran, or
Ciaran, the'younger, in 543 or 549; and Dermod,.-
the fon of Ceronill, king pf Ireland, granted the fite
on which the church was built.
Mratfc
IVft Meath. See Westmeith.
MEA TUS AuniTORiu s. See Anatomy, n° 139.
MEAUX, an ancient town of France, in Brie, with
a b;(hop’s fee, feated in a place abounding in corn and'
cattle, on the river Marne, which divides it into two-
parts, and its trade confifts in corn, wool, and cheefe..
E. Long. 2. 58 N. Lat. 48. 58.
MEC-ENAS, or Mecoenas (C. Cilnius), a cele¬
brated Roman knight, defeended from the kings of
Etruria. He has rendered himfelf immortal by his
liberal, patronage of learned men and of letters ; and
to his prudence and advice Allgudus acknowledged
himfelf indebted for the fecurity he enjojed. His
fondnefs for pleafure removed him from the reach of
ambition ; and he preferred dying, as he was born, a
Roman knight, to all the honours and dignities which:
either the friendlhip of Augufius or his own popula¬
rity vcould heap upon him. To the interference of
Mecaenas, Virgil owed the retribution of his lands ;
and Horace was proud to boalt that his learned friend
had obtained his forgivenefs from the emperor, for
joining the caufe of Brutus at the battle of PhilippL.
Mecaenas was himfelf fond of literature ; and, ac¬
cording to the molt received opinion, he wrote a hif-
tory of animals, a journal of the life of Auguftus, a
treatife on the different natures and kinds of precious
Hones, befides the two tragedies of Octavia and Pro-
metheusj and other things, all now loll. He died eight
years before Chrilt ; and on his death-bed he parti¬
cularly recommended his poetical friend Horace to the.
care and confidence of Auguftus. Seneca, who has li¬
berally commendedtbe genius and abilities of Mecaenas,
has not with held his cenfure from his diffipation, in-t
dolence, and effeminate luxury. From tlie patronage
and encouragement which the princes of heroic and
lyric poetry among the Latins received from the fa¬
vourite of Auguftus, all patrons of literature have ever
fince been called Meacnates. Virgil dedicated to him
his Georgies, and Horace his odes.
MECCA, an ancient and very famous town of Alia,
in Arabia the Happy; feated. on a barren fpot, in a
valley furrounded with little hills, about a day’s jour¬
ney from the Red-Sea. It is a place of no ftrength,
having neither. walLf nor gates, and the buildings are
very. mean. That which fupports it is the refort of a
great many thoufand pilgrims annually, for the ft : 7 a
are fcarcely open all the year befides- The.inhabitants
M E C [ 72<
are poor, very thin, lean, and Avar thy. The hills
about the town are very numerous ; and confift of a
-bhckiih rock, -fume of them half a mile in circumfe¬
rence. On the top of one of them is a cave, where
they pretend Mahomet ufually retired to perform his
devotions, and hither they affirm the greateft part of
the Alcoran was brought him by the angel Gabriel.
The town has plenty of water, and yet little garden-
IhifF; but there are feyera! forts of good fruits to be
had, Tuch as grapes, melons, water melons, and cu¬
cumbers. There are alfo plenty of (beep brought thi¬
ther to be fold to the pilgrims. It hands in a very
hot climate ; and the inhabitants ufually fieep on the
tops of their houfes for the hike of coolnefs-. In or¬
der to protect tliemfelves from the heat through the
•day, they carefully fnut the windows, and water the
directs to refvefa the air. There have been inftances
•of perfoiis fuffocated in the middle of the town by the
burning wind called Simoom.
As a great number of the people of diftin&ion in
the province of Hedsjas ftay in the city, it is better
built than any other in Arabia.. Amongil the beauti¬
ful edifices it contains, the moft remarkable A the fa¬
mous Kaba, or Caaba, “ The houfe of God,” which
was held in great veneration by the Arabs even before
Mahomet’s time.
No Chriftian dare go to Mecca; not that the ap¬
proach to it is prohibited by any exprefs law, or that
the fenfible part of the Mahometans have any thing
to objeft to it; but on account of the prejudices of
the people, who, regarding this ground as facred, think
Chriftians unworthy of fetting'their foot on it; it
would be profaned, in the opinion of the fjperftiti-
•ous, if it was trod upon by infidels. The people even
believe, that Chriftiaus are prevented from approach¬
ing by fome fupernatural power; and they tell the
ilory of an infidel, who having got fo far as the hills that
furrouhd Mecca, all the dogs of the city came out, and
fell upon him ; and who, being ftruck with this miracle,
and the auguft appearance of the Kaba, immediately
became a muffulman. It is therefore to be prefumed,
that all the Europeans who deferibe Mecca as eye-wit-
nefles, have been renegadoes efcaped from Turkey. A
recent example confirms this fuppofition. On the pro-
mifeof being allowed to preferve his religion, a French
furgeon was prevailed on to accompany the Emir
Hadsji to Mecca, in quality of phyfician ; but at the
very firft ftation, he was forced to fubmit to circum-
cifion, and then he was permitted to continue his jour¬
ney.
Although the Mahometans do not allow Europeans
to go to Mecca, they do not refufe to give them de-
feriptions of the Kaba, and information with regard
to that building ; and there are perfons who gain their
bread by making defigns and little pi&ures of the Kaba,
and felling them to pilgrims. See Caaba.
The Mahometans have fo high an opinion of the
fanttity of Mecca, that they extend it to the places
in the neighbourhood. The territory of that city is
held facred to certain diftances, which are indicated by
particular marks. Every caravan finds in its road a
jimilar mark, which gives notice to the pilgrims when
they are to pat on the modeftgarb in which they mufi:
appear in thofe facred regions. Every muffulman is
obliged to go .once in his life, at lealt, to Mecca, to
5 ] M E C
perform his devotioRS*there. If that law was rigour- Meets
oufly enforced, the concourfe of pilgrims would be  V'"
prodigious, and the anty would never be able to con¬
tain the multitudes from all the countries where the
Mahometan religion prevails. We mull, therefore,
fuppofe, that devotees alone perform this duty, and
that the others can eafily difpenfe with it. Thofe
whofe circumftances do not permit a long abfence,
have the liberty of going to Mecca by a fukftitute.—
A hired pilgrim, however, cannot go for more than
one perfon at a time ; and he mult, to prevent frauds,
bring an atteftation in proper form, from an Imam of
Mecca, that he has performed the requifite devotions
on behalf of fuch a perfon, either alive or dead ; for,
after the deceafe of a perfon who has not obeyed the
law during his life, he is Hill obliged to perform the
journey by proxy.
The caravans, which are not numerous, when we
confider the immenfe multitude of the faithful, are
compofed of many people who do not make the jour¬
ney from purpofes of devotion. Thefe are merchants,
who think they can tranlport their merchandizes with
more fafety, and difpofe of them more eafily; and
contractors of every kind, who furniih the pilgrims,
and the foldiers who efcort the caravans, with necelfa-
ries. Thus it happens, that many people have gone
often to Mecca, folely from views of intereft. The
moft confiderable of thofe caravans is that of Syria,
commanded by the Pacha of Damafcus. It joins at
feme diltance the fecond from Egypt, which is con¬
duced by a Bey, who takes the title of Emir Hadsji.
One comes from Yemen, and another, lefs nume¬
rous, from the country of Lachfa. Some fcattered pil¬
grims arrive by the Red Sea from the Indies, and from
the Arabian eftablifhments on the coafts of Africa.
The Perfians come in that which departs from Bag¬
dad ; the place of conduCor to this laft 'is beftowed
by the Pacha, and is very lucrative, for he receives
the ranfoms of the heretical Perfians.
It is of confequence to a pilgrim to arrive early at
the holy places. Without having been prefent from
the beginning at all the ceremonies, and without ha¬
ving performed every particular aC of devotion, a man
cannot acquire the title of Hadsji: this is an honour
very much coveted by the Turks, for it confers real
advantages, and makes thofe who attain it to be much
refpeCed. Its infrequency, however, in the Maho¬
metan dominions, ftiows how much the obfervation of
the law commanding pilgrimages is negleCed. A fi-
milar cultom prevails among the Oriental Chriftians,
who are alfo exceedingly emulous of the title of Hadsji,
or Mokdafi, which is given to pilgrims of their com¬
munion. In order to acquire this title, it is not fulfi-
cient that the perfon has made the journey to Jerufa-
lem ; he mull alfo have kept the paftbver in that city,
and have aflifted at all the ceremonies of the holy
weeks.
After all the effendal ceremonies are over, the pil¬
grims next morning move to a place where they fay
Abraham went to offer up his fon Ifaac, which is
about two or three miles from Mecca : here they pitch
their tents, and then throw feven fmall ftones again!!
a little fquare flone building. This, as they affirm, is
performed in defiance of the devil. Every one then
purchafes a ffieep, which is brought for that purpofe,
eating
M E C [ 7
Mecca, eatTng fome of it themftlves, and giving the reft to the
echamcs pO0r pe0pie who attend upon that occafion. Indeed
'"*v thefe are miferable objefts, and fuch ftarved creatures,
that they feem ready to devour each other. After all,
one would imagine that this was-a very fan&ifkd place;
and yet a renegado who went in pilgrimage thither,
affirms there is as much debauchery praftifed here as in
any part of the Turkilh dominions. It is 25 miles from
Jodda, the fea-port town of Mecca, and 220 fouth-
eaft of Medina. E- Long. 40. 55:. N. Lat. 2t. 45.
MECHANICAL, an epithet applied to whatever
relates to mechanics : thus we fay, mechanical powers,
caufes, &c. See the articles Power, CAtrsE, &c.
The mechanical philofophy is the fame with what is
other wife called corpufcutar philofophy. See Corpus¬
cular.
This manner of reafoning is much ufed in medicine ;
and, according to Dr Quincy, is the refult of a tho¬
rough acquaintance with the ft ruff are of animal bo¬
dies : for confidering an animal body as a compofition
out of the fame manner from which all other bodies are
formed, and to have allthofe properties which concern
a phyfician’s regard, only by virtue of its peculiar con-
ftruftion ; it naturally leads a perfon to conlider the
feveral parts, according to their figures, contexture,
M E C H
IN the ftrift fenfe of the word, denotes the method
of conftrufting machines to be fet in motion, and
to anfwer fome ufeful purpofes, by certain powers,
either natural or artificial. According to this defini¬
tion, the nature of the powers themfelves is not the
ebjeft of mechanical inveftigation, but rather the ef-
feeft of them upon the paffive bodies which we call
machines; and the conftrudfing of thefe in fuch a man¬
ner, that the powers may aft upon them with the leaft
poffible obftruftion, and produce the intended effeft
to the greateft advantage, is the perfection of Me¬
chanics.
It is ufual, in treatifes upon this fubjeft, to begin
with an inveftigation of the properties of matter itfelf,
and of central forces; but the former is not to be in-
veftigated by mechanical means, and the latter belong
fo much to aftronomy, that very little needs to be faid
upon them in this place; for which reafon we refer to
the articles Astronomy, Matter, and Motion, for
a difeuffion of thefe fubjefts. In treating of mecha¬
nics, therefore, we (hall begin with a defeription of
what are commonly called the mechanic ppivers ; and af¬
terwards confider the various ways in which they may
be modified, in order to produce the effefts expefted
from them.
Sect. I. Of Material or Mechanical Power in
general.
$ I. ProduSion of Motion and Refl.
In mechanics every thing is called a power which
is capable of afting upon a folid body ; and every power
which can aft upon matter is fuppofed to be material,
without regarding any abftrufe fpeculations concern-
7 ] M E C
and ufe, either as wheels, pullies, wedges, levers,
ferews, cords, canals, ftrainers, &c. For which pur- •
pofe, continues he, it is frequently found helpful to
defign in diagrams, v/hatfoever of that kind is under
confideration, as is cuftomary in geometrical demon-
ftrations.
For the application of this doftrine to the human
body, fee the article Medicine.
Mechanical, in mathematics, denotes a conftruc-
tion of tome problem, by the affiltanee of inftruments,
as the duplicature of the cube and quadrature of the
circle, in contradiftinfti on to that which is done in an
accurate and geometrical manner.
Mechanical Curve, is a curve, according to Def-
Cartes, which cannot be defined by any algebraic equa¬
tion ; and fo Hands contradiftinguiftied from algebraic
or geometrical curves.
Leibnitz and others call thefe mechanical curves
tranfcenclenla!, and dilfent from Defcartes, in excluding
them out of geometry. Leibnitz found a new kind of
tranfcendental equations, whereby thefe curves are de¬
fined : but they do not continue conftantly the fame
in all points of the curve, as algebraic ones do. Sec
the article Transcendental.
A N I C S,
ing its nature. Hence the force of gravity, of elec¬
tricity, of fire, of air, of water, the power of animals,,
of bodies preffing or impinging with violence upon one
another, are all accounted’mechanical powers when ap¬
plied to fet machines in motion. T
As any fingle power, when applied to a material Reft profc«
body, will fet it in motion in proportion to its quan-ce<1.1)J’
tity, fo the aftion of an oppofite. power upon the fame
body produces reft. This may be eafily conceived ; li^powera,.
for fuppofing two men to pull a log of wood with
equal degrees of ftrength in directions exaftly oppolite
to one another, the log will remain immoveable. In
like manner, if we put in a weight into one fcale of a
balance, motion will be produced ; but reft is the cer¬
tain confequence of counterpoifing it with an equal
weight in the oppofite fcale. When a weight is fuf-
pended freely.in the air, we are apt to imagine.that it
is afted upon by no force whatever; but we will Ibou
difeover our miltake, by withdrawing the prdfure of
the air from one fide; for the body then, inftead of
remaining at reft, will move with great violence to one
fide, and even contrary to the direction of gravity it¬
felf, unlefs it be extremely heavy. Whether reft be in
all cafes produced by the aftion of oppofite powers
upon the fame fubftance, is a Speculation to he difculfed
under the article Motion.
$ 2. Of Refflance.
When any moving power is flopped by a fixed
obftacle, fo that it can: proceeds no farther, we fay
that it is refjled by that obftacle. In this cafe we are ultimate
apt to imagine that there is no force exerted by the cmfesof «■>
refilling obftacle; but it is found by experience, thatiiftar.ee.
ref fiance is- to all intents and purpofes equivalent to a.
.6 jpowet'
7^8
Me<-hamc.-.l power equal and • contrary to that which is impelled
t y°vvt:' againfl the refiiting obftacle. This is exemplified in
v the cafe of a man llanding in a boat, and puihing with
a pole againft the bank of a river or lake. In this
cafe every one knows that the boat will go off in a
dire ft ion contrary to that in which he pulhes ; but if
the boat be faffened by means of a hook and rope to
that part of the pole which is between the man’s body
and the bank, the boat will remain immoveable by
reafon of the equality betwixt the adfion of the man
upon the pole fonvard, and of the boat upon the
Plate fame pole backward. Thus, in fig. i. when the man
ccrxxitiu pUfhes with the pole C againft the bank D, in the di-
redbion CA, the boat B will be,carried awray from
the bank in the diredtion AC; but if, by means of the
rope E, the boat be faftened to the pole AC, the re-
' coil of the boat in the dire&ion AC will be jaft equal
-to the pufh given by the man in the diredtion CA, fo
that no motion will enfue let him exert ever fo much
ftrength. Hence we fee, that by means of a refilling
obflacle a pow'er may be made to counteradlitfelf, fo
that a ihotion or tendency to it may be produced in
■any diredliqn ; and in this cafe, as well as in the for¬
mer, reft is produced by the qppofition of two con¬
trary forces.
The very fame effedl would follow’, though w’e mould
fuppofe the man in the boat not to pulh againft the
bank or any fixed obftade, but againft another boat
faftened by means of a rope to his own. In this cafe
both the boats will recede from each other till the
rope be llretched;. after which they will both remain
immoveable, unlefs they be adled upon by fome power
external to both. If both boats be at liberty, they
; .will mutually recede from each other till they get be¬
yond the re^ch of the pole.
3 Rcffftance, whatever we may fpeculate about it,
ReDOanee feems ultimately to depend on the power of gravity
to an oppo- joined with that of cohefion. Thus a weight of loo
jing pow'er. pounds, even when fufpended in the freeft manner we
can imagine, will refill much more than 20 pounds fuf¬
pended in the fame manner ; and though hard bodies
refill to a great degree, yet unlefs conne&ed with fome
very heavy body, they arc eafily moved out of their
place; and the immenfe gravitation of the whole globe
of earth, we may juftly fuppofe to be the fource of all
refiftance whatever to mechanical powers.
On the whole, therefore, vvemay confider refiftance
as an a&ive power; but the a&ion of which is confined
to a very limited fpace, or to the fmgle point of con-
taft ; though rfeveral experiments Ifend to Ihow, that
even before aTual contact bodies- Ihow a very percep¬
tible degree of refiftance.
$ 3. Of the Communication of Power.
This depends entirely upon that property of bodies
which is called their attraction of cohefion, and the im¬
mobility of their particles among themfelves; for if
the parts of a body are. abfolutciy moveable among
themfelves, they can neither communicate motion by
impulfe nor by preffure. The moll common method
of communicating motion in the mechanical way is by
preffure, which is generally accomplilhed by means of
the fix mechanical powers to be afterwards defcribed:
coliiliun being employed only in, certain particular
Nu 199.
Sett. I
cafes, the moft remarkable of which will be, pointed vlechamd
out under the article Motion. 1>ower|
The motion, which by means of an hard inflexible
body is communicated to any other, may be confined
to a fingle point, or it may be diffufed over any aflign-
able fpace. Thus, in fig. 2. let us fuppofe that any
affrgnable power is applied to the point E, urging it
from E towards D; the whole of that force will reft
upon the point of contadl betwixt the ball C and the
line BD. The weight, if placed exadlly perpendicu¬
lar to the horizon, will remain upright, .without in¬
clining either to one fide or other; for the power of
refiftance in the line BD is exa&ly equal to tlie im-
pulfe of the weight lying upon E ; fo that it is in
the fame fituation with the man and boat in the firft
example, when he had the boat hooked to the pole
with which‘he pufhed againft the bank. If inftead of
oppofing the end of-the refilling body BD to the ball
C, we place them in the pofition reprefented in fig. 3.
then the whole of the power will reft upon any point
of the line BD we pleafe. For if we fuppofe the line
EC to drive the line BD before it in the pofition re- < ]
prefented in the figure, it is plain that the whole force
of that line will be difeharged for a moment upon the I
line F, or upon any obftacle we choofe to put in its
way in another part of the line; but if we place
two fupport.s or refiftances to the moving line BD, as
F and G in fig. 4. it is equally plain, that one half of
the power will reft upon the one and one half upon
the other. For the whole force urging forward the
line BD is but a certain and determined quantity ;
and if divided betwixt two obftacles, each of thefe
mull undoubtedly bear one half. In like manner, if,
as in fig. 5. the power be oppofed by four obftacles,
each of them will bear only one-fourth part; andffo
on if we fuppofe it oppofed by ever fo many. For
reafons afterwards to be affigned, however, it is abfo-
lutely neceffary that the force on E aft in a line di-
rectly perpendicular upon BD ; that the obftacles he
all at equal diftances; comparatively fpeaking, from C;
as H and I, F and G, &c. likewife that they be of
exactly the fame height; for thus only the preffure,
arid confequently the motion, can be made uniform in
all parts. On this principle depends in a great mea-
fure the perfection of printing preffes, oil preffes, and
all other machines intended to produce a violent and
uniform preffure upon any broad and flat furface.
As the preffure upon a fingle point may thus be
diffufed over a broad furface, fo may that upon a
broad furface be concentrated upon a fingle point or
a furface of fmall dimenfion, as in fig. 6. Here it is
plain that whatever preffure is applied to the line AB,
or any pare of it in a perpendicular diredtion, mull be
fuftained by the point D ; for if there -was no refill
anee, this point would be driven along with the line
AB, and the moment it was Hopped the power which
urged it on mult likewife be Hopped. It is true, that
unlefs the power adt diredtly perpendicular to the point
D, or the line CD be fupported that it cannot move
either to one fide or to another, the impulfe will be
but momentary ; but of this we lhali treat at large in
the fubfequent part of this article. On the principle
juft mentioned depends in a great degree the force of
gimlets, angers, boring gimlets, &c.
MECHANICS.
0/
ME CHAMITC S .
. .
*
-
Sea. r.
M E C H
§ 4. Of changing the Dire&ton of a Power into one di-
redly oppojite.
This in all cafes is only to be accomplifhed by the
application of a power greater than that of which we
wilh to change the direction. Thus, in fig, 2. fuppofe
we wilh to change the dire&ion of the power at E
from the dire&ion AC to that of CA, we will find it
impoffible to do fo by any other means than the ap¬
plication of a greater power from D towards C. If
the two powers are equal, there will be no motion
whatever; and the degree of motion produced at laft
will only be the difference betwixt the two powers.
If it be wanted therefore to produce a power in the
direftion CA, equal and oppofite to that in the direc¬
tion AC, one muff be applied in the direftion CA
double to the former. This principle is different from
that firft mentioned, in which motion is produced by
puffing againft a fixed obftacle while the moving
power is not refifted on the oppofite fide; for here the
power of gravity, or whatever we fuppofe to aft upon
E, refifts according to its quantity, and the whole is
in the fituation of the boat when hooked to the pole
fig. i. To produce motion, therefore, a new force muff
be applied, as if a perfon was to puff from the bank
D againft the hooked pole of .he boat in that figure.
The principle juft now laid down does not militate
againft the apparent afcent of bodies by the aftion of
gravity, or the repulfion of elaftic balls from one an¬
other by what is called the power of elafticity. In
both cafes a greater power is applied than the Ample
force of gravity, and with the excefs of this power the
body afcends, as ffall be afterwards ftiown.
§ 5. Of the Motion produced by two or .more Powers
aEling upon a Body in direct ions oblique to each other.
As the aftion of two powers in direft oppofition
to each other is attended with the deftruftion of both
if the powers are equal, and of one of them if they
are unequal; fo the aftion of powers direfted oblique¬
ly upon one another is produftive of motions in
various direftions, according to that of the afting
powers.
The motion produced by the aftion of two powers
is always in the diagonal of the parallelogram expreffed
by thefe powers. Thus, in fig. 7. let the body A
be afted upon at once by two forces, one of which
would carry it from A to B in the fame time that the
other would carry it from A to C. The body will
then defcribe AD, the diagonal of a fquare, in the time
that it would have defcribed one of the fides by a
fingle power applied to it. This is in confequence of
its obeying both forces; as it is evident that it has
moved as far a.s from A to B, and likewife from A to
C, which is precifely the effeft that the two powers
would have had upon it feparately. In this cafe the
body has acquired a greater power than it would have
had from a fingle power, but lefs than it would have
acquired from the union of the two powers if they
had afted direftly in concert with each other; becaufe
the diagonal of a fquare is lefs than the fum of the
fides, and the power with which any body moves is
exaftly proportioned to its velocity. If, inftead of
fuppofing the forces equal, we fuppofe one of them con-
fiderably greater .than the other, then the greater force
Vol. X. Part II.
A N I C S. 72<)
will carry the body farther in its own direftion than the Mechanical
other, and the whole will be reprefented by a paralle-
logram, as in fig. 8. In this cafe it is evident that 7
the body has moved exaftly in conformity to the di¬
reftion of both powers, vi%. the whole length of AB,
and the whole length of AC. In this cafe alfo the
lofs ©f motion is lefs than in the former; becaufe the
length of the oblong parallelogram approaches much
nearer to the fum of the fides than the diagonal of a
fquare; and the greater inequality there is betwixt the
fides, the lefs power is loft.
If, inftead of afting at right angles to each other,
the direftion of the powers forms an acute angle, as
in figs. 9, 10, 11, the power produced will be con-
fiderably greater than either of the original ones; and
the more acute the angle is, the greater will be the
augmentation, as is evident from an infpeftion of the
figures. The reafon of this, though not quite fo ob¬
vious, is the fame with the former. Thus the bodv
A in fig. 9. had it been afted upon by only one
power, vi%. that denoted by AB, would have been at
B, or carried as far forward as E, the half of the dia¬
gonal ; its oblique direftion upward not being taken
into the account. Had it been afted upon by the
force AC alone, it would have been at C with an ob¬
liquity as far down as the other is up. As thefe ob¬
liquities, however, are in contrary direftions, they
muft of neceffity deftroy one another; and therefore
the body moves neither to one fide nor another, but
proceeds with the fum of the direft forces of the
powers, or thofe by which they move in the ftraight
diagonal. But either of the two powers would have
brought it forward as far as E; of confequence both
conjoined muft cany it on to D, the whole length of
the diagonal. Thus it appears, that when a body is
afted upon by two powers which partly confpire to¬
gether, the power produced will be the exaft fum of
them as far as they do confpire, and the lofs arifes
entirely from the oppofition betwixt them; for all
powers which do not direftly confpire, oppofe one
another in a certain degree. Hence when the afting
forces make an obtufe angle with each other, as in
figs. 12, 13, there is then a very great lofs of power, plates’
becaufe there is fuch an oppofition betwixt them; andccLXxxin
it is only that fmall part of their motion which afts in *
concert that can produce any in the body afted upon:
but this, as in the former cafe, is exaftly double to
what it would be if only one of them afted upon the
body. Thus, in fig. 12. the whole direftion of the
powers from E to B, and from B to C, is in abfolute
oppofition to each other; artd therefore, fuppofing
them equal, muft be totally loft. In the direftion AD
they confpire; and therefore the body will move twice
as far in that direftion as is expreffed by that of the
lines in the figure; that is, from A to D, inftead of
only from A to E, which is the limit of each of the
forces. In cafes of this kind, the more obtufe the
angle is at which the forces aft, the greater is the lofs
of powey as is evident from an infpeftion of figs. 12,
-O' . 4
Some who are but beginning to the ftudy of me-Oppoflt;0tt
chanics may be embarraffed in their ideas hoy twobuwixt
forces afting at right angles to each other can in any fwo powers
manner of way oppofe each other, as in fig. 7.; aswe^gj*.
find that a body defending by the force of gravity p^udoat,
4 Z may
730 MECHANICS. Se&. I.
Mechanical may Be puflied to a fide feemingly by the leaft force 7*071 pounds faftened to it by a firing, and put over Mechanical
Power. imag;nabie. But this will eafily be underftood from the pin F, fituated any where in the diagonal line Power• .
Plate I4* which is only afquare turned into another po- FAG ; and let us add ever fo much weight, provided
CCLXXXiu, fture. Here it is plain that the powers AB and AC it be done to D and C in the proportion of five, and
oppofe each other as much as they confpire ; that is to E in that of 7.071, the body A will remain fuf-
in the proportion of half the diagonal of the fquare : pended in the air without altering its pofition in the
this quantity therefore is totally loft, and the body leaft.
proceeds with the other half; which being doubled If, inftead of making the weights equal, we make
on account of each of the powers proceeding with one one exceed the other in any proportion, the weight
half of the diagonal, gives the whole diagonal for the neceffary to counteraft them will never be required
5 total motion produced. equal to both, but will always be in proportion to the
Ultimate But however plain this may appear from an infpec* diagonal of the .parallelogram of which the weights
““fe °f tion of the figure, it is by no means fo apparent when reprefent the fides. Thus, in fig. 17. if we fuppofe
,s own we come to try it by numbers. Thus, fuppofing each the body A pulled in the direction AB by the weight
of the fides AB and AC to be 5, the diagonal of the G of four pounds, and in the dire&ion AC by the
fquare will be nearly 7.071; but if from the fum of weight H of three pounds, it will be kept fufpended
the fides 10 we take this number, or half of it from by the weight F of five pounds put over the pin E,
each number, we will have only 2.919 for the whole placed any where in tb» diagonal line EAD. For
motion, initead of the diagonal 7.071 which is the the diagonal AD is equal (by Prop. 47. Book 1. of
reality. From an infpettion of the figure alfo we Euclid) to the fquare-root of the fum of the fquares
plainly fee, that if one diagonal is gained by the of the fides AB and AC, or CD and BD But the
powers confpirilig together or afting in concert, an- fquare of AB is 4X4= 16 pounds, and that of AC is
other is loft by their oppofition. It is natural there- 3X3 = 9 pounds by the fuppofition ; and 16+9=25,
fore to inquire, How can any two powers gain or lofe the fquare-root of which is 5 ; and thefe proportions
more than their own quantity; for the two powers will be found to hold invariably in whatever way we
taken together amount but to ten, but the two diago- apply mechanical powers; though, when they a£t at
nals, one of which is gained and the other loft, amount oblique angles, the diagonals mull be calculated by
between them to upwards of fourteen? To folve this other methods.
feeming paradox, we mull confider, that as the diago- If, however, we fet any of the powers at liberty,
nal of the fquare ABCD, fig. 14. is generated from we fliall find that none of them will continue the fame
the two fides AB and CD, fo thefe fides themfelves even fora moment. If we fuppofe any of them to be
may be accounted the diagonals of two other fmaller the power of gravity, which is the moft conftant and
fquares tiBAE and AE£C, fig. 15. each of the fides of equable we are acquainted with, this is found to in-
which is half the diagonal of the large one. From crcafe prodigioully; and, on the other hand, if we fup-
the fum of the fides of thefe fquares, which to the large pofe one of them to be a projeftile force, as of a ftone
fquare are the fource of power, it is evident that a di- thrown by the hand, we will find in like manner, that
agonal may be taken and another remain, becaufe each it will be diminilhed to a great degree in a very little
6 of the fides is half a diagonal. time. In all cafes, however, where a body is afted
All powers Hence we not only fee that every mechanical power upon by two forces either increafing or decreafing, un-
are com- vve are acquainted with may be derived from two lefs both increafe or decreafe exaftly in proportion to
others6'1 ot^ers» ^ut ^ave a demonftration that it adually is fo ; their original quantity, the body ailed upon will de- g
0 not only becaufe this fuppofition explains the pheno- feribe a curve. Thus, in fig. 18. fuppofe the body A Curveline.-
mena, but becaufe we are involved in an inexplicable to be ailed upon by two equal powers A.b and Ac ; atar motion
contradiilion if we fuppofe any thing elfe, for no the end of the firft moment it will be at d, the end of|jowPr0*
power can lofe more than its own quantity ; and if it the diagonal of the fmall fquare &.bcd: but if nowduce
lofes more than one half, it can never produce effeils the force Ac be in ere a fed to double what it was in the
equivalent to another half; which we fee mull be the preceding moment, the body will, at the end of the
cafe, if we fuppofe any two unoriginated powers ac- fecond moment be at g, the extremity of the parallelo-
ting upon one another at right angles, or indeed any gram defg; and by another increment of the fame
other way, though the fuppofition of their ailing at power, will be at the end of the third moment at k,
right angles makes the matter more plain than any and. fo on. This, is fimilar to the motion of falling
other. This leads to a very curious fpeculation con- bodies, of which, we (hall treat hereafter; but if one
cerning the origin of mechanical motion, of which of the powers diminifties inftead of increafing, the
an account is-given under the article Motion. phenomena will be different. Thus, in fig. 19. fup*.
Experiment Hitherto we have confidered both the powers not pofing the body at A to be actuated the firft moment
illuftratirg only as equal at the beginning, but as continuing fo by the two forces A.b and Ac; at the end of that mo-
the truth of throughout their whole courfe : but this is a fuppofi- ment it will be at the extremity of the diagonal Ac/ ;
tdnef0C" t‘on wft'c'h fcarcely exifts in. nature, unlefs the powers . but next moment, fuppofing the power Ac to be di-
are kept from exerting themfelves otherwife than by minifhed one half,, the other remaining, the fame, it
iimple preffure. Thus, in fig. 16. fuppofing the body will then be at and the third moment at k, thus
A pulled in the diredlion AB by the weight D of deferibing another kind of curve. If, while one
five pounds put over the fixed pin B, and pulled in of the powers decreafes the other increafes, a third
the diredlion AC by C, another weight of five pounds kind of curve will be generated; and by proper
faftened to it by a firing ; the whole will be kept in management of thefe powers, the body may be made
the pofitioa reprefented in the figure by a weight of to deferihe the fegment of a circle, as in fig. 23 ;
* ' where
Sea.I. M E C H
Mechanical where it is manlfeft that one power continually de-
Power. creafes while the other increafes.
The following machine has been contrived to illu-
ftrate the operation of oblique powers upon each other.
ABCD is a wooden fquare, fo contrived that the
part BEFC may draw out from it or be pufhed back
at pleafure. To this, is joined a pulley H, freely mo¬
ving upon its axis, which will be at H when the piece
is pufhed in, and at b when it is drawn out. To this
part let the ends of a ftraight wire k be fixed, fo as to
move along with it under the pulley; and let the ball
G be made to Aide eafily upon the wire. A thread
tn is fixed to this ball, and goes over the pulley to I;
by which means the ball may be drawn up on the wire
parallel to the fide AD, when the part BEFC is pufh¬
ed as far as it will go into the fquare : but when
this part is drawn out, the ball mufl be carried along
with it parallel to the bottom of the fquare DC.
Thus the ball may be drawn either perpendicularly up¬
ward by pulling the thread m, or moved horizontally
by pulling out the part BEFC, in equal times and
through equal fpaces, each power acting equally and
feparately upon it. But if, when the ball is at G,
the upper end of the thread be tied to the pin I, in
the corner A of the fixed fquare, and the moveable
part BEFG be drawn out, the ball will then be acted
upon by both the powers together: for it will be
drawn up by the thread towards the top of the fquare,
and at the fame time carried with its wire k towards
the right hand BC, moving all the while in the diago¬
nal line L, and will be found at g when the fliding
** part is drawn out as far as it was before ; which then
will have caufed the thread to draw up the ball to the
top of the infide of the fquare, juft as high as it was
before when drawn up fingly by the thread without
moving the fliding part.
Of bodies H a body is afted upon by three forces, the invefti-
adted upon gation becomes fomewhat more complex, though it
fey three is ftill eafily explained on the foregoing principles.
*wces. Thus, in fig. 22. let the body A be pulled fidewife in
oppofite direftions by the two equal weights G G put
over the pins B and C, and dire&ly downward by the
weight H, the fame with G. In this cafe it is plain,
that each of the weights G and G fuftain one half of
the weight H ; and as both taken together are double
in quantity to H, it might be fuppofed that they
would be abundantly able to keep the body A in its
pofition. The cafe, however, is very different. As
each of the weights G fuftains only one half of H, it
follows that H a&s only with one half of its weight
upon them. The body A, therefore, is pulled in the
direftion AC and AB by two powers, each of which
is as 2, and in the dire&ion AF by two, which are
only as one. With the force AB, therefore, were it to
aft upon it fingly, it would defcribe the diagonal AD,
and with that AC it would defcribe the diagonal AE.
Thefe two diagonals are in truth the forces by which
it is now aftuated, andtheeffeft is precifely according
to the principles already laid down. By each of them
taken feparately, the body would be brought down to
F ; their lateral aftion being in oppofite direftions
deftroys itfelf; and by their conjunft aftion, the body
would be brought down to double the/pace AF, that
is to H, and confequently would dsfcrjbe the diago¬
nal of the fmall fquare AD HE j which diagonal is
A N I C S.
73 J*
equal to the fide of the large one, and the very fame Mechanical
that the body would have defcribed though the two 1>0WeF- 4
lateral weights had not been prefent. " ^ -
Hence it appears, that though we pull a body ever
fo ftrongly by firings in a direftion oppofite to each
other, it will ftill require an equal weight to retain it
in equilibrio; that is, fuppofing. the firings to be per-
feftly flexible. There may indeed be a deception in
making an experiment of this kind; for the body will
never defcend as far as H, nor near that diftance ; but
then it muft be obferved, that when the firings begin
to bend in the middle, the weights G G aft in a di¬
reftion different from what they did originally, and
pull the body upwards inflead of laterally ; in which
cafe, it muft either remain at re 11, as in fig. 23. or
move upwards, as in fig. 24.
When the powers aft in the direftion AB and AC,
fig. 23. one half of the weight H is fuftained by each
of them. The body is therefore pulled in the direc¬
tions AB and AC by two powers, each of which is as
2 ; and in the direftion AF by other two, each of
which is as 1. By the power AB it would be
made to move in the diagonal AD of the parallelo¬
gram ABDF; and by the power AC, in the diago¬
nal AE of the parallelogram ACFE ; but thefe dia¬
gonals are equal and contrary to each other, and there¬
fore deftroy each other; of confequence the body re¬
mains at reft.
In fig. 24. the body A with the weight FI ap¬
pended to it is placed nearer to the point B than to
C by one-third. Of confequence, as will afterwards
be explained, it bears two-thirds of the weight
H, while C fuftains only one-third. The afting pow¬
ers, therefore, are now the diagonals of two unequal
parallelograms. One power draws the body in the di¬
reftion AB with a force as 3, while the weight H
draws it in the direftion AH with a force as 2.
By it, therefore, the body would be drawn in the di¬
reftion of the diagonal AD of the parallelogram
BDEA. On the other hand, it is afted upon by the
power AC, which is like wife as 3, while the weight
H draws it down with a force only as 1. By this,
therefore, it would be drawn in the direftion of the
line AG, the diagonal of the parallelogram ACGF.
We muft now make thefe two diagonals the fides of
a third parallelogram ADIG ; and in the diagonal
AI of this parallelogram it will go, for the reafons al¬
ready given.
If four or more forces aft upon a body in different of bodies
direftions, the cafe becomes very complicated; and ifaiftedupon
many powers be employed, it will by no means be eafy by four or
to determine a priori which way the body will tend.lnore ^°r*
Cafes of this kind, however, feldom occur in praftical
mechanics ; and when they do, it will be better to de¬
termine them by aftual experiment than by a tedious
inveftigation, which, after all, may be liable to a mif-
take. We forbear, therefore, to give more examples 5
though, if the reader inclines to exercife his ingenuity,
he muft proceed upon the plan already laid down, viz.
by combining the different powers together ; forming
diagonals from thefe parallelograms; combining thefe
diagonals into a third fet of parallelograms ; and the
diagonals thence refulting into a fourth fet, &c. until at
lalt a Angle one is met with prevailing over all the reft,
or two deftroying each other. If one prevails, the
4 Z 2 body
732 MECHANICS. Se&.T.
Mechanical body will move in that dire&ion ; but if two dcftroy
, Power- each other, the body will remain at reft.—It muft alfo
^^ be obferved, that in making drawings of this kind, the
longcft line always reprefents the greateft power, and
that without a Angle exception to the contrary. By
mere mechanical conftrudtion, therefore, with fcale and
compafs, we may be able to afcertain the direction of
oblique powers to as great accuracy as we can ever
have oceafion for in practice.
Of the va- We fhall conclude this fubjedt with obferving, that
nous way* as every power certainly is produced by the a&ion
in which Df two others, fo it may be by innumerable others,
ma^be Thus, in fig. 25. the power AD may be produced by
produced. two ficies fquare ABDC ; by the fides
of the oblique-angled parallelogram AcD£, of the
fmaller parallelogram ArDc/; or of the large paralle¬
logram AE, DF, &c Hence it is eafy to produce
any power, whether ftrong or weak, from the aftion
of any two powers whofe diredtion we have at our com¬
mand,without regard to their quantity. If we make the
generating powers confpire together, a ttrong one wall
be produced; or if they oppofe each other to a certain
degree, they will produce a weak one. The ftrongeft
that can be produced by any two powers is when
they adt the fame way in a diredt line.
$ 6. Of the Relation betwixt Velocity and Power.
Hitherto we have fuppofed the bodies to be mo¬
ved not to make any refiftance to motion in any direc¬
tion, unlefs oppofed by a fixed obftacle ; in which cafe,
velocity and power would be the fame thing ; and thus
it always appears to be when we reprefent powers by
lines upon paper. But when we come to pra&ice,
matter's turn out very different. A ball of cork mo¬
ving with any degree of velocity will not have an equal
power with one of wood moving with the fame velo¬
city ; neither will a wooden ball have the fame power
with a metallic one. Among the metals themfelves,
too, there is a difference ; for the lighter metals are in¬
ferior in power to the heavier ones. Gravity, there¬
fore, muft be accounted the power which gives to mo¬
ving bodies what we call their force or momentum ; for
according to the weight of a body, fo will its impulfe
always be, and that whether it moves upwards, down¬
wards, fidewife, or in a circle. The abfolute power of
a body, therefore, muft be meafured by comparing the
gravity of different bodies together, and denoting one
of them by unity ; making the other 2, 3, 4, &c. ac¬
cording as it is twice, thrice, or four times, the fpeci-
fic gravity of the former. ' Thus let an hollow ball of
metal be filled with water ; if the ball be very thin, we
may let its weight pafs unnoticed, or we may make al¬
lowance for it in the calculation. Suppofing the weight
of this ball then to be x, if it moves with a velocity
ef 10 feet in a fecond, its abfolute force or mo¬
mentum will be 10X1 = 10; a ball of ftone of equal
fize which weighs three times as much as the former,
if moved with an equal velocity, will have a force of
10X3 = 30; a ball of tin which weighs 7 times as
much, will have a momentum of 70; and a ball of gold
or platina would have a momentum of 190 or 200.
This will alfo hold exactly, by increafing the quan¬
tity of matter, where it is deficient in fpecific gravity.
Thus, if the hollow metallic ball be increafed in dia¬
meter, fo that it (hall equal in weight the ball of ftone MechanUal
or of metal, it will have the very fame force with that Power* .
ball; and in like manner, it might be made to have a v J
momentum equal to the metallic balls, though not
without a very confiderable increafe of fize,—Great Mr At-
maffes of matter will therefore fupply the place of wood’s ob-
great velocity : and hence Mr Atwood obferves, that ^hc an^
the battering-rams ufed by the ancients were no lefs ciem bat-*
powerful in beating down the walls of cities than the tering-
modern artillery. “ The battering-rams of the an-rams*
cients (fays he) confifted of very large beams of wood
terminated by folid bodies of brafs or iron ; fuch a
mafs being fufpended as a pendulum, and driven partly
by its gravity and partly by the force of men againft
the walls of a fortification, exerted a force which, in
fome refpe&s, exceeded the utmoft eftefts of our bat¬
tering cannon, though in others it was probably infe¬
rior to the modern ordnance. To compare the ef¬
fects xif the battering-ram, the metal extremity of
which fuppofe equal to a 24 pounder with a cannon¬
ball of 24 pounds weight; in order that the two bo¬
dies may have the fame effedft in cutting a wall or ma¬
king a breach in it, the weight of the aries muft ex¬
ceed that of the cannon ball in the proportion of the
fquarc of 1700, the velocity of the ball*, to the* See the
fquare of the velocity with which the battering rama“*c^e
could be made to impinge againft the wall expreffed Gunnt,y~ '
in feet. If this may be eftimated at 10 feet in a fe¬
cond, the proportion of the weights will be that of
about 2,890,000 to 100, or of 28,900 to 1; the
weight of the battering ram therefore muft be 345
ton. In this cafe the battering-ram and the cannon¬
ball, moving with the velocities of 10 and 1700 feet
refpe&ively in a fecond, would have the fame effeA in
penetrating the fubftance of an oppofed obftacle : but
it is probable that the weight of the aries never a-
mounted to fo much as is above defcribed; and con-
fequently the effects of the cannon-ball to cut down,
walls by making a breach in them, muft exceed thofe
of the ancient battering-rams : but the momentum of
thefe, or the impetus whereby they communicated a
{hock to the whole building, was far greater than the
utmoft force of cannon-balls ; for if the weight of the
battering-ram were no more than 170 times greater
than that of a cannon-ball, each moving with its re-
fpe&ive velocity, the moments of both would be equal;
but as it is certain that the weight of thefe ancient
machines was far more than 170 times our heavieft.
cannon-balls, it follows, that their moment or impetus
to {hake or overturn walls, &c. was far fuperiop to.
that which is exerted by the modern artillery'. And
fince the ftrength of fortifications will in general be
proportioned to the means which are ufed for their de¬
molition, the military walls of the moderns have been
conftrufted with lefs attention to their folidity and
maffy wsight than the ancients thought a neceffary
defence againft the aries; that fort of cohefive firm-
nefs of texture which refills the penetration of bo¬
dies being now more neceffary than in ancient times:
but it is manifeft, that even now folidity or weight
in fortifications alfo is of material confequence to
the effectual conftrudtion of a wall or battery.’*
This difference between the momentum and force
of penetration is exemplified in knives, wedges,, or
5 any
I c s.
lea. I. M E C H
[echanica!any fharp inftrimicnts, where a fudden blow will caufe
Power. a much deeper penetration than a weight vaftly greater
than could be ftirred from the earth by the force of
the blow.
§ "j. Of the Multiplication and I tier cafe of Power.
We have now feen that power, abfolutely fo called,
a&s in a kind of double capacity, viz. either when it
impreffes a great velocity upon a fmall quantity of mat¬
ter, or when it impreffes a fmall velocity upon a great
quantity of matter. It muft, however, be remarked, that
the matter we fpeak of is always fuppofed fubjedt to the
laws of gravity; for what would be the confequepce
of putting a body in motion which had no gravity
we cannot poffibly conceive, becaufe we never faw
any fuch body. Philofophers indeed mention the vis
inertia of matter as property diftinft from gravity; but
the arguments in favour of this property are now ge¬
nerally looked upon to be inconclufive, and gravity
and the vis inertia looked upon to be the fame.
The two modes in which abfolute power afts, come
precifely to the fame thing whether the velocity be
great or fmall: fork is evident, that when two pounds
move with the velocity of I, it is the fame thing with
one pound moving with the velocity of 2; the veloci¬
ties as well as powers being exadtly the fame. But
there is a third way in which power may be directed,
in which it has not the relation to velocity already
mentioned ; and that is, by fimple preffure, where no
motion is admitted. Thus may the fmallell power be
made to augment itfelf to an inconceivable degree, as
in fig. 26. Here, fuppofe the body A to prefs direft-
ly downwards upon the line AB fattened to the fmall
wheel B, moveable upon an axis. If we fuppofe the
extremity of the line at A to be fupported fo that it
fliall not fall to a fide, the wheel B will prefs down¬
ward with the whole of the weight A upon the line
EF, and confequently the line g muft fuftain the
whole of this weight. But if the line EF be fupport¬
ed fo that it cannot move perpendicularly downwards
to g, it will then roll along the line EF from B to¬
wards F; and this tendency to roll in the dire&ion juft
mentioned will be exactly equivalent to the weight A.
Any body therefore laid on the top of a flick fet up
at an angle of 45 degrees, will require a power double
to its own weight to keep it fteady at the foot, ab-
ftrafting from that which will be neceflary to prevent
it from falling to a fide.
If now we fuppofe the wheel B to prefs laterally
upon another C; and that other, by means of the line
CD and wheel D, to prefs upon the two obftacles i
and k, both of which it touches at an angle of 45 de¬
grees; it is plain that not only each of thefe obftacles
muft bear the whole weight of the body A, but the
reaction of the wheel D will prefs down the wheel C
in the direftion Qh with the very fame force that D
is preffed upwards. This is entirely fimilar to the
Plate cafe of the man in the boat reprefented in fig. 1.
cixxxii. ^ weight ^ produces a preffure equal to five
times its own weight; and by multiplying the wheels
and rods, we might increafe the preffure as much as
we pleafe. The cafe is fimilar to that in hydroftatics,
where a little quantity of liquid may be made to burft
the ftrongeft veffeL
A N
Sect. II. Of the Mechanical Powers.
733
Mechanical
Powers.
By thefe we underftand fuch fimple machines as are
ufeful for comparing the velocity of various bodies to¬
gether, and impreffing them with greater or fmaller
degrees of it at pleafure ; by which means we may ei¬
ther caufe a fmall weight overcome a great one, or
by means of a great one we may make a fmall weight
move through a fpace proportionably great. Thus
by means of fome of thefe powers, indeed by any of
them, we may caufe a weight of one pound, by mo¬
ving through the fpace of ten feet, raife another of
ten pounds through one foot; lor vice verfa, by a
weight of ten pounds moving through the fpace of
one foot, we may make a Angle pound move through,
the fpace of ten feet; but by none of the powers will
we be able, by moving a weight of ten pounds through-
one foot, to move a Angle pound through 11 feet; nor
by a Angle pound moving through a fpace of nine feet
will we be able to raife a weight of ten pounds through
the fpace of one foot. None of the mechanic powers,,
as they are called, therefore, can make any abfolute
increafe of the power applied; all that they can do is.
to alter the velocity of the power applied, and thus
transfer it either to a larger or fmaller body at plea¬
fure; and upon this principle depends the whole prac¬
tical part of mechanics. The mechanical powers are
fix in number, viz. the lever, wheel in axis or axis in
peritrochio, the pulley, inclined plane, wedge, and ferew,,
of all which we lhall now treat particularly.
§ 1. Of the Lever.
This is the moft fimple of all the mechanicalFirfl kin^
powers, and is ufually no other than a ftraight bar ofof
wopd or iron fupported by a prop, as in fig. 27. The cctxxxiir.
weight to be railed is fufpended at the ftiort arm; of
the lever A; and exaftly in the inverfe proportion of
the diftance of the weight from the fulcrum or prop
C, is the quantity of the weight at B neceffary to keep
it in equilibrio. Thus if the weight at A be diftant one
foot or one inch, it fignifies nothing which, from the
prop, it will require an equal weight placed at the
fame diftance on the other fide, as at 1, to balance it;
but if the latter be placed at 2, then only half the
weight fufpended at A will balance it: if the fmall
weight is placed at 3, then only one third, will be ne¬
ceffary; if at 4, only one-fourth, &c. and if, as in the
figure, it be removed to to, then only one-tenth part
will be required to make a balance. It muft ftill be
remembered,, however, that if the lever is put in mo¬
tion, the fmall weight muft move through a fpace ten
times as great as that through which the large one
moves; fo that in fact there is not any acquifition of
power by means of the lever, though it is one of the
inftruments moft commonly ufed in mechanics, and
very ferviceable in loofening ftqnes in quarries, or
railing great weights to a, Imall diftance from the
ground; after which they may be railed to greater
heights by other machines.
In making experiments with this kind of lever, it is
neceffary either to have the Ihort arm much thicker
than the long one, fo that it may exaftly balance the
latter, or a weight muft be appended to it juft fuffi-
cient to keep it in equilibria, otherwife no accuracy can
be
M E C H
734 .
Mechanical be expefted. This lever is the foundation of balances
, Powers. 0p ajj wbether of the common kind or of that
called the Roman Jlatera or fteel-yard. The latter is no
Oi the {led-other than the lever reprefented in fig. 27. For if a
jard.
16
-Second
kind of
>ltver.
fcale is appended to the end A of the lever, and
weight, fuppofe of one pound, ufed as a counterpoife
to the body which is to be put in the fcale, it will
fhow exactly the weight of that body, by putting it
at a proper diftance from the fulcrum upon the long
.arm. Thus if the weight when placed at the divifion
5 counterpoifes that placed in the fcale, it fhows that
the body weighs exactly five pounds: if it balances
at 6, then it fhows that the body weighs fix pounds,
&c. But for a more particular account of this inftru-
A N I C S. Sed. IT
it are fpent upon the fulcrum at o; and the other tenth Mechanics
part at 10 will be able to do no more than balance Powers,
the weight 1. Levers of this kind are only made ufe
of when we wifh to give a confiderable degree of ve¬
locity to bodies: and hence the flys of clocks, mill-
ftones, &c. may be accounted levers of this kind ; for
in thefe the moving power is applied to a pinion near
the centre of motion, and afts at a great difadvantage;
the mufcles of the arms or legs of a man, by their in-
fertion near the joints, likewife adtas levers of this kind;
and hence the power exerted by a mufcle is always
much greater than the force it has to overcome. 18
In all cafes in which the lever is applied, it is ne-In what j
ceffary, in order to give it the greateft advantage, that ™
rnent, fee the article SrEEL-Tard. To this kind of the moving power aft in a direftion exaftly perpen-pijeci t0 ^
lever may be reduced feveral kinds of inftruments, as dicular to the lever itfelf. If this be not the cafe, it lever a&s]
feiffars, fnuffers, pincers, &c.
In levers of this kind, the fulcrum C mull fupport
both the weight to be raifed and likewife that which
raifes it; fo that the weight upon C mull be the
greater in proportion as the arm CB of the lever is
fhorter. Thus, if the arms are both equal, the ful¬
crum C mull bear double the weight at A: if the one
arm is double the length of the other, then it has only
to bear the weight to he raifed, and one half more ;
becaufe any weight at 2 will balance one double to it¬
felf at x; but if removed to 10, the fulcrum will
only have to bear.
In fame cafes, the weight to be raifed is placed be¬
tween the afting power and the fulcrum, as in fig. 28.
This lever is more powerful than the other, and is
will be neceffary to lengthen the lever in proportiont0 tlle
to the obliquity. Thus in fig. 29. fuppofe the ftraight vanta^. |
lever AB to reft on the fulcrum C, fo that a weight plate 1
of one pound may counteraft 10; if the lever be bent ectxxxiv;
in the direftion AD, it will then be neceffary to
lengthen it fomewhat in order to produce the fame ef-
feft. If bent in the direftion CE, it muft be farther
lengthened, and ftill farther if bent in the direftion
CF. The reafon of this is, that when the weight afts
on the bended lever ACF, ACE, and ACD, a part
of its force is fpent in giving, or attempting to give,
a lateral motion to the fulcrum C j and the part thus
loft is exaftly equal to the advantage gained by the
.greater length of the lever. To make a lever of a
determinate length aft always with the fame power, it
likewife more eafily fupported, becaufe only part of will be neceffary to have fame contrivance by which
^ 1 ... 1  * i' .1 1 _ ~ „ £ .-I, „  L ! ~l,  ' /’— a-L  !       ^ XT .-.1^ T, 1.. »~1,, *■
■the moving power may aft always perpendicularly to
it; as by having two circular pieces of wood or other
folid matter faftened to the ends of it, round which
the weight to be raifed, and none of that which raifes
it, lies upon the fulcrum. Thus in fig. 28. let the
extremity A of the lever AB reft upon a fulcrum at 0,
and let the fmall weight 1, by means of a firing put the ropes may wrap themfelves when it is put in
over the wheel or pin C, pull up the other extremity,;
this weight 1 will then counterpoife the large one 10,
and very little additional force will be required to raife
it up. It is alfo plain, that the whole weight to be
.raifed being xo, the fulcrum fuftains only 9 of it, for
the other 1 is fuftained by the firing BC. It is plain
.alfo, that a lever of this kind only ten feet long will
raife as great a weight as another of the former kind
.eleven feet in length ; neverthelefs there is not any
abfolute gain of power, becaufe the fmall weight j
muft move through ten times as much fpace as the
tion, fuch as are reprefented by ai and BG
gure< . 10
Fig. 30. flxows a kind of lever bent fo that one Fourth
part of it may form a right angle with the other, kind o£
Here the prop or centre of motion is at the angular lever-
point C. P is a power afting upon the longer arm
AC at F, by means of the cord DE going over the
pulley G; and W is a weight of refiftance afting upon
the end B of the ftiorter arm BC. If the power be
to the weight as BC is to CF, they will remain in e-
quilibrio. Thus fuppofe W to be five pounds afting
.large one; and thus the quantity of motion is exaftl.y at the diftance of one foot from the centre of motion
equal in both. To this kind of lever we may reduce
oars, doors turning upon hinges, cutting knives fixed
at the point of the blade, &c. From it alfo we fee
the reafon why two men carrying a burden upon a pole
C, and P to be one pound afting at F five feet from
the centre C, the powg- and weight will juft balance
each other. A hammer drawing a nail is a lever of
this kind. In this lever the preffure upon the fulcrum
may bear unequal fhares of the weight; for the nearer downwards is juft equal to the weight to be raifed;
but there is likewife a lateral preffure equal to the
weight P; fo that the centre of motion muft have a
double fupport, otherwife the whole lever with the
weight would be drawn towards the fide in the direc-
iion BC.
If, as in fig. 31. and 32. the lever be bent fo as to Fifth kind
place of the weight, it afts at a great difadvantage ; form two fides of a fquare, the weight to be raifed will f lever.
,and a very great power will be requifite to overcome always be equal to that upon the fulcrum, in whatever
a fmall weight. The reafon of this is plain from an place the fulcrum may be put; but both will vary ac-
infpeftion of fig. 28 ; for it is the fame thing whether cording to the diftance from the angular point. Thus,
we fuppofe the body 1 o to be the moving power, or if as in fig. 31. the fulcrum be placed at the angular
the weight to be raifed j in either cafe, nine-tenths of point A, the weight F appended to the extremity B
t of
any one of them is to the burden, the greater fhare he
bears; and if he goes direftly under it, he muft bear
the whole. Hence, if two perfons of uneqal ftrength
are to carry a burden in this manner, the weaker fiiould
always be placed at the greateft diftance from it.
Thirdkind ^ in this lever the moving power be put in the
of lever.
M E C HAN ICS. i*iat;c c Cb XXm .
ea. II. M E C H
echanical 0f tlic arm AB will ]ufl counterpoife an equal weight
Jowers. £ py means 0f the llring CDE put over the pin D,
_" " and drawn laterally by the arm AC. But if, as in
fig. 32. the fulcrum be placed nearer to the extremity
of the arm AC, as at 3, the cafe will then be very much
altered, and one pound fufpended at the extremity B
of the arm AB will counterpoife four at the extremi¬
ty C of the other arm: the preffure on the fulcrum
will likewife be equal to the weight to be raifed.
Was the fulcrum placed at 2, then a weight of one
pound at B would only counterpoife two pounds act¬
ing at C; and if it was placed at 1, then a weight of
three pounds at B would be requifite to counterppife 4
ai at C.
■vers of It is worth notice, that levers of this kind cannot
ncfcan ke exa^y counterpoifed by the power of ftraight le-
t be ba- vers* Thus, in fig. 33. let any weight, as C, be ap-
uced by pended to B, the extremity of the arm of the bent le-
iy other, yer BA4. Let DE be a ftraight lever, the force of
which we defign to oppofe to that of the crooked le¬
ver. For this purpofe let another weight F a£t upon
the extremity D of this ftraight lever by means of a
ftring-put over the pin G. Let the two levers be con¬
nected together by means of the firing ^3, and let a
piece of wood or iron E4 be put between their two
extremities: the two weights being now allowed to
act, it is evident that the levers will be pulled in dif¬
ferent directions, the firing ^3 will be tightened, and
the extremity E of the ftraight lever DE willbepref-
fed towards 4, while the extremity 4 of the crooked
. lever will be preffed towards E; by which means the
two levers will oppofe one another in every point of
their aCtion. There is not, however, any weight
whatever applied to the ftraight lever which can be
made to counterbalance that atC, in fuch a manner as
to keep the bent lever Heady. Let us firft fuppofe
the weights to be each one pound, and the firing to be
placed as in the figure at ^3. In this cafe the weight
C pulls the crooked lever from h towards 3, with a
force equal to 4, and the extremity 4 will be prefled
towards E with an equal degree of force. But in the
ftraight lever, though the point h be pulled in the di¬
rection 3^ by a force of four pounds, the extremity E
is prefled the contrary way by a force equivalent only
to three. Thus the weight C mull preponderate, and
that at F will afcend. Let us next add to the weight
F one third of a pound; by which means the preflure
from E towards 4 will be augmented to 4, and the
two extremities of the levers will counteraft each
other: but now the preffure in the direC)ion j/j will
be greater by one-third of a pound than it is in the
direftion ^3; and of confequence the weight F will
prevail, the arm AB of the crooked lever and the
weight appended to it being raifed. If we.attempt to
mend matters by augmenting the weight F by not
quite a third part, the extremities of the two levers
will not balance each other,, the preflure from 4 to E
will be greater than from E to 4; and in like manner
the preflure from 3 to A will be greater than from h
to 3. Hence both levers will be pulled in a direClion
from D towards G, and the weight F will defcend if
the weights be properly adjufted without any .afcent
of the other. In fliort, let us alter the weights as we
will, or let us alter the pofition of the fulcrum as we
will, it is eafy to- fee that there is an abfolute impofli-
biKty that the two levers can counteract each other;
A N I C S. Tjy
becaufe the preflure upon the fulcrum of the crooked Mechanical
lever will always be equal to that by its extremity 4; Powers..
but in the ftraight lever the preflure upon the fulcrum ' v 1
muft neceflarily be greater than that of the extre¬
mity.
Thefe are all the varieties of the lever which can-
be fuppofed ; it remains now only to ftiow the reafon
of its aCtion, or why a fmall weight when at reft ftiould
counterpoife a great one; motion or velocity being
here to appearance out of the queftion, as we cannot
attribute any degree of motion to two bodies abfolute-
ly at reft. To do this in a clear and diftinCt manner
has puzzled fome of the greateft mathematicians: that
of Dr Hamilton profeflbr of philofophy in Dublin, Dr
founded upon the refolution of forces, feems to be the ton’s de-
moft readily underftood, and leaft liable to objection, monftra-
‘ The molt noted theorem in mechanics (fays he) istion
this, “ When two heavy bodies counterpoife each
other by means of any machine, and are then made to Ver.
move together, the quantities of motion with which
one defcends and the other afcends perpendicularly will
be equal.” An equilibrium always accompanying this
equality of motions, bears fuch a refemblance to the
cafe wherein two moving bodies ftop each other when
they meet together with equal quantities of motion, that
many writers have thought that the caufe of an equili¬
brium in the feveral machines might be immediately af*
figned, by faying, that fince one body always lofes as
much motion as it communicates to another, two heavy
bodies counteracting each other muft continue at reft,
when they are fo circumftanced that one cannot de¬
fcend without caufing the other to afcend at the fame
time, and with the fame quantity of-motion. For then,
ftiould one of them begin to defcend, it muft inftantly;
lofe its whole motion- by communicating it to the
other. This argument, however plaufible it may
feem, I think is by no means fatisfaClory; for when
we fay that one body communicates its motion to
another, we muft neceflarily fuppofe- the motion to
exift firft in the one, and then in th& other ; but in the
prefent cafe, where the two bodies are fo connected
that one cannot poffibly begin to move before the
other, the defcending body cannot be faid to commu- -
nicate its motion to the other, and thereby make
it afcend : But whatever we ftiould fuppofe caufes
one body to defcend, mull be alfo the immediate
caufe of the other’s afcending: fince from the
connection of the bodies, it muft aCt upon them
both together as if they were really but one- And
therefore, without contradicting the laws of motion,
I might fuppofe the fuperior weight of the heavier
body, which is in itfelf more than able- to fuftain
the lighter, would overcome the lighter, and caufe
it to afcend with the fame quantity of motion with
which the heavier defcends; .efpecially as both their
motions, taken together, may be lefs than what the
difference of the weights, which is here fupppfed to ■
be the moving force, would be able to produce in a
body-falling freely:
‘ However, as the theorem above-mentioned is a
very elegant .one, it ought certainly to be taken notice
of in every treatife of mechanics, and-may ferve as a
very good index of an equilibrium in all machines :
but I do not think, that we can from thence, or from
any one general principle, explain the nature and
effeds of all the mechanic powers in a fatisfadory
manner; •
736
MECHANICS.
Mechanical manner; bccaufe feme of thefe macWnea differ very
, 0W£r8, much from others in their ftru&ures, and the true
reafon of the efficacy of each of them is bell derived
from its particular ftrufture.
‘ The lever is confidered as an inflexible line, void
of weight, and moveable about a fixed point called its
fulcrum or prop. The property of the lever, ex-
prefled in the moft general term, is this : “ When
two weights, or any two forces, aft againft each other
on the arms of a lever, and are in equilibrio, they will
be to each other inverfely as the perpendicular or
fhorteft diftances of their lines of direftion from the
fulcrum.”
‘ This proportion contains two cafes ; for the di-
reftionsof the forces may either meet in a point, or be
parallel to each other. Moft writers begin their de-
monftration of this propofition with the fecond cafe,
which feems to be the fimpleft, and from which the
other may be deduced by the refolution of forces.
Archimedes, in his demonftration, fets out with a
fuppofition, t^ie truth of which may reafonably be
doubted : for he fuppofes, that if a number of equal
weights be fufpended from the arm of a lever, and at
points equidiftant from each other, whether all thefe
points be at the fame fide of the fulcrum, or fome of
them on the oppofite fide, thefe weights will have the
fame force to turn the lever as they would have were
they all united and fufpended from a point which lies
in the middle between all the points of fufpenfion,
and may be confidered as the common centre of gra¬
vity of all the feparate weights. Mr Huygens, in
his Mifcellaneous obfervatlons on mechanics, fays, that
fome mathematicians have endeavoured, by altering
the form of this demonftration, to vender its de-
fefts lefs fenfible; though without fuccefs. He
therefore propofed another proof, which is extremely
tedious and prolix, and alfo depends on a poftulatum,
that, I think, ought not to be granted on this occa-
fion : it is this ; “ When two equal bodies are placed
on the arms of a lever, that which is furtheft from
the fulcrum will prevail and raife the other up.”
Now, this is taking it for granted, in other words,
that a fmall weight placed further from the fulcrum,
will fuftain or raife a greater one. The caufe and reafon
of which faft muft be derived from the demonftration
that follows, and therefore this demonftration ought
not to be founded on the fuppofed felf-evidence of
what is partly the thing to be proved.
‘ Sir Ifaac Newton’s demonftration of this propo¬
fition is indeed very concife; but it depends on this
fuppofition, that when from the fulcrum of a lever
feveral arms or radii iflue out in different cjireftions,
all lying in the fame vertical plane, a given weight
will have the fame power to turn the lever from
which-ever arm it hangs, provided the diftance of its
line of direftion from the fulcrum remains the fame.
Now it muft appear difficultto admit this fuppofition,
when we confider that the weight can exert its whole
force to turn the lever only on that arm which is the
fhorteft, and is parallel to the horizon, and on which
it afts perpendicularly ; and that the force which it
exerts, or with which it afts perpendicularly, on any
one of the oblique arms, muft be inverfely as the length
of that arm, which is evident from the refolution of
forces.
N° 199.
‘ Mr Maclaurin, in his View of Newton's Phllofo*
phy, after giving us the methods by which Archimedes
and Newton prove the property of the lever, propofes
one of his own, which, he fays, appears to be the
moft natural one for this purpofe. From equal bo¬
dies, fuftaining each other at equal diftances from the
fulcrum, he (hows us how to infer that a body of one
pound (for inftance) will fuftain another of two pounds
at half its diftance from the fulcrum; and from thence
that it will fuftain one of three pounds at a third part
of its diftance from the fulcrum : and going on .thus,
he deduces, by a kind of induftion, what the propor¬
tion is in general between two bodies that fuftain
each other on the arms of a lever. But this argu¬
ment, were it otherwife fatisfaftory, yet as it cannot
be applied when the arms of the lever are incommen-
furable, it cannot conclude generally, and therefore is
imperfeft.
‘ There are fome writers on mechanics, who, from
the compofition of forces, demonftrate that cafe of
the general propofition relating to the lever, in which
the direftions of the forces are oblique to each other,
and meet in a point: but I do not find that they
have had any other way of proving the fecond cafe,
in which the direftions of the forces are parallel, but
by confidering thefe direftions as making an angle
with each other, though an infinitely fmall one, or as
meeting at an infinite diftance ; which way of rea-
foning is not to be admitted in fubjefts of this kind,
where the proof Ihould always fhow us, direftly from
the laws of motion, why the conclufion muft be true,
in fuch manner that we might fee clearly the force
of every ftep from the firft principles down to the
conclufion, which we are prevented from doing when
any fuch arbitrary and inconfiftent fuppofition is in¬
troduced.
‘ From thus confidering the various proofs that
have been given of this fundamental propofition in
mechanics, we may fee the reafon why many fubfe-
quent writers have appeared diffatisfied with the for¬
mer demonftrations, andr have looked for new ones:
I lhall now propofe two methods of demonftrating it,
merely from the compofition and refolution of forces.
The propofition may be expreffed as follows.
“ When three forces aft upon an inflexible line,
whether ftraight or crooked, and keep it in equi-
librio, any two of them will be to each other in¬
verfely as the perpendicular diftances of their lines
of direftion from that point to which the third force
is applied.”
‘ Let the three forces E, G, F, (fig. 34.) aft upon
three points A, B, D, in an inflexible line ; and firft
let the direftions of the forces E and F (which aft
on the fame fide of the line) meet in the point C.
Then it is evident that the force, which is com¬
pounded of thefe two, muft aft upon the line A B D
in the direftion of a right line that paffeth through
the point C; confequently the force G, which fuftains
this compounded force, muft be. equal thereunto, and
muft aft in a contrary direftion ; therefore the force
G muft aft in the direftion of the line C B. From
the point B draw B H afid B K perpendicular to the
direftions of the forces E and F, and draw B M and
B N parallel to thefe direftions, forming the pa¬
rallelogram B M £ N ; then, fince thefe three forces
Meohatfici
j5ea.lL M E C H
^Mechanical are In equilibrio, they mufl be to each other refpee-
jiows's. tively as the Tides and diagonal of this parallelogram
W * ' to which their directions are parallel; therefore E is
to'F as CM to CN or MB, that is* (becaufe the
Tides of a triangle are as the fines of the oppofite
angles) as the tine of the angle MBC, or its alter-
m nate one BCN, to the Tine of the angle BCM ; but
making CB the radius, BK is the fine of the former
angle, and BH of the latter; therefore E is to F as
BK to BH } fo that the forces E ahd F are to each
other inverfely as the perpendicular diftances of their
lines of direction from the point B, on which the third
force G afts. Now to eompare the forces F and G
together : From the point A, on which the third force
ads, draw AB and AL perpendicular to the direc¬
tions of the forces G and F; then, as was faid before,
F is to G as MB is to CB; but MB ‘is to CB as AB
to AL ; becaufe, making CA the radius, AB is the
fine of the angle MCB, and AL is the fine of the
angle MCN, or CMB its fuppldment, to two right
ones; therefore the forces F and G are to each other
inverfely as the perpendicular diftances of their lines
of direction from the point A, on which the third
force E aCts ; and thus the firft cafe of the propofition
-is proved, in which the forces aCt againft each other in
oblique difeftions.
‘ We muft now confider what parts of the forces E
and F aft againft the force G in directions parallel to
GC ; for it is fuch parts only that really oppofe the
force G, and keep it in equilibrio; and frorq thence
we fhall fee what proportion twoforcesmuft have to each
other when they are in equilibrio, and aft in parallel
directions. Let the three forces aft upon the points
A, B, and D, (fig. 3J.)? ^ct them be in equilibrio, and
their lines of direftiort meet in the point C, as in the
preceding cafe ; then, if the points A, B, and D, are
hot in a right line, draw the line AD meeting BC in
P, and from P draw PN and PM parallel to the di¬
rections of the forces E and F j through the points A
and D draw parallel lines tO BC; and through B draw
a perpendicular to thefe lines, meeting them in H and
K ; from the pointdraw MO parallel to AD, and
meeting BC in O. Now the three forces E, G, and F,
that are in equilibrio, will be to each other refpeftively
as the Tides of the triangle CMP, as in the preceding
cafe ; but the force E, which is denoted by the line
MC, may be refolved into two forces afting in the di¬
rections MO and OC, the former of thefe only urges
the point A towards D, and the latter afts in direft
oppofition to the force G; in like manner the force F,
which is denoted by the line PM, may be rcfolved in¬
to two forces afting in the direftions OM and PO,
the former of which only urges the point D towards
A, and the latter afts in direft oppofition to the force
G ; now it is evident that the force G, which is,de¬
noted by the line PC, is fuftained only by thofe parts
of the forces E and F which dft againft it, in direc¬
tions parallel to BC, and are denoted by the lines OC
and PO, which, taken together, are equal to PC ; for
the other parts of the forces E arid F, which are deno¬
ted by MO, are loft, being equal, and contrary to each
other : if, therefore, inftead of the forces F and E, we
fuppofe two other forces, R and L, to aft on the points
D and A, in direftions parallel to BC, and to keep
the force G in equilibrio, it follows, from what has
Vm. X. Part II.
A N I C S. 737
been proved, that It and L taken together will be Mechanical
equal to G, and that thefe three forces will be to each powers. ^
other refpeftively as the lines PO, OC, and PC; there-
fore R will be to L as EO to OC, (that is, as AM to
MC, os as AP to PD, or) HB to BK ; confequently
the forces R and L are to each other inverfely as the
perpendicular diftances of their lines of direftion from
the point B, to which the third force is applied. Now ,
to compare the forces R and G together; fince the
force's R and L may be denoted by BH and BK, and
are both together equal to G, that force will be deno¬
ted by the whole line KH, and therefore R will be to
G as BH to KH ; fo that thefe forces are alfo to each
other inverfely as the perpendicular diftances of their
lines of direftion from the line of direftion of the third
force L ; and thus the fecond cafe of the propofition
is proved, in which the forces aft againxl each other in
parallel direftions. If the point in the inflexible line,
to which one of the forces is applied; Ihould become a
fiiced point, or fulcrum, roilnd which the line may turn,
it is evident that the other two forces will continue in
equilibrio, as they wrere before ; and therefore the pro¬
perty of the lever, in all cafes, is manifeftly proved by
this propofition.
‘ The centre of gravity of* a body is faid to be that
point which being fuftained, or prevented from de-
Icending, the body will continue at reft. From hence
it follows, that when a body hangs freely from a Angle
point and continues at reft, its centre of gravity will lie
perpendicularly under the point of fufpenfion ; for in
that fituation only it will be fuftained, and can defeend
no lower.
‘ From this property, which agrees likewife to the
commort centre of gravity of two bodies joined toge¬
ther by an inflexible right line, and which may then
be confidered as one, I Ihall ftiow that their centre of
gravity is a point in the line that joins them together,
fo fituated that the diftances of the two bodies from it
are to each other inverfely as their weights. This
theorem concerning the pofition of the common centre
of gravity of two bodies, which is a very noted one in
mechanics, I have never feen detnonftrated otherwife
than by inferring it from the generd property of the
lever! but I think the method I fhdl now propofe of
deducing it direftly from the definition of the centre
of gravity, is the moft concife as well as the moft na¬
tural, and befides it will afford us a very eafy way of
demoilftrating the property of the lever.
‘ Let the two bodies A and B {fig- 36.) be joined bjr
an inflexible right line paffing through their centres
of gravity, and let them be fufpended from the fixed
point or pin at P, by the threads AP and BP, fo that
they may hang freely in fuch a pofition as their joint
gravity will give them. When thefe bodies continue
at reft, their common centre of gravity muft lie direft¬
ly under the point of fufpenfion, or in the perpendicu¬
lar line PL, confequently it muft be at the point C,
the interfeftion of the lines PL and AE ; the pofition
of which point, in the line AB, will be determined by
finding out the proportion between the fegments CA
and CB. If the inflexible line w&s not interpofed be¬
tween thefe bodies, they would move till their threads
coincided with the perpendicular line PL ; fince there¬
fore they are kept afunder by this line, they muft urge
it with certain forces in oppofite 'direftions; and theft
£ A urging;
738 MECHANICS. Sea. IT.
Mechanical urging forces muft be equal, fince the line on which
, l)0werc- they aft continues at reft : and therefore the force with
rT—v " which each body urges the other in the direction of
this line, may be denoted by the fame letter U, and
we may denote the weights of the two bodies‘refpec-
tively by the letters A and B. Now the body A is
afted upon by three forces, viz. by its weight A in
the direftion PG, by the force if with which the
other body urges it in the direftion CA, and by the
rea&ion of the pin in the direftion AP; and fince thefe
three forces are in equilibrio, and keep the body at
reft, they are to each other refpedtively as the lides of
the triangle PC A ; therefore A is to U, as PC to CA.
In like manner, the body B is urged by three forces,
viz. its weight B in the direftion PC, the urging force
U in the direction CB, and the readfion of the pin in
the diredtion BP, which forces are to each other as
the fides of the triangle PCB; therefore U is to B, as
CB to PC ; and therefore (ex aqua perturbate) A is to
B, as CB to CA; confequently the weights of the bo¬
dies A and B are to each other diredtly as their di-
ftances from the point C, which lies diredtly under the
point of fufpenfion, and is therefore their common
centre of gravity.
‘ When two bodies are connected by an inflexible
line, and this line is fupported by a prop fo that their
centre of gravity cannot defeend, the bodies muft con¬
tinue to reft, and will be in equilibrio. Therefore it is
eafy to fee how, from the theorem now demonftrated,
we may prove the property of the lever in that cafe
where the directions of the forces are parallel; and
from thence the other cafe, in which the directions are
oblique to each other, may be deduced by the refolu-
tioir of forces, as is ufually done. And this is the fe-
cond method by which I faid the general property
of the lever might be ftriCtly demonftrated.
‘ The lever is the moft Ample of all the mechanic
powers; and to it may be reduced the balance and the
axis in peritrochio, or axle and wheel: Though I do
not confide'r the balance as a diftinCt mechanic power,
becaufe it is evidently no other than a lever fitted for
the particular purpofe of comparing the weights of bo¬
dies, and does not ferve for raifing great weights or
overcoming refiftances as the other machines do.’
33 Though this demonftration will no doubt be abun-
Another dantly clear to mathematical readers, yet to others lefs
demonftra-.verfe(j jn that fcience its appearance will no doubt; be
fomewhat obfeure and perplexed. The following we
fubjoin as lefs intricate.
Let AB, fig. 37, reprefent a ftraight rod of wood
or iron, faftened at the extremity A, at right angles
to another piece of the fame, and kept fteady by two
pins C and D. If a weight be put upon the extremity
PI of the upright rod AH, it will prefs down that,
and along with it the horizontal rod AB, fo that
every point in the rod will move with the whole force
of the weight. Thus, whether we fuppofe an ob-
ftacle to be placed at the extremity B, at the point 2,
or at 1, in the horizontal, rod AB, it will have exaCtly
the force of the weight placed at H to overcome.—
Suppofing then that the weight would make the whole
defeend from A to E in one fecond; then it is plain
that the whole power exerted by the rod in its defeent
' would be expreffed by the parallelogram ABEF. But
tfj inftead of fuppofing the line AB to be the full
length reprefented in the figure, we fuppofe it to be Mechanical
only half that length, and cut off at 1, then the power Powcrs- ^
of the weight would be reprefented by the parallelo- “ v
gram A 1 E x. Were it ftill farther ftiortened, by
being cut off at 2, then the power would be repre¬
fented by the parallelogram A 2 E 2 ; and each of
thefe parallelograms, however unequal they may be
as reprefented upon paper, would in reality be equal
when-the experiment was made, becaufe in no cafe
could the weight defeend with a greater force than
its own. Suppofe next the weight to be taken off
from H, and put upon B, and the rod AB to be
moveable upon the centre A ; the whole power of
the weight then would be expreffed by the triangle
ABG, equal to the parallelogram ABEF; but as
every point of the lever muft bear the whole impulfe
of the weight as before, it is plain, that as we approach
towards the centre, that power is compreffed into lefs
and lefs fpace. Thus, when the weight has defend¬
ed from B to G, though the large triangle ABG be
equal to the parallelogram ABEF, yet the fmaller
triangle A 1 1 is equal only to one half of the paral¬
lelogram A 1. E 1, which reprefents the power. The
whole power being therefore compreffed into half the
fpace, muft of neceflity be double to what it was in
the former cafe. In like manner, the triangle A z b,
is only equal to one half of the parallelogram A 2ab ;
and this parallelogram itfelf is only half the fpace re-
prefenting the whole power of the weight. In this
cafe, therefore, the power is confined within one
fourth part of the fpace which it naturally has, and
for that reafon muft be four times as great.
§ 2. Of the Wheel and Jlxle, or Axis in Peritrochio.
This power afts entirely-on the principles of the
lever, and has therefore fometimes been called a per¬
petual lever. In it the power is applied to the cir¬
cumference of a wheel by means of a rope or other-
wife, the weight to be raifed being faftened to a rope
which winds round the axis. It is reprefented fig. 38,
where AB is the wheel, EDF its axis, P the moving
power, and W the weight to be raifed by means of
the rope K coiling itfelf about the axis. It is plain
then from an infpe&ion of the figure, that when the
large wheel has made one revolution, the weight P
will have defeended through a fpace equal to the cir¬
cumference, and as much of the cord I, by which it is
fufpended, will be wound off. On the other hand,
the weight W will have afeended only through a fpace
equal to the circumference of the axle, and juft fo
much of the rope K will be wound up upon it. As
the circumference of the wheel, therefore, is to that
of the axis, fo will the velocity of the moving power
be to that of the weight to be raifed, and of confe-
quence fuch will be the force of the machine : thus,
if the circumference of the wheel be eight, ten, twelve,
or any number of times as large as that of the axle,
one pound applied to the circumference will counter¬
balance eight, ten, twelve, or more pounds, applied
to the axle, and a fmall addition will raife it up.
The engines called cranes, for raifing great weights, of *4
are no other than wheels of this kind. Sometimes they gjn(Sg
are moved by handles S, S, &c. placed on the circumfe- cranes,
rence of the wheel, which is turned by mens hands, as
is fhown fig. 38. Sometimes the wheel is hollow, and
3 furnilhed .
Sea. II. M E C H
Mechanical furfllfhed with ftepa, on which a man, who is inclofed
powers. jn the wheel, continually fets his feet, as if he was
* afcending a ftair ; and thus the. wheel yielding to his
weight turns round, and coils up the rope which raifes
the weight about its axis. When the crane is to be
turned by mens hands, it may advantageouflyhave cogs
all round the circumference, in which a fmall trundle
may be made to work and be turned by a winch..—
Thus the power of the man who works it will be
greatly increafed 5 for his ftrength will be augmented
as many times*as the number of revolutions of the
winch exceeds that of the axle D, when multiplied
by the excefs of the length of the winch 'above the
length of the femidiameter of the axle, added to the
femidiameter or half the thicknefs of the rope K, by
which the weight is drawn up. Thus, fuppofe the
diameter of the rope and axle taken together to be 12
inches, and confequently half their diameters to be 6
inches, fo that the weight W will hang at fix inches
perpendicular diftance from below the centre of the
axle ; let us fuppofe the wheel AB, which is fixed on
the axle, to have 80 cogs, and to be turned by means
of a winch fix inches long, fixed on the axis of a
trundle of eight ftaves or rounds, working in the
cogs of the wheel. Here it is plain that the winch
and trundle would make ten revolutions for one of the
wheel AB, and its axis D, on which the rope K winds
in raifing the weight W : and the winch being no
longer than the fum of the femidiameters of the great
axle and rope, the trundle could have no more power
©n the wheel than a man could have by pulling it-
round by the edge, becaufe the winch would then
have no greater velocity than the edge of the wheel
has, which is fuppofed to be ten times the velocity of
the riling weight; fo that in this cafe the acquifition
of power would be as 10 to 1. But if the length of
the winch be 12 inches, the power gained will be as
20 to 1 ; if 18 inches, which is a fufficient length for
any man to work with, the acquifition of power will
be as 30 to 1 ; becaufe the velocity of the handle
would be 30 times as great as that of the riling weight,
and the abfolute force of any machine is exaftly in
proportion to the velocity of the weight raifed by it.
We mull always remember, whoever, that juft aS
much time is loft in working the machine as there is
power gained by it; for none of the mechanical
powers are capable of gaining both £ower and velo¬
city at the fame time.
In all cranes, it is neceflary to have a racked wheel,
teprefented by G, on one end of the axle, with a
catch H to fall into its teeth; w hich will at any time
fupport the weight, and keep it from defeending, if
the workman fliould happen to let flip his hold. -For
want of this precaution, terrible accidents have fome-
times happened to people inclofed in cranes, by their
inadvertently miffing a ftep.
? 3. Of the Pulley^
The pulley is a fingle wheel of w’ood, brafs, or
iron, moveable upon an axis, and inclofed in a kind
of cafe called its block, which admits of a rope to pafs
Freely over the circumference of the pulley, in which
alfo there is ufually a groove to keep the rope from
Siding, the axis being generally fixed in the block.
A N I C S. 739
In fome pulleys the block is fixed; in others move-Mechanical
able, and rifes with the weight. Both thefe kinds are f
reprefented, fig. 39. A A thaws a fixed pulley, wdth its v" >
blocks. Over the w heel a firing BBpafTes, to the extre¬
mities of which are fixed the t vo weights W and F.
This pulley, however, though it changes the direction
of a pow’er, yet does not gain any advantage ; for one of
the w-eights muft always defeend as much as the other
afcends, of confequence their velocities muft alwayfe
be equal ; and when this is the cafe, there can be nei¬
ther increafe nor decreafe of pow'er. A fingle fixed
pulley, therefore, though it may compare the weight
of two bodies together, cannot be accounted in. any
refpeft a mechanical power. But if with a fixed pul¬
ley we combine a moveable one, or 6ne in which th*
block arifes along with the wheel; wre gain an increafe
of one half. Thus if a weight W hangs at the
lower end of the moveable block F of the pulley D,
and the cord GF goes under the wheel, it is plain
that the half G of the cord bears one half of the
weight W, and the half F the other. The hook H,
therefore, which fuftains the half G of the cord, muft
therefore bear one half of the weight; and if the cord
at F be drawn up, fo that the pulley may be raifed
from D to C, the firing will be extended to its whole
length, all but that which goes under the wheel of the
pulley D 5 but the weight or power P by which the
firing is thus drawn up, will have moved twice as far
as the weight W which is drawn up : whence we fee
that only one pound at P wall be requifite to counter-
poife two pounds at W. If the upper and fixed block
contain two pulleys, and the lower one U contain alfo
two, the advantage gained by this etnubination will be
as 4 to 1. Thus, if one end of the firing KMOQ^
be fixed to a hook at I, and the firing paffes over
the pulleys N and R, and pnder thofe L and P, the
weight T of one pound will balance a weight W of
four pounds, fufpended by a hook from the move-
able block, making allowance for the weight of the
block itfelf. In like manner will the pulleys give ah
advantage of 4 to 1 when difpofed as at X and Y ; ’’
but in all cafes the fame relation between Velocity ancl
power is preferved as in the lever and axis in peritro-
chio, viz. if the power balances twice its own weight,
it muft move or have a tendency to move through
twice the fpace ; if it balances four times its weight,
then it muft have a tendency to move through four
times the fpaCe that the other does.
Pulleys are of great ufe in practical mechanics, as Advanta-
by their means great weights may be raifed to any ges and dif-
height much more expeditioufly than by any othe'r advanta®e3
method, and the fmallnefs of their weight makes ofpulIe:i,'5,
them very convenient for carriage. At fea they ate
ufed for hoifting the fails and yards, ftraitehing ropes,
&C. Archimedes, by means of a machine comppfed
of pulleys, .is faid to have drawn a fhip along the
ftrand, in the prefence of Hiero king of Syracufe;
but this is fcarcely to be ctedited, on account of the
great fridtion which attends this kind of machines.—.
The fridtion arifes from three cailfes : i. The diame¬
ter of the axis bearing a confiderable proportion to
that of the wheels. 2. Their rubbing againft their
blocks, or againft one another. 3. The ftiffnefs df
the rope that goes over and under them. All thefe
5 A 2 caufes
740 M E C H
jvlechani.a] caufes mull necefTarily be augmented, in proportion
. Fowers‘ to the weight we have to overcome: and when we
' confider the immenfe refxftance which a fhip muft make,
with the- ftrength and ftifFnefs of the ropes neceffary
to overcome it, we can fcarce fuppofe the ftrength of
any individual equal to the talk. Pulleys have often
been ufed by inhuman tyrants, in conltrufting ma¬
chines for torturing the objefts of th«r cruelty.
Reafon of The pulley has by fome writers been reduced to the
the effc<£ts lever as well as the wheel and axis; in which method
of the pul- they confider the fixed pulleys as a lever of the firft,
ley* and the moveable pulley as one of the fecond kind : but
itisjuftly obferved by Profeffbr Hamilton, that the
pulley cannot be with any propriety’l-educed to a lever;
becaufe, though both the moveable and immoveable
pulleys Ihould be taken away, the ropes would have to
fuftain the fame weight that they do with the pulleys ;
nay, the very fame advantages would be gained by
the mere ufe of pins, without any wheelsj were not
the friftion very great even upon the fmootheft pins
that could be made ufe of. It is, indeed, merely to
avoid this refiftance on the pins that wheels are made
ufe of at -all. The beft method of computing the
power, and explaining the reafon of the effedts of
pulleys, is by confidering that every moveable pulley
hangs by two ropes equally ftretched, each of which
bears one half of the weight; and therefore, when
the fame rope goes round a number of fixed and move-
able pulleys, fince all its parts on each fide of the pul¬
leys are equally ftretched, the whole weight muft be
equally divided amongft all the ropes by which the
moveable pulleys hang ; confequently, if the power
which a&s on one rope be equal to the weight divided
by the number of ropes, that powet will fuftain the
weight.
47 > A very confiderable improvement in the conftru&ion
Mr White’s 0£ pUgeyS has been made by Mr James White, who
patent pu - ^ 0htajneci a patent for his invention, and of which
Plate the following defcription is given by the inventor.
CClxxxvii. Fig. 68 fhows the machine, confifting of two pulleys
Qjind R, one fixed and the other moveable. Each of
thefe has fix concentric grooves, capable of having a
line put round them, and thus afting like as many dif¬
ferent pulleys, having diameters equal to thofe of the
grooves. Suppofing then each of the grooves to be a.
diftindf pulley, and that all their diameters were equal,
it is evident that if the weight 144 were to be raifed
by pulling at S tilfthe pulleys touched each^other, the
firft pulley muft receive that length of line as many times
as there are parts of the line hanging between it and
fhe lower pulley. In the prefent cafe, there are 12 lines,
b,d,f, &c. hanging between the two pulleys, formedby
its revolution about the fix upper and fix lower grooves.
Hence as much line muft pafs over the uppermoft pul¬
ley as is equal to twelve times the diftance of the two.
But, from an infpe&ion of the figure, it is plain,
that the fecond pulley cannot receive the full quantity
of line by as much as is equal to the diftance betwixt
it and the firft. In like manner, the third pulley re¬
ceives lefs than, the firft by as much as is the diftance
between the firft and third ; and fo on to the laft, which
receives only one twelfth of the whole. For this re¬
ceives its fhars of line n from a fixed point in the up-
A N I C S. Sea. IL
per frame, which gives it nothing ; while all the others Mechanical'
in the fame frame receive the line partly by turning p werf.
to meet it, and partly by the line coming to meet * —'
them.
Suppofing now thefe pulleys to be equal in fize, and
to move freely as the line determines them, it appears
evident, from the nature of the fyftem, that the num¬
ber of their revolutions, and confequently their velo¬
cities, muft be in proportion to the number of fufpend-
ing parts that are between the fixed point above-men¬
tioned and each pulley refpedtively. Thus the outer-
moft pulley would go twelve times round in the time
that the pulley under wdiich the part n of the line, if
equal to it, would revolve only once; and the inter¬
mediate times and velocities would be a feries of arith¬
metical proportionals, of which, if the fit-ft number
were 1, the laft would always be equal to the whole
number of terms.. Since then the revolutions of equal
and diftinft pplleys are meafured by their velocities,
and that it is poflible to find any proportion of velocity
on a fingle body running on a centre, viz. by finding
proportionate diftances from that centre, it follows,
that if the diameters of certain grooves in the fame
fubftance be exactly adapted to the above feries (the
line itfelf being fuppofed inelaftic, and of no magni¬
tude), the neceffity of ufing feveral pulleys in each
frame will be obviated, and with that 1'ome of the in-
conveniencies to which the ufe of the pulley is liable.
In the figure referred to, the coils of rope by which
the weight is fupported are reprefented by the- lines
a, l, ct &c.; a is the Um of fraction, commonly cab
led the fall, which pafles over and under the proper
grooves, until it is faftened to the upper frame juft
above n. In practice, however, the grooves are not
arithmetical proportionals, nor can they be fo; far the
diameter of the rope employed muft in all cafes be
dedufted from each term ; without which the fmaUer
grooves* to which the faid diameter bears a larger pro¬
portion than to the larger ones, will tend to rife and
fall fafter than they, and thus introduce worfe defects
than thofe which they were" intended to'obviate.
The principal advantage of this kind of pulley is,,
that it deftroys lateral friction, and that kind of
lhaking motion which are fo inconvenient in tire com¬
mon pulley. “ And left (fays Mr White; this cir-
cumftance fhould give the idea of weaknefs, I would,
pbferve, that to have pins for the pulleys to run on, is
not the only non perhaps the belt method ; but that
I fometimes ufe centres fixed to the pulleys, and re¬
volving on a very Ihort bearing in the fide of the frame,
by which ftrength is inereafed, and friCtion very much
diminilhed ; for to the laft moment the motion of the
pulley is perfectly circular: and this very circumitance.
is the caufe of its not wearing out in the centre as foon
as it would, afiifted by the ever increafing irregularities
of a gullied bearing. Thefe pulleys, when well exe¬
cuted, apply to jacks and other machines of that na¬
ture with peculiar advantage, both as to. the. time of
going and their own durability ; and it is polfible to .
produce a fyftem of pulleys of this kind of fix or
eight parts only, and adapted to the pockets, which,,
by means of a Ikain of fewing filk, or a clue, of com¬
mon thread, will raife upwards of an hundred weight.
$ 4. Qf
;a. II.
M E C H
$ 4. Of the Inclined Plane.
This power is reprefented fig. 40; and the advan-
tage gained by it is exaftly in the proportion of the
xxxxiv. jengtjj 0f the plane to the perpendicular height of it.
Thus, let AB be a plane parallel to the horizon, and
CD one inclined to it: fuppofe alfo the whole length
CD to be three times as great as the perpendicular
height G/F ; in this cafe, the cylinder E will be fup-
ported upon the plane CD, and kept from rolling
down upon it, by one-third part of its weight. Were
the length of the plane four times its height, it would
be prevented from rolling down by one-fourth part of
its weight. The force with which a rolling body de-
fcends upon an inclined plane will be to that with
which it would defcend by the power of gravity,' as
the height of the plane is to the length of it—-For,
fuppofe the plane AB (fig. 41.) to be parallel to the
horizon, the cylinder C will keep at reft upon any
part of the plane on which it is laid. If the plane be
fb elevated as in fig. 42. that its perpendicular height
D be equal to one half of its length AB, then the cy¬
linder will roll down with half its weight; for it would
require a power (adting in the dire&ion AB) equal
to half its weight to keep it from rolling. If the plane
be elevated fo as to be perpendicular to the horizon,
as in fig. 43. the cylinder C will defcend with its whole
force of gravity, becaufe the plane contributes no¬
thing to the fupport or hinderance of it; for which
reafon, it mull require a power equal to the whole
force of its gravity to keep it from defcending.
If, as in fig. 44. the cylinder C be made to turn
upon (lender pivots in. the frame D, which is furnilhed
with a hook, with a line G faftened to it; if this line
go over the fixed pulley H, and have its other end tied
to the hook in the weight I; if the weight of the bo¬
dy I be to the weight of the cylinder C, added to that
of its frame D, as the perpendicular height of the
plane LM is to its length AB ; the weight will juft
Support tbe^cylinder, and a fmall force will make it
either afeend or defcend. In the time that the cylin-.
der moves from A to B, it mnft rife through the
whole height of the plane ML, and the weight will
tfefcend from H to K, through a fpace equal to the
whole length of the plane AB. If the plane be now
made to move upon rollers or wheels as in fig. 45. and
the cylinder be fupported upon it, the fame power will
draw the cylinder up the plane, provided the pivots of
Vhe wheels be fmall, and the wheels themfelves pretty
large. For let the machine ABC, equal in height and
length to ABM, fig. 44. be furnifhed with four
wheels, of which two are feen at D and E, the third
being under C, while the fourth is concealed by the
board a. Let the cylinder F be kid upon the lower
fcnd of the inclined plane CB, and the line G be ex¬
tended from the frame of the cylinder about fix feet,
-parallel te-the plane CB, and fixed in that diredtion
to a hook in the wall, which will keep the cylinder
from rolling off the plane. Let one end of the line
H be tied to a hook at C in the machine, and the
other to a weight K, the fame which drew the cylin¬
der up the pkne before. If this line be put oyer the
fixed pulley I, the weight K will draw the machine
along the horizontal plane L, and under the cylinder
F i and when the machine has been -drawn the whole
A N I C S . 74. t.
length CB, the cylinder will be raifed to d, equal to Mechanical
the perpendicular height AB above the horizontal l’°'vers-
part at A. v 'J
The inclined plane, confidered as a mechanical 28
power, may eafily be reduced to the lever; for the
power acquired by it is always in the proportion of„f the in-*
the length to the height, in the fame manner as the dined
power acquired by a lever is in the proportion of the plane,
long arm to the (liort one. To compute, or (how the
reafon of the power of an inclined plane, therefore,
vve have only to conftrudl a lever, the long arm of
which is equal to the length of the plane, and the
(hort arm to the height of it; then, whatever weight
put upon the long arm counterpoifes another put upon
the (hort one, will alio keep the fame weight from
rolling down the inclined plane.
To the inclined plane belong alfo the wedge, and
all cutting inftruments which aft as wedges, as knives,
hatchets, Sec. From the theory of the inclined plane
alfo combined with that of falling bodies, we deduce
fome of the mod remarkable properties of the pendu¬
lum. See Pendulum.
$ 5. Of the Wedge.
This may be confidered as two equally inclined
planes DEF and CEF, fig. 46. joined together at
their bafes e EFO : DC is the whole thicknefs of the X i
wedge at its back ABCD, where the power is applied;
EF is the depth or height of the wedge; DF the length
of one ef its tides, equal to CF the length of the other
fide ; and OF is its (harp edge, which is entered into
the wood or other matter to be fplit, by the force of
a hammer or mallet ftriking perpendicularly upon its
back. Thus, AB fig. 47. is a wedge driven into the
cleft CED of the wood EG.
When the wood does not cleave at any diftance be¬
fore the wedge, there will be an equilibrium between
the power impelling the wedge downward, and the re-
fiftance of the wood afting againft the two fides of
the wedge : if the power, be to the reiiftance as half
the thicknefs of the wedge at its back is to either of
its fides, and if the power be increafed fo as to over¬
come the friftion of the wedge, and the refiftar.ee ari-
fing from the coheiion of the wood, the wedge will
be driven in, and the wood fplit. But when the wood
fplits, as it commonly does, before the wedge, the
power impelling the latter will not be to the refiftance
of the wood as half , the thicknefs of the wedge is to
one of its fides, but as half its thicknefs is to the
length of the other fide of the cleft, eftimated from
the top or.afting part of the wedge ; for if we fuppofe
the wedge to be lengthened down to the bottom
of the cleft at E, the fame proportion will hold ;
namely, that the power will be to the refiftance, as half
. the thicknefs of the wedge is to the length of either '
of its fides ; or, which is the fame thing, as the whole
thicknefs .of the wedge is to the length of both its
fides.
To prove this, let us fuppofe the wedge is divided
lengthwife into two equal parts; in which cafe, it will
become two equally inclined planes, one of which, as
abc fig. 48. may be made ufe of for feparating the
moulding cdfrom the wainfeot AB. It is evident, that
when this half wedge has been driven its whole length ac
between the waiafeot and mouldings, its in fide ac will.
be-
?42
MECHANICS.
Mechanical he at at, and tlie moulding will be fcparated to fg from
. powers. tjie ^va;nfcot. But, from what has been already Ihowrt
^ concerning the inclined plane, it appears, that, to have
an equilibrium between the power impelling the half
wedge and the refxftance of the moulding, the former
mull be to the latter as ab to ac, that is, as the thick-
nefs of the back which receives the ftroke is to the
length of the fide againll which the moulding a^ls.
Since, therefore, the power upon the half wedge is
to the refiftance againll fts fide as the half back ab is
to the whole fide ar, it is plain that the power upon
the whole wedge, whete the whole thicknefs is double
the half-back, mull be to the refillance of both its
Tides as the thicknefs of the whole back is to the
length of both fides of the cleft, when the wood fplits
at any diftance before the wedge : For when the
"Wedge is driven quite into the wood, and the latter
fplits at ever fo fmall a diftance before it, the top of
* the wedge then becomes the a&ing part, becaufe the
Wood does not touch it any where elfe. And fince
Hie bottom of the cleft mull be confidered as the place
v/here the whole refillance is accumulated, it is plain
from the nature of the lever, that the farther the
power is from the refiliance, the greater advantage it
afts with.
. ^ Some have fiippofed, that the power of the Wedge
Reafan of was in the proportion of the thicknefs of it to the
■ the effe&s length of one of its fides} but from what has already
of the kggjj advanced, it is plain that this cannot be the cafe.
The Wedge, as has already been Ihown, is compofed
of two inclined planes, each of which has a perpendi¬
cular height of only one half the thicknefs of the
Wedge. As the power of the inclined plane therefore
is always as the length to its perpendicular height, it
evident that the power of each of thefe inclined
Sea.il
Wedge.
the threads of the fcrew itfelf. Thus, fuppofing the Median!
dillance of the threads to be half an inch, and the P°weR
length of the winch twelve inches, the circle defcribed
by the extremity of it where the power a&s will be
nearly 76 inches, or about 152 times the diftance be¬
tween the threads; whence a fingle pound adling at
the end of fuch a winch would balance 152 at the ex¬
tremity of the fcrew; and as much more as can over¬
come the fri&ion Would turn the winch and raife up
the weight! j
Fig. 50. reprefents a machine for exhibiting the 30 j
force of the fcrew. Let the wheel G have upon its Marhinej
axjs a fcrew working in the teeth of the wheel D, [or whibij
which fuppofe to be 48 in number. It is plain that
every time the fcrew ab and wheel C are turned round fcrew. |
by the winch A, the wheel D will be moved one tooth 1
by the fcrew 5 and therefore in 48 revolutions of the
winch, the wheel D will be turned once round. If
then the circumference of a circle defcribed by the
handle of the winch A be equal to the circumference
of a groove e round the wheel D, the velocity of the
handle will be 48 times as great as the velocity of any ]
given point in the groove. Confequently if the line
G goes round the groove e, and has a weight of 48
pounds hung to it below the pedeftal EF, a power of
one pound at the handle will balance that weight. If
the line G goes round the axle I inftead of the groove
of the wheel D, the force of the machine will be as
much increafed as the circumference of the groove e
is greater than that of the axle ; which, fuppofing.to
be fix times, then one pound at H will balance 288
pounds fufpended by the line at the axle.
The fcrew is of very extenfive ufe in mechanics, its
great power rendering it more eligible for compreffing
bodies together than any of the reft, and the great
planes of which the Wedge is compofed muftbe as the difparity betwixt the velocity of the handle and that
length- of one fide to half the thicknefs ; and confe- of the threads of the fcrew, rendering it proper for
.quently the power of both muft be as the length of dividing fpace into an a'lmoft infinite number of parts.
both fide& is'to the whole thicknefs.
The power of the wedge is exceedingly great, info-
much that not only wood but rocks may be fplit by
it, which could fcarce be done by any of the other
powers : but in this it is afliited by percuflion of the
Hence, in the conftrudlion of many mathematical in-
ftruments, fuch as telefcopes, where it is necdfary to
adjuft the focus to the eyes of different people, the
fcrew is always made ufe of in order to move the eye-
glafs a very little nearer or farther away from , the ob-
Aammer which drive's it, and fhatters the ftone in a je& glafs. In the 71ft volume of the Philofophical
manner that could fcarcely be done by any fimple pref-
fure.j—Wedges as well as pulleys have alfo been ufed
as inllruments'of torture.
.§ 6, 0/ (he Screw.
This is the ftrongefl of all the mechanical powers,
though it cannot be accounted a fimple one, as no
fcrew can be made ufe of without a lever or winch to
affift irt turning it. We may fuppofe it made
by cutting a piece of paper into the form of an incli¬
ned plane or half wedge, and then wrapping it round
a cylinder, as in fig. 49. From this figure it is evi¬
dent, that the winch which turns the cylinder muft
move once round in the time that the paper defcribes
one fpiral; and confequently if any weight or greater
power of refiftance were applied, the winch muft turn
once round ih the time that the Weight would move with other conditions.
Tranfadlions, a new method of applying the fcrew, fo ^
as to make it a6l with the greateftaccuracy, isxlefcri-Mr Hufl^
bed by Mr Hunter furgeon. The following are the ter’s itr
general principles upon which this method depends, provem
1. That the llrength of the feveral parts of the en-
gine be adjufted in filch a manner to the force they
are intended to exert, that they ihall not break under
the weight they ought to counteraft, nor yet encum¬
ber the motion by a greater quantity of matter than
inch- is neceffary to give them a proper degree of ftrength.
2. That the increafe of power by means of the ma?
chine be fo regulated, that while the force we can exert
is thereby rendered adequate to the effedl, it may not
be retarded in procuring it more than is abfolutely
neceffaryi
3. That the machine be as fimple as is confiftent
from one fpiral thread to another, from d to c for i
-ftance. Hence the force of the fcrew will be as the
circumference of the circle defined, by the lever or
winch by which it is turned, is to the diftance between
4. It ought to be as portable, and as little trouble-
fome as poffible in the application.
5. The moving power muft be applied in fuch a
manner as to afl to the greateft advantage 5 and that
the
[ea. II. M E C H
[echanicalthe motion ultimately produced may have that direc-
iowers. tjon an(j velocity which is molt adapted to the execu-
“ tion of the ultimate defign of the machine.
6. Of two machines, equal in other refpe&s, that
deferves the preference in which the fridtion lealt di-
minilhes the effedt propofed by the whole.
To attain all thefe advantages in any machine is
perhaps impoffible ; but in the application of the
fcrew, the following method promifes to be attended
with feveral of them.
Let AB (fig. yr.) be a plate of metal, in which
the fcrew C D plays, having a certain number of
threads in an inch, fuppofe 10. Within the fcrew
Seethe CD there is a female fcrew*, which receives the
tide fmaller fcrew DE of ix threads in an inch. This
fcrew is kept from moving about with the former by
means of the apparatus at A F G B. But if the
handle C K L be turned ten times round the fcrew,
C D will advance an inch upwards; and if we fup¬
pofe the fcrew D E to move round along with C D,
the point E will advance an inch. If we now turn
the fcrew D E ten times backward, the point E will
move downwards J (ths of an inch, and the refult of
both motions will be to lift the point E -rVth of an inch
upwards. But if, while the fcrew C D is turned ten
times round, D E be kept from moving, the effedt
will be the fame as if it had moved ten times round
with C D, and been ten times turned back ; that is,
it will advance TV of an inch. At one turn, therefore,
it will advance upwards TVXTV=:T'ro °f an inch. If
now the handle be fix inches long, the power to pro¬
duce an equilibrium muft be to the weight as i to
110X6.2832X6=4146.912. Thus the force of Mr
Hunter’s fcrew is greatly fuperior to that of the com¬
mon one ; for in order to have as great a power on
the plan of the latter, it muft have no threads in an
inch, which would render it too weak to refill any
confiderable violence.
With regard to the fecond general maxim above
laid down, Mr Hunter confiders both kinds of fcrews
as equally applicable, only that the more complicated
ftrudlure, and confequently greater expence of his
fcrew, renders it convenient to ufe the common fcrew
where only a fmall increafe of power is neceffary, and
his improved one where a great power is wanted. By
Ihortening the handle alfo, the whole machine is ren¬
dered more portable and lefs troublefome in the ufing.
To anfwer the fifth intention, both feem to be e-
qually proper ; but for the fixth, the preference muft
be given to fuch as heft anfwer the particular purpofe
propofed. Thus if the fcrew DE be defigned to
carry an index which muft turn round at the fame
time that it rifes upward, the common fcrew is pre¬
ferable ; though our author alfo propofes a method
by which his fcrew may anfwer the fame purpofe ■:
With this view a ftill fmaller fcrew ought to play
within the fcrew D E, and be conne&ed with the
fcrew C D, fo as to move round along with it. It muft
have, according to the foregoing proportions, 11 x
threads in an inch ; and they muft lie in a contrary
direction to thofe of CD; fo that when they are
both turned together, and C D moves upwards, this
other may move downwards. At one turn this will
move upwards TT^rpth part of an inch, and at the fame
time will move in 3 circular direction; but the accuracy
A N 1 C S. 743
required in con ft rafting fuch fcrews, even though made Mechanical
with fewer threads than thofe juft mentioned, would fuweis' ,
probably be too great for pradtice. In many cafes, ' ilJ
however, fcrews upon Mr Hunter’s principles may be
of confiderable ufe.
The theory of the fcrew is eafily deduced from that T)le^y 0e
of the inclined plane and lever ; for the threads of the the fctew.
fcrew in fadl form a continued inclined plane, the
height of which is the diftance betwixt the two threads,
and the length is the circumference of the cylinder.
Hence, without any lever, the fcrew would have a
confiderable power, were it not for the great friction
of the parts upon one another ; and this friftion would
be much more increafed by the perpendicular aclion
of a weight on the top of the cylinder than by the
horizontal action of a lever.
$ 7. Ot/jer methods of accumulating power, which do not
properly come under the denomination of any of the me¬
chanicalpowers already defcribed.
From the account already given of the fix mechani¬
cal powers, it is evident, that they can do no more than
accumulate, or, if we may ufe the expreffion, comprefs,
any degree of velocity into a fmall fpace. The velo¬
city thus compreffed, becomes what we call power,
and is capable of again imprefling the original degree
of velocity upon a body of an equal or nearly equal
fize to the firft which originally imprefled it; but in
every cafe the abfolute quantity of motion, or of pow¬
er, remains the fame without a poffibility of augmen¬
tation or diminution by levers, fcrews, pulleys, or
wedges. It follows, therefore, that if by any method
we can preferve for a certain time a fmall quantity of
motion, that will at the end of the time fpecified a-
mount to an aftoni/hing power, which we could fcarce
at firft have imagined to proceed from fo fmall a caufe.
Thus, though a man cannot raife a ton weight from
the ground at once, he is eafily capable qf raifing 100
pounds at once from the ground, and this for a con¬
fiderable number of times in fucceflion. It is plain,
therefore, that in a very ftiort time a man could in this
manner raife the ton weight, if it were divided into
20 parts, as effectually as by a lever or other machine; -
though the fatigue confequent upon Hooping down and
raifing up his body fo often would no doubt make
the toil much greater. Even by means. of a lever,
however, before a man could raife, a ton weight one
foot from the ground} with the trouble of exerting a
force equal to 100 pounds, ..he muft have a lever 20 or
21 feet in length, and exert a conftant force of too
pounds, while he goes up through a fpace of 20 feet,
or pulls down a rope through that fpace. The lever,
therefore, only accumulates the power exerted in pul¬
ling or carrying the weight of 100 pounds through 20
feet, and difcharges it all upon, the fpace of one foot;
whence it is plain, that any other thing which could do
this would raife the ton weight as effectually as the lever.
One method of accumulating a great power is. by
fufpending a very heavy body by a chain or ftrong
rope of confiderable length. This body may be put
in motion by a very fmall degree of power more than
is requifite for bending the rope, and will acquire a
vibratory motion like a pendulum ; by continuing the
impulfe as the body returns, it will continually acquire
greater and greater force, the arches through which
744 .
Mechan'cal it Tnoves becoming continually larger, until at laft it
. povycrs. mjgjjt be made to overcome almoft any obftacle : and
' ' upon this principle the battering rams of old were
conftru&ed, the power of which has been already men¬
tioned ; neverthelefs the powtr of one ftroke of this
engine never could exceed the accumulated power of
the impulfes given to it in order to produce that ftroke,
or even quite equal it, becaufe the ftifthefs of the
rope, and the relillance of the air, mull always take off
fomething from it.
Another method of accumulating force is by means
of a very heavy wheel or cylinder, moveable about an
axis. A fmall force will be fufticient to put this wheel in
-motion; and, if long continued, will accumulate in fuch
a manner as to produce -fuch effefts in raifing weights
and overcoming refiftances, as could not by any means
be atcomplifhed by the application of the original mo¬
ving force. On this fubjeft Mr Atwood has demon-
ftrated, that a force of 20 pounds applied for 37 fe-
-conds to the circumference of a cylinder of xo feet
radius, and weighing 4713 pounds, would, at the di-
ftance of one foot from the centre, give an impulfe to
a mulket-ball equivalent to what it receives from a full
charge of gun-powder. The fame efleft would be
produced in fix minutes and ten feconds by a man turn¬
ing the cylinder with a winch one foot long, in which
he conftantly exerted a force of 20 pounds. In this
cafe, however, as well as the former, there is not any
abfolute accumulation of power ; for the cylinder has
no principle of motion in itfelf, and-cannot have more
than it receives.
Of the nfe Tbis accumulation of motion, however, in heavy
r f flies in wheels, is of great fervice in the conftruftion- of ma-
various ma-chines for various purpofes, rendering them greatly
chines. more powerful and eafy to be worked by animals, as
well as more'regular and fteady, when fet in motion
by water, or any inaminate power. Hence the ufe
of flys, ballaft-wheels, &c. which are commonly ftip-
pofed to increafe the power of a machine, though in
reality they take fomething from it, and a£f upon a
quite different principle.—In all machines in which
flys are ufed, a confiderably greater force muft at firft
be applied than wdiat is neceffary to move the machine
w'ithout it, or the fly muft have been fet in motion
fome time before it is applied to the machine. It is
this fuperfluous power which is collected by the fly,
and ferves as a kind of refervoir from which the ma¬
chine may be fupplied when the animal fiackens his
efforts. This, we muft obferve, will always tie the
-cafe with animals, for none are able to exert a great
power with abfolute conftancy 4 fome intervals of reft*
even though almoft imperceptible, are requilite, other-
wife the creature’s ftrength would in a fhort time be
entirely exhaufted. When he begins to move the
machine he is vigorous, and exerts a great power ; in
confequence of which he overcomes not only the re-
fiftance of the machine itfelf, but communicates a
confiderable degree of power to the fly. The machine,
nvhen moving, yields for a time to a fmaller impulfe ;
during which time the fly itfelf afts as a moving pow¬
er, and the animal recovers the ftrength he had loft.
By degrees, however, the motion of the machine de-
creafes, and the artimal is obliged to renew his ef¬
forts. The velocity of the machine would now be
confiderably increafed, were it not that the fly now
ND199.
Se&. IF,
afts as a refifting power, and the grenteft part ©? the Mcchaold
fuperfluous motion is lodged in it, fo that the increafe Power»j
of velocity in the machine is fcarcely perceptible. » 1
Thus the animal has time to reft himfelf until the ma¬
chine again requires an increafed impulfe, and fo on
alternately.—The Cafe is the fame with a machine mo¬
ved by water, or by a weight; for tho’ the ftrength of
thefe does not exhauft itfelf like that of an animal,
yet the yielding of the parts of the machine renders
the impulfe much lefs after it begins to move : hence
its velocity is accelerated for fome time, until the im¬
pulfe becomes fo fmall that the machine requires an in¬
creafe of power to keep up the neceffary motion.
Hence the machine flackens its pace, the water meets
with more refiftance, and of confequence exerts its
power more fully, and the machine recovers its velo¬
city. But when a fly is added to the other parts, this
afts firft as a power of reliftance, fo that the ma¬
chine cannot acquire the velocity it would othervvife
do. When it next begins to yield to the preffure of
the water, and the impulfe of courfe to flacken, the
fly communicates part of its motion to the other parts;
fo that if the machine be well made, there is very-
little difference in the velocity perceptible.—The truth
of what is here advanced will eafily be feen, from con-
fidering the inequality of motion in a clock when the
pendulum is off, and how very regularly it goes when
regulated by the pendulum, which here aft as a fly.
Flies are particularly ufeful in any kind of work
which is done by alternate ftrokes, as the lifting of ^eig^t 0j
large peftles, pumping of water, &c. In this cafe the fl;es.
weight of the wheel employed is a principal objeft;
and the method of calculating this is to compare it
with the weight to be raifed at each ftroke of the ma¬
chine. Thus, fuppofe it required to raife a peftle 30
pounds weight t@ the height of one foot 60 times in
a minute : Let the diameter of the fly be feven feet,
and fuppofe the peftle to be lifted once at every revo¬
lution of the fly; we muft then confider what weight
palling through 2 2 feet in a fecond will be equivalent
to 30 pounds moving through one foot in a fecond.
This will be 30-7-22 or i-rj-pounds. Were a fly of
this kind to be applied, therefore, and the machine
fet a going, the fly would juft be able to lift the peftle
once after the moving power was withdrawn ; but by
increafing the weight of the fly to lo, 12,or 20 pounds, . <
the machine when left to itfelf would make a confi¬
derable number of ftrokes, and be worked with much
lefs labour than if no fly had been u£ed, though no
doubt at the firft it would be found a confiderable in¬
cumbrance to the motion. This is equally applicable
to the aftion of pumps; but the weight which can be
moft advantageoufly given to a fly has never yet been
determined by mechanics. It is certain, however, that
the fly does not communicate any abfolute increafe of
power to the machine ; for if a man or other animal
is not able to fet any mechanical engine in motion
without a fly, he will not be able to do it though a
fly be applied, nor will he be able to keep it in motion
though fet a-going with a flyby means of a greater
power. Tliia Wiay feem to be contradifted by the
example of a common clock; for if the pendulum be
once flopped, the weight is not able to fet it in mo-
tion again, though it will keep it going when once
put in motion by an external power. This, however,
2 depend#
MECHANICS.
B e A
MECHANICS.
Flate CCLXSX\r.
.4,3 .
"'f/- *o-
«^spL
P C5 l>Xr&e//.Y7>„ ft. //fcryret/ .
f^T'crt . (3 {?.
Sea. IT. M E C H
Mechanical depends n6t upon any infufliciency of the weight, but
^ Powers- on tjje particular mechanifm of the crown wheel;
' which is fuch, that when once the pendulum is Hop¬
ped, it would require a much greater weight than that
commonly applied to fet it in motion; and iftheufual
weight was to aft fairly, it would be more than fuffi-
cient to move all the machinery, and make the pen¬
dulum vibrate alfo with much greater force than it
■does.
$ 8. Of Frifiion.
The do&rine of fri&ion, according to Mr Fergu-
fon, may be fummed up in the following manner:
l. When one body infifts on another upon a horizon¬
tal plane, it preffes it with its whole weight; which
being equally readied on, and confequently the whole
effeft of its gravity deftroyed by the plane, it will be
abfolutely free to move in any horizontal diredtion by
any the leaft power applied thereto, provided both the
touching furfaces be perfedlly fmooth. 2. But fince
we find no fuch thing as perfedl fmoothnefs in the
furfaces of bodies, but an evident roughnefs or uneven-
uefsof the parts in their furface, arifing from their po-
rofity and peculiar texture, it is eafy to underftand,
that, when two fuch furfaces come together, the pro¬
minent parts of one will in fome meafure fall into the
concave parts of the other; and therefore, when an
horizontal motion is attempted in one, the fixed pro¬
minent parts of the other will give more or lefs refin¬
ance to the moving furface, by holding and detaining
its parts ; and this is what we call friftion. 3. Now
fince any body will require a force proportional to its
weight to draw it over a given obllacle, it follows, that
the fridlion arifing to the moving body will always be
in proportion to its weight only, and not the quantity
of the furface by which it bears upon the refilling
plane or furface. Thus, if a piece of wood four inches
wide and one thick be laid upon another fixed piece
of the fame wood, it will require the fame weight to
draw it along, whether it be laid on its broad or nar¬
row fide. 4. For though there be four times the
number of touching particles on the broad fide (cate-
ris paribus), yet each particle is prelfed with but ^th
of the weight that thofe are on the narrow fide ; and
fince four times the number, multiplied by ith of the
weight, is equal to ^th 'of the number multiplied by
four times the weight, it is plain the refiftance is equal
in both cafes, and fo requires the fame force to over¬
come it. 5. The reafon why fridlion is proportional
to the weight of the moving body is, becaufe the power
applied to move the body mult raife it over the pro¬
minent parts of the furface on which it is drawn; and
this motion of the body, as it is not upright, fo it
will not require a power equal to its whole weight;
but being in the nature of the motion on an inclined
plane, it will require only a part of its own weight,
which will vary with the various degrees of fmooth¬
nefs and afperity. 6. It is found by experiment,
that a body will be drawn along by nearly -fd of its
weight; and if the furfaces be hard and well polifli-
ed, by lefs than a third part; whereas if the parts
be foil or ragged, it will require a much greater
54. weight. Thus alfo the cylinder of wood AB, if
very fmooth, and laid on two well polilhed fuppor-
ters CD (having been firft oiled or greafed), and
Von. X. Part II.
A N I C S. 745
then charged with the weight of two pounds in the Mechanical
two equal balls GH, it will require an. additional P°wers
weight x, equal to about a third part of the two
pounds, to give motion to or overcome the fridlion
of the faid cylinder. 7. Now this additional weight,
as it caufes a greater weight of the cylinder, will like-
wife mcreafe the fridlion ; and therefore require the
addition of another weight y, equal to the third part
of its own weight; for the fame reafon, the weight
y will requiri another 2, a third part lefs; and fo on
ad infinitum. Hence, fuppofing the fridlion to be
precifely a third of the weight, the firfl: weight with
all the additional ones, viz. 2, frt &c. will be
a feries of numbers in geometrical progrefiion de-
creafing. Now the fum of all thefe terms, except the
firft, is found, by a well-known theorem in arithmetic,
to be equal to one pound. So that if the weight of
the cylinder be inconfiderable, the readieft way to over¬
come the fridlion would be to double the power G, or
H, at once. 8, But though we may, at a medium,
allow a third part of the weight with which any fimple
machine is charged for the fridlion arifing from
thence, yet this is very precarious, and feldom is the
cafe : for if ABCD be a piece of brafs of fix ounces, Fig. 55.
and EFGH be alfo a plate of brafs, and both the
furfaces well ground and polifhed, the weight P of
near two ounces will be required to draw along the
body AC alone; but if AC be loaded with 6, 8, or
I olb, then a fixth part of the weight will be fufficient
to draw it along the plane. On the other hand, if
the plane be covered with a linen or woollen cloth,
then a third or half part, and fometimes more, will
be requifite to draw it along on the plane. 9. Yet
notwithftanding the difficulty and uncertainty attend¬
ing the eftimation of the quantity of fridtion, it is ftill
a moft ufeful and neceflary inquiry, how and by what
means the fridlion of any machine may be diminiffied ?
In order to this, we muft confider fridlion mechani¬
cally, or as a force adling againft a power applied to
overcome it. Thus fuppofe AB an upright Hem Fig. $5.
or ftiaft, turning freely in the focket B fixed in the
table or plane 1KLM; and AC, DE, two arms
fixed in the faid ftiaft, the latter of which, DE, has
three pins going into a focket in the middle of heavy
weights, F, G, or H, in fuch a manner, that when a
power applied at C moves the lever AC, it caufes the
lever DE to protrude or thruft along the weights at
F, G, or H, in a circular manner upon the table.
10. Now fince we fuppofe the weight, all the while it
is in motion, is freely and wholly fupported by the
plane, it follows, that all the refiftance it can give to
the power applied to C, is only what arifes from its
fridlion on the plane. What this fridlion is, will be
found by applying the weight at G, fo that BG be
equal to AC; for then the power applied to C, adling
in a tangent to the circle CRS, that (hall juft move
the weight G, will be equal to its fridlion. But if
the weight be applied at F, becaufe BF is greater
than AC, the fame power at C, as before, will net
move it, by reafon its force is here increaled, by ha¬
ving a greater velocity than the power; as, on the
other hand, if placed at H, a lefs power at C (hall
move it, becaufe of its having there lefs velocity than
the power, as is evident from the properties of the
lever. 11. Hence we underftand, that though the
5 B weight
746 M E C H i
Ivlechantcalweight of a machine remains the fame; yet the fric-
. 1 O A e's tion may be diminifhed, by contriving that the parts
1 1 on which it moves and rubs ftiall have lefs velocity
than the power which moves it: thus, if the- cylinder
AB (fig. 54.) were to move on the two fmall pins or
gudgeons E, F, the frifticm would be abated in the
proportion of the diameter of the cylinder to that of
the pins. 12. The fridlion on thefe gudgeons is ftill
farther diminifhed by caufing them to move on the
circumference of a wheel: thus, let F be the gudgeon
©f the cylinder, revolving on the wheel CDE(fig. 57.},
the velocity of the wheel’s circumference will be the
fame with that of the gudgeon ; but the velocity of
the wheel’s axis AB (which Is now to be confidered'
as the rubbing part) is lefs than that of the wheel, in'
proportion as its diameter is lefs than that of the
wheel: for example, if the fri&ion of the cylinder
moving on its furface be Td part of the weight, and
the gudgeon be to the cylinder as 1 : 10, they will
reduce the fri£tion to-j^-th part ; and if, again, the axis
of the wheel be to the wheel as 1 : j o, the wheel will
reduce the friftion to Tg-0th part; and if the axis of
this wheel be laid on the perimeter of another wheel,
the friftion will be reduced to a ftill lefler part of the
weight; fo that you may proceed in this manner to di*
minifh the fridfion ad injimlum; and wheels applied in
this manner are called fritdion-ivbeets. 13. Beildes
what has been already faid, fomewhat farther is ne*
ceffary to diminifh the fridtion of wheel-carriages. It
was before obferved, that fridlion arofe chiefly by
lifting the body over the prominent parts of the plane
on which itris.moved: now if we can contrive to move
the body along without lifting or fuftaining its weight,
we {hall move it without much friction; and this may
be done by laying the body on any moveable circular
fuhjedt, as rollers, wheels, &c.': becaufe the afperities
of its furface will lay hold on thbfe of the roller, and
move it likewife; and it is as evident, that when the
body is drawn againft the prominent parts of the rol¬
ler, they immediately give way, and make no refift-
ance. By this circular motion of the roller, its pro¬
minent parts below do only defeend and move upon
or over, and are not drawn againft, the fixed promi¬
nent parts of the plane, and fo receive no refiftance
from them. Hence the body is conveyed along with¬
out being lifted up, in the fame manner as a wheel
is moved by a pinion without any confiderable refift¬
ance.
Sect. III. Of the Combinations of the Mechanical
Powers.
From what has been already laid down concerning
the mechanical powers in particular, we have feen that
none of them is capable of augmenting the abfolute
fbree of any afiting fubftance; and from thence we may
juftly conclude, that no combination of them can do
fo. In faff, thefe combinations are very often detri¬
mental, and occaiion a great lofs of power by fri&ion.
This is the great abftade in mechanics, and muft al¬
ways be greater in complex than in fimple machines ;
and therefore the latter are always to he preferred,
excepting where conveniency requires fome degree of
complication. The lever being the fimpleft machine,
and that, attended with leaft fridtion, is always to be
\ n 1 c s. Sefl. m.
ufed where it is requifite to raife weights for a fmall «omblna-
way- It may likewife be ufed with propriety where '
bodies are to undergo along continued degree of pref- po^r*.
fare, and where they yield but little. For this purpofe  v—
the lever ought to be of the fecond kind, reprefented
fig. 2-8. where one end being fixed at A, a we‘ght
may be put upon the other extremity B, and the body
to be preffed put at 1, 2, or any of the intermediate
divifions, according to the degree of preffure it is de---
figned to undergo. This has the advantage of giving
a long and very equable preflure, and is a very ad¬
vantageous method of prefling cheefe or other things
which do not require a very great exertion of force.
Where this is requifite we muft employ wedges or.
ferews; but both thefe have the difadvantage of llarck-
ening their preflure on the leaft yielding of the ma¬
terials to be prefled. Wedges therefore require to be
almoft conftantly driven, and ferews to be turned by a
lever, in order to produce a conftant preflure. In oil-
mills the preffure is produced by wedges, which are
conftantly driven-by great mallets lifted up by the force
of the mill. Oil of fweet almonds is made by apothe¬
caries in a prefs driven by a ferew, and turned by *
long lever aflifted by a capften.
Where it is neceffary to have a confiderable weight
raifed to fome height, the pulley is the moft ufeful
power, but the fridlron is extremely great; the axis'
in peritrochio combined with a fingle pulley will an-
fwer the purpofe extremely well, and with kfs fridlion
than any machine compofod of pulleys alone. The Beft me-
machines oalled cranes are generally combinations of:thr,d of
thefe two; and are very much ufed, efpecially.by theconftru<^'‘
commercial people, for raifing goods out of ftiips,111^crailes*
drawing them up-into warehoufes, and for lowering
them down. In thefe operations-we muft obferve,
that lowering goods is much more dangerous. that>
raifing them, on account of the vaft increafe of velo¬
city which bodies acquire every moment by the power
of gravity. In the conftrudlion of cranes, therefore,-
it is abfolutely neceffary to attend to this.circumftancey
and to guard againft accidents. The following are
recommended by Mr Fergufon : Fig. cz. fhows one Plate,
crane well calculated for the purpofes juft mentioned;CCLXXXT*
When the rope H is.hooked to the weight K, a man
turns the winch A, on the axis whereof is the trundle
B, which turns the wheel C, on whofe axis D is the
trundle E, which turns the-wheel F with its upright
axis G, on which the great rope HH winds as the
wheel turns; and going over a pulley I, at the end of
the arm d of the gib cede,. it draws up the heavy bur¬
den K; . which being raifed to a proper height, as from
a ftiip to the quay, is then brought over the quay by
pulling the wheel Z round by the handles z, z, which
turns the gib by means of the half wheel b fixed on the
gib-poft cc, and the ftrong pinion a fixed on the axis of
the wheel Z% This wheel gives the man that turns
it an abfolute command over the gib, fo as to prevent-
it from taking any unlucky fwing,.fuch as often hapi-
pens vvhen it is only guided by a rope tied to its arm
d; and people are frequently hurt, fometimes killed,
by fuch accidents.
The great rope goes between two upright rollers
i and i, which turn upon gudgeons in the fixed beams
f and g; and as the gib is turned towards either fide,
the rope bends upon the roller next that fide. Were
Sea. III. M E C H
Combina- Jt not for thefe rollers, the gib would be quite unma-
^chanicaJ6* na6ea^^e 5 ^or t^ie moraent it were turned ever fo little
lowers." towards any fide, the weight K would begin to de-
W—fcend, becaufe the rope would be fhortened between
the pulley I and axis G ; and fo the gib would be pul¬
led violently to that fide, and either be broken to
pieces or break every thing that came in its way.
Thefe rollers muft be placed fo that the fides of them
round which the rope bends may keep the middle of
the bended part diredlly even with the centre of the
hole in which the upper gudgeon of the gib turns in
the beam /. The truer thefe rollers are placed, the
eafier the gib is managed, and the lefs apt to fwing ei¬
ther way by the force of the weight K.
. A ratchet-wheel Qjs fixed upon the axis D, near the
trundle E ; and into this W’heel falls the catch or click
R. This hinders the machine from running back by
the weight of the burden K, if the man who raifes it
ihould happen to be carelefs, and to leave off working
at the winch A fooner than he ought to do.
. When the burden K is raifed to its proper height
from the Ihip, and brought over the quay by turning
the gib about, it is let down gently upon the quay, or
into a cart ftanding thereon, in the following manner:
A man takes hold of the rope tt (which goes over the
pulley Vy and is tied to a hook at S in the catch R),
and fo difengages the catch from the ratchet-wheel Qj
and then, the man at the winch A turns it backward,
and lets down the weight K. But if the weight pulls
too hard againll this man, another lays hold of the
handle V, and by pulling it downward draws the gripe
U clofe to the wheel Y, which by rubbing hard againft
the gripe hinders the too quick defcent of the weight;
and not only fo, but even flops it at any time if re¬
quired. By this means, heavy goods may be either
raifed or let down at pleafure, without any danger of
hurting the men who work the engine.
When part of the goods are craned up, and the
rope is to be let down for more, the catch R is fir ft
difengaged from the ratchet-wheel by pulling the
cord t ; then the handle q is turned half round back¬
ward, which, by the crank nn the piece <?, pulls
down the frame h between the guides m and m (in
which it Aides in a groove), and fo difengages the
trundle B from the wheel C: and then the heavy hook
iG at the end of the rope H defcends by its own weight,
and turns back the great wheel F with its trundle E
and the wheel C; and this lalt wheel adls like a fly
againft the wheel F and hook /?, and fo hinders it
from going down too quick ; whilft the weight X
keeps up the gripe U from rubbing againft the wheel
Y, by means of a cord going from the weight over
the pulley w to the hook W in the gripe; fo-that the
gripe never touches the wheel unlefs it be pulled down
by the handle V.
When the crane is to be fet at work again for draw¬
ing up another burden, the handle q is turned half
round forwards; which, by the crank nn, raifes up the
frame h, and caufes the trundle B to lay hold of the
wheel C; and then, by turning the winch A, the bur¬
den of goods K is drawn up as before.
The crank nn turns pretty fliff in the mortife near
Oy and flops againlt the farther end of it when it has
got juft a little beyond the perpendicular; fo that
it can never come back of itfelf: and therefore the
A N I C S. 747
trundle B can never come away from the wheel C un- Combina
til the handle q be turned half round. **thanicll''
The great rope runs upon rollers pp in the lever LM, powerv.
which keep it from bending between the axle at G and  j
the pulley I. This lever turns upon the axis N by
means of the weight O, which is juft fufficient to keep
its end L up to the rope; fo that, as the great axle
turns, and the rope coils round it, the lever rifes with
the rope, and prevents the codings from going over
one another
The power of this crane may be eflimated thus: Sup-
pofe the trundle B to have i 3 ftaves or rounds, and
the wheel C to have 78 fpur-cogs ; the trundle E to
have 14 ftaves, and the wheel F 56 cogs: then, by
multiplying the ftaves of the trundles, 13 and 14, into
one another, their produd: will be 182; and by mul¬
tiplying the cogs of the wheels, 78 and ^6, into one
another, their produd will be 4368; and dividing 4368
by 182, the quotient will be 24: which (hows that the
winch A make: 24 turns for one ‘urn of the wheel F
and its axle G, on which the great rope or chain HIH
winds. So that if the length or radius of the winch
A were only equal to half the diameter of the great
axle G, added to half the thicknefs of the rope H, the
power of the crane would be as 24 to 1: but the ra¬
dius of the winch being double the above length, it
doubles the faid power, and fo makes it as 48 to 1: in
which cafe, a man may 1 aife 48 times as much weight
by this engine as he could do by his natural ftrength
without it, making proper allowance for the fridion
of the working parts. Two men may work at once,
by having another winch on the oppofite end of the
axis of the trundle under B, and fo make the power
ftill double.
If this power be thought greater than what may be
generally wanted, the wheels may be made with fewer
cogs in proportion to the ftaves in the trundles; and
fo the power may be of whatever degree is judged Co
be requifite. But if the weight be fo great as will re¬
quire yet more power to raife it (fuppofe a double
quantity), then the rope H may be put under a move-
able pulley, as T and the end of it tied to a hook in
the gib at e; which will give a double power to the
machine, and fo raife a double weight hooked to the
block of the moveable pulley.
When only fmall burdens are fo raifed, this may be
quickly done by men pufhing the axle G round by the
handfpokesy,jy,y,y;havingfirft difengaged the trundle
B from the wheel C : and then, this wheel will only
adl as a fly upon the wheel F ; and the catch R wall
prevent its running back, if the men fhould inadver¬
tently leave off puflring before the burden be unhook¬
ed from £.
Laftly, when very heavy burdens are to be raifed,
which might endanger the breaking of the cogs in the
w heel F; their force againft thefe cogs may be much
abated by men pulhing round the handfpokes y,
whilft the man at A turns the winch.
We have only Ihown the working parts of this crane,
without the whole of the beams which fupport them;
knowing that thefe are eafily fuppofed, and that if
they had been drawn, they w’ould have hid a great deal
of the working parts from fight, and alfo confufed the
figure.
Another very good crane is made in the following
5 B 2 manner:
74s
Combina¬
tion of Me¬
chanical
36
Another
V
iMr Gott¬
lieb’s new
M E C H A
manner : A A (fig1. 53 ) is a great wheel turned by men
walking within it at H. On the part C, of its axle BC,
the great rope D is wound as the wheel turns; and
this rope draws up goods in the fame way as the rope
HH does in the above-mentioned crane, the gib-work
here being fuppofed to be of the fame fort. But thefe
cranes arc very-dangerous to the men in the wheel;
for if any of the men Ihould chance to fall, the bur¬
den will make the wheel run back and throw them all
about within it ; which often breaks their limbs, and
forneti nes kills them. The late ingenious- Mr Pad-
m6re of Briftol (whofe contrivance the fore-mentioned
'crane is), obferving this dangerous conftru&ion, con¬
trived a method for remedying it, by putting cogs all
around the outfide of the wheel, and applying a trundle
E to turn it ; which increafes the power as much as
the number of cogs in the wheel is greater than the
number of Haves in the trundle: and by putting a
ratchet-wheel F on the axis of the trundle (as in the
above-mentioned crane), with a catch to fall into it,
the great wheel is flopt from running back: by the force
of the weight, even if all the men in it (liould leave
off walking. And by one man working at the winch I>
or two men at the. oppofite winches when needful, the
men in 'he wheel are much afiifted, and much greater
weights are raifed, than could be by men only within
the wheel. Mr Padmore put alfo a gripe-wheel G
upon the axis of the trundle, which being pinched in
the fame manner as defcribed in the former crane,
heavy burdens may be let down without the leak dan¬
ger. And before this contrivance, the lowering of
goods was always attended with the utmoft danger to
the men in the wheel; as every one muft be fenfible of
who has feen fuch engines at work.. And it is furpri-
fing that the mailers of wharfs and cranes fhould be fo
regardlefs of the limbs,, or even lives of their u orkmen,
that, excepting the late Sir James Creed of Green¬
wich, and fome gentlemen at Briilol, ’there is fcarce
an inilance of any who has ufed this fafe contri¬
vance. ,
We fhall defcribe here four new' cranes invented
and made by Mr Gottlieb of Hounfditch, London,
who communicates them to the public as quite new
in their principles, and more fimple and ufeful than
any hitherto contrived. Fig. 59. is a reprefentation of
a cr&ne adapted for a large warehoufe, where heavy
goods are w anted to be drawn up from a cart or quay.
One of this conflrudlion has lately been erefted in Mr
Camden’s fugar-houfe, Old Gravel-Lane, London. Its
operation is as follows : The horfe yoked below at A
turns the upright axis and the wheel B, which is about
6 feet in diameter; this turns a 3 feet wheel C, having
an upright axis D through the floor turning with it,
and carrying a 3 feet wheel E with perpendicular
cogs. The wheel E turns twm pinions F and G, the
former of 8 inches in diameter, and the latter of 5
inches diameter, both fixed upon one axis. The pi¬
nion G turns a 3 feet wheel H, to which is fixed the
barrel I and wheel W. The rope K winds round
the barrel, and comes over the fheiff-wheel L in the
upper ftory, and the,pulley M in the gib-head drawing
up the goods fufpended at the hook N.
By a mark made upon the rope at I, the man fu-
perintending the crane know s when the goods are rai¬
led enough for landing into the room: he then imme-
n 1 c s. Se<a.nr.
diately pufhes afide the upright piece O, difengages the Combina-
lever P from it; and by putting it downwards, the ac-
tion of the quarter pinion at Qj-aifes up the pinion povv.ers.
at G, and, thereby unconnedls it with the wheel EL v
To prevent the machinery now from running-back-
wards, a ratchet-wheel R is fixed upon the wheel'H,
into which a click-catch S fells. This effectually pre¬
vents the wheels going backwards by the weight at
N while the man above is employed in landirtg the goods.
When the goods are brought into the Itore-room, the
hook N is thrown out, and the man below, froJn the
ufual call, runs to the Irandle U, Aides the pinion T
into the wheel H, then turns back the ratchet-wheel
R, and pufhes back the click S, then Aides back again
the pinion T; and the w'heel H and barrel I being thus
at liberty, the hook N and rope run down by their
own gravity, and frefh goods are attached; then again,,
from the ufual call, the man pufhes up the lever P,
fixes it at O, places the click S into the teeth of the
ratchet-wheel; and the whole machinery is again in
action from the horfe below, that keeps conftantly go¬
ing without being flopped at every fhort interval of
the landing, floring, &c.
When the goods are to be carted off, and required
to be let dowm only, it is performed without the horfe,
and in the following manner: The pinion G is difen-
gaged from the wheel El by the lever P as before,
and the pinion V of the fly-wheel is flipped into the
teeth of the 2 feet wheel W. The goods being fuf¬
pended at N, will adt by the rope upon the wheel W
and pinion V, thereby turning round th? fly-wheel X:
while the goods are thus defcending, the man preffes
upon the lever Y, and bears againft the wheel, making
fuch a refiflance as to be fufficient to allow the goods
to defcend with as gentle a degree of motion as may
be neceffary.
The hook N being taken from the goods, the man
goes to the wheel W, and with . his hands turns it
round, which winds up the cord and hook in readinefs
for more goods, and fo on as before. The pinions T
and V in this cafe are flipped out of the wheels H
and W.
As the horfe at A may likewife be ufed to turn
other mill-work from a connection made with the main-
wheel, and fuppofing that the crane is not wanted at
the feme time, it is readily difengaged by turning of
the winch at Z ; which, by the pinion a below, work¬
ing into the teeth of the bar, and the wheel C which
turns upon it, quite unconne<5ts the wheel C from
the crane.
It is therefore evident from what has been defcri¬
bed, that this crane can be managed by two men. only*
and occafionally without a horfe, when very heavy
goods are not raifed. All the neceffary beams for fix¬
ing the machinery by, could not be reprefented in the
figure without obfeurity and confufion ; but thefe be¬
ing omitted, will not to the moft ordinary mechanic
render the general Conffrudtion of the crane difficult
to underftand. _
A new portable cellar crane is reprefented in fig. 60. New cellar
which is very ufeful to wine-merchants, brewers, &ci in crane,
drawing up and letting down cafks full of wine,beer, &c.
It faves the trouble and inconvenience of horfes, and
in many places can be ufed where horfes could not.
AA are two wooden props about 6 feet in height.
M K H AN ICS.
riate CCLUaV]
■E
&r*Ti . //a7?
• lir. MECHANIC S. 749
nbina- and jointed togetKer like a ruler at E. They are con- long, turning within a groove cut in the iron part of Combina-
" ' the axle; and the advantages difcovered by exPer^*ri°h°/;(!^e*
ments made by Mr Gottlieb will be feen by the fmall power*,
table fubjoined. A fection of this axle-tree is repre- .
^' netted to each other by an iron round bar C and
wooden-Bar at the bottom D. The iron prongs EE
- fallen the uprights ileadily to the edge of the cellar ;
F is the axis round which two ropes are coiled, the
ends of which are fadened to the t wo clamps GG. On
the axis F is fixed the iron wheel H of ^ feet in dia¬
meter: in the teeth of this works the pinion I of about
6 or 7 inches in diameter, and is turned by the handle
at- K.
It is evident, by a bare infpedlion of the figure, that
when the two ropes are dipt over the ends upon the
barrel, either at the top or bottom of the cellar, that
by turning of the winch K to wards or from you, the
barrel can be fafely and expeditioufly taken out or
lowered down.
When the crane is done with, it fhuts up by un-
ftrewing the nut at B, taking the wheel and axis
away out of the loops at L, and folding the fides at
A together like a jointed rule ; it may then be taken
away, in the cart or dray, or taken in the mens
hands.
Fig. 61. reprefents a portable ftone-crane mounted
in a wooden frame and ftage, which is judged to be
very ufeful for loading and unloading carts with large
heavy Hones. It is moveable to any part of a ftone-
yard or ground ; the frame is fufficiently wide for a
cart to draw under the crane, and at any time it may
be taken to pieces.
The frame AA AA is made of wood, is about 9 or
t o feet high, and about 9 feet fquare. The wheels
BB are of iron, and are about 3 feet in diameter, and
the pinion D, that is fixed to the axis of the firft wheel
B, 8 inches in diameter, on the axis of the fecond wheel
B, the axis round which the rope-coils is fixed.
Now the Hones being corded and hooked at the
end of the rope, it is very evident that the man at C
will either raife or lower them as may be neceflary,
according as he turns the winch towards or from him,
and in a fafe and very eafy manner.
Fig. 62. is a reprefentation of a crane-carriage which
Mr Gottlieb conceives to be very ufeful in moving
large Hones in quarries, where carts and horfes cannot
be conveniently or at all managed. Its piinciple is
evidently clear from a bare view of the figure. It
confiHs only of two fets oi crane-wheels, applied to the
two fets of wheels belonging to the carriage; fothat two
men, one at each winch AA, turning the pinions and
wheels round, fliall aft upon the carriage-wheels and
move it along. By their both turning forwards or
backwards, the carriage goes accordingly; but if they
turn contrary-ways, the carriage will be turned round,
or partly fo, as may be wanted.
The pinion B is 6 inches in diameter, which turns
the wheel C oF3 feet diameter, on the axis of which
is fixed the pinion D of 1 foot diameter, which
works into 2 wheels E, E, of 3 feet 6 inches diame¬
ter, that are fixed upon the carriage-wheels, and give
motion to the whole machine.
The friftion of the axle-trees of thefe machines may
he confiderably diminifhed, by applying an improved
axle-tree invented by Mr Gottlieb, which he calls the
anti-attrition axle-tree, and for which he has a patent.
It is formed from a Heel-roller, from 4 to. 6 inches
the roller, d the cavity between the. lower part of"A
the tree and the box e. In figs. 66, 67, f repre¬
fents the oil-vefiel fupplying it with oil, g the tube to
convey the oil by, h the ilraps of ditto, i the fafiening
ferews. Figs. 63, 64, give a fide view of the axle.
Advantage of the anti-attrition axle-tree.
Old axle-tree. Anti-attrition.
lb.
Coaches - 60
Chariots, poH-chaifes, &c. 49
Single horfe chaifes and
chairs - - 31
Waggons - - 78
Drays for beer - 138
lb.
o only 19
1 17
7 6
0 33
o 48
One general maxim to be kept in mind by all me- -
chanics is, that whatever a machine gains in power it
lofes in time, even fuppofing friftion were entirely out
of the queflion. It muH likewife be remembered, that
in almoil all cafes where a machine gains by complica¬
tion, it will lofe one third by mere friflion, unlefs its
parts are made with an accuracy not to be expefled.
In fome cafes, however, a great power mufi be had;
and in thefe we mufi have recourfe to the mofi fimple
machines, which will lofe only time,, and but little
power by friflion ; for the complicated ones wafie both
time and power to a great degree. There is not per¬
haps a better method of procuring a very great power
than by combining a ferew with a toothed wheel
which afts as an axis in peritrochio, as- is reprefented Pla>e
fig- 5° j f°r by making the threads of the ferevv pret-CCLXXXV*
ty clofe, and the diameter of the wheel large, we
may increafe the power almofi • to any degree we
pleafe, without any confiderable increafe of friflion.
In this cafe, where it can conveniently be done, it is
better to increafe the diameter of the wheel than to
add another, for this augments the power without any
feniible augmentation of the friftion ; and it is abfo-
lutely necefiary to have the axle as fmall as can be
made of fuflicient firength to bear the weight. Ar¬
chimedes is faid to have boafled, that he could move
the earth provided he could find a place to Hand on;
and Biftiop Wilkins, that he could pull the firongefi
oaks up by the roots by means of a fingle horfe-hair.
But abfirafting from the impofiibility in the cafe of
Archimedes, it does not appear that the bifhop could
more eafily have fulfilled his tafle, on account of
the immenfe friflion of the machine he muH have em¬
ployed, and the Hiffnefs of the great ropes which mufi
have been bent in order to accomplilh his purpofe.
To perform feats of this kind, a lever feems more like¬
ly than any thing ; but the vafi room it takes up, and
the exceflive length requifite to make it afl with fuf-
ficient force, together with the vafi weight it muft ne-
cefiarily have if made of the requifite ftrength, muft
eafily convince us that all fuch extravagant boafts are
vain, and that wherever great effefls are to be accom-
plilhed, a great power muft originally he applied.
Sect..
750 M E C H A
Whfel* SeCt. IV. Of Wheel-carriages.
carriages. °
v Wheel-carriages in general fignify all kinds of ma¬
chines furnilhed with wheels, for drawing great weights
41 by. means of the llrength of animals or otherwife.
ufed^before ^’s verf Pr°hablc, that in the infancy of the arts,
wheel-cur- ^e(1-ges were before wheels were invented, or at
riages. lead; before the application of them became very general.
Homer mentions them as employed in bringing wood for
the funeral of Partroclus ; though it is not to be doubted
that the Greeks at that time were acquainted with the
ufe of wheels, as the fame poet mentions them on all oc-
cafions when fpeaking of the war chariots of his heroes.
It is poffible, therefore, that by the country people, for
inferior pnrpofes, the fledge might be employed, while
•wheel-carriages were confined to thofe of fuperior
rank, or ufed only for war-chariots. It is not long
ngo indeed fince fledges were ufed for certain purpofes
in our owh country, notwithilanding the number of
wheel-carriages ufed in it from time immemorial. In
fome of the cold countries, where ice is met with in
great quantity, and the ground is covered with fro¬
zen fnow for a great part of the year, fledges are ftill
ufed, and run upon the fmooth furfaces of thefe bodies
with as great eafe as wheels run upon the ordinary
ground. Upon very fmooth ice, indeed, or upon
any body perfeftly fmooth, wheels would not turn at
all ; for the only reafon why they turn in the ordinary
way, is the continual inequality they meet with. If
we fuppofe the wheels to be carried in the air, it is
plain that they would not turn, there being nothing to
put any part in motion more than another ; and the
fame would be the cafe if we could fuppofe ice, or any
other body, to be fo fmooth that it would give as
little refiftance as air. On common roads, however,
the wheels meet with obftru&ions at the bottom,
which retard that part; and in confequence of this the
upper part moves forward, and a circulating motion im¬
mediately begins to take place. By means of this cir¬
culatory motion the fridfion becomes very much lefs
than what it would be if the weight were drawn along
the ground upon a fledge, infomuch that, according to
the computation of Dr Helfham, a four-wheeled car¬
riage may be drawn with five times as much eafe as
. one that Aides upon the fame furface as a fledge.
Obftacles The ftru&ure of -wheel-carriages is fo generally
which oc- known, that it is needlefs to defcribe them. In the
cur to the • COnftrudtion of them, however, there are feveral par-
eartiazes ticul31-8 t0 he obferved, which may render one me¬
thod of conilrudlion preferable to another, though
there may be a general fimilarity between one carriage
and another. In order to afcertain the moft proper
method for conftrufting them, it will firft be necefla-
ry to confider the obftacles which occur to their mo¬
tion. Thefe are,
I. The vis inertia of matter.—This, though for a
confiderable time fuppofed to be a principle of mere in-
aBivity, or refjlance to any change of ftate from motion
to reft in material bodies, is now almoft exploded.
Mr Anftice, in a late treatife on wheel-carriages,
fuppofes the philofophers who maintain the exiftence
of fuch a principle, to have miftaken Sirlfaac Newton
and other great men. According to him, they meant
no more by the vis inertia of matter than a mere
paftivenefs in it, by which it was difpofed to abide
N I C S. Sea. n
in that ftate, either of reft or motion, in which it ori¬
ginally was; “ whereby it alters not its ftate but in
proportion to the quantity of power exerted againft
it. Thus, (hould a body of any given weight or quan¬
tity of matter, moving with a certain degree of velo¬
city, ftrike another body at reft of the lame weight,
it would communicate half its motion to that body,
and they would move together with the fame velocity
as the firft ; but this proceeds from no principle of the
body at reft to refill motion, it does not deftroy in the
other more than it receives from it; therefore no mo¬
tion is loft, it is only divided; and the two after divi-
fion have a power equal to that of the one before it,
with the whole velocity of motion. Indeed when we
confider that the leaft degree of motion in any body,
however fmall, will communicate fome degree of it to
the largeft in the univerfe ; and that, on the contrary,
none but an equal degree of impetus can deprive a bo¬
dy of a&ual motion, and that immediately oppofed to
it: add to this, that fince all matter within the reach
of our obfervation, and by analogy we have reafon to
think it is in aftual and rapid motion, imprefied on
it by its great Creator, and co-exiftent with it; we
may conclude, that if matter do not affeft, it is more
liable to motion than to reft.”
2. Frifiion. By this is meant the quantity of mo¬
tion deftroyed by bodies Hiding over one another, and
which is in proportion to the weights laid upon them.
See Seft. II. $ 8.
Fri&ion depends not only upon the preflure made
on the moving bodies, but on the inequalities
on the furfaces upon which they move. For as
the furfaces of even the moft highly polilhed bo¬
dies have fome inequalities, whenever two of them
are prelfed together, the inequalities of the one mull
enter, and in fome degree accommodate themfelves, to
thofe of the other ; and as the forms of thefe inequa¬
lities are of infinite variety, it is impoffible to give any
general defcription which can exadtly anfwer to every
one of them.
Mr Anftice fuppofes the varieties only to be of two
kinds, which he thinks may not be very dilfimilar to
any that occur, i. Let us imagine two Hiding fur¬
faces, when viewed through a microfcope, to prefent |
fuch an appearance as is reprefented in fig. 69. in Plate 1
which A is the Hiding body to be moved in the direc-c L i
tion C D over the fixed body B. To etieA this, it is
evident, that either the teeth mull be violently bro-
ken off, or a power applied to them fufficient to make J
them Hide upon each other on the principles of the
inclined plane ; in which cafe the fuiAion mull always I
be in proportion to the weight of the Aider, and that
with which it is loaded, without regard to the length
or breadth of the bearing furface: for if only one I
pound relied upon one tooth, there would be no more
but that pound to be lifted. If the pound relied up¬
on two teeth, there would only be half a pound to |
be lifted over each, and fo on to any number ; but if
we fuppofe the teeth to be of fuch a lhape, that they
cannot adl as inclined planes, let them be ever fo ftrong,
we mull calculate the fwftion in a different manner.
Let furfaces of this kind be reprefented by fig. 70.
In which cafe it is evident, that inftead of depending
on the weight or preffure only, it will be in propor¬
tion to the number and ftrength of the teeth fo lock-
6 ed
a. IV. MECHANIC S. 751
rheei- ed together; or, in other words, on the length and
:uoe - breadth of the rubbing furfaces. On this fuppolition
"v ~ the weight of the Aider will have little or no effeft in
breaking the teeth, or hindering its being done by the
power applied in the longitudinal direction ;-but if one
tooth is tobebroken, it willbe neceffary to apply tw‘-:e that
power to break two, thrice the power to break three, &c.
Hence it is evidently impofiible to form any general rule
concerning the friftion which takes place on this prin¬
ciple. As experience, however, has fhown that two
bricks, or other bodies of that kind, are almoft as eafily
drawn along a table when placed fide by fide, as when
laid upon each other, it feems probable that fuch a
locking of parts feldom occurs ; and when it does, the
©bftacles are foon broken down. Yet it is certain,
that fome fuch thing muft take place on all oc-
cafions, otherwife the wearing of bodies which rub up¬
on one another could not happen.
From what has been faid it muft appear plain, that
if a Aider be laid upon an horizontal plane, it muft re¬
main at reft ; though by a very fmall force, fuch as is
barely fufiicient to overcome the friction, it will be
fet in motion : becaufe, on a plane quite horizontal,
the motion of any body does not remove it in the leaft
farther from the point to which it is attracted by the
force of gravity. If the plane be inclined to the ho¬
rizon, then, befides the power neceflary to overcome
the fridtion, it will be neceffary to have one fufficient
alfo to,overcome that of gravity, by which it is de¬
termined to roll down the plane ; the proportion of
which is afeertained under Sedt. II- § 4. The diffi¬
culty of railing great weights in this manner, how¬
ever, where the afeent is fteep, and the ways
rough, muft neceffarily be fo great, that fledges could
not be ufed with any advantage, and therefore wheels
are indifpenfable.
The advantage of wheels over fledges may be fur¬
ther underftood from the following confiderations. 1.
A fledge, in Aiding over a plane, fuffers a fridlion equi¬
valent to the diftance through which it moves but if
we apply to it an axle, the circumference of which is
fix inches, and that of the wheels eighteen feet, it is
plain, that moving the carriage eighteen feet over the
plane, the wheels will make but one revolution ; and
as there is no Aiding of parts between the plane and
the wheels but only a mere change of furface, no fric¬
tion can take place there, the whole being transferred
to the nave adiing on the axle, fo that the only Ai¬
ding of parts has been betwixt the infidc of the
nave and the axle; which, if they fit one another
exadlly, is no more than fix inches: and hence it is
plain, that the fridlion muft be reduced in the propor¬
tion of one to thirty-fix. Another advantage is alfo
gained, by having the furfaces confined to fuch a fmall
extent; by which means they may be more eafily kept
fmooth, and fitted to each other. The only inconve¬
nience is the height of the wheel, which muft in all
cafes be added to that of the carriage itfelf.
It has been a matter of no little confideration, whe¬
ther the wheels of a carriage ought to be finall or
large ; and this fubjedl Mr Anftiee has treated in a
very particular manner. He obferves, that in the o-
yercoming of fuch obftacles as are commonly met with
in roads, wheels adt as mechanical powers, and there¬
fore the fize ®f the wheel muft; be regulated upon the
principles of thefe' powers. Thus, let the circle O T Wheel-
A G L, fig. 71, reprefent a wheel of four feet dia- carnages^
meter, placed on the level P Q^, and oppofed in that ’
line by the obftacle O, which is fuppofed to be 7.03
inches in height; the line in which the carriage is
drawn being C T, parallel to the plane P In this
cafe the effort applied to the carriage is communicated
to the nave of the wheel where it touches the axle.
This part, therefore, reprefents the part of the lever
to which the power is applied,, and is the point C in
the figure. As the turning point is that where the
wheel touches the obftacle, that muft reprefent the ful¬
crum of the lever; whence that arm of the lever will
be reprefented by CO, which may be fuppofed a fpoke
of the wheel: and as the upright fpoke C L is in the
line which bears the whole weight from the axle, and
in which it is to be lifted; hence that part of the cir¬
cumference of the wheel which is between the fulcrum-
and the upright fpoke bearing on it, muft reprefent
the aim of the lever which- is to raife the weight. In
this cafe neither the weight nor the power adt at right
angles to their refpedtive arms of the lever; fo that we
muft reprefent their powers by the imaginary lines
MO and ON. As the length of OM, therefore, is to
that of ON; fo is the proportion required to the weight
to balance it on the obftacle, when.riling over it; and
in this cafe the arms are equal, it is plain that the
powers muft be fo Hkewile. Every obftacle, therefore,
exceeding this height,, which is as 7.03 to 48, will
require a povyer adting parallel to the plane greater
than the weight drawn ; and every obftacle whofe
height bears a fmaller proportion to that of the nave,,
muft be overcome by a fmaller power..
Again, let a wheel of four feet diameter be repre- -
fented by the circle in fig. 72, and fuppofed to be
moved along the plane and an obftacle of twelve
inches height be placed .before it, the real lever will
then be reprefented by the lines LOG; which be¬
ing reduced to the imaginary ones MON,. Ihows that-
the power is greater than the weight. By the fame
rule, if an ©bllacle of three inches be placed in the
way of a wheel, as in fig. 73, the power required to
move the wheel will be confiderably lefs than the
weight, though it is plain that, the proportion of
po.ver muft always be according to the fize of the
wheel, the height of the obftacle, and the. diredfion in
which the carriage is drawn. For inftance, if the line
of tradlion in fig. 73. be raifed into the diredfion CS,.
the power required to move the carriage over it will,
be to the real weight as the line CO is to the line ON ;;
and in confequence of thus altering the diredtion, we
gain as much as the length of the line CO exceeds
that of CN. 43,
This view of the manner in- which the wheels of Whether
carriages adt,. will ferve to elucidate the queftion, whe-Urge or
ther large or fmall wheels are preferable for carriages*?
Let the circle fig. 74. reprefent a wheel of two feet'vrc£e
diameter, and the obftacle in its way 7 03 inches in F ^ C
height ; then will the true lever be reprefented by the
lines COL, to be reduced to the imaginary- ones
MON. In this cafe, the power required.to draw the
carriage muft be to its weight as NO is to OMj v
which is more than double ; and thus the advantage of
large wheels over fmall ones is evident. In this, how¬
ever,. as in all other cafes,where wheels adt ?.s mech:>
weal;
752 M E C II
Wheel- nical powers, we muft remember, that the fame doc-
^carnages. trjne applies to them as to the powers themfelves when
' _ v ufed in any other manner, viz. that as much as we gain
in power we lofe in time ; and therefore, though a
wheel of twice the diameter may be raifed over an ob-
ftacle of any given height with twice the eafe that
would be required for one of once the diameter, yet
the large wheel would require twice the time to move
over it that the fmall one does-
Hitherto we have confidered the carriage as being
drawn in a direftion parallel, or nearly fo, to the
plane on which the wheels move, which line is fuppo-
fed to be horizontal: but the cafe will be different
when we fuppofe them to move upon an inclined plane;
for then, even though the line of traftion be parallel
to the afcending plane, and though the wheels aft as
levers, we fhall find that the aftion of-the weight will
increafe wdth the power gained by the increafe of fize
in the wheels; and confequently, that the increafed
fize of the latter will be of no farther ufe than that
of diminiihing the friftion, in the fame manner as is
done upon horizontal planes.
To illuftrate this, fuppofe the larger circle in fig. 75.
to reprefent a wheel of four feet diameter, and the
% fmaller circle a wheel of only two, both of which are
made to afcend the inclined plane LM, by powers ap¬
plied in the direftions GI and ES parallel to the ele¬
vation of the plane, which is 45 degrees ; it will then
be found, that by defcribing the lever as in the former
cafe, though the arm of the lever to which the power
is applied be double the length in the large wheel that
it is in the fmall, the other is augmented in the fame
proportion. Neither will the powers be augmented
by varying the direftion of the line of traftion ; for
while t^iefe are kept parallel to one another, their re¬
lative powers muft always keep the fame proportion to
one another. The reafon is obvious, viz. that when
wheels of any dimenfion afcend or defcend inclined
planes of any regular elevation, the fulcrum of the le¬
ver contained in the wheels muft be determined by that
part of the wheel which touches the plane, and which
muft always be of a proportionate height both in large
and fmall wheels. It is otherwife, however, with the
fulcrum marked out by perpendicular or irregular ob-
•ftacles upon the plane itfelf; for large wheels will al¬
ways have the advantage over fmall wheels when thefe
are prefented, for the reafons already given. Indeed,
when the wheel impinges perpendicularly upon an ob-
ftacle as high as the line of traftion, it is plain that
it cannot be drawn over it by any power whatever,
44 unlefs the direftion of the latter be altered.
General From thefe coniiderations, our author draws the fol-
coacernine ^ow'nS conclufions: 1. That in a carriage placed up-
the motion on an horizontal plane, nothing more is required to
of carria- produce motion than to overcome the friftion which
ges- takes place between it and the plane. 2. By the ap¬
plication of wheels to a carriage, the friftion is leffened
in the proportion of the diameters of the axles and
hollow parts of the naves tp thofe of the wheels. 3. In
the draught of a carriage without wheels up a regular
plain afcent, the friftion muft not only be overcome,
but there is a power likevvife to be applied fufficient to
lift fuch a proportion of the weight of the carriage
as the perpendicular part of the afcending plane bears
to that portion of the plane. 4. If wheels of any fize
A N I C S. * Sea.tt
be applied, to the carriage in fuch circumftances, they ^heelii
have only the advantage of lefiening the friftion ; for carr ag^
though they really aft as levers, yet as each arm of 'r’‘
the lever is lengthened in proportion to the increafe
of fize in the wheels, the power can be no farther
augmented than as the afcent may aft as a mechanical
power for raifing up the wheels, carriage, &c. to the
top. 5. Large wheels have the advantage over fmall
ones in overcoming obftacles, becaufe they aft as le¬
vers in proportion to their various fizes. 6. The line
of traftion, or that in the direftion of which the car¬
riage is drawn, fhould always, if poffible, be parallel
to that in which the plane lies; for when this is the
cafe, the arm of the lever to which the power is ap¬
plied will bear the longeft proportion poffible to the
other. This always takes place when the line of trac¬
tion is perpendicular to that fpoke of the wheel which
points to the obftacle. As it may not always be pof¬
fible, however, to alter the direftion of the line of
traftion to this pofition, it will be mod proper to fix
upon fome medium betwixt that which commonly oc¬
curs and that which requires the greateft exertion to
overcome the obftacle ; that is, betwixt a level line
and one rifing perpendicular to the fpoke of the wheel
which points to the obftacle it is likely to meet with.
The greater attention ought to be paid to this la ft,
that all wheels, but efpecially fmall ones, are liable
to fink into the ground over which they pafs, and thus
product a conftant obftacle to their own progrefs.
The line of traftion, it muft alfo be obferved, is not
an imaginary one drawn from that part of the animal
to which the traces or chains are attached to the axle
of the wheel, but the real direftion of the traces to
whatever part of the carriage they are attached; for
the effort will be inftantly communicated in the fame
direftion from one part of the carriage to all the reft,
by reafon of the whole being faftened together and
in one piece.
Hitherto we have confidered the whole weight of
the carriages as bearing perpendicularly againft the
axles of the wheels : but as this cannot be done in
chairs, carts, and other carriages having only two
wheels, it will be neceffary to have their centres, or
tranfverfe lines of gravity, as near to the ground as
poffible. To underftand this, it muft be premifed,
that the centre of gravity is that point of any body
w hich if fufpended will keep all the parts of the body
at reft, let the body be placed in any fituation we
pleafe. Thus the centre of gravity in a wheel or circle j
is the centre of the circumference, provided the fub-
ftance of it be equably ponderous throughout. In like
manner, the real centre of a globe coincides with the
centre of gravity, provided the matter of which it is
compofed be equably ponderous. In a fquare, whe¬
ther fuperficial or folid, the centre of gravity will be
a point equally diftant from all its fides ; fo that if the
fubftance be equably heavy, it will be impofiible to
turn it into any pofition in which there will not be as
much matter upon one fide of the centre as upon the
other: and in like manner, every figure, however ir¬
regular, has fome point round which, if it be turned,
as much matter will always be upon one fide as on
the other.
If now any body be fupported by a tranfverfe line
palling not through the centre of gravity itfelf, but
either J
mechanios .
Plate cctxxxyn.
' /.&r/ZZZ%t/t. >
ISea. IV. M E C H
I Wheel- either above or below it, the body can only be kept
i earriages, equjpojfe while that line remains direftly above or
| *—v below the point; for if the body is moved forwards,
as in two-wheeled carriages moving down hill, a greater
I part of the weight will be thrown forwards over the
line of fufpenfion than what remains behind it; and
confequently this fuperfluous part mull be borne by the
animal which draws it. In afcending any height, juft
the reverfe takes place ; for thus a portion of the
weight is thrown backwards, and will tend to lift up
the animal altogether. The confequence of this is,
not only that the creature muft proceed with great
pain, but that the fri&ion on the nave and axle will
I be augmented by laying upon them a part of the ani¬
mal’s weight alfo. If the body be fufpended above
the centre of gravity,' the effedt, though the fame in
the main, will be reverfed in the afcent and defcent of
hill, as long as the body is firmly attached to the
fiiafts; but ihould the whole weight be fufpended un¬
der the axle, independent of the ihafts altogether, then
it will always, whether afcending, defcending, or mo¬
ving horizontally,^ have the fame effedt as if hung di-
redtly by it.
4S Our author next proceeds to treat of a generally
©f fufpenc1-received opinion, that the difadvantages attending car¬
ing carri- riages fufpended either above or below the centre of
cfbetT sr.avity are augmented by the height of the wheels,
the centre The reafon given for this opinion is, that the hinder
of gravity, part of the load in afcending an hill, being thrown
back, w ill overhang that part of a large wheel which
touches the plane, much more than when a fmallef
wheel is ufed. Mr Anftice, however, obferves, that
all the difadvantage, in either cafe, is exprefled by the
weight which, from its adtion upon the axle, tends to
lift the animal, which muft always be the fame whether
the wheels are high or low. Thus, in fig. 76. let a,
carriage be reprefented with two wheels of four feet
diameter, afcending a plane of 350 elevation from the
level LE. Let fig. 77. reprefent a carriage exadlly
in the fame circumftances w ith the former, only that
the wheels are fix feet in diameter. Let C he the
centre of gravity, and SP the line of gravity parallel
to the central line AR, the line of fupport or fuf¬
penfion ; in each of thefe the body is thrown fo far
back by its pofition, that the fpace GS and AR is
taken from before the line of gravity, and added to
the part behind it. Hence a certain part of the ani¬
mal’s weight muft be exerted upon the lhafts, in-order
to balance that of the carriage, which is thus thrown
back, and which, as is evident from the figures, muft
be the fame in both carriages, though the wheels of
' the one fp much exceed thofe of the other in fize, and
the point T, where the wheel touches the plane, is
much farther from the line of fufpenfion in the large
wheel than in the fmall one.
To remedy the inconvenience w hich muft arifefrom
placing the centre of gravity in the carriage low
enough with refpedt to the wheels, it will -be beft to
apply three or four wheels, placing them in fuch a
manner that the line of gravity may always fall be¬
tween the wheels, in whatever fituation the carriage
may probably be placed. Thus if the body A, fig. 78,
be placed on four wheels, the axles of which are at
B and C, it wdll be entirely fupported between them,
though more by C than B, even though the carriage
Von. X. Part II.
A N I C S. 753
fhould be afcending an full as fteep as HI, viz. 50 wbecl-
degrees, which cannot ever happen in practice. Even tariM^cs,
in this cafe the animal would have no occafion to v
make exertions for preferving the balance of the car¬
riage, though, had it been fupported'only by the axles
of two wheels at S, far the greater part of the weight
of the carriage would have been thrown behind, and
the equilibrium could not have been preferved without
thd greateft difficulty. Hence it is plain, that the
greater the diftance betwixt the axles of three or four
wheels applied to a carriage, the lefs liable will it be to
have the line of gravity thrown out of its proper di-
redtion ; but as this diftance greatly augments the
difficulty in turning a carriage, fome medium is to be
obferved in this as well as other things.
What has been juft no w obferved with regard to 4<5
. the preferving the balance of a carriage longitudinally, ]n
applies equally to the preventing it from being over- riagC from
turned laterally upon uneven roads, or fuch as have being over-
one fide much higher than the other. In order to this, turned,
w e muft take care to keep the line of gravity fo far
within the body of the carriage that it cannot be
thrown out of it by any ordinary declivity of the road
upon one fide more than another. In the prefent
cafe, however, as the w'heels are not moveable on
an axle in a lateral direftion, w’e muft confider the
points of fufpenfion to be thofe where the w'heels touch
the ground. Thus, let fig. 79. reprefent the crofs
fedfion of a carriage moving upon tw-o wheels; let C
be its centre of gravity : it is plain, that in the pofition
there reprefented, each of the points A and B fuf-
'tains an equal (hare of the weight, and muft do fo as
long as the carriage moves upon level ground : but if
it be drawn along a road one fide of wffiich is higher ,
than the other, fuch as is reprefented fig. 80. then
the centre of gravity, and confequently the whole
weight of the carriage, will bear upon the point of the
wheel B, with this additional inconvenience, that the
preffure does not lie perpendicularly but fomewhat ob¬
liquely, by which the wheel is in great danger of be¬
ing broken. To avoid inconveniences of this kind,
the points of bearing upon the wheels are removed to
a greater diftance than the exadl perpendicular, and
this is called d'jhing the wheels; the good effe&s of
which are evident from the figure. The wheels are
diffied by inferting the fpokes into the naves in fuch
a manner that they may decline every way from the
carriage. Some difadvantage, however, attends this
contrivance, for the carriage thus takes up more room
upon the road, which makes it more unmanageable ;
and when it moves upon plain ground, the fpokes not
only do not bear perpendicularly, by which means
their ftrength is leffened, but the fri&ion upon the
nave and axle is made unequal, and the more fo the
more that the wheels are difhed. To obviate thefe in¬
conveniences, fome have bent downwards the ‘dnds of
the axles ; but thus the good effe&s of the diffi is en¬
tirely loft, for the wheels are thereby thrown' eredt,
and the breadth of the dilh doubly increafed on the
upper part of the carriage.
The practice of bending forward the ends bf the
axle is ftill worfe ; for thus the wheels'are thrown out
of that parallel direction which they (hould 'always
preferve on the ground, and likewife increafes the fric¬
tion both on the (boulders of the axles, and like-
5 C wife
754
MECHANICS. Sea. V.
"wheel- wife on the ground; for the wheels, by rolling in there are, the more will the fridion be divided among Wheel- ;
, carriages,^ tk;3 p0fition, would foon come together if not pre- them. . , . . . carr‘^ge,,[f
vented by the Ihoulders of the axles 5 whence in every An objedion of conflderable weight arifes to this * 1
revolution they muft rub with conflderable force upon method of fixing the wheels and axles together, that
the ground.
The power of wheels can only be augmented in two rent velocities
thus the wheels are prevented from moving with diffe-
they ought to do, when the carriage
power*1*? ways." V. By increafing the length of that arm of moves out of a right line; but this may be obviated
•wheels may the lever to which the power is applied; and, 2. By by leaving the fridion wheels loofe upon their axles,
be aiK- diminiihing the fridion betwixt the nave and axle, by which means they will be at liberty to move with
Bientid. 'The former is only a temporary expedient in cafe of different velocities, at the fame time that they will have
any obftacle which cannot be furmounted in the ordi- the advantages of fridion-wheels always as to
nary w’ay. It is accomplifhed,by transfering the adion
of the animal’s power from the centre to the upper
part of the circumference of the wheel: thus the pow¬
er of the lever will be nearly doubled, as is fhown from
of the carriage, and generally as to both.—The whole
contrivance, however, feems likely to be entirely fu- 4()
perftded by the following one of Mr Garnett of Bri- Mr Ga-
itol, who Ira^obtained a patent for it. The general m-*’
cr 01 uic icvcr win uc utcuiv uuuuxt-va, wxa* ai.wx, v»x*^   ! . _ 0 - t;hod of de
fig. 71. for if the power be applied to the wheel at principle on which he proceeds is this. Between the .
A, then the arm of the lever would be reprefented by axle and nave a hollow fpace is left to be filled up by
the dotted line AO inftead of CO ; and the former be- folid equal rollers nearly touching each other. I hefe
ing nearly twice as long as the latter, their powers
muft; be in the ftyne proportion. It is evident, how-
are furnifhed with axles inferted into a circular ring
at each end, by which their relative diftances are
tvci, that this mode of applying the animal’s power preferved ; and they are kept parallel by means of wires
can only be ufeful in any fudden emergency ; for were faftened to the rings between the rollers, and which
we to attempt to reduce it into pra&ice by winding a are rivetted to them.
rope or chain about the circumference of the wheel, To underftand the effcft of this machinery we muft
the animal muft move twice as faft as the carriage. See confider, that if, when plane fuifaces move with a rol-
this alfo exemplified in Plate cclxxxv. fig. 58, where
the moving power is reprefented by the weight P;
the wheel EF turning between two toothed planes .— ^ , _ _ r“u
AB and CD. Here it is evident, that while one of the rea&ion of the ftationary plane, which caufes the
ler between them, if the under one be fixed, the up¬
per plane will put the rollers forward but with half
the quantity of its own motion. This is owing to
the fmall divilions ca, ae, &c. moves forward its
length, the plane A muft do the fame, while the
4*
OF frictio
wheels.
roller to move backward upon itfelf as much as the
length, the plane mult do the lame, wnue me other caufes it to move forward upon itfelf. Thus,
centre, by the motion of which only that of the wheel let CD, fig. 82. be a fixed furface, and AB a move- Plate
~~ be meafured, moves but through half the fpace. able one, with a roller E between them ; if B be mo-ccLxxxvu
—- - ' ~   ’ • ’’ ’ r ved forward to G, it will caufe the roller to move to
F, which is but half the diftance that AB has moved;
becauferit has rolled in a retrograde dire&ion as far
2. With refpedt to friftion-wheels or rollers, the cafe
is different; and we may apply thefe in as great num¬
bers, and in as great a variety of ways as we pleafe,
I c J dllU ill CIO VICCll- CK v Cl 1 J * * 1*. y u txvj w »V. y ^ 4 f" J
ithout fear of inconvenience. The beft method of againft the furface BA as it has gone forward upon
applying them, according to Mr Anftice, is to have the other. Thisjscntirely owing to the refiitance it
meets w ith from CD ; for if it did not touch that fur¬
face, but was attached by any other means to AB, it
Plate
®cuuxvi
the wheels and axle fixed to one another, fo that both
may turn together. Two friftion wheels a little over- — * , .
lapping each other, muft then be fixed on each fide of would be carried along with it through the whole
the body of the carriage, fo that it may bear on the fpace without any rolling motion. Hence it is clear,
axle in the interfeddion of the wheels, as is reprefented that if a roller be placed between the axle and nave of.
in fig. 8r. Here ABCD reprefents the body of the a wheel, and the latter be turned round, the roller will.
• carriage, the large circle one of the wheels fixed to move with a retrograde motion upon the axle ; and in
the axle E. The circumference of each of the fric- order to carry it quite round, the nave muft be turned
tion-w heels F and G is fuppofed to be three feet, and as much beyond a whole revolution as is equal on its
that of their axles three inches. As the large wheel inner circumference to the whole circumference of the
then revolves by the motion of the carriage, and thus axle. To exemplify this, let ABCD, fig. 83. repre¬
transfers the friftion from its circumference to its axle; fent the nave of the wheel E, the inner circumference
fo the friftionofthe axle itfelf is now transferred from of which is 18 inches, and the axle fo fmali that it
the circumference of the friaion-wheels to their axles, may be confidered as a point. Let I* and be two
Every revolution of the great wheel, therefore, during rollers clofely fitted between them : if then the w ee
which it paffes over 18 feet of ground by means of be turned round, the_rollers will alfo be carried along,
the motion, of the axle, puts the leffer wheels round with it round the point which we confider as an .ax e;.
one ftxth part of their circle; and confequently their for there can neither be rolling nor fnUion ag^inlt a
axles are moved through the fame part of their cir- mere point. But if the axle be of any lenhbie hze^.
cumference, the friftion being thus reduced to that for inftance one inch circumference, then mult each,
upon this fmall part; which being no more than half roller move round by the motion, of the nave agaim
an inch, becomes 432 times lefa than it would have it, and the refiftance of the angle on the oppolite fide.,
been on the large wheel without any motion on an But in order to do this, it muft roll in a retrqgra e.
axle, and 1 2 times lefs by means, of the fri&ion-wheels direction upon the nave, and confequently the latter
thatv without them. The axles on both fides-indeed muft go as far beyond a revolution as i& equal to the,
are in motion, but the calculation muft be. made as if circumference of the axle upon it, before the roi er
only one moved ; for the greater number of wheels can go once round the axle, which m this cate is by
Sea. IV. M E C H
Wheel- one 18th part of the circumference. Should the cir-
^carriages, cumference of the axle be nine inches, and that of the
* inner part of the nave remain as before, the wheel
muft perform one revolution and an half before the rol¬
ler could be moved once round, and fo on in the fame
proportion : but as the circumference of an axle muft
always be lefs than the inner part of a nave turning
upon it with rollers between them, it never can amount
to two revolutions of the wheel round the axle, how¬
ever nearly it may approach to it; for no fegment of a
circle can ever be a ftraight line.
It will now be apparent, that if feveral rollers be
placed all round between the nave and axle, which¬
ever way the wheel be turned there cannot be any real
fri&ion, but merely a rolling of the rollers. If like-
wife thefe rollers be all of one fize, and very nicely fitted
to the cavity, they will keep their places without
fhifting, and very effectually anfwer the purpofe of
deftroying friction. As fuch rollers, -however, were
very liable to be difplaced by accident, the ufe of them
was negleCted, till Mr Garnett fuggefted the improve¬
ment already mentioned, and which is reprefented in
fig. 84. Here ABCD reprefents a piece of metal
to be inferted into the nave of a wheel, of which E is
the axle, and 1, 1, 1, &c. rollers of metal having axes
inferted into the brafen circle which paffes thro’ their
centres ; and both circles being rivetted together by
means of bolts paffmg between the rollers from one
fide of the nave to the other; and thus they are al¬
ways kept'feparate and parallel. By this method, in¬
deed, fome friftion unavoidably takes place betwixt
the axles of the rollers and their fockets in the brafs-
rings ; but as the quantity of friCtion depends princi¬
pally on the force Sy which the rubbing furfaces are
preffed upon each other, and as in this cafe there is
but the flight preffure occafioned by thofe accidental
circumftances which would bring the rollers toge¬
ther, the friftion mull be too trifling to be no¬
ticed.
Thus far with regard to wheel-carriages in general.
We muft now make fome remarks on the methods of
drawing them, and the conftruCtion of particular car¬
riages.—Men, by reafon of their upright form, are by
no means fitted for horizontal draughts; but animals
who go upon all fours are remarkably fo. In Britain
horfes are commonly made ufe of; but mules, oxen,
fheep, and dogs, in other parts of the world. In all
animals, however, the capacity for drawing a load de¬
pends upon their weight as well as their abfolute
ftrength. Thus it may happen, that a very heavy
horfe will draw a load, which a lighter though ftrong-
er one could not move ; and this will always happen,
when the weaker horfe exceeds the other in weight
more than he is exceeded by him in ftrength. It is
well known that the weight, as far as it goes, reads
upon the horfe, and pulls him back as much as he
pulls it forward, until the exertions of the mufcles of
the animal refifted, by the folid ground, overcome the
refiftance of the load upon the moveable wheels, and
it goes forward in proportion to the excefs of the
one power over the other. If the horfe were put
upon a moveable plane, and attempted to draw a load
upon the folid ground, inftead of pulling it forward he
would pull himfelf back. The horfe has two fources
of power in drawing a load, viz. his ftrength and
A n 1 c S. 755
weight. The former is the fource of velocity ; and as Wheel-
we find the aClual power of any inanimate body in carnages-.
motion by multiplying the velocity into its quantity of v
matter, fo do we find the power of a horfe to draw a
load, by confidering his weight as well as abfolute
ftrength. There are even many inftances in common
praftice, where it is ufeful to increafe the weight of
an horfe or other animal; and therefore when horfes
are employed to draw mills, it is ufual to put a fmall
load upon their backs in order to increafe their abfo¬
lute momentum. Where the animals are equal in
ftrength and momentum, however, the only difference
that can take place in the weights they draw muft
arife from the convenience or inconvenience of the car¬
riages to which they are yoked, or of the roads upon
which they walk. A load breaft-high is much more
eafily drawn than one which is dragged along the
ground, becaufe the power of the animal is then exert¬
ed direCUy againft it; and this holds good whether the
horfes go up or down hill. In defcending, indeed, as
the load is then higher with regard to the horfe than
when it is on a plane, he will confequently pull it
with the greater force ; but in this cafe, its own gra¬
vity confpires with the draught, and will likewife help
the load to defcend ; fo that in this cafe the animal
has an opportunity of exerting his greateft power
when there is the leaft neceflity, nay, when it is often
inconvenient.
In all carriages with four wheels the two fore ones
are made of a much fmaller fize than the hind ones,
both for the fake of turning more eafily, and likewife
that there may be no danger of cutting the braces ; but
were both the fore and hind wheels to be of the fame
height, the carriage would be drawn with much great¬
er cafe. It is imagined indeed by the drivers of car¬
riages, that the high hind wheels puffi on the fore-
wheels : but this is evidently abfurd; for the fore¬
wheels muft turn as many times round oftener than
the large ones as the latter exceed them in fize. Thus,
if we fuppofe the circumference of the large wheels to
be 18 feet, and that of the fmall ones only fix, it is
evident that the latter muft turn round three times for
once that the large ones turn round. Suppofing the
carriage therefore to be loaded equally on both axles,
it is plain that by the greater fridtion upon the fore¬
axle than the other, it muft wear out much fooner,
and that as much as the fore-wheels are fmaller than
the hind ones. But it is the univerfal praftice of
thofe converfant in loading and driving carriages, to
put a much greater load upon the fore than the back
axle. Thus the fri&ion not only becomes greateft
where it ought to be leaft, but the fmall wheels muft
neceffarily fink deeper into the ground than the large
ones, which they are at any rate inclined to do from
their fize. The only danger in laying the greateft load
upon the hind axle is, when the carriage goes up a
very fteep afcent; but in the few cafes in which this
may happen, a fmall temporary weight laid upon the
pole betwixt the horfes would prevent all danger of
overfetting.
To confirm thefe reafonings by experiment, let a
fmall model of a waggon be made, with its fore-wheels
2|- inches in diameter, and its hind-wheels 44 ; the
whole model weighing about 20 ounces. Let this little
carriage be loaded any how with weights, and have a
5 C 2 finall
756 M E C H A
Wheel- fmall cord tied to each of its ends, equally high from
, carriages, ^ groan(j ;t refts up0n ; and let it be drawn along a
horizontal board, firft by a weight in a fcale hung to
the cord at the fore-part; the cord going over a pul¬
ley at the end of the board to facilitate the draught,
and the weight juft fufficient to draw it along. Then
tui n the carriage, and hang the fcale and weight to
the hind-cord, and it will be found to move along with
the fame velocity as at firft : which ftiows that the
power required to draw the carriage is all the fame,
whether the great or fmall wheels are foremoft ; and
therefore the great wheels do not help in the leaft to
pnlh on the fmall wheels in the road.
Hang the fcale to the fore-cord, and place the fore¬
wheels (which are the fmall ones) in two holes, cut
three eight parts of an inch deep in the board ; then
put a weight of 32 ounces into the carriage over the
fore-axle, and an equal weight over the hind-one : this
done, put 44 ounces into the fcale, which will be juft
fufficient to draw out the fore-wheels: but if this
weight be taken out of the fcale, and one of 16 ounces
put into its place, if the hind-wheels are placed in the
holes, the 16 ounce weight will draw them out; which
is little more than a third part of what was neceffary
to draw out the fore-wheels. This fhows, that the lar¬
ger the wheels are, the lefs power will draw the car¬
riage, efpecially on rough ground.
Put 64 ounces over the axle of the hind-wheels, and
32 over the axle of the fore-ones, in the carriage ; and
place the fore-wheels in the holes: then put 38 ounces
into the fcale, which will j'uft draw out the fore-wheels;
and when the hind-ones come to the hole, they will
find but very little refiftance, becaufe they fink but a .
little way into it.
But ffiift the weights in the carriage, by putting the
32 ounces upon the hind-axle, and the 64 ounces up¬
on the fore-one ; and place the fore-wheels in the
holes: then, if 76 ounces be put into the fcale, it will
foe found no more than fufficient to draw out thefe
wheels; which is double the power required to draw
them out when the lighter part of the load was put
upon them; which is a plain demonftration of the ab-
fardity of putting the heavieft part of the load in the
fore-part of the waggon.
Every one knows what an outcry was made by the
generality, if not the whole body, of the carriers,
againft the broad-wheel a£t; and how hard it was to
perfuade tfoem to comply with it, even though the go¬
vernment allowed them to draw with more horfes, and
carry greater loads than ufual. Their principal ob-
jeftion \Vas, that as a broad wheel muft touch the
ground in a great many more p6ints than a narrow
wheel, the friftion muft of courfe be juft fo much the
greater ; and confequently there muft be fo many more
horfes than ufual to draw the waggon. It is believed
that the majority of people were of the fame opinion ;
not confidering, that if the whole weight of the waggon
and load in it bears upon a great many points, each
fuftains a proportionably lefs degree of weight and
fri&ion, than when it bears only upon a few points:
fo that what is wanting in one is made up in the
other ; and therefore will be juft equal under equal de¬
grees of weight, as may be ffiown by the following
plain and eafy experiment.
Let one end of a piece of pack-thread be fattened
N I C S. Sea. IV,
to a brick, and the other end to a common fcale for Wheel- j
holding weights: then, having laid the brick edgewife carfli)Ke^
on a table, and let the fcale hang under the edge of m"jt'
the table, put as much weight into the fcale as will
juft draw the brick along the table. Then taking back
the brick to its former place, lay it flat on the table,
and leave it to be a&ed upon by the fame weight in
the fcale as before, which will draw it along with the
fame eafe as when it lay upon its edge. In the former
cafe, the brick may be confidered as a narrow wheel
on the ground; and in the latter, as a broad wheel.
And fince the brick is drawn along with equal eafe,
whether its broad fide or narrow edge touches the table,
it fhows that a broad wheel might be drawn along the |l
ground with the fame eafe as a narrow one (fuppofing
them equally heavy), even though they Ihould drag,
and not roll, as they go along.
As narrow wheels are conftantly finking into the 5<>
road, they not only prove very deftru&ive to the high-and nrarr01i{I
ways over which the carriages move, but by reafon of wheel», 1
this very finking, they muft be accounted as going
continually up hill in fome degree, even when drawn
upon plain ground. Thefe inconveniences are obvi¬
ated by the ufe of broad wheels ; and indeed the utili¬
ty of thefe is fo obvious, that it feems furprifing how
the ufe of narrow wheels is on any occafion permitted
by the legiflature. The wheels ordinarily ufed for
waggons are nine inches broad ; but of late a praflioe
has been introduced of ufing rollers 16 inches broad; jl
by which the inconveniencies of the narrow wheels are
removed, and the greateft weights may be drawn over
the very worft roads, not only without making them
worfe, but greatly to their improvement. It has been
objedfed, that broad wheels foon accumulate in clayey
roads fo much matter that it would foon equal an or¬
dinary load ; but, not to mention that fuch roads
ought to have no exiftence in a country where fuch
fums are annually paid for their reparation, it is evi¬
dent, that palling heavy rollers over them is the only
method to give that firmnefs to clay which is neceflary
for its fupporting the animals who walk over it; and
indeed many of the roads in this country, by reafon of
' the continual poaching by wheels and feet of horfes,,
&c. become throughout a great part of the year al-
moft impafiable by people on. foot. The legiflature 9
appear to be very fenfible of the advantages derived
from thefe rollers, and accordingly allow fuch car¬
riages as are furnifhed with them to go toll- free.
In the tranfadtions of the Royal Irifh Academy for jt j
1788, we meet with fome curious obfervations on theMrEd^e- Mf
fubjedl of wheel-camages, by Mr Lovell Edgeworth.
This gentleman informs us, that he was prefen t in Lon-^nr ca^'jj8 ^
don in 1773, at a fet of experiments tried in order to ages,
determine t he comparative advantages of low and high
wheels. The apparatus for thefe experiments was con-
ftrudted with the greateft accuracy. Thecarriagesthem-
felves were made by the heft workmen in London, and
they were drawn along a fmooth table by filk firings of
fmall diameters put over a pulley nicely conitrudted, and
fitted up in fuch a manner as to have fcarce any fridlion.
On applying a weight to the end of the fixing which
patted over the pulley, little difference appeared in the
velocities with which the carriages pailed alongthe table,
whether the wheels were high or low ; but what ap¬
peared furprifing was, that when obftacles were put
ME C HAXIC wS . Hate CeLXXXVHI.
»5ea.lV. M E C H
M Wheel- in their way, fometiraes the high and fometimes the
^carriages. ]ow wheels had the advantage, according to the diffe¬
rent fhapes and fizes of the obltacles. “ It appears
at hrft view (fays Mr Lovell), that the force which
drew thefe carriages was employed only in overcoming
the fri&ion of the axle-tree, or in lifting the weight
over the obftacle. But I fufpe&ed at the time,
and have fxnce been convinted, that an obftruftion of
another fort ex hied more confiderable than either of
thefe which I have mentioned, and which has not to
my knowledge been taken notice of by any writer upon
mechanics.”
This obftruftion is no other than the vis inertia of
o(|pr°of (f the matter, which has fo much engaged the attention of
1 vi*,nert‘*> philofophers, and the non-entity of which, in diftinc-
M lent of gra-from the power of gravity, feems now to be pretty
•XVity. generally admitted. The argument ufed for its ex-
iitence by Mr Edgeworth is as follows : “ After a car¬
riage has been once fet in motion upon a fmooth road
with any given velocity, its motion, fo long as that
velocity is continued, is neither retarded nor promoted
by the vis inertia; but whenever it paffes over any
height, not only the weight of the carriage muff be
lifted up, but the vis inertia of that weight muff be
overcome in a new direftion ; and as much velocity
muff be communicated to it in that new direction as
will enable it to rife to the height of the obftacle while
it paffes over its bafe. When an obftacle is of fuch a
lize and (hape that a wheel of fix feet diameter mull
ftrike the top of it at once, and not roll from the bot¬
tom upwards, and when its lhape will permit a fmaller
wheel to touch it during its whole afcent, as there ‘is
more time allowed for overcoming the vis inertia of
its weight in. the latter cafe than in the former, the
fmaller wheel may be drawn forward by a lefs
power than the larger, notwithftanding the ad¬
vantage of a lever, which is in favour of the larger
wheel.”
To-determine this, oiir author made ufe of an in¬
clined plane five or fix feet long and one foot high,
placed on a fmooth horizontal floor. He then affu-
med the diftance to which the carriage was driven on
the floor by the velocity acquired in defcending the
plane, as a meafure of the force with which it could
overcome any obftacle placed in its way ; and confe-
fjuently the diminution of the diftance was the mea¬
fure of the refiftance itfelf. Not fatisfied with this ap¬
paratus, however, he fcrewed a circle of iron three
feet three inches in diameter upon a folid floor. In
-the centre of this circle he eretted an upright axis or
roller upon two pivots, one refting in a focket of brafs
upon the floor, the other in a bridge raifed acrofs the
machine. Around the axis was wound a fmall filk cord,
with a fcaleand weights faftenedto it, which paffed over
a pulley into an adjoining ftair-cafe, and turned the axis
with a determined velocity. An horizontal arm of
wood extended from the axis to the circumference of
the inner circle, and to the extremity of the arm was
faftened a piece of fteel in form of the axle-tree of a
carriage, having a whee upon it, which by the motion
of the axis was carried round upbn its edge like the
ftone of a tanner’s mill. The arm was furnifhed with
an hinge, by means of which the wheel could rife up
and pafs over any obftacle which ftood in its way.
Above this was another arm, having on its extremity
5
A N I C S. 757
a tin vane, which by its refiftance to the air regulated Whee!-
the motion of the rpachine. On putting weights, carnages.^
into the fcale, it was found that eight or ten turns v
were neceffary to give the wheel an uniform velocity,
which was preferved in all the experiments, any refift¬
ance thrown in the way being overcome by an addition
of weight, and confequently this addition being al¬
ways an accurate meafure of the refiftance.
On loading the wheel fo as to weigh about four
pounds, it acquired a velocity of ten feet in a fecond by
nearly five pounds and an halfj but on placing in its
■way an obftacle only a quarter of an inch high, fix
pounds and an half were required to caufe the wheel
pafs over it. TwO fuch obftacles required fourteen
and an half pounds; but on fubftituting two obftacles
of the fame height, but making an inclined plane three
quarters of an inch long, it required only two pounds
to overcome their lefiftance. “ The difference there¬
fore (fays he) between two and fourteen, muft be at¬
tributed to the vis inertia; for the velocities of the
carriage and the heights of the obftacles remaining
the fame, the only difference that exifts is, that in the
one cafe the wheel has much more time to furmount
the obftacle, than in the other, and confequently had
much lefs vis inertia”
On this piece of reafoning, however, it is impofiible
to avoid making the following remark, viz. that no¬
thing happens but what ought to do fo upon the com¬
mon principles of mechanics. One obftacle, when up¬
right, required fix pounds and an half to overcome
it; but when an inclined plane three times the length
was added to it, it ought then to have been overcome
by a third part of the power, that is, by fomething
more than two pounds; andthereafon why fomething
lefs than the third part was required, feems to have been
the advantage the wheel had by adting as a lever; as
has been already obferved on the principles of Mr An-
ftice. There is not therefore the leaft ocCafion to ap¬
ply to a vis inertia, or any obfcure principle, for a folu-
tion of what may fo eafily be folved upon the common
principles of mechanics and gravity.
JMr Edgeworth concludes his obfervations with fome 53
remarks on the ufe of fprings, which are found greatly ^ of.
to facilitate the draught ot carriages. “ Whatever ^rr'jfges*
(fays he) permits the load to rife gradually over art
obftacle without obftru&ing the velocity of the car¬
riage, will tend to facilitate its draught; and the
application of fprings has this effedt to a very confider¬
able degree ; the fame weight of four pounds being
drawn over the fame obftacles, when fprings were put
between the load and the carriage, by four pounds in-
ftead of 14. This remarkable difference points out
the great advantage of fprings in rough roads ; an ad¬
vantage which might be obtained for heavy waggons,
as well as for other carriages, by a judicious applica¬
tion of the fame means.
“ It appears from the Memoirs of the French aca¬
demy,, that the idea of applying fprings to carriages
had occurred to M% Thomas in the year 1703; who
has given a drawing of a carriage conilrudled upon
this principle many years before it was attempted to
be put in execution. So little expedtation had he of
fuccefs, that he exprefsly mentions it as a theory which
could not be reduced to pradtice: he had, however, no
notion of applying fprings to facilitate the draught,
but
M E C H
but merely for the convenience of the rider; and I ap-
■ prehend that it is not at prefent commonly imagined
that fprings are advantageous for this purpofe; nor
woulditat firft fightapppear credible,that, upon a rough
paved road, fuch as are common in Chefhire and other
parts of England, a pair of horfes could draw a car¬
riage mounted upon fprings with greater cafe and ex¬
pedition than four could draw the fame carriage if the
fprings and braces were removed, and the carriage
bolted fall down to the perch.”
Mr Lovell made alfo fome experiments with high
,r_and low, long and Ihort, carriages, in order to deter¬
mine which was the moft advantageous, but could not
recolleft the particular refults of each experiment.
He was, however, affured, that the preference lately
given in England to high carriages is ill-founded;
and that, though in fmooth roads, the height of the
carriage is a matter of indifference, yet in rough roads
it is very difadvantageous. The length of carriages
A N I C S. Sea.1V
faftened to the ends of the two levers or treddles CD, Wheel-
whofe other ends are fixed in fuch manner in the piece carr>aire«.
which is joined to the box, that they can eafily L
move up and down. F, F, are two flat pieces of iron
that are joined to the treddles, and take the teeth of
the two wheels H, H, which are fixed on the fame
axis with the hind-wheels of the carriage, I, I.
It is evident, that when the footman behind prefles
down one of the treddles, fuppofe C, with his foot, he
muft bring down one of the pieces of iron F, andcon-
fequently turn the wheel H that is next to it; and at
the fame time, by means of the rope that goes over
the pulley, he muft raife the other treddle D, together
with its piece F, which being thruft down will turn
the other wheel H; and fo alternately: and as the
great wheels are fixed on the fame axis, they muft ne-
ceffarily move at the fame time.
It is eafy to conceive, that if the ends of the treddles
next E, inftead of being placed behind the carriage.
alfo, if their weight be not increafed, is a matter were turned the oppofite way, fo as to come under the
of indifference, except in very uneven roads, and where
there are deep ruts; long carriages being preferable in
the former cafe, and' fhort ones in the latter.
The reafon whyfprings fo much facilitate the draught
of carriages feems to be, not only that they allow
the wheels to pafs more gradually over the obftacles,
as Mr Edgeworth fays, but that by their elafticity
they make the carriage bound upwards every moment
for a fmall way. Thus its gravity is for that moment
in a great meafure counteracted, and the progreffive
motion which it has already acquired is at liberty to
act more freely in pufhing it forward; for were it pof-
f ble very fuddenly to take away the horfes from a
carriage mounted on fprings, and moving with confi-
derable velocity, it would continue for fometime to move
of itfelf; the weight in this cafe adting as a fly upon
any mechanical engine, by means of which the machine
accumulates a certain quantity of power, and will keep
feet of the perfon who fits in it, he might move it with
equal, or even greater facility, than the footman, as it
would then be charged with the weight of one perfon
only.
A machine of this kind will afford a falutary recre¬
ation in a garden or park, of on any plain ground ;
but in a rough or deep road muft be attended with
more pain than pleafure. ^
Another contrivance for being carried without To fail as
draught, is by means of a failing chariot or boat fixed fa[*> vYith :
on four wheels, as AB ; which is driven before the f
wind by the fails CD, and guided by the rudder E. t,y water.
In a chariot of this kind, the wheels fhould be farther Fig. 87.
afunder, and the axle-trees longer, than in other car¬
riages, to prevent overturning.
A machine of this fort was conftru&ed in the laft
century by Stephinus, at Scheveling in Holland, and
is celebrated by many writers. Its velocity with
itfelf in motion for a confiderable time after the hand ftrong wind is faid to be fo great, that it would carry
is taken away from it. The weight of all carriages
indeed has fome effeft of this kind, otherwife the
draught would require an intolerable exertion of
ftrength ; and it is to be obferved, that this tendency
to proceed in the direftion in which it is once fet a-
•going, is remarkable in all great quantities of matter,
and very perceptible even when weights are pulled di-
reftly upward; for in raifing great weights by a crane,
the burden is lifted with confiderably more eafe when
near the top than at bottom, even after making every
neceffary allowance for the weight of the rope, &c.
eight or ten perfons from Scheveling to Putten, which
is 42 Englifti miles diftant, in two hours.
Carriages of this kind are faid to be frequent in
China; and in any wide, kvel country, muft be
fometimes both pleafant and profitable. The great
inconvenience attending this machine is, that it can
only go in the direction the wind blows, and even not
then unlefs it blow ftrong; fo that, after you have got
fome way on your journey, if the wind ihould fail, or
change, you muft either proceed on foot or go back.
Some remedy for this inconvenience will be found i"
By means of wheels, fome people have contrived the next contrivance. The Hollanders have, or had,
■    * 41 a. 1 4-4 /V*-. -11 irofTialo fVv rM f i rr rvf" ♦•Viro 1 n f»nP
ogo
vith-
it any ci¬
ther force
<han what
it receives
from the
piffeugers.
fig. 85.
carriages to go without horfes, or any other moving
' power than what was given by the paffengers, by the
wind, &c. One of thefe is reprefented by ABCD.
It is moved by the footman behind it; and the fore-
wheels, which aft as a rudder, are guided by the per¬
fon who fits in the carriage (a).
Between the hind-wheels is placed a box, in which
is concealed the machinery that moves the carriage.
A A (fig. 86.) is a finall axis fixed into the box. B is
a pulley, over which runs a rope, whofe two ends are
fmall veffels, fomething of this kind, that carry one
or two perfons on the ice, having a fledge at bottom
inftead of wheels: and being made in the form of a
boat, if the ice break the paffengers are fecured from
drowning.
To fail againft the wind : Let ABCD be the bodyTo ^
of a failing chariot: M the maft, to which are fixed land aKainfl
the wings or fails EFGH; the two firft of which, EF, the wind,
are here fuppofed to be expanded by the wind; R is Fig. 88.
the rudder by which it is guided. Therefore the wind
driving
(A) This machine was invented by M. Richard, a phyfician of Rochelle, and was exhibited at Paris in the
laft century. It is deferibed by M. Ozanam in his Recreations Mathematiqucs.
1
l ^
kst v i
r ^
V
lea. IV. M E C H
IWheel driving the fails round, with the maftM, andthecog-
narriagea. w}ieei take the teeth placed perpendicular to the
f' v lides of the two fore-wheels of the carriage, and con-
fequently keep it in continual motion.
The body of this machine fhould not be large, nor
placed very high, not only to prevent overturning,
but that its motion may not be thereby impeded; for
the velocity will be in proportion to the force of the
wind on the fails to that on the body of the machine.
Therefore, if they be both equal, it will Hand Hill; or
if the force on~the body be greateft, it will go back¬
wards ; unlefs there be a contrivance to lock the
wheels. The upper part of the machine next A, may
be made to take off when the wind is contrary ; and
there may be another fet of fails placed between the
two hind-wheels, w'hich wall confiderably increafe its
velocity. But after all, for general ufe, a common
carriage mull be preferable: for this cannot be expec¬
ted to go up a moderate afcent without great difficul¬
ty; nor down a declivity, when there is a ftrong wind,
without danger; and even on level ground, if the road
be in any degree rough, its progrefs muft be very
flow, attended both with difficulty and danger. In
an open country, however, where there is a large
traft of level and fmooth-ground, and frequent ftrong
winds, a machine of this fort will certainly be very
convenient; and in moft countries, when made of a
fmall fize, may be ufeful to young people, by affording
I 58 them a pleafant and healthful exercife.
rhe unin- A carriage, the body of which is incapable of be-
ijembiecar-jng overturned, may be made as follows. The body
in 8 mu^ confift a regu^ar hollow globe, as AB, at the
*' * bottom of which is to be an immoveable weight,
and which muft be proportioned to the number of
perfons or the load the machine is intended to carry.
Round the globe muft go two horizontal iron circles
D, E, and two others F, G, that are perpendicular
to the former. All thefe circles muft be made exa&ly
to fit the globe, that it may move freely in every di-
reftion. The two horizontal circles are to be joined
on each fide by a perpendicular bar, one of which is
expreffed in the figure by HI. All thefe irons
fhould be lined with leather, to prevent unneceffary
fri&ion. The body of the carriage may be either of
leather or hard wood; but the latter will be mwf^ele-
gible, as leaft liable to wear. The wheel on each fide
is to be faftened to the perpendicular bar by means of
a handle K that keeps it fteady.
Now the body of this machine moving freely in
the iron circles every wray, the centre of gravity will
always lie at C 5 therefore, in whatever pofition the
wheels are, or even if they overturn, the body of the
carriage will conftantly remain in the fame perpendi¬
cular diredlion.
A t L is placed a pin, round which is a hollow mover
able cylinder: this pin moves up and down in the
groove MN, that it may not impede the perpendicu¬
lar motion of the circles, at. the fame time thatit pre*
vents the body of the machine from turning round in
a horizontal dire&ion. O is one of the window's, P
the door, and QR the fhafts to this machine.
When a carriage of . this fort is intended for a fingle
perfon, or a light weight, it may be hung on fwivels,
in the fame- manner as the rolling lamp or the fea-com-
a n 1 c s.
pafs, which will make its horizontal motion ftill more Wheel-
regular: and when it is defigned to carry feveral per- catna6-?\
fons, by adding another perpendicular bar on each fide,' "'~ T '“*•
between the two horizontal circles, it may be placed
on four wheels. The body of this machine fhould be
frequently oiled or greafed, not only to prevent any
difagreeable noife that may arife from its rubbing
againft the circles, but to prevent unneceffary wear in
the feveral parts.
This carriage is not intended for fmooth roads, or
a regular pavement; there certainly, thofe of the com¬
mon conftruftion are much preferable; nor fhould a-
earriage totally free from irregular motion je fought
after by thofe who are in perfect health: but there are
many perfons, fubjeft to different diforders, who by
being obliged to travel over rough roads in the com--
mon carriages, fuffer tortures of which the healthful
have no idea; to all thefe, therefore, and to every
one who is forced to travel through dangerous roads,
a carriage of this fort muft doubtlefs be highly de-
firable.
As this defign may appear to fome perfons, on a
fuperficial view, impracticable, we fhall here infert an-
account of a fimilar carriage, which we hare taken
from the firft volume of the Abridgement of the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaftions, by Lowthorp. There is not,
however, any defcription of the manner in which that
machine was conftru&ed. The account is as follows:
“ A new fort of calafh defcribed by Sir R. B. This
calafh goes on two wheels; carries one perfon; is light
enough. Though it hangs not on braces, yet it is ea-
fier than the common coach. A common coach will
overturn if one wheel go on a fuperficies a foot and a
half higher than the other; but this will admit of the
.difference of three feet and one-third in height of the
fuperficies, without danger of overturning. We chofe
all the irregular banks, and fides of ditches, to run
over;, and I have this day fecn it, at five feveral times,
turn over and over, and the horfe not at all difordered.
If the horfe fhould be in the leaft unruly, with .the
help of one pin you difengage him from the calafh
without any inconvenience f a contrivance of this fort
may be eafily added to the foregoing defgn).. I myfelf
have been once overturned, and knew it not till I
looked up and faw the wheel flat over my head : and
if a man went with his eyes fhut, he would imagine
himfelf in the moft fmooth way, though at the fame
time there be three feet difference in the height of the
ground of each wheeL”
Sect. V. Of Milts.
Mill, in the proper fenfe of the-word, fignifies a*
machine for grinding corn, though, in a more general
fenfe, it is applied to all machines which have an ho¬
rizontal circulatory motion. Mills are diftinguifhed ;
by particular names, fometimes taken from the powers ■
by which they are moved, and fometimes from the
ufes to which they are applied.^ Hence they are called
hand-mills, horfe-mills, .water-mills, fullmg-mills, wind¬
mills, corn-mills, levigating mills, boring-mills, &c.
The moft fimple of thefe is the hand mill, repyefent*
ed fig. 90, where A and B reprefent the two ftones
between which the corn is ground, and of which the
upper one A turns round', but the lower one-(B) re¬
mains •-
760
6o
Horfe-mill
Water-
Biills.
MECHANICS.
Sca.V,
mains fixed and immoveable. The upper ftone is five
inches thick, and 21 inches broad ; the lower one fome*
what broader. C is a cog-wheel, having 16 or 18
cogs, which go into the trundle F, having nine fpokes
fixed to the axis G, the latter being firmly inferted
into the upper ftone A, by means of a piece of iron.
H is the hopper into which the corn is put; I the
ftioe to carry it by little and little through a hole at
K, in betwixt the ftones, where being ground into
meal, it comes out through the eye at L. Both ftones
are inclofed in a circular wooden cafe, of Inch a fize
as will admit the upper one to run freely within it.—
The under furface of the upper ftone is cut into
grooves, as reprefented at Q^, which enable it to throw
the meal out at the eye L more perfedtly than could
be done if it was quite plain. Neither of them are
entirely flat, the upper one being fomewhat concave,
and the under one convex. They nearly touch at the
edges, but are at feme diftance in the middle, in or¬
der to let the corn go in between them. The under
ftone is fupported by ftrong beams, not reprefented in
the figure ; the fpindle G Hands on the beam MN,
which lies upon the bearer O. One end of this bearer
refts upon a fixed beam, and the ether has a firing fix¬
ed to it, and going round the pin P, by the turning
of which the timbers O and MN may be raifed or
lowered, and thus the ftones put nearer, or removed
farther from each other, in order to grind fine or
coarfe. When the corn is to be ground, it muft be
put into the hopper by little at a time. A man turns
the handle D, and thus the cog-wheel and trundle are
carried round alfo together with the ftone A. The
axis G is angular at K ; and, as it goes round, fhakes
, the fhoe I, and makes the corn fall gradually through
the hole K. The upper ftone going round grinds it,
throwing out the meal, as already faid, at the eye L.
Another handle, if thought proper, may be put at
the other end of the handle E. The fpindle muft go
through both ftones, in order to reach the beam MN,
and the hole through which it pafies is faftened with
leather or wood, fo that no meal can pafs through.
Mr Emerfon, from whom this account is taken, ob-
ferves, that “ it is a pity fome fuch mills are not made
at a cheap rate, for the fake of the poor, who are
much diftrefled by the roguery of the millers.,,
The conftrudlion of a horfe*mill differs not from
that of the hand-mill juft defcribed, excepting that
inftead of the handle D, the fpindle is furniihed with
a long horizontal lever and cogged wheel, which
turns the trundle and ftones, as already mentioned.—
The ftones are much heavier than in the hand-mill.
The mills moft commonly in ufe for grinding corn
are water-mills, the conftrudlion of which is not effen-
tially different from that of the hand or horfe-mills.—
The loiter mill-ftone, as already mentioned, is fixed,
but the upper one moveable upon a fpindle. The op-
pofite furfaces of the two ftones are not flat, but the
one convex and the other concave, though in a very
fmall degree. The upper ftone, which is fix feet in
diameter, is hollowed only about an inch in the middle,
and .the other rifes three quarters of an inch. They
approach much nearer each other at the circumference,
and the corn begins to be ground about two thirds of
the radius diftant from the circumference, and there
it makes the greateft refiftance, the fpace between the
Ns 199.
two ftones being in that place only about two-thirds Mills
or three-fourths of the thicknefs of a grain of corn ; ' V
but as thefe ftones, as well as thofe of the hand-mill
or horfe-mill, can be feparated a little from each other,
the meal may be made fine or coarfe in them, as well
as in the two former mills.
In order to cut and grind the corn, both the upper
and under ftones have furrows cut in them, as is ob-
ferved in the hand-mill. Thefe are cut perpendicular¬
ly on one fide, and obliquely upon the other, by which
mean's each furrow has a fharp edge, and by the turn¬
ing of the ftones, the furrows meet, like a pair of
fciflars, and by cutting the corn, make it' grind the
more eafily. They are cut the fame way in both
ftones when they lie upon their backs, by which
means they run crofswife to each, other when the. up¬
per one is inverted and turned round ; and this greatly
promotes the grinding of the corn, great part of which
would be driven onward in the lower furrows, with¬
out being ground at all, if both lay the fame way.—
When the furrow' becomes blunt and (hallow by wear¬
ing, the running ftone muft be taken off, and the fur¬
rows cut deeper in both by means of a chiffel and
hammer. Thus, however, by having the furrows cut
down a great number of times, the thickneffes of both
ftones are greatly diminifhed ; and it is obferved, that
in proportion to the diminution of the thicknefs of
the upper ftone, the quantity of flour alfo diminifties.
By means of the circular motion of the upper ftone,
the corn is brought out of the hopper by jerks, and
recedes from the centre towards the circumference by
the centrifugal forceand being entirely reduced to
flour at the edges w hen the ftones nearly touch one
another, it is thrown at laft out at the hole called the
eye, as already mentioned. In Scotland, it is fre¬
quent to have the ftones without any furrows, and on¬
ly irregularly indented with fmall holes, by means of
an iron inftrument. Stones of this kind laft a much
(horter time than thofe wdth furrow's, the latter being
fit for ufe for 30 or 40 years, while the former fel-
dom or never laft more than feven. The under mill-
ftone is confiderably thicker than the upper ; and there¬
fore, when both have been confiderably worn by ufe,
the lower one is frequently taken up, and the upper one
put in its place, the former being converted into a
running-ftone.
Fig. 91 (hows the conftrudlion of a common water of water¬
mill, where A A is the large water-wheel, commonly nillls.
about 17 or 18 feet diameter from a, the extremity of pJate
any float-board, to b the extremity of the oppofite CGLXXJtlj
one. This wheel is turned round by the falling of the
water upon the boards from a certain height, and the
greater the height, provided the water runs in an unin¬
terrupted dream, the fmaller quantity will be fufficient
to turn the mill. This wheel is wuthout the mill-houfe,
but the wheel has an axle BB of conllderable length,
w hich paffes through a circular hole in, the wall, and
has upon it a wheel D, of eight or nine feet diameter,
hping 61 cogs, which turn a trundle E of ten (laves
or fpokes ; by which means the trundle, and confe-
quently the mill-ftone, will make fix revolutions, and
one-tenth for every revolution of the wheel. The
odd cog, commonly called the hunting cog, is added,
that as every one comes to the trundle it may take the
llaff behind that one which it took at the laft revolu-
Seft.V. M E C H
Mills, tion ; and thus all the parts of the cogs and rounds
b*t—y—— which work upon one another will wear equally', and to
equal diftances from another, in a little time; by which
means a true uniform motion will be produced through
the whole work. The trundle is fixed upon an iron
axis called the fpindle, the lower end >of which turns
in a brafs pot fixed at F in the horizontal beam ST,
Called the bridge-tree ; and the upper part of the fpindle
turns in a wooden bulb, fixed into the lower mill-ftone,
which lies upon beams in the floor YY. The top part
of the fpindle above the bulh is fquare, and goes into
a fquare hole in a ftrong iron crofs abed, fig. 02, call¬
ed the rynd; under which, and clofe to the bulh, is
a round piece of thick leather upon the fpindle, which
it turns round at the fame time that it does the rynd.
The latter enters into the grooves in the under furface
of the running mill-ftone G, fig.' 91, and thus turns"
it round along with the trundle E, by means of the
cog-wheel D. In the middle of the upper mill-ftone
is *a large' hole called the eye, through which the
middle part of the rynd and ‘upper part of the
fpindle may be feen ; the ends being hid in the grooves
below the ftone. The end T of the bridge-tree TS,
which fupports the upper mill-ftone G upon the fpindle,
is fixed, into a hole in the wall; and the end S is let
. into the beam QR called the brayer; one end R of
which remains fixed in a mortife, while the other end
QJiangs by a ftrong iron rod P, which goes through
the floor YY, and has a fere v-nut on its top O ; by
the turning of which nut the end Q^of the brayer is
raifed or depreffed at pleafure, along with the bridge-
tree TS and upper mill-ftone. Thus the upper mill-
ftone may he raifed as high from the under one, or
let down as clofe to it, as the miller pleafes ; by which
means the meal or flour is made either coarfe or fine
at pleafure. The upper mill-ftone G is inclofed in a
round box H, which leaves a vacant fpace of about
an inch all round. On the top of this box Hands a
frame for holding the hopper k k, at which hangs the
fhoe I, by two lines fattened to the hinder part of it,
fixed upon hooks in the hopper, and by one end of
the firing K to the fore part of it at i, the other end
being twifted round the pin L. As the pin is turned
one way, the firing draws up the ftioe clofer to the
hopper, and fo leflens the aperture between them; 1
and as the pin is turned the other way, it lets down
the ftioe, and widens the aperture. If it be drawn
quite up to the hopper, no 90m can fall out from the
latter into the mill, and the quantity will be greater
or lefs as the fhoe is farther from the hopper or nearer
to it. This happens by reafon of the hopper being
open at bottom, and the fhoe at the forepart towards
the end i over'the middle of the eye of the mill-ftone.
There is alfo a fquare hole in the top of the fpindle,
in which is put the feeder e, fig. 92. Thus the fhoe
is jogged three times in each revolution, and the corn
runs conftantly down from the hopper through the
ftioe into the eye of the mill-ftone, where it falls upon
the top of the rynd, and, by the motion of that and
of the leather beneath, is introduced betwixt the
ftones, and by the violent motion of the upper one ac¬
quires a centrifugal force ; and proceeding gradually
from the eye of the mill-done towards the circumfe¬
rence, is thrown ac la ft out in flour, at the hole called
the eye of the mill.
Vol. X. Part II.
A N I C S.
Some degree of nicety is requifite in feeding the
mill; for if too great a quantity be poured into it, the
ftones are feparated from each other more than they
ought to be, and their motion is alfo impeded ; while*
on the other hand, if it be fed too flowly, the ftone
moves with too great velocity, and the attrition of
the two is apt to make them ftrike fire. This matter
is regulated by turning the pin L backwards or for¬
wards a1- the miller thinks proper.
Sometimes, where plenty of water can be had, there
are two trundles applied to the cog-wheel by means of
a Angle large one turned immediately by the perpendi¬
cular cog-wheel, and carrying round with it an hori¬
zontal cogged wheel; on each fide of which are placed
thefmallertrundles above-mentioned carryingtheftones.
In like manner, the water-wheel may be made to drive
fanners, boulting-mills, &c. but it muft always be re¬
membered, that by complicating machinery to a great
degree, it becomes more ready te give way 5 and the
frequent reparation of which it Hands in need, will, by
the delay of bufinefs, be found at laft more expenfive
than if feparate machines had been ufed.
The wind-mill is furnilhed with an apparatus fimilar
to the water-mill, but neceflarily differs in the exter¬
nal apparatus for applying the • power. This is done
by means of the two arms AB and CD, fig. 93, in¬
terfering each other at right angles in E, and palling
through the axis EF, and about 32 feet in length.—
On thefe yards are placed two fails or vanes, in the
Ihape fometimes of parallelograms,' and fometimes of
trapeziums, with parallel bafes; the greater whereof
HI is about fix feet, and the length of the fmaller FG is
determined by radii drawn from the centre E to I and H.
As the direftion of the wind is very uncertain, it
becomes neceffary to have fome contrivance for turn¬
ing the fails towards it, in order to receive its force in
whatever way it may turn ; and for this purpofe two
general methods are in ufe. In the one, the whole
machine is fuftained upon a moveable arbor or axis,
perpendicular to the horizon, and which is fupported
by a ftrpng ftand or foot very firmly fixed in the earth;
and thus by means of a lever the whole machine may
be turned round as occafion requires. In the other
method, only the roof, which is circular, can be turn¬
ed round by means of a lever and rollers, upon which
the circular roof moves. This laft kind of wind-mill
is always built of ftone, in the form of a round turret,
having a large wooden ring oh the top of it, above
which the roof, which muft likewife be of wood,
moves upon rollers, as has been already mentioned.
To effedt this motion the more eafily, the wooden
ring which lies on the top of the building is furnilhed
with a groove, at the bottom of which are placed a
number of brafs truckles at certain diftances, and with¬
in the groove is placed another ring, by which the
whole roof is fupported. The beams ab and ae are
connected with the moveable ring, and a rope iafaften-
ed to the beam ab in b, which at the other extremity
is fitted to a windlafs’ or axis in peritrochio ; and this
rope being drawn through the iron hook G, • and the'
windlafs turned round, the fails and roof will be turn¬
ed round alfo, in order to catch the wind in any di-
reflion. Both thefe methods of coriftru&ion have
their advantages and difadvantages. The former is
the leaft expenfive, as the whole may be made of
5 D wood,
762 M E C H
IVLlts. wood, and of any form that is thought proper ; while
the other requires a coftly building of ftone: and the
roof being round, the building muft'alfo be fo, while
the other can be made of any form, but has the in¬
convenience of being liable to be carried off altogether
by a very high wind, of which an inftance occurred
not long ago in Eflex.
Fig. 94. Ihows the internal mechanifm of a wind¬
mill. AHO is the upper room ; H oZ the lower one ;
AB the axle-tree palling through the mill; STVW
the fails covered with canvas fet obliquely to the wind,
and turning round in the order of the letters. CD
is the cog-wheel, having about 48 cogs a a a, See.
which carry round the lantern EF, having eight or
_ nine trundles c c c. See. along with the axis GN. IK
is the upper mill-ftone, LM the lower one ; QR. is
the bridge fupporting the axis or fpindle GN, which
refts upon the beams cd, XY, wedged up at c, d, and
X : ZY is the lifting tree, which Hands upright ;
ab and ef are levers, having Z and e as centres of mo¬
tion ; fgbi is a cord, with a ftone i wound about the
pins g and h, and which thus ferves as a balance or
counterpoife. The fpindle * N is fixed to the upper
mill-ftone IK by means of a piece of iron called the
rynd, and fixed in the low«r fide of the ftone, the
whole weight of which refts upon a hard ftone fixed
in the bridge QR at N. The trundle EF and axis
G may be taken away ; for it refts its lower part
by t in a fquare focket, and the top runs in the edge
of the beam iv. By bearing down the end of the
lever fe we raife b, which raifes alfo Z Y, and this
raifes YX, which lifts up the bridge QR> with the
axis N G, and the upper ftone IK ; fo that by this
contrivance the ftones may, as in a water-mill, be fet
at any diftance. The lower ftone is fixed upon ftrong
beams, and is broader than the upper one; the flour
being conveyed through the tunnel« 0 into a cheft. P
is the hopper into which the corn is put, and which runs
along the fpout r into the hole t, and fo falls between
the ftones, where it is ground. The fquare axis G t
fhakes the fpout r as it turns round, and makes the
corn run out; r is a ftring going round the pin s,
which ferves to bring the fpout nearer or let it go
farther from the axis, and thus makes the corn to run
fafter or flower according to the velocity of the wind.
If the wind be very ftrong, only part of the fails S,
T, V, W, is covered, or perhaps only one half of the
two oppofite fails. Another cog-wheel B is placed
towards the end B of the axle tree, with a trundle
and mill-ftones like thofe already deferibed; fo that
when the wind is ftrong, the mill may do twice the
bufinefs it ordinarily does. When only one pair is
to grind, the trundle EF and axis G t are taken out
from the other : xyl is a girt of pliable wood, fixed at
the end x ; and the other end l is tied to the lever km,
moveable about k; and the end m being put down,
draws the girt xyl clofe to the cog-wheel; and t hus
the motion of the mill may be flopped at pleafure :
pq is a ladder for afeending to the higher part of the
mill; and the corn is drawn up by means of a rope
. rolled about the axis AB
A threfliing Befides thefe mills for grinding corn, one has late-
biUI. B ly been invented by a Mr Winlaw for threfliing it out,
and for which he has obtained a patent. It is repre-
fented fig* 95 • A A A A reprefents the frame of the
A N I C S. Sea.V.
mill, B the cone, C a large iron wheel, D a reguta- Mills,
ting ferew, E a pinion, G the top curb furrounding the
nut, H the fly.
Before the corn is put into this mill, it muft under,
go the operations of combing the bottoms of the
(heaves, and dripping the ears from the draw. The
former is performed by means of an hand-comb.
The ufe is obvious, viz. to take out all the loofe
ears, and draw laid irregularly, which would other-
wife be loft, or impede the dripping of the ears.
The comb for dripping the ears is made in the form
of a crofs. The teeth are of an.angular form, and
fet at convenient diftances, fo as to ftrip the ears clean.
If fet too wide, they will pafs through without effedt;
and if too near together, they will not admit the ftraw
to go between them.
The grain is feparated from the chaff and ftraw of
the ear by the motion of the imuy nut within the
outward cone. The diftance betwixt thefe is adjufted
by the regulating ferew D at the bottom; for if this
be ferewed up too far, the grain will be bruifed, if
too far lowered down, the grain will not be feparated.
The dart marked upon the fly (hows the diredlion in
which the handle is to be turned, it being pointed as
the handle is to be turned.
This mill was tried in the month of June 1785, in
the prefence of a number of gentlemen, with great fa-
tisfa&ion to the fpeftators; and fince that time has
been ufed by a number of others, though it has not
as yet come into general ufe. At the firft trial there
paffed through the mill one bufliel of heads per mi¬
nute, with very moderate labour to the man who
turned it; and by experiment it was found, that four
bufliels of ears yielded one bufliel of clean grain. Hence
it appears, that the difference betwixt the expedition
of the mill and the labour of the threflier is immenfe-
ly great; for allowing that a man will threfti fix bu-
(hels per day at eight hours work, the mill will clear
that quantity in 24 minutes, and that to much great¬
er perfection than can be done by the flail, as it fepa-
rates every grain from the ear, which cannot but be
accounted a very great faving ; while much corn flies
off by the flail, and a great deal is loft by foul threfli¬
ing, either when performed by talk or day-work.
But by the ufe of the mill, all fraudulent practices
muft be prevented, the ftraw preferved in its original
reed, and thus anfwer the purpofes of thatching, &c.
much better than when bruifed under the flail; and e-
very other purpofe equally well. The ears may alfo
be combed out with great expedition, as a lad with¬
out having praCtifed was found to comb out a bufhel
of ears in 20 minutes, which is at the rate of fix bu-
(hels of clean corn per day. The faving by the ufe
of this mill is calculated at 2-5-d. per bulhel. On a
fmaller fcale the mill anfwers equally well for clover-
feed, the flowers being firft combed off from the ftems ;
after which it will do as much work in three hours,
as a man in the ordinary way can perform in a week ;
for a man cannot clean much above a bufliel in that
time, which is the great reafon of the high price of
clover-feed. The mill will likewife anfwer for flax,
canary, or any other feeds, or for feparating thehu(ks
from rice, which in the prefent mode cannot be done
without great labour and expence.
la all mills it is neceflary that a confiderablc power
be
64
D fferent
‘kinds of
niilk.
Sea. V. M E C H
Mills, be employed in order to aceomplifli the intended pur-
pofe. —Water is the moft common power, and indeed
the beft, as being the moft conftant and equable ;
while wind comes at fometimes with great violence,
and at others is totally gone. Mills may alfo be mo¬
ved by the force of fteam, as were the Albion-mills
at London ; but the expence of fuel muft undoubted¬
ly prevent this mode of conftrudting mills from ever be¬
coming general. In all cafes it is abfolutely neceffary
to make the moft of the power that we can, by ma¬
king it aft to the greateft advantage. Hence the beft
methods of conftrufting water and wind-mills have
been inveftigated by thofe who were moft converfant
in the principles of mechanics; and fo difficult has
been the inveftigation, that the principles are not yet
fettled abfolutely without difpute.
The water-mills are of three kinds : Breq/l-milh,
Underjhot-mills, and Over/hot-mills. In the former, the
water falls down upon the wheel at right angles, to
the float-boards or buckets placed all round the wheel
to receive it: if float-boards are ufed, it afts only by
its impulfe ; but if buckets, it afts alfo by the weight
of water in the buckets in the under quarter of the
wheel, which is confiderable. In the underlhot wheel
float-boards only are ufed, and the wheel is turned
merely by the force of the current running under it,
and ftriking upon the boards. In the overfhot-wheel
the water is poured over the top, and thus afts princi¬
pally by its weight; as the fall upon the upper part
of the wheel cannot be very coniiderable, left it ihould
daffi the water out of the buckets. Hence it is evi¬
dent, that an underffiot-mill muft require a much lar¬
ger fupply of water than any other; the breaft-mill
the next, unlefs the fall is very great; and an over-
fhot mill the leaft. Dr Defaguliers found, that a well-
made overfhot mill would perform as much work as an
underfliot one with one tenth part of the quantity of
water required by the other.
In the 51 ft volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions,
Mr Smeaton has confidered at great length the beft
methods of conftrufting all thefe mills from machines
and models made on purpofe : but confciousof the in¬
feriority of models to aftual praftice, did not venture to
give his opinion without having feen them aftually
tried, and the truth of his doftrines eftabliihed by
praftice.
Having defcribed the machines and models ufed for
making his experiments, he obferves, that, with regard
to power, it is moft properly meafured by the raifing
of a weight ; or, in other words, if the weight rai¬
led be multiplied by the height to which it can be rai¬
led in a given time, the produft is the meafure of the
power raifing it ; and, of confequence, all thofe pow¬
ers are equal whofe produfts made by fuch multipli¬
cation are equal: for if a power can raife twice the
weight to the fame height, or the fame weight to
twice the height in the fame time that another can, the
former power will be double the latter ; but if a pow¬
er can only raife half the weight to double the height,
* 65 .
Stneaton s
obferva-
A N I C S.
or double the weight to half the height, in the fame T
time that another can, the two powers are equal.
This, however, muft be underftood only of a flow and
equable motion, without acceleration or retardation ;
for if the velocity be either very quickly accelerated or
retarded, the vis inertia, in our author’s opinion, will
produce an irregularity.
To compute the eftefts of water-wheels exaftly, it
is necelfary to know in the firft place what is the real
velocity of the water which impinges on the wheel.
2. The quantity of water expended in a given time :
and, 3. How much of the power is loft by the friftion
of the machinery.
1. With regard to the velocity of the water, Mr
Smeaton determined by experiments with the machi¬
nery defcribed in the volume referred to, that with
a head of water 15 inches in height, the velocity of the
wheel is 8.96 feet in a minute. The area of the head
being 105.8 inches, this multiplied by the weight of
a cubic inch of water equal to .579 of an ounce avoir-
dupoife, gives 61.26 ounces for the weight of as much
water as is contained in the head upon one inch in
depth : and by further calculations derived from the
machinery made ufe of, he computes that 264.7 pounds
of water defcend in a minute through the fpace of 15
inches. The power of the water, therefore, to pro¬
duce mechanical effefts in this cafe will be 264;7Xi5,
or 3970. From the refult of the experiment, how¬
ever, it appeared that a vaft quantity of the power
was loft ; the effeft being only to raife 9.375 pounds
to the height of 135 inches; fo that the power was
to the effeft as 3970 109.375X135 = 1266, or as 10
to 3.18.
This, according to our author, muft be confidered
as the greateft Angle effeft of water upon an under-
(hot-wheel, where the water defcends from an height
of 15 inches ; but as the force of the current is not by
any means exhaufted, we muft confider the true pro¬
portion betwixt the power and effeft to be that be¬
twixt the quantity of water already mentioned and
the fum of all the effefts producible from it. This re¬
mainder of power, it is plain, muft be equal to that
of the velocity of the wheel itfelf multiplied into the
weight of the water. In the prefent experiment, the
circumference of the wheel moved with the velocity of
3.123 feet in a fecond, which anfwers to a head of
1.82 inches (a) ; and this height being multiplied by
264.7, the quantity of water expended in a minute
gives 481 for the power of the water after it has paf-
fed the wheel; and hence the true proportion betwixt
the power and the eft'eft will be as 3849 to 1266 ; or
as 11 to 4.
As the wheel reyolved 86 times in a minute, the
velocity of the water muft be equal to 86 circumfe¬
rences of the wheelr; which, according to the dimen-
fions of the apparatus ufed by Mr Smeaton, was ad
86 to 30, or as 20 to 7.—The greateft load with
which the wheel would move was 9 lb. 6 oz. ; and by
12 lb. it was entirely flopped. Whence our author con-
5 D 2 eludes.
(a) Thefe calculations are founded upon the known maxim in hydroftatics, that the velocity of fpouting water
is nearly the fame with that which an heavy body would acquire by falling from an height equal to that of the
riftrvoir, and is proved by the rifing of.jets nearly to the height of their refervoirs.
M E C H A
eludes, that the impulfe of the water is more than
'' than double of what it ought to be according to the¬
ory : but this he accounts for by obferving, that in his
experiment the wheel was placed not in an open river,
where the natural current, after it has communicated
its impulfe to the float, has room on all fides to efcape,
as the theory fuppofes, but in a conduit, to which
the float being adapted, the water cannot ©therwife
efcape than by moving along with the wheel. It is
obfervable, that a wheel working in this manner, as
foon as the water meets the float, receiving a fudden
check, it rifes up againft the float like a wave againft
a fixed objeft, infomuch that when the fheet of water
is not a quarter of an inch thick before the float, yet
this fheet will ad upon the whole furface of a float
whofe height is three inches : and confequently, was
the float no higher than the thicknefs of the fheet of
water, as the theory alfo fuppofes, a great part of the
force would have been loll by the water dafhing over
the float.
Mr Smeaton next proceeds to give tables of the ve¬
locities of wheels with different heights‘of water; and
from the whole deduces the following conclufions.
X. The virtual; or effective head, being the fame,
the effeft wifi be nearly as the quantity of water ex¬
pended.
2. The expence of water being the fame, the effed
will be nearly as'the height of the virtual or effedive
head.
3. The quantity of water expended being the fame,
the effed is nearly as the fquare of the velocity.
4. The aperture being the fame, the effed will be
nearly as the cube of the velocity of the water. Hence,
if water paffes out of an aperture in the fame fedion,
but with different velocities, the expence will be pro¬
portional to the velocity; and therefore, if the ex¬
pence be not proportional to the velocity, the fedion
of the water is not the fame. -
5. The virtual head, or that from which we are to
calculate the power, bears no proportion to the head
water; but when the aperture is larger, or the velo¬
city of the water lefs, they approach nearer to
N I C S.
Sea.V.
beft advantage, can be affigned by knowing the ef¬
fed that it ought to produce, and the velocity it ought *
to have in producing it, the exad knowledge of the
greateft load it will bear is of the leafl confequence in
pradice.
Mr Smeaton, after having finifhed his experiments
bn the underfhot mills, reduced the number of floats,
which were originally 24, to 12 ; which caufed a di¬
minution in the effed, by reafon that a greater quan¬
tity of water efcaped between the floats and the floor
than before ; but on adapting to it a circular fwCep of
fuch a length, that one float entered into the curve
before the other left it, the effed came fo near that
of the former, as not to give any hopes of advancing
it by increafing the number of floats beyond 24 in this
particular wheel.
Our author next proceeds to examine the power of
water when ading by its own gravity in turning an
overfhot wheel: “In reafoning without experiment
(fays he,) one might be led to imagine, that however
different the mode of application is, yet that, whene¬
ver the fame quantity of water defeends through
the fame perpendicular fpace, the natural effedive
power would be equal, fuppofing the machinery free
from fridion, equally calculated to receive the full ef¬
fed ©f the power, and to make the moft of it: for
if we fuppofe the height of a column of water to be
30 inches, and refting upon a bafe or aperture of one
inch fquare, every cubic inch of water that departs
therefrom will acquire the fame velocity or momen¬
tum from the uniform preffure of 30 cubic inches a-
bove it, that one cubic inch let fall from the top will
acquire in falling down to the level of the aperture ;
one would therefore fuppofe that a cubic inch of wa¬
ter let fall through a fpace of 30 inches, and there im¬
pinging upon another body, would be capable of pro¬
ducing an equal effed by collifion, as if the fame cu¬
bic inch had defeended through the fame fpace with
a flower motion, and produced its effeds gradually.
But however conclufive this reafoning may feem, it
will appear in the courfe of the following dedudions,
that the effed of the gravity of defeending bodies ii
incidence ; and confequently, in the large openings of very different from the effed of the ftroke of fuch as
mills and fluices, where great quantities of water are
difeharged from moderate heads, the head of water,
and virtual head determined from the velocity, will
nearly agree, which is alfo confirmed by experience.
6. The moil general proportion betwixt the power
and effedis that of 10 to 3 ; the extremes 10 to 3.2,
and 10 to 2.8. But as it is obfervable, that where
the power is greateft, the fecond term of the ratio is
greateft alfo; whence we may allow the proportion
fubfifting in great works to be as three to one.
7. The proportion of velocity between the water
and wheel is in. general about. 5 to 2.
8. There is no certain ratio between the load that
the wheel will carry at its maximum, and what will
totally flop it; though the proportions are contained
within the limits of. 2.0 tp 19, and 2.0 to 15 ; but as
the effed approaches neareft to. the ratio of 20 to 15,
or of 4 to 3 when the power is greateft either by in-
ereafe of velocity or quantity of water, this feems to
be the moft applicable to large works : but as the load
that a wheel ought to have, in order to work to the
are non-elaftic, though generated by an equal mecha¬
nical power.”
Having made fuch alterations in his machinery as
were neceffary for overlhot wheels, our author next
gives a table of experiments with the apparatus fo al¬
tered. In thefe the head was 6 fix inches, and the
height of the wheel 24 inches; fo that the whole de-
feent was 30 inches : the quantity of water expended
in a minute was pfi-f- pounds ; which multiplied by 30
inches, gives the power =2900: anff after making
the proper calculations, the effed was computed at.
1914 ; whence the ratio of the power to it comes to,
be nearly as 3 to 2. If, however, we compute the
power from the height of tfte wheel-only, the power
will be to the effed nearly as c to 4.
From another fet of experiments the following con¬
clufions were deduced.
1. The effedive power of the water muft be reck¬
oned upon the whole defeent; becaufe it muft; be rai¬
led to that height in order to be able to produce the
fame effed a fecond time. The ratios between the
powers
ea.V. M E C H
Mills, powers fo eftfmated and the effects at a maximum, dif-
—~v fer nearly from 4 to 3, and from 4 to 2. Where the
heads of water and quantities of it expended are the
leaft, the proportion is nearly from 4 to 3 ; but where
the heads and quantities are greateft, it comes' nearer
to that of 4 to 2 ; fo that by a medium of the whole
the ratio is nearly as 3 to 2. Hence it appears, that
the effedt of overlhot wheels is nearly double to that
of underlhot ones ; the confequence of which is, that
non-elaftic bodies, when afting by their impulfe or col-
lifion, communicate only a part of their original im¬
pulfe, the remainder being fpent in changing their
figure in confequence of _the ftroke. The ultimate
conclufion is, that the effefts as well as the powers arc
as the quantities of water and perpendicular heights
multiplied together refpedtively.
2. By increafing the head, it does not appear that
the effedts are at all augmented in proportion ; for
by raifing it from 3 to 11 inches, the effedt was
augmented by kfs than one-feventh of the increafe of
' perpendicular height. Hence it follows, that the
higher the wheel is in proportion to the whole defcent,
the greater will be the effedt; becaufe it depends lefs
upon the impulfe of the head, and more upon the gra¬
vity of the water in the buckets: and if we confider
how obliquely the water iffuing from the head muft
ftrike the buckets,, we ihallnot be at alofs to account
for the little advantage that arifes from the impulfe
thereof, and Ihall immediately fee of how little confe¬
quence this is to the effect of an overfhot wheel. This,
however, as well as other things, muft be fubjedt to li¬
mitation ; for it is neceflary that the velocity of the
water fiiould be fomewhat greater than the wheel,
otherwife the latter will not only be retarded by the
ftriking of the buckets againft the water, but fomeof
the power wilt be loft by* the dafhing of the water over
the jjuckets.
3. To determine the velocity which the circumfe¬
rence of the wheel ought to have in order to produce
the greateft effedt, Mr Smeaton obferves, that the
more flowly any body defcends by the force of gravity
when adting upon any piece of machinery, the more
of that force, will be fpent upon it, and confequently
the effedt will be the greater. If a ftream of water
falls into the bucket of an overfhot wheel, it will be
there retained till the wheel difeharges it by moving
round ; and of confequence, the flower the wheel
moves, the more water it will receive ; fo that what
is loft in velocity is gained by the greater preffure of
•water upon the buckets. From the experiments,
however, it appears, that when the wheel made about
20 turns in a minute the effedt was greateft ; when it
made only 18^ thd motion was irregular-j and when
loaded fo as not to admit its turning 18 times, the
wheel was overpoweredwith the load. When it made
30 turns, the power was diminifhed by about Vs-th,
and when the number of turns was increafed to 40, it
was diminifhed by one-fourth. Hence we fee, that
in pradtice the velocity of the wheel fhould not be di¬
minifhed farther than what will procure fame folid ad¬
vantage in point of power; becaufe, ceteris paribus, the
buckets muft be larger as the motion is flower ; and
the wheel being more loaded with water, the ftrefs
will be proportionably increafed upon every part of
the work. The belt velocity for pra&ice therefore
A N I C S.
will be that when the wheel made 30 turns in a mi¬
nute, which is little more than three feet in a fecond.
This velocity is applicable to the higheft overfhot
wheels as well as the loweft. Experience however de¬
termines, that high wheels may deviate further from this
rule before they will lofe their power, by a given ali¬
quot part of the whole, than low ones can be permit¬
ted to do ; for a wheel of 24 feet high may move at
the rate of 6 feet per fecond ; .while our author has
feen one of 33 feet high move very fteadily and well
with a velocity of little more than two feet. The rea-
fon of this fuperior velocity in the 24 feet wheel, may-
probably be owing to the fmall proportion that the
head requifite to give the proper velocity to the wheel
bears to the whole height.
4. The maximum load for an overfhot wheel is that
which reduces the circumference of the wheel to its
proper velocity ; which is known by dividing the effedt
it ought to produce in a given time by the fpace in¬
tended to be deferibed by the circumference of the
wheel in the fame time : the quotient will be the re-
fiftance overcome at the circumference of the wheel,
and is equal to the load required, including the fridtion
and refiftance of the machinery.
5. The greateft velocity that an overfhot wheel is.
capable -of, depends jointly upon the diameter or height
of the wheel and the velocity of falling bodies ; for it
is plain that the velocity of the circumference can ne¬
ver be greater than to deferibe a femi-circumference,-
while a body let fall from the top deferibes the dia¬
meter, nor even quite fo great; as the difterence in
point of time muft always be in favour of that which
falls through the diameter. Thus, fuppofing the dia¬
meter of the wheel to be 16 feet and an inch in dia¬
meter, an heavy body would fall through this fpace in<
one fecond; but fuch a wheel could never arrive at
this velocity, or make one turn in two feconds, nor
could an overfhot wheel ever come near it; becaufer
after it has acquired a certain velocity, great part of.
the water is prevented from entering the buckets, and
part is thrown out again by the centrifugal force : and
as thefe oircumftances have a confiderahle dependence
upon the form of the buckets, it is impofiible to lay
down any general rule for the velocity of this kind of
wheels,
6. Though in theory we may fuppofe a.wheel to be
made capable of overcoming any refiftanee whatever,
yet as in pra&ice it is neceffary to make the wheel:
and buckets of fome certain and determinate fize, we
always find that the wheel will be flopped by fuch a
weight as is equal to the effort of the water in all the-
buckets of a femi-circumference put together. This
may be determined from the ftru£ture of the buckets
themfelves ; but in pra&ice, an overfhot wheel becomes*
unferviceable long before this time ; for when it meets*,
with fuch an obftacle as diminifhes its velocity to a
certain degree, its motion becomes irregular; but this
never happens till the velocity of the circumference is
lefs than the two feet per fecond, when the refiftance
is equable.
7. From the above obfervations, we may eafily de¬
duce the force of water upon breaft-wheels, &c. But
in general, all kinds of wheels where the water cannot '
defeend through a given fpace unlefs the wheel moves •
with it, are to be confidered as overfhot wheels; and
thofe
j66
Mills.
M
E C H A N I G S. Sea.V.
fhock of the water, wheel of an underfhot water-mill is capable of doing Mills. '
Difpute
Newton'
dodtrine of
motion co1?-
Sdered.
tbofe which receive the impulfe oi
whether in an horizontal, oblique, or perpendicular di- quadruple work when the velocity of the water is
reftion, are to be confidered as underfliots. Hence a doubled, inftead of double work only : “ For (fays he)
wheel in whiclfrtlie water ftrikes at a certain, point be- the adjutage being the fame, we find, that as the wa*
low the furface of the head, and after that d^fcends in ter’s velocity is double, there are twice the number of
the arch of a circle, p re fling by its gravity upon the particles that iffue out, and therefore the ladle-board
wheel, the effeft of fuch a wheel will be equal to that is ftruck by twice the matter ; which matter moving
of an underfhot whofe head is equal to the difference with twice the velocity that it had in the firft cafe,
of level between the furface of the water in the refer- the whole effeft mull be quadruple, though the inftan-
voir and the paint where it ftrikes the wheel, added to taneous ftroke of each particle is increafed only in a
that of an overfhot, whofe height is equal to the diffe- Ample proportion of the velocity." In another place,
rence of level between the point where it ftrikes the the fame author tells us, that though “ the know-
wheel and the level of the tail-water. ledge of the foregoing particulars is abfolutely necef-
In the 66th volume of the Tranfa&ions, our author fary for fetting an underfhot wheel to work, yet the
cqnfiders fome of the caufes which have produced dif- advantage to be reaped from it would be ftill guefs»
agreements and difputes among mathematicians upon work ; and we fliould be at a lofs to find out the ut*
this fubjedt. He obferves, that foon after Sir Ifaac moft that it could perform, had it not been for an in-
Newton had given his definition, “ that the quan- genious propofition of that excellent mechanic M. Pa*
tity of motion is the meafure of the fame, arifing from rent of the Royal Academy of Sciences, who has
the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly," it fliowed, that an underfhot wheel can do the moft work
was controverted by his cotemporary philofophers. when its velocity is equal to the third part of that of
They maintained, that the meafure of the quantity of the water; becaufe then two-thirds of the water is
motion fhould be eftimated by taking the quantity of employed in driving the wheel, with a force propor-
matter and the fquare of the velocity conjointly. On tionable to the fquare of the velocity. By multiply-
this fubjeft he remarks, that from equal impelling ing the furface of the adjutage or opening by the
powers a&ing for equal intervals of time, equal aug- height of the water, we fhall have the column of water
mentations of velocity are acquired by given bodies that moves the wheel. The wheel thus moved will
when they are not refilled by a medium. Thus a fuftain on the oppofite fide only four-ninths of that
body defcending one fecond by the force of gravity, weight which will keep it in equilibrio; but what it
paffes through a fpace of 16 feet and an inch; but at can move with the velocity it has, is only one-third of
the end of that time it has acquired a velocity of 32 the equilibrium." This conclufion is likewife adopted
feet 2 inches in a fecond ; at the end of two feconds, by Mr Maclaurin.
it has acquired one that would carry it through 64 Underihot wheels had been greatly preferred by M. gron^ouS::
;feet 4 inches in a fecond. If, therefore, in confe- Belidor to thofe of any other conftrudion. He hadmiftakesof
quence of this equal increafe of velocity, we define even concluded, that water applied in this way will do Be’.idor i
this to be a double quantity of motion generated in a more than fix times the work of an over/hot wheel; an<* “there.)
given time in a certain quantity of matter, we come while Dr Defaguliers, in overthrowing Belidar’s pro-
near to Sir Ifaac’s definition : but in trying experi- pofition, determined that an bverfhot wheel would do
ments upon the effedls of bodies, it appears, that when 10 times the work of an undeffliot wheel with an
a body is put in motion by whatever caufe, the im- equal quantity of water. Between thefe two cele-
prefiion it will make upon an unifonnly refifting me- brated authors, therefore, there is a difference of no lefs
dium, or upon uniformly yielding fubftances,. will be than 60 to 1.
as the mafs of matter of the moving body multiplied In confequence of fuch monftrous difagreement,
by the fquare of its velocity. The queftion therefore Mr Smeaton began the experiments of which we have
properly is, whether thofe terms, the quantity of motion, already given an account. From them, befides the
the momenta, or forces of bodies in motion, are to be pofitions already deduced, it appears, that where the
efteemed equal, double, or triple, when they have been velocity of water is double, the adjutage or aper-
generated by an equable impulfe acting for an equal, ture of the fluice remaining the fame, the effeift is
double, or triple time ? or that it fhould be meafured eight times; that is, not as the fquare, but as the cube
by the effedls being equal, double, or triple, in over- of the velocity. In the other conclufion of Defagu-
coming refiftances before a body in motion can be liers and Maclaurin, the error was no lefs; for from
flopped ? For according to the meaning we put upon thence it would follow, that by means of the wheel
thefe words, the momenta of eqilal bodies will be as only x4Tths of the water expended would be railed back
the velocities or {quart's of the velocities of the mo- again to ihe height of the refervoir from which it
ving bodies. defcended, exclufive of the fridiion, which would ftill
Though by a proper attention to the terms em- dimini fh the quantity s but from Mr Smeaton’s expe-
ployed, however, we will find both thefe dodlrines to riments it appears, that in fome cafes upwards of one-
be true ; it is certain that fome of the moft celebrated fourth had been raifed. In large works the effedls
writers upon mechanics have fallen into errors by ne- had been ftill greater, approaching in an underfhot
glefting to attend to the meaning of the terms they wheel to one half, and in an overfhot one to the
make ufe of. Defaguliers, for inftance, after having whole ; which would be the limit, if it were poffible, to
been at pains to fhow that the difpute, which in his remove the fridlion and refiftance of the air. The ve-
time had fubfifted for 50 years, was a difpute locity of the wheel alfo, which, according to the con-
merely about words, tells us, that both opinions may clufions of M. Parent and Dr Defaguliers, amounted
be eafily reconciled in the following cafe, viz. that the to no more than one-third of the velocity of the wa-
MECHANICS.
767
ter, varies, according to Mr Smeaton, between one-
third and one-half. But in all great works the maxi¬
mum lieth much nearer to one-half than a third ; the
former appearing to be the true maximum, if all fric¬
tion, refiftance of the air, and fcattering of water, could
be avoided.
To make thefe matters plain to mechanics, and to
prevent them from running into praftical errors in con-
(equence of a fallacious theory, Mr Smeaton, in the
year 1759, inftituted another fet of experiments; the
immediate objedt of which was, to determine what
proportion or quantity of mechanical power is ex¬
pended in giving the fame body different degrees of
velocity. Having Conftru&ed a proper apparatus for
the purpofe, and with it made a number of experi¬
ments, he concludes, “ that time, properly fpeaking,
has nothing to do with the produftion of mechanical
effedts otherwife than as by equally flowing it becomes
a common meafure ; fo that whatever mechanical effedt
is found to be produced in a given time, the uniform
continuance of the adtion of the fame mechanical
power will, in a double time, produce twice that ef-
fedt. A mechanical power, therefore, properly fpeak¬
ing, is meafured by the whole of its mechanical effedts
produced, whether that effedl be produced in a great¬
er or leffer time : thus, having treafured up 1000 tuns
of water, which I can let out upon the overlhot wheel
of a mill, and defcending through a perpendicular of
20 feet; this power, applied in a proper manner, will
grind a certain quantity of corn in an hour: but fup-
pofing the mill to be capable of receiving a greater
impulfe with as great advantage as a leffer; then, if the
corn be let out twice as faft, the fame quantity of
water will be ground in half an hour, the whole of
the water being likewife expended in that time.
What time has therefore to do in the cafe is this :■ let
the rate of doing the bufinefs or producing the effedt
be what it will; if this rate is uniform, when I have
found by experiment what is done in a given time,
then, proceeding at the fame rate, twice the effedl will
be produced in twice the time, on fuppofition that I
have a fupply of mechanic power to go on with.
Thus, 1000 tons of water ddfcending through 20 feet
perpendicular, being, as has been fhown, a given me¬
chanic power, let it be expended at what rate it will;
if, when this is expended, we are to wait another hour
till an equal quantity can be procured, then we can
only expend 12 fuch quantities in 24 hours. But if,
while the thoufand tons of water are expending in one
hour, the fame quantity is renewed, we can then ex¬
pend 24 fuch in the 24 hours, or go on without in-
temiflion. The produdl or effedl will then be in pre¬
portion to time; which is the common meafure ; but
the quantity of mechanic power ariiing from the flow
of the two rivers, compared by taking an equal por¬
tion of time, is double in the one to therbther ; though
each has a mill that, when going, will grind an equal
quantity of corn in an hour.”
Mr Fergufon, in his diredlions to mill-wrights, has1
adopted the maxim which Mr Smeaton condemns as
erroneous, viz. that when the velocity of the wheel is
but one-third of that of the water, it then adls to the
greatefl. advantage. He adds, that the milftone ought
to make about 60 turns in a minute; for when it
makes only 40 or 50 turns it grinds too flowly; and
when more than 70, it heats the meal too much,
and cuts the bran fo fmall, that a part of it mixes with
the meal and cannot be feparated from it by any means.
The utmoft perfedlion of mill-work, therefore, accord¬
ing to this author, lies in making the train fo that
the mill-ftone fliall make about 60 turns in a minute,
when the wheel moves with one-third of the velocity
of the water. To accomplifh this he lays down the
following rules. 1. Meafure the perpendicular height
of the fall of water above the middle of the aperture,
where it is let out to adl by impulfe againft; the float-
boards on the lower fide of the underIhot wheel. 2.
Multiply this conftant number 64.2882 by the height
of the fall in feet, and extradl the fquare-root of the
produdl, which will give the number of feet that the
water moves in a fecond. 3. The velocity of the floats
of the wheel is equal to one-third of the velocity of the
water juft now found. 4. Divide the circumference
of the wheel by the velocity of its floats, and the quo-
. tient will be the number of feconds in one turn of the
great water-wheel, on whofe axis the cog-wheel that
turns the trundle is fixed. 5. Divide 60 by the num¬
ber of feconds in a turn of the water-wheel, and the
quotient will be the number of turns it makes in a
minute. 6. By this number of turns divide 60, the
number of times that a mill-ftone ought to have in a
minute ; the quotient is the number of turns that the
mill-ftone ought to make for every one of the large
wheel. 7. Then as the number of turns required of
the mill-ftone in a minute is to the number of turns
of the cog-wheel in a minute; fo muft the number of
cogs in the wheel be to the number of ftaves in the
trundle on the axis of the mill-ftone, in the neareft
whole number that can be found.
On thefe principles Mr Fergufon has conftrufted
the following table, for the fake of fuch as have occa-
fion to conftrudl mills, and are not willing to take the
trouble of particular calculations.
MECHANICS.
The Mill-wright’s Table.
Sea. V.
Mills. '
: n Velocity of
^ the fall
P | of water
■ Ti ' Per fe-
cond.
r6 04
93
19 64
68
.24 05
25 35
26 59
77
28 91
30 00
31 05
32 07
33 06
3+ C2
34 95
35 86
Velocity of
the wheel
per fe-
cond.
8 45
8 86
Revolutions
of the
wheel per
minute.
10 22
10 60
10 99
11 34
70
12 02
12 37
12 68
Revolution
of the
millftone
for one of
the wheel
Cogs in the
wheel, and
ftaves in
the trundle.
42 40
30 00
18 92
17 28
16 00
14 96
12 76
12 22
11 74
11 32
92
10 58
254
210
196
190
170
156
J44
134
140 10
134 10
128 10
122 10
I 18 IQ
II 2 IO
I06 IO
102 IO
IOO 10
98 IO
Revolutions
of the mill¬
ftone per
minute by
thefe ftaves
and cogs.
119 84
120 00
120 28
[9 74
119 68
120 20
120 00
119 34
19 i4
120 18
120 32
119 80
120 36
7*
120 96
120 20
1J9 34
120 20
119 18
Iimfon’s For the practical conflrudhion of water-mills, Mr
pradtical Imifon hath laid down the following rules,
thereon- 1 * ^ *int^ t^ie veloc‘ty or force of any moderate
ftruftion ftream of water ; let it be obftru&ed by a dam in fuch
ef mills, a manner as to force the whole ftream into a fpout by
which it may be conveyed into a large veflel or refer-
voir. Meafure then the quantity of water which falls
isito the refervoir in one fecond or minute ; and multi¬
plying by the number of feconds or minutes in an hour,
we have the whole force of the ftream of water/er hour.
In ftreams which are too large to be meafured in thi?
way, the velocity is determined (though we muft own
in a vague manner) by that of ftraw or other light
body floating down it; and calculations may be made
accordingly.
Mr Imifon differs very materially from Mr Fergu-
fon in the number of revolutions which a mill-ftone
ought to make in a minute ; the latter, as has been al¬
ready mentioned, being of opinion, that 60 revolutions
of a mill-ftone in a minute are fufficient, while Mr
Imifon requires 120; though he agrees with him that
the velocity of the wheel fhould be Only one-third of
that of the water. The mill-ftone, according to Mr
N° 200.
.Fergufon, ought to be five feet in diameter; but Mf
Imifon makes it only four feet and an half.
To conftrudl a mill by this table, find the height of
the fall of water in the firft column, and againft that
height in the fixth column you have the number of
cogs in the wheel and ftaves in tlie trundle for caufing
the millftone 4 feet 6 inches diameter to make about
120 revolutions in a minute, as near as pofiible, when
the wheel goes with one-third part of the velocity of
the water. And it appears by the 7th column, that
the number of cogs in the wheel and ftaves in the
trundle are fo near the truth for the required'purpofe,
that the leaft number of revolutions of the mill-ftone
in a minute is 118, and the greateft number never ex¬
ceeds 121 ; which, according to our author, is the ve¬
locity of the beft mills he had feen.
With regard to the mere mechanical part, our author
obferves, that an overlhot wheel a&s with greater
power than a brejtft or underlhot wheel; fo that where
there is a confiderable defeent, and only a fmall quan¬
tity of water, the overftiot wheel ought always to be
made ufe of. Where the water runs only upon a little
declivity, it can aft but flowly upon the under part of
3 t^ie
•a.V. M E C H
Mills, the wheel; in which cafe, the motion of the wheel will
‘“V""' be very flow : the float-boards therefore ought to be
very long, though not high, that a large body of water
may aft upon them ; fo that what is wanting in velo¬
city may be made up in power: in which cafe, the
cog wheel may have a greater number of cogs in pro¬
portion to the ftaves of the trundle, in order to give
the mill-ftone a fufficient degree of velocity.
For the conftru&ion of the different parts of mills,
Mr Imifon gives the following general directions:
The method for Jetting out a [pur■’wheel and wallo’wer.
—Draw the pitch lines Ax, Bi, A2, 2B; then divide
• 96* them into the number of teeth or cogs required, as
abc.
Divide one of thofe diftances, as be, into feven equal
parts, as 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, y. three parts allow for the
thicknefs of the cogs, as 1,2, 3, in the cog a, and four
for the thicknefs of the ftave, of the wallower (one
reafon for allowing three parts for the cog and fourjfor
the ftave, is, the wallower is in general of lefs diameter
than the wheel, therefore fubjeft to more wear in pro¬
portion of the number of cogs to the number of ftaves;
but if there is the fame number of ftaves as of cogs,
they may be of equal thicknefs), as 1, 2, 3, 4, in the
ftave m, fig. 97. the height of the cog is equal to four
parts; then divide its height into five equal parts,
as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, in the cog C; allow three for
the bottom to the pitch line of the cog; the other
two parts for epicycloid, fo as to fit and bear on the
ftave equally. The m^l-wrights in general put the
point of a pair of compafles in the dot 3, of the cog
a, and ftrike the line de; then remove the point of the
compafies to the point d, and ftrike the curve line 3/,
which they account near enough the figure of the epi¬
cycloid.
The method for a face-wheel is thus: Divide the
pitch line AB into the number of cogs intended, as
abc; divide the diftance be into feven equal parts ;
three of thofe parts allow for the thicknefs of the
cogs, as 1, 2, 3, in the cog a, four for the height and
four for the width, as de, and four for the thicknefs of
' the ftave m; draw a line through the centre of the
cog, as the line Al at S: and on the point 5 deferibe
the line de; remove the compafles to the point A, and
draw the line fg, which forms .the (hape of the cog ;
then ftiape the cog on the fides to a cycloid, as dejfg.
But this method of fetting out the (hape of a cog
is variable, according to the cycloid in different dia¬
meters of wheels.
In common fpur-nuts, divide the pitch line A into
twice as many equal parts as you intend teeth, as a, b, e,
d, e, fig. 98.,• with a pair of compaffes opened to half
the diftance of any of thofe divifions, from the points
ai, r3, ej, draw the femicircles a, c, and e, which will
form the ends of the teeth. From the points 2, 4,
and 6, draw the femicircles ghi, which will form the
hollow curves'for the (paces; but if the ends of the
teeth were epicycloids, inftead of femicircles, they
would ad much better.
The principle of level geer,—confifts in two cones,
rolling on the furface of each other, as the cone A and
B revolving on their centres ab, ac; if their bafes are
equal, they will perform their revolutions in one and
the fame time, or any other two points equally diftant
from the centre a, as di, dz, d$. See. will revolve in
Vol. X. Part II.
A N I C S, 7<S9
the fame time as/r,/2,/3, See. In the like manner, Mills.
if the cones afde be twice the diameters at the bafe  
de, as the cones afe are; then if they turn about theircclxxkix.
centres, when the cone afd has made one revolution, OCXO.
the cone ade will have made but half a revolution; orfit?- ,0O*-‘
when afd has made two revolutions, ade will have made t01'
but one, and every part equally diftant from the centre
a, as/x,/2,/3, &c- W'U have made two revolutions
to ex, e2, e3, Sec. and if the cones were fluted, or had
teeth cut in them, diverging from the centre a to the
bafes dc, ef> they would then become bevel geer. The
teeth at the point of the cone being fmall and of little
ufe, may be cut off at E and F, figs. 102,103. as feen by cr2ite
fig.104. where the upright (haft with the bevel wheel
cd, turns the bevel wheel ef with its (haft bg, and the
teeth work freely into each other, as ab, fig. 105. The
teeth may be made of any dimenfion, according to the
ftrength required; and this method will enable them
to overcome a much greater refiftance, and work
fmoother than a face wheel and wallower of the com¬
mon form can poffibly do; befides, it is of great ufe
to convey a motion in any diredtion, or to any part of
a building, with the leaft trouble and fridtion.
The method of conveying motion in any direction,
and proportioning or (haping the wheels thereto, is as
follows : let the line ab reprefent a (haft coming from Fig-106.
a wheel; draw the line ed to interfedl the line ab, in
the diredtion that the motion to be conveyed is in¬
tended, which will now reprefent a (haft to the intend¬
ed motion.
Again, fuppofe the (haft ed is to revolve three times,
whilft the (haft ab revolves once, draw the parallel line
«’» at any diftance not too great, fuppofe one foot by
a fcale; then draw the parallel line kh at three feet
diftance, after which draw the dotted line wX, through
the interfedtion of the (hafts ab and ed, and likewife
through the interfedlion of the parallel lines ii and kk,
in the points X andy; which will be the pitch line of
the two bevel wheels, or the line where the teeth of
the two wheels adt on each other, as may be feen
fig. 107. where the motion may be conveyed in any di¬
redtion.
The univerfal joint, as reprefented fig. 108. may be
applied to communicate motion inftead of bevel geer,
w here the fpeed is to be continued the fame, and wher*:
the angle does not exceed 30 or 40 degrees, and the
•equality of motion is not regarded ; for as it recedes
from a right line, its motion becomes more irregular.
This joint may be conftrudted by a crofs, as reprefent¬
ed in the figure; or with four pins faftened at right
angles upon the circumference of a hoop or folid ball.
It is of great ufe in cotton-mills, where the tumbling
(hafts are continued to a great diftance from the mo¬
ving powder. But by applying this joint, the (hafts
may be cut into convenient lengths, by which it will
be enabled to overcome greater refiftance.
To deferibe the cycloid and epicycloid, of ufe in Jhaping
the teeth of wheels, Sec.—If a point or pencil a on the pjg. IOp,
circumference of the circle B proceeds along the plane
aC in a right line, and at the fame time revolves
round its centre, it will deferibe a cycloid.
And if the generating circle D moves along the Fi£,1IQ*
circumference of another circle E, and at the fame
time turns round its centre, , the point of contadl will
deferibe an epicycloid.
5E
In
77°
Mill?.
MECHANICS. Seft.V,
In the conftru&ioo of wind-mills, Mr Smeaton has height, the reft as ufual with cloth. The angles a- Mills-
been at no lefs pains to explain the principles than in bovc mentioned are likewife the moft proper for en-
thofe which go by water. For this purpofe he con-
iftru&ed a machine, of which a particular defcription is
jriven in the yift volume of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions. The general principle of this was, that by means
of a determinate weight it carried round an axis with
an horizontal arm, upon which were four fmall move-
able fails. Thus the fails met with a cotiftant and
equable blaft of air; and as they moved round, a firing
with a weight affixed to it was wound about their
axis, and thus ffiowed what kind of fize or conftrudfion
of fails anfwered the purpofe beft.
With this machine a great number of experiments
were made; the refults of which were as follow.
i; The fails fet at the angle with the axis, propofed
as the beft by M. Parent and other geometricians, viz.
55°, was found to be the worft proportion of any that
was tried.
2. When the angle of the fails with the axis was
increafed from 720 to 750, the power was augmented
in the proportion of 31 to 45; and this is the angle
moft commonly in ufe when the fails are planes.
3. Were nothing more requifite than to caufe the
fails acquire a certain degree of velocity by the wind,
the pofition recommended by M. Parent would be the
beft. But if the fails are intended with given dimen-
fions, to produce the greateft effefts poffible in a given
time, we muft, if planes are made ufe of, confine our
angle within the limits of 72 and 75 degrees.
4. The variation of a degree or two, when the
angle is near the beft, is but of little confequence.
5. When the wind falls upon concave fails, it is an
advantage to the power of the whole, though each part
feparately taken fhould not be difpofed of to the beft
advantage.
6. From feveral experiments on a large fcale, Mr
Smeaton has found the following angles to anfwer as
well as any. The radius is fuppofed to be divided in¬
to fix parts; and |th, reckoning from the centre, is
called 1, the extremity being denoted 6.
Angle with
the plane of
N'
Angle with
that axis.
72
72
74
77t
83
motion.
180
l9
18 middle
16
124
7 extremity.
7. Having thus obtained the beft method of weather*
ing the fails, i. e. the moft advantageous manner in
which they can be placed, our author’s next care was
to try what advantage could be derived from an in-
creafe of furface upon the fame radius.' The. refult
was, that a broader fail requires a large angle ; and
when the fail is broader at the extremity than near
the centre, the figure is more advantageous than that
of a parallelogram. The figure and proportion of en¬
larged fails, which our author determines to be moft
advantageous on a large fcale, is that where the ex¬
treme bar is one-third of the radius or whip (as the
workmen call it), and is divided by the whip in the
proportion of 3 to 5. The triangular or loading fail
is covered with board from the point downward of its
larged fails ; it being found in pra&ice, that the fails
ftiould rather be too little than too much expofed to
the diredl adtion of the wind.
Some have imagined, that the more fail the greater
would be the power of the windmill, and have there¬
fore propofed to fill up the whole area; and by making
each fail a fedlor of an ellipfis, according to M. Parent’s
method, to intercept the whole cylinder of wind, in
order to produce the greateft effedl poffible. From
our author’s experiments, however, it appeared, that
when the furface of all the fails exceeded feven-eighths
of the area, the effeft was rather diminifhed than aug¬
mented. Hence he concludes, that when the whole
cylinder of wind is intercepted, it cannot then produce
the greateft effedt for want of proper interftices to
efcape.
“ It is certainly defirable (fays Mr Smeaton), that
the fails of windmills fhould be as fhort as poffible %
but it is equally defirable, that the quantity of cloth
fhould be the leaf! that may be, to avoid damage by
hidden fqualls of wind. The beft ftrudture, therefore,
for large mills, is that where the quantity of cloth is
the greateft in a given circle that can be : on this
condition, that the effedt holds out in proportion to
the quantity of cloth ; for otherwife the effedt can be
augmented in a given degree by a lefler increafe of
cloth upon a larger radius, than would be required if
the cloth was increafed upon the fame radius.
8. The ratios between the velocities of windmill fails
unloaded, and when loaded to their maximum, turned
©ut very different in different experiments, but the
moft common proportion was as 3 to 2. In general it
happened, that where the power was greateft, whether
by an enlargement of the furface of the fails, or an in¬
creafed velocity of the wind, the fecond term of the
ratio was diminifhed.
9. The ratios between the leaftload that would flop
the fails and the maximum with which they would turn,
were confined betwixt that of 1040 8 and 10 to 9;
being at a medium about 10 to 8.3, and 10 to 9, or
about 6 to 5; though on the whole it appeared, that
where the angle of the fails or quantity of cloth was
greateft, the fecond term of the ratio was lefs.
10. The velocity of windmill fails, whether unload¬
ed or loaded, fo as to produce a maximum, is nearly
as the velocity of the wind, their fhape and pofition
being the fame. On this fubjedt Mr.Fergufon re¬
marks, that it is almoft incredible to think with what
velocity the tips of the fails move when a died upon by
a moderate wind. He has feveral times counted the
number of revolutions made by the fails in 10 or 15
minutes; and from the length of the arms from tip
to tip, has computed, that if an hoop of the fame fize
was to run upon plain ground with an equal velocity,
it would go upwards of 50 miles in an hour.
11. The load at the maximum is nearly, but fome-
what lefs, than as the fquare of the velocity of the
wind; the fhape and pofition of the fails being the
fame.
12. The effedts of the fame fails at a maximum are
nearly, but fomewhat lefs, than as the cubes of the
velocity of the wind.
13. The load of the fame fails at a maximum i«
nearly
|Sea.V. MECHANICS. 771
Mills, nearly as the fqnares,- and the effedt as the cubes of
[ * their number of turns in a given time,
14. When fails are loaded fo as to produce a ma¬
ximum at a given velocity, and the velocity of the
wind increafes, the load continuing the fame; then the
inereafe of effedt, when the increafe of the velocity of
!the wind is fmall, will be nearly as the fquares of
thefe velocities; but when the velocity of the wind
is double, the effedts will be nearly as 10 to 2y4;
and when the velocities compared are more than
double of that where the given load produces a maxi¬
mum, the effedts increafe nearly in a'iimple. ratio of
the velocity of the wind. Hence our author con¬
cludes, that windmills, fuch as the different fpecies for
(draining water, 8cc. lofe much of their effeft by adt-
ing againft one invariable oppolition.
15. In fails of a limilar ligure and pofition, the
number of turns in a given time will be reciprocally as
the radius or length of the fail.
16. The load at a maximum that fails of a limilar
figure and pofition will overcome, at a given diftance
from the centre of motion, will be as the cube of the
radius.
17. The effedls of fails of fimilar pofition and figure
are as the fquare of the radius. Hence augmenting
the length of the fail without augmenting the quantity
of cloth, does not increafe the power; becaufe what is
gained by the length of the lever is loft by the llownefs
of the motion. Hence aifo if the fails are increafed
in length, the breadth remaining the fame, the efifcdl
will be as the radius.
18. The velocity of the extremities of the Dutch
fails, as well as of the enlarged fails, either unloaded
or even when loaded to a maximum, is confiderably
greater than that of the wind itfelf. This appears
plainly from the obfervatians of Mr Fergufon already
related concerning the velocity of fails, and is more
fully treated of under the article Wind.
19. From many obfervations of the comparative ef-
fedls of fails of various kinds, Mr Smeaton concludes,
that the enlarged fails are fuperior to thofe of the
Dutch conftruftion.
Having thus difcuffed the fubjeft of the common
windmills with oblique vanes, our author next proceeds
to the confideration of thofe called horizontal wind¬
mills, in which it is attempted to make the wind im¬
pinge direftly upon the wheel, as in the cafe of water¬
mills. To fet the probable advantage of this fcheme
in its proper point of view, Mr Smetfton proceeds in
the following manner : “ Let AB, fig. 111. be the fec-
tion of a plane, in which let the wind blow in the di¬
rection CD, with fuch a velocity as to defcribe a gi¬
ven fpace BE, in a given time, fuppofe one fecond;
and let A B be moved parallel to itfelf in the direction
CD. Now, if the plane AB moves syith the fame
velocity as the wind,; that is, if the point B moves
through the fpace BE in the fame time that a particle
of air would move through it, it is plain, that in this
cafe there can be no preffure or impulfe of the wind
upon the plane; but if the plane moves flower than
the wind, fo that the point B may move to F, while,a
particle of air fetting out from B would reach E, then
BF will exprefs the velocity of the plane; and the re¬
lative velocity of the wind and plane would be exprefs-
ed by the line FE. Let the ratio of TE to BE be
given, fuppofe 2 to 3; let the line AB reprefent the Mms.
impulfe of the wind upon the plane AB when afting V**
with its whole velocity BE; but when a&ingwith its
relative velocity FE, let its impulfe be denoted by
fome aliquot part of AB, as for inftance then will
fths of the parallelogram AF reprefent the mechanical
power of the plane, that is, £ths ABX-fBE.
“ 2. Let IN be the feftion of a plane inclined in
fuch a manner, that the bate IK of the right angled
triangle IKN may be equal to AB; and the perpen¬
dicular NK = BE: let the plane IN be ftruck by the
w'ind in the direction LM, perpendicular to IK; then,
according to the known rules of oblique forces, the im¬
pulfe of the wind upon the plain IN, tending to move
it according to the direction LM or NK, will be de¬
noted by the bafe IK; and that part of the impulfa
tending to move it, according to the direction IK,
will be expreffed by the perpendicular NIC. Let the
plane IN be moveable in the direction of IK only ;
that is, the point I in the direction of IK, and the
point N in the direction NQjparallel thereto. Now
it is evident, that if the point I moves through the line
IK, while a particle of air, fetting forwards at the
fame time from the point N, moves through the line
NK, they will both arrive at the point K at the fame
time; and confequently there can be no preffure or
impulfe of the particle of air upon the plane IN. Now
let 10 be to IK as BF to BE; and let the plane IN
move at fuch a rate, that the point I may arrive at O,
and acquire' the pofition OQ^, in the fame time that a
particle of air would move through the fpace NK; as
OQ__is parallel to IN, by the properties of fimilar
triangles, it will cut NK in the point P in fuch a
manner, that NP will be equal to BF, and PK to FE.
Hence it appears, that the plane IN, by acquiring the
pofition 0Q\ withdraws itfelf from the aCtion of the
wind, by the fame fpace NP that the plane AB does
by acquiring the pofition FG; and confequently, from
the equality of PK to FE, the relative impulfc oftbe
wind PK upon the plane OQ^will be equal to the re¬
lative impulfe of the wind upon the plane FG : and
fince the impulfe of the wind upon AB, with the re¬
lative velocity FE, in the direction BE, is reprefented
by £ AB; the .relative impulfe of the wind upon the
plane IN in the direction NIC will in like manner be
reprefented by £ IK; and the impulfe of the wind
upon the plane IN, with the relative velocity PK , in
the direction IK will be reprefented by 4 NIC : and
confequently the mechanical power of the plane IN
in the direction IK will be reprefeuted by 4 of the pa¬
rallelogram IQj that is, ^IKX^NK: that is, from
the equality ofTlC to AB, and NK to BE, we fliall
have fIQ=4ABx4BE = |ABXxBE = f the area of
the parallelogram AF.
“ Hence we deduce this general propofition ; that
all planes, however fituated, that intercept the fame
feCtion of the wind, and having the fame relative ve¬
locity in regard to the wind, when reduced into the
fame direction, have equal powers to produce the fame
mechanical effeCts. For what is left by the obliquity
of the impulfe, is gained by the velocity of the mo¬
tion.
“ Hence it appears, that an oblique fail is under
no difadvantage in refpeCt of power, compared with a
direCt one; except what arifes from a diminution of its
5 E 2 breadth,
772 M E C H i
Mills, breadth, in regard to the fe&ion of the wind; the
breadth IN being by obliquity reduced to IK.
“ The difadvantage of horizontal windmills there¬
fore does not confift in this, that each fail, when di¬
rectly expofed to the wind, is capable of a lefs power
than an oblique one of the fame dimenfions; but that
in an horizontal windmill little more than one fail
can be aCting at once;: whereas, in the common wind¬
mill, all the four aft together; and therefore, fuppo-
fing each vane of an horizontal windmill to be of the
fame fize with that of a vertical one, it is manfeft that
the power of a vertical mill will be four times as great
as that of an horizontal one, let the number of vanes
be what we will. This difadvantage arifes from the
nature of the thing; but if we confider the further dif¬
advantage that arifes from the difficulty of getting
the fails back again again ft the winds, &c. we need
not wonder if this kind of mill is in reality found to
have not above one-eighth or ©ne-tenth of the power
of the common fort; as has appeared in fome attempts
of this kind.”
Notwithftanding what is here advanced, it feems
that the ideas of Mr Smeaton have not been very ge¬
nerally received, as premiums are ftill held forth for
the bell methods of conftrufting horizontal wind-mills.
Indeed, confidering the clearnefs and perfpicuity of
the above reafoning, it feems furprifing that public en¬
couragement fhould continue to be given to attempts
which muft certainly prove abortive. The principal
inconvenience in wind-mills is their exceffive irregula¬
rity and difficulty of being managed when the wind is
high, owing to the great extent of the fails and bulk
of the machinery. But were it poffible to make a
number of fmall wind-mills exert their power upon
one objeft, thefe would be much more eafdy managed
than one large one. Perhaps if a number of thefe
were to be employed in pumping up water to a cer¬
tain height from a lake or refervoir, fo as to produce
a conftant ftream of water to turn a common mill, it
might be more advantageous than to employ them di-
reftly. Wind-mills are commonly erefted upon emi¬
nences for the fake of receiving the wind to more ad¬
vantage ; and there are few eminences which do not
afford a fmall fupply of water at no great diftance from
their fummit. This fupply being collefted in a re¬
fervoir, might be drawn up to the top by pumps
worked by wind-mills; where being collefted in an¬
other refervoir, it might be let down to the former,
turning a water-mill in its way, and being again drawn
up by the pumps as before.
Some projeftors, confidering the great power of ob¬
lique vanes in wind-mills, have attempted to improve
water-mills by giving them oblique vanes, but with as
little fuccefs. The power of the fame feftion of a
ftream of water is not greater when afting upon an
oblique vane than on a direft one; and any advantage
which can be made of intercepting a greater feftion of
water, which fometimes may be done in the cafe of an
open river, mull be counterbalanced by the fuperior
refiftance that fuch vanes would meet with by moving
at right angles to the current: whereas the common
floats always move with the water nearly in the fame
direftion.
Mr Smeaton concludes his differtation upon this
fubjeft, with giving a reafon why one angle Ihould be
t N I C S. Sea. VI.
preferable to'another in fetting the fails'of a wind-mill. Motion of
“ It is to be obferved (fays he), that if the breadth of £odies- __
the fail IN is given, the greater the angle KIN, the ^ 1 i
lefs will be the bafe IK; that is, the feftion of the
wind intercepted will be lefs. On the other hand, the
more acute the angle KIN, the lefs will be the per¬
pendicular KN; that is, the impulfe of the wind in
the direftion IK being lefs, and the velocity of the fail
greater, the refiftance of the medium will he greater
alfp. Hence, therefore, as there is a diminution of
the feftion of the wind intercepted on one hand, and
an increafe of refiftance on the other, there is fome
angle where the difadvantage arifing from thefe caufes
upon the whole is the leaft of all; but as the difad¬
vantage arifing from refiftance is more of a phyfical
than geometrical confideration, the true angle will belt
be affigned by experiment.”
Sect. VI. Of the Motion of Bodies in Straight
Lines and Curves ; the Acceleration, Accumu¬
lation, and Retardation, of Motion in various
Circumflances.
To underftand this fubjeft, it is neceffary to keep
in mind what has been faid concerning the momentum
or quantity of motion is any moving body, vi%. that
it is compounded of the velocity multiplied into the
quantity of matter. Thus, fuppofe there are two
bodies, one containing twice the quantity of matter
contained in the other, but moving with thrice its ve¬
locity, the quantities of matter will be expreffed by
any numbers in the proportion of 2 to i, and their
velocities by any others in the proportion of 3 to i.
Multiplying therefore the quantity of matter in the
firft (2) by its velocity (3), the produft is 6; and
multiplying the quantity of matter (1) by its velocity
(1), the produft is only 1; whence it appears that the
momenta or abfolute forces of thefe bodies are to one
another as 6 to 1.
As fome bodies are elaftic and others non-elaftic, the
effeft of motion communicated from one to another
becomes very different, according to this circumftance.
The motion is likevvife very different, according to
the manner jin which one body afts upon another,
and according to which it will be driven forward in a
reftilinear diteftion, or deferibe curves of various kinds,
revolving on its axis, &c. Thefe different kinds of
motion have been confidered by different authors, but
by none more particularly than Mr G. Atwood, who
has publiftied a large oftavo volume upon the reftili¬
near motion and rotation of bodies. The fundamen¬
tal laws of motion affumed by this author as axioms are
three.
1. Every body perfeveres in its ftate of reft or uni¬
form motion in a right line, until a change is effefted
by the-agency of fome external force.
2. Any change effefted in the quiefcence or motion
of a body is in the direftion of the force impreffed,
and is proportional to it in quantity.
3 Aftion and reaftion are equal, and in contrary
direftions.
From thefe three Ample axioms, the truth of which
muft, from what has been already faid, be abundantly
evident, our author proceeds to demonftrate the moft
difficult problems concerning the impulfe and motion
of
'SSedt.VI. M E C H
vlMotion of of bodies in every poffible direftion, beginning from
^ Bo^lcs' the moft fimple and eafy deduftions. For the more
' " * eafy comprehending this fubjeft, however, we lhall
premife what our author has faid in his fecond fedtion
concerning the properties of ratios or proportions.
1. Two mathematical quantities of the fame kind,
as two lines, two furfaces, two angles, &c. conftitute
a ratio. Thus, fuppofe tme line two feet in length
and another four; thefe are to one another in the ra¬
tio of 4 to 2, or of 2 to i; but a line cannot be fa.id
to bear any ratio to a furface, becaufe they are not
quantities of the fame kind, and therefore cannot be
9 compared.
2. We may compare the ratio of two quantities of
one kind with the ratio of two quantities of a different
kind. Thus, when two bodies move uniformly, for an
equal time, but with different velocities, the ratio of
the fpaces-paffed over may be compared with that of
the velocities, though fpace and velocity are accounted
different quantities.
3. If any quantity be divided by another of the
fame kind, the quotient becomes abfolute number.
Thus, if we divide a velocity of four feet in a fecond
by one of two feet in a fecond, the quotient will be
2; and in all cafes the quotient will be to 1 as the
greater quantity is to the leffer.
4. The ratio of any mathematical quantities may be
expreffed by two numbers, if both terms of the ratio
be divided by the confequent or by the antecedent.
Thus, let the antecedent be 8 and the confequent 4 ;
let both be divided by 4, and the ratio will then be 2
to 1; or let both be divided by 8, and it will be 1 to
0.5, which is the fame.
5 Any ratio may be reprefented by a fra&ion, the
numerator of which is the antecedent, and the deno¬
minator the confequent. Thus the ratio of 8 to 4 is
reprefented by the fradlion ■£; and hence we may add
and fubtraft ratios by the addition and multiplication
of fractions. Thus, fuppofing two bodies to move,
uniformly, one at the rate of 8 feet in a fecond and.
the other 4; fuppofing them alfo to move the former
for four,. and the latter for two feconds, the fpaces
pa{Ted over will be 32 and 8, their ratio 3-y , or at length
32: 8:4X8:2X4; or ?-s=4X:p Here it is to be
obferved, that when the mark of equality isinterpofed
betwixt heterogeneous quantities, the only equality
meant is that which fubfifts between the ratios there
expreffed; and when the mark of multiplication is in-
terpofed between heterogeneous quantities, it means
the addition of two ratios, the antecedents of which
are the terms expreffed, and the confequents are
unity.
6. If there are three ratios, confifting of variable
terms, and the relation of the quantities to each other
be fueh, that when the third ratio becomes unity the
other two become equal; or when the fecond becomes
unity, the firft and third are equal; then in all cafes,
whatever be the magnitudes, we have the firft ratio =
the 2dX3d. Thus let the three ratios be I» y> and 4,
diminilhing the numbers by 1, we have 4> y» and *,
it is evident that 4 = yXf: the fame will be the cafe if •
we place them in a different order, as 4, *, and -f >
for then, diminilhing as before, we have 4> i > and 7,
in which cafe 4t=tX*»
7. In comparing the ratios which, obtain between
A N I C S. 773
mathematical quantities of any fort, the ftandard to Mbtian of
which each of thofe quantities is referred may be taken Bodies' .
= 1. Thus, fuppofing we compare the weight, mag- ' ^
nitude, and denfity, of any fubftance with water, we
may take a cubic inch of that element for a ftandard,
and call the weight, magnitude, and denfity of it =: 1;
by which means we may readily compare the weight,
magnitude, or denfity, of any quantity, however large,
of another fubftance with water.
We now proceed to that part of the work which
treats dire&ly of the motion of bodies adfed upon by
any external impulfe.
8. Any force a&ing continually upon a body in the
fame direftion, will produce a continual acceleration
or retardation of the motion. Thus, if a body de-
fcends by the force of gravity, its motion is continually
accelerated; or if it be thrown up againft the force
of gravity, the motion will be continually retarded
until it be totally deftroyed.
9. If, while a body moves, equal quantities of mo¬
tion be communicated to it, or taken from it in equal
fpaces of time, the force is faid to be conftant, and
equally accelerated or retarded.
10. When unequal velocities are generated or de¬
ftroyed in equal fpaces of time, the force is faid to be
variable.
1 r. When a body is afted upon by a conftant force,
we muft confider the fpace through which it moves,
the time it takes to move through it, the velocity it
acquires, and the force which produces it; any two of
which being given, we may from them find the other
two. Here we muft obferve, that the force mentioni
ed relates only to the communication of the velocity,
without any regard to the quantities of matter moved.
As it is proportioned to the velocity generated in a
given time, it is thence called the accelerating force.
That which relates to the quantity of matter moved,
as well as the velocity communicated, is called the mo¬
ving force ; being proportional to the quantity of mo¬
tion produced in a given time.
12. The moving forces which communicate the fame
velocity in a given time to different bodies, will be as
the quantities of matter contained in the bodies mo¬
ved. This will appear from a confideration of what
has already been faid concerning the momenta of bo¬
dies. For if one body contains ten times the quantity
of matter that another does, it will of courfc require
ten times as much force to move it with an equal de¬
gree of velocity; for the former is equivalent to ten
fuch bodies, and it is the fame, thing whether they be
feparate or altogether.
13. The moving forces which aft upon bodies, and
the degrees of velocity communicated to them in a
certain time, are proportional to the quantities of mat¬
ter moved and the velocities communicated jointly: .
for, by the laft propofition, when the velocity com¬
municated in a certain time is the fame, the moving
force is as the quantity of matter moved. Thus, if a
ball of ten pounds weight is made to move at the rate
of 10 feet in a fecond, and another of one pound is
made to move at the fame rate, the moving forces will
be in proportion to the quantities of matter; that is,
as 10 to 1. Hence we may eafily perceive, that iVhen
the quantity of matter is given, the moving force will .
be as the velocity. Thus, if two balls of ten pounds
each
/ ■ 'if
7.74 MECHANICS. Sea. VI.
Motion of each are caufed to move, one with the velocity of ten
ilodies. feet jn a fgcondj an{i tlie other with a velocity of five
v “ feet in the fame time, the. forces will be as the
velocities; that is, as 10 to 5, or as 2 to 1; and hence,
when both the quantities of matter and velocities are
different, the moving forces will be according to thefe
jointly. Thus if a ball of ten pounds is moved with
a velocity of ten feet in a fecond, and a ball of one
pound moves with a velocity of five feet in a fecond,
the moving foroes will be as 10X10 or 100 is to 1X5,
or as 2p to 1.
Here our author takes occafion to deny that there
is any fuch thing as a communication of motion by an
inftantaneous impulfe or ftroke, as has commonly been
fuppofed. Every degree of motion, according to him,
rs the effedt of acceleration. “ The latter way (fays
he) viz. the communication by inftantaneous impulfe,
can obtain only in bodies perfe&ly hard and inflexible,
which exift not in nature ; and even in the abftradl
confideration of thefe as well as of other cafes in me¬
chanics, when metaphyfical poifibilities inftead of the
natural ftate of bodies are attended to, difficulties arife
hardly explicable by any method of reafoning : but it
is certain, that when finite velocity is communicated
to any natural body, the time in which it is commu¬
nicated muft be-finite alfo ; fo that when the body ac¬
ted upon begins to move from quiefcence, it muft, du¬
ring the aftibn of the force, poffefs all the intermediate
• degrees of velocity between o and the velocity ulti¬
mately communicated.
“ To exemplify this further, let it be fuppofed that
a foft and flexible ball of clay impinges againft ano¬
ther of the fame fort, in the diredfion of a line joining
the centres of the balls. At the firft- inftant of the
impadt, the body ftruck will begin to move, and will
proceed with a velocity inferior to that of the impin¬
ging body, the velocity of which will continue to de-
creafe, and that of the other body to increafe, as long
as the impinging force caufes a change in the figure
of the two bodies; that is, till they have both acquired
a common velocity; at which inrtant all acceleration
reaies if the bodies be perfedtly non-elaftic. If the
bodies be of fuch a kind, as, after having received im-
preflion from any impadt, poffefs a power of reftoring
their changed figure with a force eqaal to that of the
impadt, it is manifeft, that whatever velocity was com¬
municated during the change of figure, an equal quan¬
tity will be fuperadded during the reftoration of it.
In this cafe, after the acceleration arifing from the
impadt during the change of the figure of the bodies
has ceafed, the bodies having then acquired a common
velocity, a new acceleration will begin, being caufed
by the elaftic force of the balls, which, adtirvg in a di-
redtion of the lines joining their centres, tends to fe-
parate them, accelerating the ball ftruck,.and retard¬
ing the other.
“ From thefe confiderations it appears, that in
whatever degree the hardnefs of perfedtly elaftic bodies
may differ, the effedts of their impadt will be the fame,
the weights and velocities before the ftroke being gi¬
ven. For the figures of the ftriking and of the other
body continually change, till they have acquired a
common velocity, which depends only on the veloci¬
ty of bodies and their impadt, and is determined by
the rules for the .collifion of non-elaftic bodies. More-
dver, the reftoration of the Changed figures, how great
or how fmall foever may have been the change, muft Motion of
caufe an addition of velocity in the ball ftruck equal ^>die3, ,
to that received from the impadl.
“ It follows alfo, that the effedf will be the fame,
whether the bodies be both perfedfly elaftie, or whe¬
ther one of them be perfedtly elaftic and the other
perfedtly hard ; everything slfe. being given for the
figure of the elaftic body muft change until the bodies
have obtained a common velocity, which depends on
the weights and velocities before the ftroke only ; and
will be the fame as if the bodies were non-elaftic: the
reftoration of the figure will in this, as well as in the
former caft*, caufe an increafe of velocity in the
ball ftruek, equal to that before communicated. Al¬
though no fubftance in nature poffeffes perfedt elafti-
city, or is entirely deftitute of it, yet there are feve-
ral elaftic and non-elaftic bodies fubjedt to experimental
trials, wherein the laws relating to collifion are found
' to agree with fadt to a conliderable degree of exadt-
nefs.”
14. The accelerating forces which communicate ve¬
locity to bodies are diredtly as the moving forces, and
inverfely as the quantity of matter moved; for fince
by prop. ix. the accelerating force is as the velocity
generated in a given time; and by prop. 13. the mo¬
ving force is as the quantity of matter and velocity ge¬
nerated in a given time, it follows, that the moving
force is as the accelerating force and quantity of mat¬
ter moved jointly : that is, the accelerating force is
as the moving force diredlly, and the quantity of mat¬
ter moved inverfely. Thus, let a mafs of matter,
equal to four ounces, be impelled by a force equal to
three ounces ; then the force which accelerates the
mafs of four ounces will be three-fourths when the
acceleration of gravity is 1 ;-wr in other words, it will
generate, in a given time, three- parts in four of the
velocity which gravity generates during any given
time.
15. In bodies impelled in a redtilinear diredtion by
forces adling uniformly, the velocities generated are
as the forces and times in which they add, conjointly.
Thus, fuppofe a force equal to ten adting upon a ball
of ten pounds, and another alfo equal to ten adting
upon a ball of equal weight, the former for one fe¬
cond, and the latter for two; it is plain that the velo¬
city generated in the latter will be double to that ge¬
nerated in the former. But if we fuppofe the latter
ball to be adled upon by a force equal only to five,
then will both the velocities be equal, though the lat¬
ter fhould continue for two feconds and the former
only for one. In all pradtical inquiries of this kind,
however, it muft be remarked, that a ftandard velocity
is to be obtained from obferving what degree of velo¬
city is generated by the force of gravity during a given
time one fecond, for inftance.
16. If a quiefeent body be impelled by any
conftant force adting upon it for a given time,
the fpace deferibed will be to the fpace drferibed
in the fame time by a body moving uniformly with
the laft acquired velocity, in the .ratio of one to
two. In order to underftand tin's, we muft fuppofe
the time to be divided into fuch fmall parts-that the
acceleration during any one of them is imperceptible :
then it is evident, that at the end of two moments,
.the impulfe continuing the fame, it will have gain^dL
double the velocity it did the firft moment; and this
ea.VI. M E C H A
otion of is manifeft from the phenomena of falling bodies, which
Bodies, having defcended for one fecond, acquire then a ve¬
locity twice as great as that which they had during
the firft fecond. That this propofition may be true,
however, it is necefiary that the velocity of the im¬
pelling power Ihould be infinite with refpeft to that
which the body itfelf can acquire; for whenever the
body moved comes to acquire a velocity in any degree
proportional to that of the moving power, then that
proportion mull be dedinfted from the acceleration ;
and when both come to be equal, no farther accelera¬
tion can take place. With regard to falling bodies,
indeed, as far as our ofefervations can go, were it not
for the reiiftance of the air, this acceleration would
go forward till the body had acquired a velocity much
fuperior to any that we can now communicate, either
by that or any other method. In all artificial accele¬
rations, however, the velocity of the body 'moved foon
becomes equal to that of the moving power, and then
the motion goes on uniformly, which otherwife would
continually increafe.
17. The fpaces which bodies defcribe from reft, by
the aftion of conftant forces, are in a compound ratio
of the velocities laft acquired and the times of motion:
For the fpaces defcribed by the laft acquired velocities
continued uniform, are as thofe velocities, and the
times of motion jointly ; and the fpaces defcribed by
the accelerating forces a&ing conftantly for equal re-
fpe&ive times, are half the former fpaces by prop. 16.
This will perhaps appear more intelligible from the
^ annexed figure^ in which the mo¬
tion of a body, by an accele¬
rated force, is reprefented by a
triangle; for fuppofing the body
to begin its motion from the
C point A, and to be uniformly
accelerated until it arrived at the
point C, it is plain that the ve¬
locity acquired would then be
properly reprefented by the tri¬
angle ABC ; but if the accele¬
ration was then to ceafe, the ve-
ocity, and confequently the fpace paffed over, would
be reprefented by the parallelogram BCFE, double
the triangle ABC. But let us fuppofe the accelera¬
tion ftill to go on, as is reprefented in the triangle
BDF; it is plain that the fpace paffed over in every
fmall moment of time will be compofed of a paralle¬
logram formed by the velocity laft acquired, and a
triangle formed by the acceleration during that mo¬
ment, which is entirely in terms of the propofition,
that the fpaces are in a compound ratio of the veloci¬
ties laft acquired, and the times of motion.
18. Conftant forces which accelerate bodies, caufe
them to defcribe, from reft, fpaces which are as the
forces and fquares of the times wherein they aft
jointly. For the fpaces defcribed are as the velocities
laft acquired, and the times of motion. This will be
evident, from an infpeftion of the former figurefor
in the triangle BDF, let B 1 reprefent the time in
which a body acquires a certain velocity ; then when
it has attained the length of 2, the fpace paffed over
will be reprefented by a fmall fquare, being that of
the firft moment, and of a triangle reprefenting the
additional force the fecond moment.
N I C S. 775
19. The conftant forces which accelerate bodies Motion of
from a ftate of reft, are in a direft duplicate ratio of Cotjus-
the velocities generated, and in an inverfe ratio of the
fpaces defcribed. Hence the following corollary is
deduced, viz. that the laft acquired velocities are in a
fubduplicate ratio of the accelerating forces, and a
fubduplicate ratio of the fpaces defcribed jointly.
20. If bodies unequal in quantity of matter be
impelled from reft through equal fpaces, by the ac¬
tion of moving forces which are conftant, thefe forces
are in a duplicate ratio of the laft acquired velocities^
and the ratio of the quantity of matter jointly.
In his obfervations on this propofition, our author
takes occafion to confider the theory of thofe who infift:1,
contrary to the opinion of Sir Ifaac Newton that the ab-
folute force of bodies is compounded of the quantity of
matter and fquare of the velocity, inftead of the velocity
itfelf. “ In the experiments (fayshe) which have been
made on the force of bodies, the lofs of motion from
refiftance has been more attended tO' than the commu*
nication of it by acceleration ; and the reafon pro¬
bably arofe from a want of adequate methods of fub-
jefting accelerating forces, velocities acquired, and
quantities of matter moved, to experimental trials;,
whereas the impaft of bodies on fubitances which they
penetrate, by affording convenient opportunity for obr
ferving the depths to which bodies fink before all mo¬
tion is deftroyed, regard being had to the velocities
of impaft, and the weight and form of the impinging
body, has feemed a more eligible method, however im-
perfeft, of inveftigating the principles of motion.—
When a body defeends for three feconds by the force
of gravity, it acquires,, by a force of acceleration, a
velocity of 964 feet, in a fecond: alfo, if a body be
projefted perpendicularly upward, with a velocity of
964 feet in a fecond, the whole velocity will be de^
ftroyed in three feconds ; and in like manner, every
Cther property demonftrated concerning accelerated
motions is found to- belong to retarded ones, pro¬
vided we attend to the following circumftances : If in
any s propofition relating to accelerated motion, ths
force is conftant, it follows, that when this is applied
to retarded motion, the retardation muft alfo be con¬
ftant. Moreover, fince in accelerated motions the
fpaces are eftimated from quiefcence, fo in retarded
motions the bodies are fuppofed to move to quiefcence ;
that is, till all motion is deftroyed by retardation : in
whatever concerns motions of this kind, therefore, we
muft confider the retarding force to be direftly as the
force of refiftance, and inverfely as the quantity of
matter.
“ In order to illuftrate this fubjeft, it' is to be oh*
ferved, that if a body projefted with different initial
velocities be retarded .by any conftant given force, the
whole {paces which the body.defcribes are in a dupli¬
cate ratio of the initial velocities, which follows front
what has been already demonftrated ; and converfely,
fince when bodies are impelled by an accelerating
force through various fpaces, if thefe fpaces are always
as the fquares of the laft acquired velocities^ it follows
that the force of acceleration is conftant: fo when a
given body is projefted with different velocities, and
is retarded by a given force, if the whole fpaces de¬
fcribed be always in a duplicate ratio of the initial ve¬
locities, it is concluded, that the force of retardation.
776
^Rdotion of ,'g conftant. It Is from this argument inferred, that the
t B°die3- force whereby blocks of wood, banks of earth, &c.
' ’ refill the penetration of bodies impinging on them, is
conflant; for it is obferved, that the depths to which
military proje&iles of a given magnitude and weight,
linking againll a'body of this kind, enter its fubftance,
are in a duplicate ratio of the initial velocities, which
has been fufficiently proved by Mr Robins, who firll
afcertained the -velocities of military projectiles, and
applied his method, among other ufeful purpofes, to
the difcovery of the retardation which bodies fuffer by
palling through refilling fubllances.
“ The forces of refillance, which are oppofed to
the motion of bodies impinging on fubllances which
they penetrate, being granted conllant, the propofi-
tions concerning acceleration already demonllrated
may be applied to explain the motion of bodies,
which, having been projected with given initial velo¬
cities, are interrupted by fuch obltacles as blocks of
wood, banks of earth, or others of a fimilar kind.—
For example, it has been demonllrated, that bodies
moving from reft by the acceleration of conftant forces,
defcribe fpaces which are as the accelerating forces and
fquares of the times jointly. By applying this pro-
pofition to retarded motions, we lhall have the whole
fpaces or depths to which bodies impinging on the
fubftances penetrate, as the forces of retardation and
fquares of the times wherein the bodies move, jointly.
Moreover, it has been demonftrated, that if different
quantities of matter be impelled from reft through equal
fpaces, the moving forces will be in a ratio compounded
of the duplicate ratio of the velocities laft acquired,
and the ratio of the quantities of matter moved. It
is from hence inferred, that in retarded motions alfo,
if different quantities of matter be projefted againll
any of the fubftances above defcribed, with different
initial velocities, and the whole depths to which the
bodies penetrate are equal, the forces whereby the bo¬
dies refill the progrefs of the impinging bodies will be
in a duplicate ratio of the initial velocities of impaCt
and the quantities of matter jointly.
“ By this propofition we may examine fome of the
experiments concerning the force of moving bodies,
and the conclufions deduced from them by Bernoulli,
Leibnitz, Poleni, &c. againft the meafure of force
delivered by Sir Ifaac Newton, which he defcribed in
the following definitions:
“ The quantity of motion is meafured by the quan¬
tity of matter in a moving body and its velocity
jointly.
“ The moving forces whereby bodies tend towards
centres of attradlion are as the quantities of motion
generated in a given time.
“ It follows, then, from thefe definitions, that the
moving forces, adling for a given time, will be pro¬
portional to the quantities of matter moved, and ve¬
locities generated, jointly : fo that if the ratio of the
moving forces be known, and we can find by experi¬
ment what velocities are generated in given bodies by
the adlion of them for the fame time; the quantities
of motion generated in the bodies may be eftimated
according to Sir Ifaac Newton’s definition. More¬
over, fince it is allowed that the effects of a refilling
force to deftroy are the fame as thofe of an equal
force to generate motion in a given time; it follows,
Sea. vr,
that if the ratio of two refilling forces be known, the Motion ofl
quantities of matter in bodies which impinge on fub-
ftances, and penetrate them, and the velocities de- ’
ftroyed in a given time, will give the ratio of the quan¬
tities of motion deftroyed, according to Sir Ifaac
Newton’s definition.
“ In many of the experiments alluded to, which
have been greatly varied and multiplied, the refilling
forces were made equal, by caufing fpheres equal in
magnitude to impinge on a given fubftance which they
penetrated^; and the fpheres being of given denfities,
it was obferved in experiments, that whenever the
denfities or weights of thofe equal fpheres were in an
inverfe duplicate ratio of their velocities, the depths
to which they penetrated would be equal. The con¬
clufions were thefe : the quantities of matter difplaced
by the moving bodies were equal, the depths to which
the equal fpheres penetrated were the fame. More¬
over, the whole motions which had been communi¬
cated to the bodies were deftroyed; that is, the whole
motion of the impinging bodies mull have been as the
fquares of the velocities into the quantities of matter.
But it plainly appears, that this conclufion is not appli¬
cable to the Newtonian definition, according to which
the moving force generates motion in bodies : and it
follows by what has preceded, that the refilling force
by which the motion of bodies is deftroyed, is propor¬
tional to the quantities' of motion generated or de¬
ftroyed in a given time refpedlively ; and confequent-
ly, to eftimate the quantity of motion deftroyed, the
time wherein refilling forces aft Ihould be equal. If,
therefore, the times wherein the bodies in the experi¬
ment defcribe the equal fpaces can be proved diffe¬
rent, this will plainly Ihow that the quantities of mo¬
tion deftroyed cannot be inferred from the experiment,
the different times of the bodies deferibing th6 depths
to which they fink not being taken into the account:
this will be eafily proved, fince from propofition 17. it
appears, that the fpaces defcribed are univerfally as the
velocities and fpaces laft defcribed jointly ; and from
what has been faid, the converfe of this propofition
when applied to retarded motions mull alfo be true.
The fpaces therefore being given as in the experiment,
the times will be inverfely as the initial velocities;
which velocities being unequal from the experiment,
it follows that the times are unequal. This being the
cafe, it is manifeft that no conclufion can be drawn
from thefe experiments concerning the quantity of
motion deftroyed, tending to prove any inconfiftency
between the Newtonian eftimation of force and matter
of faft.
“ It is next to be Ihown, that the experiments are
ftriftly confiftent with the Newtonian meafure, and
with the theory in general.—It has already been proved,
that in accelerated motions the fpaces defcribed are in
a duplicate ratio of the velocities laft acquired, and the
quantities of matter moved, and an inverfe ratio of the
moving forces. This propofition being applied to re¬
tarded motions, it will follow, that the whole fpaces
or depths to which the impinging bodies fink, are in
a duplicate ratio of the quantities of matter, and an
inverfe ratio of the refilling forces; whence alfo the
depths to which the bodies penetrate mull be equal
when fpheres of equal diameters are projefted againll
a given fubftance, the weights being in an inverfe du-
4 plicate
MECHANICS,
Sea. VI. M E G H
Motion of plicate ratio of the initial velocities, which we find
. Bodies- entirely correfpondent to experiment. It feems in-
1 r n deed rational to fuppofe, independent of all theory, that,
in eftimating the quantities of motion generated or de-
ftroyed by given moving or refilling forces, regard mull
be had to the times wherein the forces a£t; becaufe
moving forces, or thofe of refiftance, may be equal,
and may generate or deftroy quantities of motion va¬
rying in any alfignable degree. For it is manifcft,
that a fmall refiftance, oppofed to a moving body for
a longer time, may deftroy more motion than a great¬
er force acting for a Ihorter time ; which fufficiently
Ihows, that the times wherein the moving and refill¬
ing forces aft, mull either be equal, or mull be taken
into the account in eftimating the quantities of motion
generated or deftroyed.
21. The moving forces which communicate, and
the forces of refiftance which deftroy, the motion of
bodies in the fame time, will be in a compound ra¬
tio of the quantities of matter in the moving bodies
and velocities generated or deftroyed.—This and the
preceding propofitions have been fully illuftrated and
confirmed by experiments. From them we deduce the
following fafts : i. When mulket-balls, equal in weight
and magnitude, impinge on a block of wood with
different velocities, the refilling force being conllant,
we lhall have the whole fpaces through which the balls
move in the wood as the fquares ®f the velocities. 2. If
balls of equal diameters, but different weights, impinge
againft a block with the fame velocity, we have
the depths to which they penetrate the block as the
weights. 3. If balls of the fame kind of fubftance, that
is, of the fame denfity, but of different diameters, im¬
pinge againft a given block of wood or the fame bank
of earth with equal velocities, the depths to which they
penetrate will be direftly as the diameters of the balls.
When the force of refiftance is not uniform, the
fame piinciple obtains in degree, though the laws are
then various ; for greater bodies always fuffer lefs by
retardation than fmaller ones of the fame denfity, mo¬
ving through the fame refilling medium, and projeft-
ed with a given initial velocity: becaufe, though the
force of refiftance increafes with the increafe of the
body’s magnitude, yet the weight in moll bodies in¬
creafes in a greater proportion. Thus, in cannon¬
balls, and other folid bodies, though the refiftance of
the air increafes as the fquare of the ball’s diameter,
yet the weight increafes as the cube. Thus, if a ball
two inches in diameter is projefted from the mouth of
a piece, it is refilled by the atmofphere four times lefs
than one four inches in diameter; but the weight of
the latter, being eight times greater, makes the refift¬
ance lefs upon the whole in the large ball than in the
fmall one. It is otherwife when the weight does not
increafe in this manner ; for then the fmaller the bo¬
dy is, the lefs refiftance it meets with, and the falter
it goes. This is manifeft from aeroftatical experi¬
ments ; for fmall air-balloons always outftrip the lar¬
ger ones : and the fame thing s obfervable in boats;
for the fmaller ones, if they ha ? the fame advanta¬
ges in proportion to their hulk, v :ll always fail falter
than the larger ones.
22. If bodies, projefted with the fame velocity, be
retarded by different conftant forces, thefe forces will
be in an inverfe ratio of the whole fpaces defcribed by
Vo 1.. X. Part II.
A N I C S. 777
the projefted bodies, until all motion Is deftroyed.—- Motion of
For example, let a body be projefted on an inclined 0 ies' .
plane, in a direftion contrary to that in which gravi¬
ty afts in the plane, and with a velocity of 144.467
inches in a fecond. Suppofe the body then projefted,
afcending along the plane, to defcribe 216 inches
before its motion is deftroyed ; let it be required to af-
certain the retarding force which oppofes its afcenf,
that is, the proportion of it to the force of gravity.
If the body were projefted perpendicularly upward,
with the given velocity of 144.467 inches in a fecond,
it would rife only to 27 inches, as follows in Prop. 19.
And fince it afcends along the plane 2x6 inches, the
retarding force on the plane will be to that of gravity
as 27 to 216, or as 1 to 8 ; which is alfo the propor¬
tion of the height of the plane to the length of it.
From this propofition, having given the depth to
which a body impinging againft another penetrates
it, the proportion of the retarding force of gravity
may be determined. For example, Mr Robins found
that a leaden ball of | of an inch, or 4^ of a foot in
diameter, impinging on a block of elm with a. velo¬
city of 1700 feet in a fecond, penetrated it to the
depth of five inches, or T5X of a foot; wherefore, fince
a body projefted upwards with a velocity of 1700
feet in a fecond, would rife, if the atmofphere made
no refiftance, to the height of 44922 feet, we have
the force by which elm retards the ball to the force of
gravity as 44922 to 4% » or as 107.813 to 1.
On this theory it may further be obferved, that the
refiftances oppofed to fpherical bodies, which impinge
on a block of wood, a bank of earth, &c. depend not
only on the tenacity or denfity of the parts, of which
the penetrated fubftances are compofed, but upon the
diameters of the impinging fpheres : fo that, although
the refifting and retarding forces be determined in any
fubftance for a Angle cafe ; yet when the diameters
and weights of the impinging bodies vary, the forces
of refiftance and retardation oppofed to the impaft on
the fame fubftance will be different. By the prece¬
ding fpropofition, however, we may be enabled, from
a Angle experiment made on the retardation of any
fubftance oppofed to a fphere, the weight and diame¬
ter of which are known, to infer the retardation in
any other cafe, however the weights and diameters may
vary.
23. If fpheres of different diameters and different
fpecific gravities impinge perpendiculary on fixed ob-
ftacles, the refifting forces of which are conftant, but
of different quantities, the forces which retard the pro-
grefs of the impinging fpheres will be in a direft ra¬
tio of the abfolute forces of refiftance, and the joint
inverfe ratio of the diameters and fpecific gravities of-
the fpheres. No abfolute conclufion can be drawn
from this propofition concerning any matter of faft,
unlefs an experiment be Aril made on the retarding and
refifting force of fame fubftance which is to be confi-'
dered as a ftandard.
24. The whole fpaces or depths to which fpheres,
impinging on different refifting fubftances, penetrate,
are in the ratio compounded of the duplicate ratio of
the velocities of impaft, the joint ratios of the diame¬
ters and fpecific gravities of the fpheres, and an in¬
verfe ratio of the abfolute forces whereby the fubftan¬
ces refill the progrefs of the fpheres.
5 F Mr
M E C H
Alol ion uf
Bodies.
69
Of rotatory
Siotion.
Mr Atwood concludes this fe&ion with fome pro¬
blems relative chiefly to military proje&iles ; and in hia
next fe&ion (the 4th) confiders the reftilinear mo¬
tion of bodies afted upon by forces which vary in fome
ratio of the diftances from a fixed point. This fec-
tion chiefly relates to the powers of gravity and pro-
jeftion,by which theceleftial bodies are actuated, and
which confequently chiefly regards aftronomy and the
motion of pendulums; though there are likewife fome
curious particulars relating to the aftion of compreffed
air, the vibration of mufical firings, and the undula¬
tion of fluids. The fifth fe&ion confiders the motion
of bodies immerfed in fluids ; but the fixth treats of
a fubjeft which properly belongs to mechanics, viz.
the communication of motion to bodies revolving round
an axis.
In treating this fubjett Mr Atwood obferves, that
in the former part of his work he had fuppofed the ac¬
celerating, as well as refifting, forces, to aft upon the
body in a ftraight line pa fling through the centre of
gravity of the moving ; in which cafe every particle
of the body muft partake of the fame degree of veloci¬
ty, being equal to that with which the common cen¬
tre of gravity moves. “ But (fays he) it frequently
happens, that a body, or fyftem of bodies, is fo confli-
tuted, that when any force is impreifed upon it, no mo¬
tion can be produced except round a fixed axis; fo
that the velocity of the particles which compofe tire
fyftem will be greater or lefs according as thefe parti¬
cles are farther from the common axis or nearer it.
Thefe circumftances fhould be attended to, in order to
afeertain the motion of revolving bodies ; the prece¬
ding principles of acceleration being not wholly of
themfelves fufficient for that purpofe.
“ In this inveftigation two things muft be attended
to. 1. The moving force by which the revolving mo¬
tion is generated ; and, 2. The ineitia of the parts of
which the fyftem is compofed. The moving force ex¬
erted on any given particle of the fyftem, as well as its
inertia, depends on its diftance from the axis of mo¬
tion, every thing elfe being the fame ; and if both
thefe be afeertained, the abfolute acceleration of the
particle will be determined, and confequently the ab¬
folute velocity generated in a certain time. The
methods therefore of determining thefe forces in any
given circumftance fliould next be deferibed.
“ Let AFGH (fig. it2.) reprefent the circumfe¬
rence of a wheel which turns in its own plane round
an horizontal axis, palling through its centre ; and let
a weight P, fixed at the extremity of a line AP,
communicate motion to the wheel. Moreover, let
the whole weight of the wheel be Qj and fuppofe this
weight to be collefted uniformly into the circumfe¬
rence AFGH; then, during the defeent of the weight
P, each point of the circumference muft move with a
velocity equal to that with which P defeends; and
confequently, fince the moving force is the weight P,
and the mafs moved P+C^» the force v/hich accelerates
P in its defeent will, by Prop. 14. be that part of the
accelerating force of gravity which is expreffed by the
fraftion pljlQ' The velocity, therefore, which is ge¬
nerated in P in any given time, is found from the
rules before demonftrated. Thus, fuppofing Q^to be
A N I C S.
equal to P, then will
P+QJ
Sedl.
, , , . , „ Motion ot
= and the weight P Bodies.
will be accelerated by a power which is to that of gra¬
vity as 1 to 2 ; and fince gravity generates in bodies
which defeend for one fecond of time near the earth’s
furface a velocity of 3 2 J- feet in a fecond ; it follows,
that the weight P will in the fame time have acquired
a velocity of 16,V feet in a fecond only.
“ The parts of .the weight Q^which are uniformly
difpofed over the circumference AFGH, balance each
other round the common centre of gravity S ; their
weight therefore is of no effeft in accelerating or re¬
tarding the defeent of P: and this will be the cafe
whenever the axis of motion pafi'es through the com¬
mon centre of gravity. But in order to render the
properties of rotatory motions more obvious, it will
he convenient to difpofe the parts of the revolving fy¬
ftem fo that the axis of motion fliall not neceflarily
pafs through the common centre of gravity : thus, in-
ftead of having the weight Q^uniformly dipofed over
the circumference AFGH, let it be collefted into any
point Here it is manifeft, that if the mafs QJie
afted upon by gravity, the force which communicates
motion to the fyftem round S will be variable, it being
the greateft when SQJs horizontal, and gradually di-
miniihing till QJias arrived at its loweft point. But
as we fliould begin with the moft Ample cafes, the mo¬
ving force muft be conftant. This will be effefted by
fuppofing the mafs which is collefted in Qto be de-
ftitute of weight, and to poffefs inertia only. It follows
therefore, that during the revolution of Qj-ound S as
an axis, the moving force will be conftantly equal to
P, and the mafs moved zrP-fQ^ Confequently the
force which accelerates the deicending weight, or any
point in the circumference, will be that part of gra¬
vity which is expreffed by the fraftion p-~Qjis be¬
fore.
“ In thefe cafes, the force which communicates mo¬
tion to the fyftem has been fuppofed a weight or bo¬
dy afted upon by the earth’s gravity, and confequent¬
ly conftitutes a part of the mafs moved, at the fame
time that it afts as a moving force : but motion may
be communicated by a force which- fhall add nothing
to the inertia of the matter moved: and it will be con¬
venient in many demonftrations to affume the force of
this kind; and in this cafe we have not to take the in¬
ertia into the account. Thus if any number of bodies,
without gravity collefted into the points F, H,
(fig. 112.) are caufed to revolve round the axis S, by a
moving Force P, the force which accelerates thefe bo¬
dies in their revolution will be pljljqjpQj provided
the bodies F, H, be difpofed at a diftance from
the axis of motion equal to the radius of the circle
AFGH, at the circumference of which the moving
force P is applied.
“ In the preceding example, F, H, &c. have
been fappofed to move with the fame velocity ; but
when bodies revolve at unequal diftances from the axis,
their velocities of motion being different, other rules
will be neceffary to determine the force whereby any
given point of the fyftem is accelerated. In demon-
ftrating the properties of rotatory motion, the revol-
5 vihg
Sea. VI. MECHANICS. 779
Motion of ving fyftem may be fuppofed to confift of one or more which accelerates D, therefore, cannot be obtained by Motion of
Bodies. Qf tjie bodies A, B, C : the magnitude of thefe may dividing P by A+B-J-C ; but if an equivalent mafs, ,
’ be fuppofed evanefcent; becaufe, were the contrary or a'quantity of matter, can be affigned, which being
fuppofition adopted, the particles in each body would collected into any points of the circumference a, b, <,
be impelled by different moving forces, and exert dif- will caufe an inertia or refiftance to tire motion of D
ferent degrees of inertia in oppofition to the commu¬
nication of motion. But the force which impels each
individual particle, and the effedts of its inertia in dif-
equal to that exerted by the particles A, B, C, when
revolving at their refpective diftances, the force 'which
accelerates the circumference or any point in it D will
ferent circumftances, muff be known before the be determined. Thus, let the mafs Q^, when colle&eci
acceleration of the whole fyftem can be determined.
“ The bodies A, B, and C, which may be termed,
according to the ideas juft; defcribed, material points,
are imagined to be connected together by fome per-
fectly rigid fubftance, fo as always to poffefs the fame
fituation in refpect to each other : and confequently
no motion can be produced in any of them, excepting
that all revolve at the fame time round the common
axis of motion.
into a, be fuch as will be equivalent in its inertia to
A, when revolving at the diftance SA 5 alfo let R be
the mafs collefted into b, which is equivalent to B
when revolving at the diftance SB j and let T, the mafe
collefted into C, be equivalent to C when revolving at
the diftance SC •, then will the mafs moved by the
force P be 04- R+T ; and the force which accele-
_I ,t
Q+R+T’
“ A11 the P°intsr ^ this imaginary fubftance, by that b whIch thc circumference or any point „
which the parts of the fyftem are connefted toge- accelerated when the point conflft3 of A and B and
ther, partake of the fame angular motion, deferibing
circles round the common axis S. A force P therefore
being applied to any point in the plane of its motion,
C, revolving at the refpedtive diftances from the axis
of motion SA, SB, SC.” 70
Our author now proceeds particularly to inveftigate revol.
and in the dire&ion of any line in that plane which the motion of revolv;ng bodies in almoft all polfible bo“
pafles not through the axis, will-corn muni cate an equal circumftances> deducing from his propoiitions many leS’
angular motion to the whole. Thus let B (fig. 115.) concluflons very ufeful jn pra&ical mechanics. Many
reprefent a material point moveable about an axis of f , f , uenduium_ andare therefore taken
reprefent a material point
motion palling through S. With the radius SD de-
feribe a circle DGH. Now if B be conne&ed with
every point in the area of this circle, which is an in¬
flexible fubftance, no force can be applied to move the
circle but what muft communicate the fame angular
motion to B. Let the force be applied at the point
D ; it is manifeft, that in order to render its effects
conftant, the inclination of its direction to SD muft
be always the fame, and in a given plane ; and the moft
obvious method of eflitting this, either in confidering
the fubjett theoretically, or in the prattical illu-
ftration of it, is by applying a thin and flexible line
GHDP round the circumference of the circle DGH,
and ftretching this line by a given moving force P.
Here it is plain, that in whatever part the point D is
fituated, the effetts of the force P will be the fame as
if it w'ere direttly applied to D in the direttion of
the plane of motion, and perpendicular to SD, and
the point B will revolve with the fame abfolute and
angular velocity in both cafes.
“ Let now ABC (fig. 114.) be a fyftem of bodies
of evanefcent magnitude and without gravity, move¬
able about an axis of motion which paffes through S ;
it muft be obferved, that the imaginary fubftance by
which the parts of the fyftem ABC are connetted, muft
contribute nothing either by its weight or inertia to
accelerate or retard the motion of the material points
A, B, C, which are caufed to revolve by the aftion
of the given and conftant force P, applied at the dif¬
tance from the axis SD. The abfolute force of P to
move D, or any point of the circumference, will be
P ; but the communication of motion to this point D
is refifted by the inertia of the bodies A, B, C; which
being moved with different velocities, and atted on by
different moving forces, their inertia will not be efti-
mated by their quantities of matter only, according
to the laws obfeived in rettilinear motion ; the force pofe <
of thefe regard the pendulum, and are therefore taken
notice of under that article ; others more immediately
relate to the parts of mechanics particularly treated of
in this article : the principal of which follow.
1. The force which accelerates the centre of gravity
of a fpheie, while it rolls down an inclined plane, is to
the force by which it would be accelerated were it to
Hide in the ratio of five to feven. As our limits will
not admit of inferting at length the demonftration of
this and other propofitions, we (hall in this only ob-
ferve, that when a wheel or a fphere rolls, the circum¬
ference goes backward, while the centre moves for¬
ward; which retrograde motion muft of neceffity make
the other flower than it would otherwife be : and this
retardation Mr Atwood has determined to be in the
proportion above-mentioned.
From this propofition the following corollaries are
deduced. 1. The abfolute force whereby motion is
generated in the circumference of a fphere in fuch a
fituation, is expreffed by a frattion confifting of twice
the weight of the fphere divided by feven, and multi¬
plied into another frattion confifting of the height of
the plane divided by its length ; that is, fuppofe the
weight of the fphere to be reprefented by <w, the
height of the plane by h, and its length by /, the force
by wbich the circumference of the fphere is impelled
will be reprefented by — X j*. 2. In the fame man¬
ner, let a cylinder roll down an inclined plane, keep¬
ing the axis always horizontal, and the force which
accelerates the axis will be reprefented by the fraction
2 h
~3Xr
2. Let AB (fig. 1x5.) reprefent a ftraight lever
moveable round an horizontal axis of motion, which
paffes through S. Let the arms be SB, SA. Sup.
weight W to be affixed to the extremity of the
5 F 3 faorter
780
MECHANICS.
Sea. VI.
f fhorter arm, and to be raifed by the weight P applied abfblute force oppofed to the aftion of the moving Motion of
at the extremity of the longer arm, when the lever is power. 3. Obllacles upon which the moving body Bodies-
^ horizontal. Required to determine the time in which impinging is retarded in its progrefs : fuch, for ex- ^ ~J
W will be raifed through any given height, the
weight and inertia of the lever itfelf not being conli-
dered.
st When there is an equilibrium (fays Mr Atwood)
on any mechanic power, the proportion of the weight
fuftained to the power fuftaining it, will, in all cafes,
be affigned from having given the dimenfions of the
mechanic power. An equilibrium having been once
formed, the fmalleft addition of weight will caufe the
body to which it is applied on either fide to preponde¬
rate. In this cafe a certain degree of motion is gene¬
rated ; and fince the ufes of the mechanic powers are
jjot only to fuftain forces in equilibrio, but to raife
ample, is therefiftance which arifes from the particles
of a fluid thro’ which a body moves. The eftimation of
thefe refiftances, and their effefts in retarding the mo¬
tion of bodies afted on by a given force, are deducible
from the laws of motion, and conftitute a part of the
folution of almoft all problems relating to the motion
of bodies.
“ The moving forces alfo are of various kinds, viz.
The power of gravity, mufcular power, the impact of
bodies, folid and fluid, &c. It has been fhown, that
the effedts of thefe moving forces which are exerted on
bodies in order to create motion, exclufive of the re-
fiftance oppofed to them, depend on the various cir-
weights and overcome refiftances, it is a problem of cumftances of the time in which they adt, and on
principal" confequence to affign the abfolute quantity
of motion generated by a known moving force in gi¬
ven circumftances.” The general folution of the pro¬
blem is as follows:
“ Let AB be the lever, W the weight moved by
the power P; each adting in a diredtion perpendicular
to the horizon. Let G be the common centre of gra¬
vity of the whole fyftem, including the weights P and
the fpaces through which the bodies moved are im¬
pelled, &c.
“ Thefe confiderations are urged, to fhow, that from
the great variety of undetermined conditions which
may enter into mechanical problems, there muft of
courfe be various methods of producing the fame
mechanical effedt: and it is a very material part of the
art, confidered either in a theoretical or pradtical view.
W with the lever itfelf; and o the centre of ofcilla- to proportion the means to the end, and to effedl this
i+?l_
SBz2.5,
73
On the
wheel-
1'Iat'e
6CXCU
‘ tion *, when AB vibrates round the axis S ; the force
which accelerates B when the lever is horizontal
SGXSB SB [ . rr .v," v. * •
=soxso=So (c)- If th,s be P" =F> ,he t,m'
wherein P defcends through a perpen dicular fpace x,
and confequently wherein W afcends through the cor-
r r , sa -/T (d)'
refpondmg fpace ; then jcXgjg= j^r X
See. =V'*X &C.
3. Let ABC (fig. 116.) reprefent a wheel and axle,
its weight w, and let the axis be horizontal; having
a given weight Qjipplied to the ciicumference of the
axle, and P applied to the circumference of the wheel
in order to raife Required to aflign the fpace de-
feribed by the elevated weight QJn any given time.
The folution of this problem, without attending to the
demonftration, is this. Having found the accelerating
, . , . . PxSD^QxSAxSA
power, which here is „ -—2^= 
r wXSRj(e.)+/>xSDM-Q><SA*
All this he puts =F ; and then / being =193 inches ^  
as before, the fpace deferibed by QJn any number of ftance of the centre of gyration from the axis is y\5
feconds will be = the fauare of that number of feconds  .u .1 j- _ r -
with all the advantages which the nature of the cafe is
capable of. It is the due obfervation of thefe parti¬
culars which contributes to render mechanic inftru-
ments complete, and the negledl of them defedlive, in
their conftrudlion. This proper choice of means to
produce mechanical effedts, is frequently the refult of
long continued experience independent of all theory ;
the knowledge of which, however, when applied to
pradlice, would fave the artift much time and trouble,
as well as would be produdtive of other advantages,
which experience alone muft be deftitute of.”
4. ABC (fig. 116.) is a wheel and axis moveable
round an horizontal axis, which paffes through S.
Suppofe a given weight Q, which is applied to the cir¬
cumference of the axle ; let it be required to affign
the proportion of the radii of the wheel and axle, fo
that the time in which the weight Q_afcends through
any given fpace fhall be the leaft poffible. In this
cafe, fuppofing the radius of the wheel to be 10
inches, and its weight 20 ounces ; let the radius of
the axle SA = 1 inch, the weight to be raifed thro*
any given fpace to be too ounces, the moving force
by which it is raifed t6 be 33 ounces ; then the di-
feconds will be = the fquare of that number of feconds
multiplied into /F.. On this propofition our author
makes the following obfervations.
“ Whenever motion is communicated to a body; a
certain refiftance muft have been overcome by the mo¬
ving force. This refiftance is of various kinds. 1.
The inertia of the mafs moved, whereby it endeavours
to perfevere in its ftate of quiefcence, or of uniform
motion, in a right line. 2. That of a weight or other
inches; and the length of the radius fought is 9.55
inches.—If, inftead of railing the weight perpendicu¬
larly, it be required to draw it horizontally, and to
affign the diftance SD, at which, if a given force P be
applied, the time of defcribing.a given fpace fliall be
the leaft, and the moment of y tfie greateft poffible,
we have the following conclufion. “ Let the quan¬
tity of matter to be drawn along the plane be four
times greater than that which is contained in the mo¬
ving
fc) This he had formerly proved when treating of pendulums.
(n) / is here put for 193 inches, the fuppofed velocity of the weight P.
;s) R is the centre of gyration of the wheel.
ea.VI.
MECHANICS.
7S1
lotion of ving force ; the radius of the axle SA being given ;
Bodies, jn or(jer may te impelled with the greateft ve-
'" T locity poffible and with the greateft moment, the ‘ra¬
dius of the wheel ftiould be double that of the axle
when the inertia of the wheel is not confidered.
5. Let ARCH (fig. U7-) be a fyftem of bodies
moveable round a vertical axis which paffes through
the common centre of gravity of the fyftem. Suppofe
LEG to be a wheel, the axis of which is vertical, and
coincident with that of the fyftem; let motion be
communicated by means of a line going round this
wheel, the ftring DP being ftretched by a given weight
P; let it be required to affign the radius of the wheel
EGD, fo that the angular velocity communicated
to the fyftem may be the greateft pofiible. Her'’-,
fuppofing the moving force to be one-fourth of the
weight of the fyftem, it ftiould be applied at a diftance
from the axis equal to twice the diftance of the centre
of gyration, in order to produce the greateft pofiible
angular velocity in a given time.
“ In order (fays Mr Atwood) to increafe the ac¬
tion of a moving force againft a weight to be raifed,
or refiftance to be overcome, a combination of two or
more mechanic powers is frequently made ufe of. Let
p ffig. 118.) be a power applied by means of a line
to the vertical wheel C : fuppofe the circumference of
the axle K to be in contact with the circumference of
any other vertical wheel B ; fo that the circumference
of the wheel B may always move equally faft with that
of the axle which belongs to C ; let alfo the axle of B
communicate motion to a vertical wheel A, to the
axle of which a weight q is fufpended, fo as to aft in
oppofition to p ; moreover, let the ratio of Imn to 1 be
the fum of the ratios of the radius of each wheel to
that of its axle : then, if plmn — q, the two weights^
and q will fuftain each other in equilibrio ; but if plmn
be at all greater than y, the equilibrium will be de-
ftroyed and our author gives a method of calcula¬
ting the quantity of motion communicated in certain
circumftances.
Our author next goes through a fet of fimilar pro-
pofitions relating to the pulley and wedge ; after which
he treats of the accumulation of power in ponderous
cylinders, and the ufe of balaft-wheels in machines, of
which mention has already been made ; and having dif-
cufled thefe fubjefts, he next comes to treat of the ac¬
tion of a ftream of water upon a wheel revolving round
an horizontal axis.
6. Let ABC (fig. 119.) reprefent a water-wheel
which revolves round an horizontal fixed axis, palling
through its centre S. Suppofe DEF to be the axle
of this wheel, and that a weight W is affixed to a linfe
DW, fo wound round the axle, that while the wheel
is driven round its own plane by the force of the wa¬
ter impinging at I, the weight W may be raifed in a
vertical line : having given the area of the boards II,
againft which the ftream impinges perpendicularly,
and the altitude from which the water defcends, it is
required to afiign the greateft velocity with which the
wheel can revolve.
“ When a ftream of any fluid (fays he) impinges
perpendicularly; againft a plain and quiefcent furface,
the exaft quantity of the moving force is equal to the
weight of a column of the fluid, the bafe of which is
the. area upon which the fluid impjhges, and the alti».
tude that from which a body mull defcend freely from Motion of
reft by gravity, in order to acquire that velocity. This, Bodie3- a
will be the moving force which impels the body when ^
quiefcent or juft beginning to move: but after it has
acquired fome motion, the impulfive force of the body
will be diminilhed; being the fame as if the body were
quiefcent, and the water impinged upon it with the
difference of the former velocities. Wherefore the
altitude of the column of the fluid, which is equal to its
impelling force, will be always as the difference be¬
tween the velocity of the impaft and that of the body
itfelf; and fince the altitudes from which bodies fall
from reft are in a duplicate ratio of the velocities ac¬
quired, it follows, that the force of the impaft will be
in a duplicate ratio of the difference between the velo¬
city of the wheel and that of the impadt.” The fol¬
lowing is the conclufion drawn by Mr Atwood con¬
cerning the velocity : Putting A for the weight of
the column of water when the wheel is quiefcent; V
the velocity with which it impinges on the boards II,
&c. and y the velocity of the circumference fought; W
the weight of the wheel; theny=:V—X l!j~p
7. Every other thing remaining the fame, let the
weight W be varied 5 and let it be required to afiign
the weight W, fo that when the wheel has acquired
its uniform velocity, the moment of W may be the
■4AXSI
greateft poflible. Here the weight =-
9sp.
8. Having given a weight W to be raifed by the
adlion of the ftream of water, the force of which is
= A againft a quiefcent furface ; let it be required to
afiign what muft be the.proportion between the radius
of the wheel and that of the axle; fo that the uni¬
form velocity of the afcending weight may be the
greai.eft polfible. Here the length of the radius
^—. Hence he concludes, that if the velo¬
city with which the water impinges againft the boards
be doubled, the greateft moment communicated to a
weight afcending uniformly, will be increafed in the
proportion of 8 to r. „
“ The force (fays Mr Atwood) which communi-AtwoodV-
cates motion to water-wheels, and the refiftances whichobferva-
are occafioned by fridlion, tenacity, and various othertI0ns on
caufes, render the application of the theory of mccha-^jj^'
nics to pra&ice, in thefe cafes, extremely difficult.
It is probably from this reafon, that the conftru&ion
of machines moved by the force of water, &c. has ,
been almoft wholly practical, the beft improvements
having been deduced from continued obfervation of
the refults produced in given circumftances;. whereby
the gradual correftion of error, and varied experience
of what is moft effectual, have fupplied the place of a *
more perfect inveftigation from the laws of motion.
“ This feems to be the- beft method, as far as re¬
gards the pra&ical conftru&ion of thefe machines, the
nature of the cafe- will admit of; for although there
may be two ways leading ultimately to the fame truths, .
i. r. a diredl inveftigation from the laws of motion
and long continued obfervation, independent of the¬
ory, the latter is frequently the molt eafy and intel.
ligible, although lefs direft and lefs fcientific; the
former being inaceeffibie to thofe- who poffefs the ele¬
mentary :
7S2 M E C H A
Motion of mentary parts of mechanics only. It is in vain to at-
t Bodies- tempt the application of the theory of mechanics to
L' v the motion of bodies, except every caufe which can
fenfibly influence the moving power and the refiftance
to motion be taken into account: if any of thefe be omit¬
ted, error and inconfiftency in the concluiions dedu¬
ced muft be the confequence. It was at one time
fuppofed, from this inadequate application of the the¬
ory, that the fame laws of motion would not extend
to all branches of mechanics, but that different prin¬
ciples were to be accommodated to different kinds of
motion. If this were truly the cafe, the fcience of
mechanics would fall fhort of that fuperior excellence
and extent which it is generally allowed to poflefs.
For it is probable, that there is no kind of motion
but what may be referred to three eafy and obvious
propofitions, the truth of which it is impoffible to
doubt: and if we are not enabled to invefligate the
effects from the data in all cafes, the deficiency muft
not be imputed to the fcience of mechanics, but to the
want of methods of applying mathematics to it.
“ This may be illuftrated by an example, in order
to fhow that the motion communicated to water-wheels,
however complicated the data may be, is equally re¬
ferable to the laws of motion, with the effedis of the
moft uncompounded force. If a flream of water falls
perpendicularly on a plain furface, the moving force
arifing from t^e impadt only is equal to the weight of
a column of water, the bafe of which is the furface
upon which the water impinges, and altitude that
through which a body mull fall to acquire the velocity
of impadl. If the inclination of the ftream to the
furface Ihould be changed, the force exerted in a di-
redtion perpendicular to the plane will be diminifhed
in a duplicate ratio of the radius to the fine of incli¬
nation ; the furface on which the water impinges re¬
maining. Now, when the water falls on the boards of
a water-wheel, the direction of the Itream makes diffe¬
rent angles with the planes of thofe boards; for fince
the particles of water defeend in curve lines, they will
ftrike any plain furface in the diredtion of a tangent
to the curve on the point of impadt. Moreover, the
Fig. up. water will ftrlke the higher boards TT with lefs velo¬
city, and in a diredtion more inclined to their planes,
than the lower ones II ; it is alfo to be confidered,
that the ftream will impinge on the boards at different
diftances from the axis of motion: all which circum-
ftances muft be taken into account, to find the force
which tends to communicate motion to the wheel
when quiefeent; and when motion has been com¬
municated, the force of the ftream to turn the wheel
will be determined in the manner already mentioned.
But this is not the only confideration which affedts the
moving force: The force hitherto confidered has been
fuppofed to proceed from the impadl of the particles
only ; in which cafe, each particle after it has ftruck
the board is imagined to be of no other effedl in com¬
municating motion : but this is not wholly the cafe;
for after the particle has impinged on the board, it
will continue fome time to operate by its weight; and
this time will be longer or Ihorter according to the
different conftrudlions of the wheel. In the overlhot
wheel, the continuance of the preffure, arifing from the
weight of the water, willbe longer than in the underlhot,
n i c s. Sea.vr.
the force which arifes from the impadl of the water Motion of
being nearly the fame in each cafe. The whole mo- Bodies.j|
ving force, therefore, will confift of the impadl deter- ' _v
minable as above, and of the weight ofthewaterdefeend-
ing along with the circumference, and communicating
additional motion to it: this entire moving force being
determined either by theory or experience, may be
denoted by A. After the moving force which impels
the circumference has been determined, the refiftance I
to this force muft be found ; for on the proportion
between the moving force and the refiftance, the ac¬
celeration of the machine will depend. 'This refift¬
ance is of various kinds: I. That of inertia. 2. If
the machine is of that kind which raifes weights, fuch
for inftance as water ; the weight raifed, allowing for
its mechanical effedl on the point of which we defire
to knoy the acceleration, muft be fubdudted from the
moving force before found; and this will be a conftant
quantity. There are other refiftances alfo homoge-
neal to weight, viz. thofe of fridlion and tenacity, &c.
which are variable in fome ratio of the machine’s ve¬
locity : and in order to proceed with the invelligation,
the exadt quantity of weight which the fridlion is equal
to, when the wheel moves with a given velocity, muft
be confidered, as well as the variation of the refiftances
in refpedt to the velocities; which circumftances muft
be determined by experiment. If the force equiva¬
lent to the fridlion, &c. be fubdudled from the moving
force, the remainder will give the moving power, by
which the circumference is impelled upon the whole:
this being divided by the inertia of the mafs moved,
will give the force which accelerates the circumfe¬
rence. yz I
The following apparatus has been invented by Mr His apparaj
Atwood, for illuftrating his dodlrines concerning ac- ius/ur
celerated motion, and has been found to anfwer the jjn niotjynj
purpofe more completely than any other we have heard
of; difeovering at once the quantity of matter moved,
the force which moves it,, the fpace deferred from
reft, the time of defeription, and the velocity ac¬
quired.
1. Of the mafs moved.—In order to obferve the ef-
fedls of the moving force, which is the objedl of any
experiment, the interference of all other forces Ihould
be prevented: the quantity of matter moved, therefore,
confidering it before any impelling force has been ap¬
plied, fliould be without weight; for although it be
impoffible to abftradl the natural gravity or weight
from any fubftance whatever, yet the weight may be
fo counteradled as to be of no fenfible effedl in expe¬
riments. Thus in the inllrument eonftrudled to illu-
ftrate this fubjedt experimentally, A, B, fig. 120. re-
prefent two equal weights affixed to the extremities
of a very fine and flexible filk line: this line is ftretch-
ed over awheel or fixed pulley abed, moveable round
an horizontal axis: the two weights A, B, being pre-
cifely equal and adling againft each other, remain in.
equilibrio ; and when the lead weight is fuperadded
to either (fetting afide the effedls of fridlion), it will
preponderate. When AB are fet in motion by the
adlion of. any weight m, the fum A-J-B-(-« would
conftitute the whole mafs moved, but for the inertia
of the materials which muft neceffarily be ufed in the
communication of motion: thefe materials confift of,
1. The
ed\. VI.
M E C H
lotion of i. The r/heel alcd. over which the line fuftaining A
Bodies. ancj pafles. 2. The four, friction wheels on which-
the axle of the wheel aif^refts: the ufe of thefe wheels-
is to prevent the lofs of motion, which would be oc-
cafioned by the friction of the axle if it revolved on
an immoveable furface. 3. The line by which the
bodies A and B are connected, fo as when fet in mo¬
tion to move with equal velocities. The weight and
inertia of the line are too fmall to have fenfible effeft
on the experiments; but the inertia of the other ma¬
terials juft, mentioned conftitute a confiderable pro¬
portion of the mats moved, and muft be taken into
account. Since when. A and B are put in motion,,
they muft neceffarily move with, a velocity equal to
that of the circumference of the whtd jibcd to which
the line is applied ; it follows, that if the whole mafs
of the wheels were accumulated in this circumference,
its inertia would be truly eftimated by the quantity of
matter moved; but fince the parts of the wheels move
with different velocities, their effects in refilling the
communication of motion to, A and.B by their inertia
will be different; thofe parts which are furthell from
the axis refilling more than thofe which revolve near¬
er in a duplicate proportion of thofe diftances. If
the figures of the wheels were regular, from knowing,
their weights and figures; the diftances of their cen¬
tres of gyration from their axes of motion would be¬
come known, and consequently an equivalent weight,
which being accumulated uniformly in the circumfe¬
rence abed, would exert an inertia equal to that of the
wheels in their conftrudledTorm. But as the figures,
are wholly irregular, recourfe muft be had to experi¬
ment, to affign that equivalent quantity of matter,
which being accumulated uniformly in the circumfe¬
rence of the wheel alcd, would refill the communica¬
tion of motion to A in the fame manner as the
wheels.
In order to afeertain the inertia of the wheel abed,
with that of the fridlion wheels, the weights AB being
removed, the following experiment was made.
A weight of 30 grains was affixed to a filk line
(the weight of which was not fo much as jrh of a
grain, and cenfequently too inconfiderable to have fen¬
fible effeft in the experiment); this line being wove
round the wheel abed, the weight 30 grains by de-
feending from reft communicated motion to the wheel,
and by many trials was obferved to delcribe a fpace of
about 38T inches in 3 feconds. From thefe data the
equivalent mafs or inertia of the wheels will be known
from this rule :
Let a weight P (fig. 121.) be applied to communi¬
cate motion to a fyftem of bodies by means of a very
{lender and flexible line going round thewheelSLDIM,
through the centre of which, the axis paffes (G being
the common centre of gravity, R the centre of gravity
of the matter contained in this line, and O the centre
of pfcjllation,). Let this weight defeend from reft
through any convenient fpace j inches, and let the ob¬
ferved time of its defeent be t feconds;. then if / be the
fpace through which bodies defeend freely by gravity
in one fecond, the equivalent weight fought =
WxSRxS0_Px<7 p
si)1 r
Here we have/=30 grains, > = 3 feconds, /=193
A N I C S. 78
inches, ^=38.5 inches; andj-^L—Pr=3°*9*19?—
' 385 —v—
30 = 1323 grains, or 2| ounces.
This is the inertia equivalent to that of the wheel
abed, and the fridtion wheels together: for the rule
extends to the eftimation of the inertia of the mafs
contained in all the wheels.
The refiftance to motion therefore arifing from the
wheel’s inertia, will be the fame as if they were abfo-
lutely removed, and a mafs of 2^ ounces were uni¬
formly accumulated in the circumference of the wheel
abed. This being premifed, let the boxes A and B Fig. no)
be replaced, being fufpended by the filk line over the
wheel or pulley and balancing each other: fup-
pofe that any weight m be added to A fo that it fliall
defeend, the exaft quantity of matter moved, during
the defeent of the weight A, will be afeertained, for
the whole mafs will be A -f- B ■{■m-\-2^ oz. .
In order to avoid troublefome computations in ad-
jufting the quantities of matter moved and the moving
forces, fome determinate weight of convenient magni¬
tude may be affumed as a ftandard, to which all the
others are referred. This ftandard weight in the fub-
fequent experiments is ^ of an ounce, and is reprefent-
ed by the letter m. The inertia of the wheels being
therefore = 2 j- ounces, will be denoted by 11 rn. A'
and B are two boxes conftrudled fo as to contain diffe¬
rent quantities of matter, according as the experiment
may require them to be varied : the weight of each
box, including the hook to which it is fufpended,
= oz. or according to the preceding eftimation,
the weight of each box will be denoted by 6 m; thefe
boxes contain fuch weights as are reprefented by fig-
122. each of which weighs an ounce, fo as to be equi¬
valent to 4 ?h; other weights of ioz. — 2m, $—m,
and aliquot parts of m, fuch as \m, $m, may be alfo
included in the boxes, according to the conditions of
the different experiments hereafter deferibed.
If 4* oz. or 19 m, be included in either box, this
with the weight of the box itfelf will be 25m; fo that
when the weights A and B, each being 25W2, are ba¬
lanced in the manner above reprefented, their whole,
mafs will be 50 m, which being added to the inertia of
the wheels u m, the fum will.be 61 m. Moreover,
three circular weights,, fuch as that which k repre¬
fented at fig. 123. are conftrudled ; each of which —
oz. or m: if one of thefe be added to A and one to
B, the whole mafs will now become 63 w, perfedlly iu
equilibrio, and moveable ■ by the leaft weight added to
either (fetting afide the effects of friction), in the fame
manner precifely as if the fame weight or force were
applied to communicate motion, to the mafs 63 m, ex-
ifting in free fpace and without gravity.
2. The moving Force. Since the natural weight or
gravity of any given fubttance is conftant, and the ex-
adt quantity of it eafily eftimated, it will be convenient
here to apply a weight to the mafs A as a moving
force: thus, when the fyftem confifts of a mafs =:63w,
according to the preceding defeription, the whole being
perfedlly balanced, let a weight -Joz. or m, fuch as is
reprefented in fig.124.be applied on the mafs A t
this will communicate motion to the whole fyftem:
by adding a quantity of matter rn to the former mafs
63w, the whole quantity of matter moved will now-
become
‘Sea. VI.
MECHANICS.
bodies05 ^°me ^and 'he moving force being =m, this extremity being coincident with 0, by attending to
L , 1Wlil gIve the force which accelerates the defcent of A the beats of the pendulum ; and with a little prallce,
— m or -L part of the accelerating force by which t^lc * wbich fupports the box A may be removed "
784
Motion of
Bodies.
64m 64
the bodies defcend freely towards the earth’s furface.
By the preceding conftruftion, the moving force
may be altered without altering the mafs moved;
for fuppofe the three weights «, two of which
at the moment the pendulum beats, fo that the de¬
fcent of A fhall commence at the fame inftant.
4. Of the velocity acquired. It remains only to de-
fcribe in what manner the velocity acquired by thede-
fcending weight A, at any given point of the fpac
placed on A, and one on B to be removed, then will through which it has defcended. Is made evident to
A balance B. If the weights 3 m be all placed on A, the fenfes. The velocity of A’s defcent being con-
the moving force will now become 3 m, and the mafs tinually accelerated will be the fame in no two points
moved 64m as before, and the force which accelerates of the fpace defcribed. This is occafioned by the
the defcent ofA = p-=A parts of the force by the moving force; and fince the
64m 64 * 1 velocity of A at any inftant is meafured by the fpace
which gravity accelerates bodies in their free defcent wbich would be defcribed by it, moving uniformly for
to the furface. ? given time with the velocity it had acquired at that
Suppofe it were required to make the moving force “iftant, this meafure cannot be experimentally obtain-
2 m, the mafs moved continuing the fame. In order to e^> except by removing the force by which the de-
effeft this, let the three weights, each of which —m, lending body’s acceleration was caufed.
be removed; A and B will balance each other; and the . order to Ihow in what manner this is afFe&ed par-
whole mafs will be 6 un .* letfig. 124. be added to ticularly, let us again fuppofe the boxes A and B
A, and to B, the equilibrium will ftill be preferved, —. 25 m each, fo as together to be ~ 50 m ; this
and the mafs moved will be62w; now let 2w be added ^ wheel’s inertia 11 m will make 61 wi; now
to A, the moving force will be 2m, and the mafs mo- ^et fig- 122> he added to A, and an equal weight
ved 64W, as before; wherefore the force of accelera- m to B, thefe bodies will balance each other, and the
tion =TV part of the acceleration of gravity. Thefe whole mafs will be 63 m. If a weight m be added to
alterations in the moving force may be made with &-■> motion will be communicated, the moving force
great eafe and convenience in the more obvious and being m, and the mafs moved 64 m. In eilimating
elementary experiments, there being no neceffity for the moving force, the circular weight = m was made
altering the contents of the boxes A and B: but the ufe °f as a moving force : but for the prefent purpofe
proportion and abfolute quantities of the moving force °f Showing the velocity acquired, it will be convenient
and mafs moved may be of any affigned magnitude, t0 ufe a fiat rod, the weight of which is alfo = m.
according to the conditions of the propofition to be il- Bet the bottom of the box A be placed on a level
luftrated. - with o on the fcale, the whole mafs being as defcribed
3. Of the fpace deferiled. The body A, fig. 120, above = 63 m, perfectly balanced in equilibrio. Now
defeends in a vertical line ; and a fcale about 64 inches Bt the rod, the weight of which = m, be placed on
in length graduated into inches and tenths of an inch the upper furface of A ; this body will defcend along
is adjufted vertical, and fo placed that the defeending the fcale precifely in the fame manner as when the
weight A may fall in the middle of a fquare ftage, moving force was applied in the form of a circular
fixed to receive it at the end of the defcent: the be- weight. Suppofe the mafs A, fig. 125, to have de-
ginning of the defcent is eftimated from o on the feended by conftant acceleration of force of m, for
fcale, when the bottom of the box A is on a level any given time, or through a given fpace: let a cir-
with o. The defcent of A. is terminated when the cular frame be fo affixed to the fcale, contiguous to
bottom of the box ftrikes the ftage, which may be which the weight defeends, that A may pafs centrally
fixed at different diftances from the point o ; fo that through it, and that this circular frame may intercept
by altering the pofition of the ftage, the fpace de- the rod m by which the body A has been accelerated
feribed from quiefcence may be of any given magni- from quiefcence. After the moving for.ee m has been
tude lefs than 64 inches. intercepted at the end of the given fpace or time, there
4. The time of motion is obferved by the beats of will be no force operating on any part of the fyftem
a pendulum, which vibrates feconds; and the experi- which can accelerate or retard its motion : this being
ments, intended to illuftrate the elementary propofi- the cafe, the weight A, the inftant after m has been
tions, may be eafily fo conftrufted that the time of removed, muft proceed uniformly with the velocity
motion lhall be a whole number of feconds : the efti- which it had acquired that inftant: in the fubfequent
mation of the time, therefore, admits of confiderable part of its defcent, the velocity being uniform will
exaftnefs, provided the obferver takes care to let the be meafured by fpace defcribed in any convenient
bottom of the box A sbegin its defcent precifely at number of feconds.
any beat of the pendulum ; then the coincidence of Other ifes of the injlrument. It is needlefs to de-
the ftroke of the box againft the ftage, and the beat feribe particularly, but it may not be improper juft ts
of the pendulum at the end of the time of motion, mention the further ufes of this inftrument; fuch as
will Ihow how nearly the experiment and the theory the experimental eftimation of the velocities communi-
agree together. There might be various mechanical cated by the irnpadt of bodies elaftic and nonelaftic ;
devices thought of for letting the weight A begin its the quantity of refiftance oppofed by fluids, as well as
defefint at the inftant of a beat of the pendulum W; let for various other purpofes. Thefe ufes we fhall not in-
fhe bottom of the box A, when at o on the fcale, fift on; but the properties of retarded motion being a
reft on a flat rod, held in the hand horizontally, its part of the prefent fubjedt, it may beneceffary to fhow
N° 20,p. 1 in
Bea.VI. MECHANICS. 785
Mot) 6t in what manner the motion of bodies refifted by con-
>, Dod.es. ^ant forces are reduced to experiment by means of the
V' ^ ~™T inftrument above deicribed, with as great eafe and pre-
cifion as the properties of bodies uniformly accelerated.
A fingle inftance will be fufficient: Thus, fuppofe the
mafs contained in the weights A and B, fig. 125. and
the wheels to be 61 m, when perfe&ly in equilibrio;
let a circular weight m be applied to B, and let two
long weights or rods, each =»?, be applied to A,
then will A defcend by the aftion of the moving force
w, the mafs moved being 64 w : fuppofe that when
it has defcribed any given fpace by conftant accelera-
' tion, the two rods m are intercepted by the circular
frame above defcribed, while A is defccnding through
it, the velocity acquired by that defcent is known 5
and when the two rods are intercepted, the weight A
will begin to move on with the velocity acquired, be¬
ing now retarded by the conftant force m ; and fince
i the mafs moved is 62 m, it follows, that the force of
retardation will be part of that force whereby gra¬
vity retards bodies thrown perpendicularly upwards.
The weight A will therefore proceed along the gra¬
duated fcale in its defcent with an uniformly retarded
motion, and the fpaces defcribed, times of motion,
and velocities deftroyed by the refilling force, will be
fubjedl to the fame meafures as in the examples of ac¬
celerated motion above defcribed.
In the foregoing defcriptions, two fuppofitions have
been aflumed, neither of which are mathematically
true : but it may be eafily Ihown that that are fo
in a phyfical fenfe ; the errors •ccafioned by them in
praftice being infen fible.
1. The force which communicates motion to the fy-
ftem has been aflumed conftant; which will be true on¬
ly on a fuppofition that the line, at the extremities of
■which the weights A and B, fig. 120. are affixed, is
■without weight. In order to make it evident, that
the line’s weight and inertia are of no fenfible effect,
M E C
MECHOACAN, a province of Mexico, or New
Spain, in America, bounded on the'north by Pa-
nuco and Gaudalajara, on the eaft by Panucs and
Mexico Proper, on the fouth by the Pacific Ocean,
and on the weft by Guadalajara and the South Sea.'
The foil is exceedingly fertile; and the climate fo
wholefome, that the Spaniards imagine it to be pof-
fefledef fome peculiarly reftorative quality ; for which
reafon the fick and infirm flock to it from all quarters.
The commodities are fulphur, indigo, farfaparilla, faf-
fafras, cacao, vanelloes, ambergrife, hides, wool, cot¬
ton, filk, fugar, the root mechoacan @r white jalap,
and filver. This province formed an independent king¬
dom at the time Mexico was reduced by Cortez. The
fovereign had long been the inveterate enemy of the
Mexicans, and was confidered, next to the republic of
Tlafcala, as the moft formidable barrier againft the
cxtenfion of the imperial frontier. However, he fub-
mitted to Cortez without ftriking a blow, being inti¬
midated by the wonders he had performed with a hand¬
ful of men ; and thus Mechoacan became a province of
the Spanilh empire, and a valuable addition to Mexico.
Vol. X. Part II,
let a cafe be referred to, wherein the body A defeends Mo-in , 0f
through 48 inches from reft by the aftion of the mo- Bodies
ving force w, when the mafs moved is 64 m ; the time • 'r
wherein A deferibes 48 inches is inefeafed by the tf-
fefts of the line’s weight by no more than -rlsosth
parts of a fecond ; the time of defcent being 3.9896
feconds, when the firing’s weight is not confidered,
and the time when the firing’s weight is taken into
account = 4.0208 feconds ; the difference between
which is wholly infenfible by obfervation.
2. The bodies have alfo been fuppofed to move in
vacuo, whereas the air’s refiftance will have fome ef-
feft in retarding their motion : but as the greateft ve¬
locity communicated in thefe experiments, cannot
much exceed that of about 26 inches in a fecond (fup¬
pofe the limit 26.2845),and the cylindrical boxes be¬
ing about x|- inches in diameter, the air’s refiftance
can never increafe the time of defcent in fo great a pro--
portion as that of 240 : 241 ; its effefts therefore will
be infenfible in experiment.
The effefts of friftion are almofl wholly removed
by the friftion wheels; for when the furfaces are well
polifhed and free from dull, &c. if the weights A and
B be balanced in perfeft equilibrio, and the whole
mafs confifls of 63 m, according to the example al¬
ready defcribed, a weight of i-r grains', or at moft. 2
grains, being added either to- A or B, will communi¬
cate motion to the whole ; v\ hich fhows that the effeft*
of friftion will not be fo great as a weight of 1 ^ or
2 grains. In fome cafes, however, efpecially in ex¬
periments relating Bo retarded motion, the effefts of
friftion become fenfible ; but may be very readily and
exaftly removed by adding a fmall weight 1.5 or 2
grains to the defeending body, taking that the weight
added is fuch as is in the leall degree fmaller than that
which is juft fufficient to fet the whole in motion,,
when A and B are equal and balance each other be¬
fore the moving force is applied.
M E C
The country at that time -was exceedingly populous,
but the natives are now much thinned ; and that ra¬
ther by the luxury and effeminacy introduced by the
Spaniards, than by their tyranny. The capital of the
province is alfo called Mechoacan by the natives, but
Valladolid by the Spaniards.
Mechoacan, or White Jalap, in the materia me-
dica, the root of an American fpecies of convolvulus
brought from Mechoacan., a province of Mexico, ia
thin flfees like jalap, but larger, and of a whitifli co¬
lour. It was firft introduced into Europe about the
year 1524, as a purgative univerfally fafe, and capa¬
ble of evacuating all morbific humAurs from the moft
remote parts of the body : but as foon as jalap be¬
came known, mechoacan gradually loft its reputation,
which it has never fince been able to retrieve. It is-
neverthelefs by fome ftill deemed an ufeful cathartic ;
it has very little fmell or tafte, and is not apt to of¬
fend the ftomach ; its operation is flow, but effeftual
and fa(e, Geoffrey affirms, that there is fcarce any
purgative aecoippanied with fewer inconveniences. It
feeiijs .to differ from jalap only in being weaker; the
5G refine
M E C [ 786 ] M E C
MrcWen- fcfins obtained from both have nearly thef ame qualt-
. t'ur^' ties, but jalap yields five or fix times as much as me-
choacan ; hence it is found necefiary to exhibit the
latter in fix times the dofe of the former to produce
the fame effedts.
MECKLENBURG, a duchy of Germany, con¬
taining thofe of Schwerin and Guftro, is bounded by
Pomerania on the eait, by part of the marquifate of
Brandenburg and the duchy of Lunenburg on the
fouth, the Baltic on the north, and Holftein and
Saxe-Lawenburg on the weft. Their greateft length
is about 120 miles, and greateft breadth upwards of
60. With rcfpedt to the foil, much cannot be faid in
favour of it, as it confifts in general, either of fand,
or large and defolate heaths, interfperfed with moors,
woods, fens, and lakes. It yields very little wheat,
and not a great deal of oats, rye, and barley ; but
breeds a confiderable number of Ihcep and cattle, has
plenty of fifh, with ftone-quarries, falt-fprings, alum,
iron, and fome copper. The principal rivers here are
the Elde and Stor, which fall into the Elbe as it
glides along the borders of this country to the fouth-
weft ; the Rcckenitz, which difcharges itfelf into the
Baltic; as do the Peene, the Warno, and the Stope-
nitz. This country has only one harbour on the Bal¬
tic, namely that of Roftock. In both duchies, ex-
clufive of Roftock, are 45 great and fmall cities, with
three convents, and a great number of manors and
farms, belonging either to the duke, the nobih'ty, or
convents. The peafants are in a ftate of villainage j
but the nobility enjoy very confiderable privileges.
The Hates are compofed of the nobility and towns ;
and the diets, which are fummoned annually, are held
alternately at Stemberg and Malehin. 'I he duchy
of Schwerin appoints four provincial counfellors, and
that of Guftro as many ; who rank according to fe-
niority with the duke’s adtual privy-counfellors, as
their marfhals do with the colonels. The leffer com¬
mittee reprefents the whole body of the nobility and
commons, by whom the members are chofen freely
and without controul, and no edift relative to the
whole country can be publifhed without their confent,
or in prejudice of their rights. The inhabitants of
this country are moftly Lutherans, under their fuper-
intendants. There are alfo fome Calvinifts and Ro¬
man Catholics. Befides the grammar-fchools in the
towns, there is an univerfity at Roftock. The com¬
modities of the duchy are corn, flax, hemp, hops,
wax, honey, cattle, butter, cheefe, wool, and wood,
a part of which is exported, but hardly any manu-
/aftures.
Of the houfe of Mecklenburg, there are two lines
ft ill fubfifting, viz. that of Schwerin and that of StrelitZ. Mecklen*
The latter commenced in duke Adolphus Frederick II. bur&»
younger brother of the duke of Schwerin, and grand- N ccomum|
father of the prefent duke of Strelitz, Adolphus Fre- ’ J |
derick IV. who entered on the government in 1752,
and whofe family hath lately received a great addi¬
tional luftre by his Britannic majefty’s taking his fe-
cond After for his confort, and by her own great me¬
rit and noble deportment in that high ftation. Be¬
fides the duchy of Strelitz, to this duke belong the
principality of Ratzeburg, with the lordlhip of Star-
gard, the ancient commanderies of Miro and Neme-
ro, and a yearly penfion of 9000 dollars out of the
Boitzenburgh toll. The title affumed by both the
dukes is duie of Mecklenburg, prince of Wenden, Schwe¬
rin, and Ratzburg, count of Schwerin and the coun¬
try x>f Rojlocl, and lord of Stargard. By the agree¬
ment concluded at Wittftock in 1442, the ele&or of
Brandenburg, on the extindtion of the male-line of the
dukes of Mecklenburg, is entitled to their whole fuc-
ceffion. The duke of Schwerin has two votes both in
the diet of the empire and that of the circle. The
matricular afleffment for the duchies of Schwerin and
Guftro is 40 horfe and 67 foot, or 748 florins month¬
ly, including what is paid by Sweden for Wifmar, and
the bailiwics of Poll and Neuklofter. To the cham¬
ber of Wetzlar, thefe two duchies pay each 243 rix-
dollars, 43 kruitzers. For the government of Meck¬
lenburg, the adminiftration of juftice, and the ma¬
nagement of the revenue, there is the privy council of
regency, the demefne-chamber, the high and provin¬
cial court of juftice, to which appeals lie in moft cau-
fes, both from the confiftory and the inferior civil
courts, and which are common to both the dukes. As
to the revenues, thofe of the Schwerin line muft be
very confiderable, thofe arifing from the demefne-bai-
liwics and regalia alone amounting to 300,000 rix-
dollars per annum. There is a tax on land that pro¬
duces no contemptible lum, and that called the prin-
cefs’s tax is fixed at 20,000 rix-dollars : befides all
thefe, there are alfo free-gifts. The whole revenues of
the Strelitz branch areeftimated at 120,000 rix-dollars.
Each of thefe princes maintains a body of troops.
MECONIUM, the execrement contained in the
guts of an infant at its birth. If this matter is not
foon purged off, it occafions gripes, See. A tea-fpoon-
ful of true caftor oil is an excellent purge in this cafe ;
but the firft milk from the mother’s breaft is ufually
fufficient, if it flows in due time.
Meconium, in pharmacy, the extraft of Britifh
poppies. It has all the virtues of foreign opium, but
in a fomewhat lower degree.
END OF THE TENTH VOLUME.
DIRECTIONS pen PtACiKG ths PLATES op VOL. X.
Plate Part I.
CCLXX. to face
CCLXXI.
CCLXX1I. >
CCLXXIII.
CCLXXfV.
CCLXXV.
Part II.
CCLXXVI.
CCLXX VI I.
CCLXXVIII.
CCLXXXIX.
Page
8
12
”3
”7
3l3
352
433
445
448
546
Plate
CCLXXX.
CCLXXXI.
CCLXXXII.
CCLXXXIII.
CCLXXXIV.
CCLXXXV.
CCLXXXVI.
CCLXXXVII.
CCLXXXVIII.
CCLXXXIX.
CCXC.
CCXCI.
Page
598
639
728
734
74i
744
748
753
757
761
776
784
In all, 22 Plates.
ERRATA.
Page 121, col. 1. line 30. For “ Lord Napier, Baron of Merchifton,” read “ John Napier,
Baron,*’ &c. And for “ Lord Napier,” in different ojher places in the courfe of the article, read
“ Baron Napier.” The fame error has beeh fallen into by fcveral former writers, when treat¬
ing of the invention of Logarithms. John, above mentioned, the real author of that inven¬
tion, was, according to the cuftom of Scotland in his time, called The Baron of Merchifton;
Baron being an appellation then given to all the great landholders, but which did not confer
or imply the title of Lord. The firft Lord Napier was Archibald, eldeft fon of the illuftrious
inventor of the Logarithms.
P. 309. col. 1. 1. 8. For paternas, read patemos.
413. col. 2. line 26. For Goetic, read Geotic.
537. col. 2.1. 16. fiom bottom. For Casia, read Cassia.
651. in the Title of the Catalogue of Simples. For method, read methods.
652. col. 1.1. penult. Dele the parenthefis after med.
653. col. 1. 1. 9. For Sifon, read Sifon amomum.
—— col. x. 1. 13. For con. read com. or communis.
  col. I. L 17. For arvenfis, read A. arvenjis.
- ■— foot-note, 1. 4. For antidy/enteria, read antidy/entericei.
655. col. 1. 1. 3. For Jiflulous, read fijlulofus.
- col. 1. 1. 20. For baffaminum, read lalfamita.
 col. 1. 1. 35. For balfaminum', read balfamum.
  col. 3. 1. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15. For rofin, read reftn.
656. col. 1. 1. 31, For Chenopidium, read Chenopodium.
658. foot-note, 1. penult. For at, read as.
661. col. 5 I.21. For nameo a, read name to a,
665. col. 1. 1. 16. 17. For Fi~ cureligiofa, read Ficu religiofa.
  c»l. 1. 1. 49. For Fcetidus, read H.fetidus.
666, col. r. 1. penult. For Pfyehatria, read Pfychotria.
677. col. 1. 1. 9. 10. from hot. For Da- turaftramon, read DaturaJlramon. or Jlramonium.
678. col. 1. I. 14. from hot. For Verpafcum, read Verbafcum.
- ■ col. 5. 1. 15. For England, read Frland.
N B. On account of the manner in which it was neceffary to begin the enfuing Volume, the prefent
one wants about 12 pages of the ufual quantity, for whLh an equivalent fhall be duly added in
the next.
—  —